5 Measurement 120907044929 Phpapp01

Measurement
and
scaling techniques
D.A. Asir John Samuel, MPT (Neuro Paed),
Lecturer, Alvas college of Physiotherapy,
Moodbidri
Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP

Data
Data / variable
Data
Quantitative Qualitative
Discrete Continuous Nominal Ordinal

Quantitative
Discrete
- Takes only specified no.of values in a given

range
- E.g. No. of birth

Quantitative
Continuous
- Theoretically can take any value with in given

range
- E.g. BP, Wt, Ht, age,

Qualitative
Cannot be measured numerically
Nominal
- No nature order among the categories
- E.g. gender, religion, etc.,

Qualitative
Ordinal
- Natural ranking of categories
- E.g. severity of diseases, socioeconomic status,

Scales of measurement
Scales
Categorical Numerical
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Nominal scale
Lowest level of measurement
Used for variable that are qualitative
Variable is divided into several categories
Frequently allow us to compare no.of items
within each category
No arithmetic operation are permitted
E.g. gender, religion, etc.,
Ordinal scale
Rank order the objects being measured
Permissible operations are < = >
No meaning of magnitude of difference
between adjacent units on scale
Does not have the property of equal intervals
between adjacent units
No arithmetic equation permitted
E.g. pain score, disease severity, etc.,
Interval scale
Have real number system properties of order
and distance but lack origin
Possess all the properties of the ordinal scale
Equal intervals b/w adjacent units
Does not have an absolute zero point
Permissible arithmetic operation are - & +
E.g. temp in Celsius, IQ score, etc.,

Ratio scale
Exhibit all 3 components of real number
system: order, distance and origin
Highest level of measurement scale
Possesses all the properties of interval scale
Has an absolute zero point
Permissible arithmetic operations are, -, +, x

and /
E.g. wt, ht, distance, etc.,

Sources of error in measurement
Respondent
Situation
Measurer
instrument

Respondent
Reluctant to express strong negative feelings
May have very little knowledge but may not

admit ignorance
Result in an interview of guesses
Limit ability to respond accurately and fully

Situation
Any condition which places strain on interview
Affects interviewer-respondent rapport
Can distort responses by joining in or merely

by being present

Measurer
Distort responses by rewording or reordering

questions
Behaviour, style and looks may encourage or
discourage certain replies from respondents
Incorrect coding
Data-analysis stage
Instrument
Defective measuring instrument
Complex words
Beyond comprehension
Poor sampling

Technique of developing measurement
tools
Four-stage process
- Concept development
- Specification of concept dimensions
- Selection of indicators
- Formation of index

Meaning of Scaling
A procedure for the assignment of numbers to

a property of objects in order to impart some
of the characteristics of numbers to the
properties in question
Quantitative measures of subjective abstract
concepts

By 2 ways
Making judgement
Constructing questionnaires

Technique of developing
measurement tools
Concept development
Specification of concept dimensions
Selection of indicators
Formation of index

Concept development
First and foremost step
Researcher should arrive at an understanding

of major concepts pertaining to his study
More apparent in theoretical studies than in

the more pragmatic research

Specification of concept dimensions
Specify the dimensions of the concepts

developed in first stage
Accomplished by,
- Deduction
- Correlation of individual dimensions with

concept
Selection of indicators
Measuring each concept
Specific questions, scales or devices by which

respondents knowledge, opinion, expectation,
etc are measured
Researcher should consider several alternatives

as there is seldom perfect measure
Formation of index
Combining several dimensions of concept or

different measurement
Provide scale values to responses and sum up

the corresponding scores
Has probability relation to what we really

want to know
Classification of scales
Subject orientation
Response form
Degree of subjectivity
Scale properties
Number of dimensions
Scale construction techniques

Subject orientation
Measure characteristics of respondent who

completes or to judge stimulus object
Homogeneous stimuli are presented
Between stimuli variation is small

Response form
Classify scales as categorical and comparative
Categorical scales rating scales, used when

respondent scores without direct ref. of other
Comparative scales ranking scales, used

when comparing b/w two or more objects

Degree of subjectivity
Subjective personal preferences or simply

make non-preference judgement
Choosing which person he favours
Judge which person is more effective

Scale properties
Classify scales as,
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio scales

Number of dimensions
Unidimensional or multidimensional scales
Measure only one attribute of respondent
Describes concept of attribute space of n

dimensions

Scale construction techniques
Arbitrary approach (based on assumption)
Consensus approach
Item analysis approach
Cumulative scales
Factor scales

Scaling techniques
Arbitrary scales
Differential scales/Thurstone-type scales
Summated scales/Likert-type scales
Cumulative scales
Factor scales

Arbitrary scales
Designed through researchers own subjective

selection of items
Collects few statements or items which he

believes appropriate to a given topic

Arbitrary scales-Merits
Can be developed very easily and quickly
Relatively less expensive
Highly specific and adequate

Arbitrary scales-Demerits
Do not have objective evidence
Simply rely on researchers insight and

competence

Differential scales/Thurstone-type
scales
Developed using consensus scale approach
Selection is made by panel of judges
Evaluate whether they are relevant to the

topic area

Item analysis approach
Particular item is evaluated on basis of how it

discriminates b/w those persons whose total
score is high and low
Items that best meet this sort of

discrimination test are included in final
statement Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP
1. Strongly agree
2. Agree
3. Undecided
4. Disagree
5. Strongly disagree

Advantages
Easy to construct
More reliable
Respondent-centered
Less time to construct

Disadvantages
We can simply examine whether respondents

are more or less favorable to a topic
Interval is not equal
Total score has little clear meaning
What they think they should feel rather than
how they do feel
Cumulative scales
Louis Guttmans scalogram analysis
Statement in it form a cumulative series
Favorable item and unfavorable item
From total score one can estimate as to how a

respondent has answered individual
statement
Factor scales
Developed through factor analysis
Basis of intercorrelations of items

5 Measurement 120907044929 Phpapp01

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Measurement

Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP

Discrete Continuous Nominal Ordinal

- Takes only specified no.of values in a given

- E.g. No. of birth

Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP

- Theoretically can take any value with in given

- E.g. BP, Wt, Ht, age,

Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP

Cannot be measured numerically

- No nature order among the categories

- E.g. gender, religion, etc.,

Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP

- Natural ranking of categories

- E.g. severity of diseases, socioeconomic status,

Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Possess all the properties of the ordinal scale

Equal intervals b/w adjacent units

Does not have an absolute zero point

Permissible arithmetic operation are - & +

E.g. temp in Celsius, IQ score, etc.,

Highest level of measurement scale

Possesses all the properties of interval scale

Has an absolute zero point

Permissible arithmetic operations are, -, +, x

E.g. wt, ht, distance, etc.,

Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP

Reluctant to express strong negative feelings

May have very little knowledge but may not

Result in an interview of guesses

Limit ability to respond accurately and fully

Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP

Any condition which places strain on interview

Affects interviewer-respondent rapport

Can distort responses by joining in or merely

Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP

Distort responses by rewording or reordering

Defective measuring instrument

Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP

- Specification of concept dimensions

Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP

A procedure for the assignment of numbers to

Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP

Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP

Specification of concept dimensions

Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP

First and foremost step

Researcher should arrive at an understanding

More apparent in theoretical studies than in

Dr.Asir John Samuel (PT), Lecturer, ACP

Specify the dimensions of the concepts

- Correlation of individual dimensions with

Measuring each concept

Specific questions, scales or devices by which

Researcher should consider several alternatives

Combining several dimensions of concept or

Provide scale values to responses and sum up

Has probability relation to what we really

Scale construction techniques

Measure characteristics of respondent who

Homogeneous stimuli are presented

Between stimuli variation is small