UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, AKOKA

LAGGING EFFICIENCY OF A STEAM BOILER

A MINOR PROJECT REPORT

BY

FAGBOLAGUN IDOWU OLUWAFUNMIBI

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

110404040

SUBMITTED TO

ENGR. ADEDAYO

JUNE 6, 2015.

Authors note
This report was based on an industrial visit to Me Cure Healthcare Ltd., at Debo Industrial compound, plot

6, block h, Oshodi Industrial scheme, Oshodi, Apapa expressway, Lagos. It would not have been a success

without the contributions of Mrs. Nancy (234-8037765775) and Maintenance Technician, Mr. Jubril (234-

7087437242).

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. ABSTRACT 3

2. NOMENCLATURE 4

3. INTRODUCTION 5

4. METHODOLOGY 6- 15

5. DISCUSSION 16-24

6. APPLICATIONS 25

7. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS 26

8. CONCLUSION 26

9. REFERENCES 27

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 ABSTRACT

A research on heat transfer performances and lagging efficiency with a water tube boiler was conducted. The

processes involved in each component of the boiler was investigated and related to the efficiency of the boiler. It was

observed that the basic modes of heat transfer within the steam boiler were: radiation, convection and conduction. From the

observations made, the working pressure of the boiler was between 4-6 kg/m2, and temperatures ranging from low of

130oC to high at 150oC.The fuel consumption rate of diesel was 30litres per 30mins for a days running of the boiler. The

pipes were lagged with fibre-glass material to minimize heat loss as hot water was transported from one component to the

other. Heat absorbed by the blower was used to dry moisture from sugar before it was bagged and to dry powder used in

making drugs.

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 NOMENCLATURE

m = mass in kg.

k = thermal conductivity of material.

= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2. K4 (Stefan-Boltzmann Constant)

= emissivity of the surface ( 0 1 ).

h= convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m

As= surface area through which convection heat transfer akes place in m2.

Ts = surface temperature in K.

T = temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface in K.

Tf = flue gas temperature in oC

Ta = ambient temperature in oC

GCV= Gross Calorific Value in kCal/ kg.

hg = vapour enthalpy in KJ/kg

hf = saturated enthalpy in KJ/kg

q = heat content in KJ

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 INTRODUCTION

A steam boiler (or boiler) operates on heat transfer laws and theories. Heat transfer is simply the exchange of thermal

energy, between physical systems depending on temperature and pressure, by dissipating heat. A steam boiler is designed

to absorb the maximum amount heat released from process of combustion. Fuel is burnt in the furnace of the boiler and

thus, hot gases are produced. Water from the feed tank absorbs the latent heat energy carried by these hot gases, thus

producing steam. Steam (sometimes superheated) is utilised for different industrial purposes from power generation, to

sterilization, to warm-up the surrounding, etc. The design of a boiler requires that heat be transferred via convection,

radiation and conduction. Heat transfer through the furnace is primarily by radiation. Heat transfer from hot flue gases to

water is simply by convection, while heat is transferred via the body of the boiler via conduction .The efficiency of the

boiler which is the percentage of heat input that is effectively utilised to generate steam is an important performance

parameter of a boiler. Boiler efficiency tests help a designer to find out the deviation from best efficiency and tackle the

losses which contribute to it.

Lagging is of utmost importance in design of pipes used in a boiler unit. It is use of a material to coat or cover the

external surface of a pipe( boiler in view) carrying hot fluids as a means of reducing heat loss to the environment by

radiation or convection, and to protect personnel from contact with high surface temperatures. Lagging is important in

reducing running costs, increasing efficiency and helping the environment, and as such is a major design feature which

has to be considered in all applications. There are several materials employed in lagging of piping units, examples are:

paint finish, chrome finish, glass fibre material. Without proper lagging, there would be uncontrolled heat loss and in turn

wastage of useable energy which may extend to unsafety.

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 METHODOLOGY

THEORY

Steam boiler

A Steam boiler or simply a boiler is basically a closed vessel into which water is heated until the

water is converted into steam at required pressure. This is the most basic definition of a Boiler.

Broadly speaking, a Boiler is an enclosed vessel which generates steam at desired rate, at a desired

pressure and temperature by burning fuel in its furnace.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A SIMPLE STEAM BOILER

A steam boiler operates based on the following principle. Water is stored inside the boiler as it is a closed vessel. Fuel

(gasoline, diesel, coal, etc.) is bunt in a furnace and hot gasses are produced. These hot gasses come in contact with water

in the vessel such that heat from these hot gases transfers to the water and consequently, steam is produced in the boiler.

This steam can be used to drive a turbine in order to generate power, can be used for sterilizing equipment, to heat-up a

particular environment, to dry granules and d powder etc.

A TYPICAL BOILER SYSTEM

The boiler system comprises of the following components, namely:

i). A feed water system,

ii). A steam system, and

iii). A fuel system.

The feed water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the steam demand. Various

valves provide access for maintenance and repair. The steam system collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler.

Steam is directed through a piping system to the point of use. Throughout the system, steam pressure is regulated using

valves and checked with steam pressure gauges. The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel needed to

generate the necessary heat. The equipment required in the fuel system depends on the type of fuel used in the system.

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The water supplied to the boiler that is converted into steam is called feed water. The two sources of feed water are:

(1) Condensate or Condensed steam returned from the process and;

(2)Make-up water (i.e. treated raw water) which must come from outside the boiler room and plant processes.
For higher boiler efficiencies, the feed water is preheated by an economizer, using the waste heat in the flue gas.

Fig 1.0. A well-labelled steam boiler

Types of boiler

There are several types of boiler designs used industrially today, yet they all can be categorised into two main groups,

namely:

1). Fire-tube Steam boilers.

2). Water-tube boilers

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 FIRE-TUBE BOILERS

Fire-tube or fire-in-tube boilers, contain long steel tubes through which the hot gasses from a furnace pass and

around which the water to be converted to steam circulates. Since the late eighteenth century, fire-tube boilers have been

used in various forms to produce steam for industrial plants at upper limits of about 18bar and 6.2kg/s steaming capacity.

For small steam requirements, fire-tube boilers are suitable. They have certain conspicuous advantages, which are as

follows:

i.) They have low fire cost

ii.) They are very reliable in operation.

iii.) For operation, it doesnt necessary require over skilled labour.

iv.) Less draught is required.

v.) Quick response to load changes.

A fire-tube boiler is so named because of the products of combustion pass through its tubes, which are surrounded by

water. They may be either:

(a) Externally fired (e.g. Lancashire boilers, Horizontal Return tubular(HRT) boiler, package boilers etc.), or

(b) Internally fired boilers.

Fig2.0. A Horizontal fire-tube steam boiler

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The major shortcoming of a fire-tube boiler is that definite size and pressure limitations are inherent in its basic design i.e.

the maximum size of the unit and the maximum operating pressure are limited. Thus, high pressures and large diameters

lead to thick shells, and thicker the shell, the higher the cost.

WATER-TUBE BOILER

Water-tube boiler was developed to permit increases in boiler pressure and capacity with reasonable

metal stresses. A water tube boiler is such kind of boiler in which the water is heated inside tubes and

the hot gasses surround them. A water- tube boiler can be any of the following: Horizontal Straight

Tube Boiler, Bent Tube Boiler, and Cyclone Fired Boiler.

Horizontal Straight Tube Boilers can further be divided into two, namely:

(i) Longitudinal Drum Water Tube Boiler.

(ii) Cross Drum Water Tube Boiler

Bent Tube Boiler also can be sub-divided into four different types:

(i.) Two Drum Bent Tube Boiler

(ii.) Three Drum Bent Tube Boiler

(iii.) Low Head Three Drum Bent Boiler

(iv.) Four Drum Bent Tube Boiler.

ADVANTAGES OF WATER TUBE BOILER

(1). Larger heating surface can be achieved by using more numbers of water tubes.

2) Due to convectional flow, movement of water is much faster than that of fire tube boiler, hence rate of heat transfer is

high which results into higher efficiency.

3). Very high pressure in order of 140 kg/cm2 can be obtained smoothly.

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 fig3.0. Water- tube Boiler

The main disadvantage of water tube boiler is that it is not compact in construction. Therefore, it is not cheap and thus,

difficult to construct and transport.

HEAT TRANSFER WITHIN A STEAM BOILER

A steam boiler is designed to absorb the maximum amount of heat released from the process of combustion. Heat

transfer within steam boiler is accomplished by three methods: Radiation, convection, and conduction.

The heating surfaces in the furnace area receive heat primarily by radiation. The remaining heating surface in the steam
boiler receives heat by convection from the hot flue gases. Heat received by the heating surface travels through the metal
by conduction Heat is then transferred from the metal to the water by convection.
The relative percentage of each heat transfer within steam boiler is dependent on the type of steam boiler, the designed
transfer surface, and fuels used.

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HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATON

Radiation is the process of continuous interchange of energy by means of electromagnetic waves without a change in the

temperature of the medium between two bodies involved. Radiation is the most important method of heat transfer in the

furnace of steam boiler. The amount of heat transfer depends on the area of the heating surfaces and hot surfaces in the

furnace. The physical laws governing transmission of heat transfer by radiation are:

1.) Heat is transmitted in a straight line.

2.) Heat can be reflected and refracted.

3.) Heat is radiated in all direction.

The steam boiler tubes absorb the radiant heat from flame and radiate a small portion of the heat back to the furnace.

Radiation is present in all steam boilers.

Heat transfer by radiation absorbed by the boiler tubes can be calculated using the mathematical relation:

HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION

Conduction within steam boiler is the transfer of heat from one part of a body to the other or from one body to

another in physical contact. It is the flow of energy that occurs in a substance without appreciable movement of molecules

due to lattice vibrations and flow of free electrons. Heat flow from flue gases to water/steam across the metal wall in a

steam boiler, loss of furnace heat to the surrounding atmosphere through insulation, and heat loss from hot steam/water

pipes through insulation are all examples of conduction. The heat transferred by conduction can be expressed

mathematically as:

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HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION

Convection is the process of transferring heat by movement of energy through a material. When water in a steam boiler is

heated, its density decreases and the fluid (water) become lighter. Then, the heavier or cooler fluids flow and replace the

heated portion of the fluid. In turn, the cooler portion becomes heated. The flow of the cooler fluid to heated

area and vice-versa is called CONVECTION. Heat transfer by convection normally occurs from a lower to higher

elevation of the steam boiler. The heat transferred by convection can be expressed mathematically as:

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

(1). Boiler efficiency

Thermal efficiency of a boiler is defined as the the percentage of heat exported by outlet steam to the t total heat supplied

by the fuel.

A typical efficiency of steam boiler is 80% to 88%. Actually, there may be some losses like incomplete combustion,

radiating loss from steam boiler surrounding wall, defective combustion gas etc. Hence, efficiency of steam boiler can be

computed using DIRECT AND INDIRECT METHODS.

(i). The direct method

Here, the energy gain of the working fluid (water and steam) is compared with the energy content of the boiler fuel e.g.

diesel.

(ii). The indirect method

Under this approach, the efficiency is the difference between the losses and the energy input.

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LAGGING IN PIPING

Lagging is applied to pipes carrying hot fluids as a means of reducing heat loss to the environment by both radiation

and convection and to protect personnel from contact with high surface temperatures. Lagging is important in reducing

running costs, increasing efficiency and helping the environment, and as such is a major design feature which has to be

considered in all applications.

Lagging Efficiency Apparatus consists of a sturdy framework and panels of all steel construction, fitted with a student

work surface, interconnecting back panel and adjustable feet. The steam bench incorporates four similar mild steel tubes,

each connected to a common steam supply via an inlet regulating valve and a common blowdown line via an outlet valve.

Two of the tubes are unlagged but have differing finishes, namely a painted finish and a chromium plated finish

respectively. The remaining two tubes are lagged, one with glass fibre webbing tape and the other with a pre-formed fibre

glass insulation jacket. Each tube is fitted with a sight glass and scale to enable condensate to be measured. Surface

mounted thermocouples are used to measure the temperatures at the surface of each tube and also at the extended surface

of the lagging.

A thermocouple in the steam supply header is used to measure the steam temperature and a Bourdon type pressure gauge

is used to measure the steam pressure. The measured temperatures are displayed on an analogue temperature meter via a

selection switch. From measurements of temperature and condensate levels over a period of time, students are able to

calculate the lagging efficiency and the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the lagging.

STEAM HEADER ASSEMBLY

A typical experimental setup has s a mild steel steam header welded in accordance with BS2633 (1973) to supply steam

to each of the four experimental steam tubes and fitted with a thermocouple and pressure measuring point coupled to a 0 -

16 bar Bourdon type pressure gauge. The steam header is enclosed within a header box and fully insulated with mineral

wool.

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TUBES

Four mild steel tubes 850mm long, welded in accordance with BS2633 (1973). Each tube is designed for a working
pressure of 10.4 bar and a maximum steam temperature of 235C. Tube insulations/surface finishes are as follows:

Tube A: unlagged with paint finish.

Tube B: fitted with pre-formed 19mm thick canvas covered fibre glass insulation jacket, in grey isogenic cladding.

Tube C: wrapped with glass fibre webbing tape secured at each end

Tube D: Chrome finish each tube is fitted with:

Steam inlet line complete with combined isolating valve

Blowdown line complete with combined isolating and control valve, connected to the bench blowdown line.
Glass water level gauge with graduated scale and protective glass shield.
Surface mounted type K thermocouple. A type K thermocouple is also mounted on the outer skin of tube B and
C insulations.

RESEARCH INDUSTRY

This research was carried out at Me Cure Healthcare Limited located at Debo Industries Compound, Plot no. 6; block

H, Oshodi Industries Scheme, Oshodi- Apapa expressway, Lagos. They are key manufacturers of pharmaceutical

products such as drugs, and also food materials such as granulated sugar. The principles of heat transfer and steam

generated from a boiler located at the Maintenance Department are used basically for drying powders used in making

drugs and the removal of moisture from food materials such as sugar before packaging.

RESEARCH APPARATUS

The apparatus used in this research was a Water-tube boiler. The boiler uses diesel for firing with operating

temperatures of 130C to 150C and fuel consumption rate of 30litres per 30mins. The operating pressure of the fuel is

maintained at 6kg/cm2 for efficient steam production. The boiler consists of a feed water tank with coils of pipes, a water

and diesel pump, a spray gun with spark plugs which produces the fire needed to heat up water in the coil of pipes in the

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boiler vessel, two blower units- the first blower sucks dusts and flue gases from the boiler which is ejected via the

Chimney, the second blower sucks and stores heat from the hot water. It also has temperature gauges- one manual and

one automated, a fire alarm system, which indicates when the temperatures and pressures has dropped or a fault occurs

during the operation of the boiler. A heat exchanger which has coils through which water flows to gradually increase

its(hot water) temperature so that blower can suck in maximum heat to be used in the Fluid Bed Dryer( FBD) machine.

Thus, the heat Exchanger increases the heat temperature. Inlet temperature to the FBD machines is maintained at 130-

150C and outlet temperatures of 80-90C. Pipes are lagged with fire-glass material to reduce heat losses by radiation,

conduction or convection.

fig.4.0. Water tube boiler used in Me Cure Ltd.

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 DISCUSSION

In view of this industrial visit, the following observations were noted. The operations of the boiler and in turn the
production of useable steam and heat to be used at the point of demand (drying of granules of salt and/or sugar) depended
on processes in these components.

FEED WATER SYSTEM OR TANK

The feed water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the steam demand. Various
valves provide access for maintenance and repair. Water is pumped into the feed water tank from a general reservoir, and
this water may be distilled or not depending on its use.

DIESEL TANK

The diesel tank, like the feed water tank, stores the diesel which is used as a fuel for combustion.

Fig5.0 Feed water and diesel tank.

BOILER UNIT

Water entered into the boiler barrel from an inlet pipe at top of the boiler, while diesel enters into the combustor. The
combustor consisted of a spray gun with nozzle at the exit and a spark plug. As diesel entered the spray gun, the spark
plug would initiate a spark and this would cause the diesel to burn in presence of air. This process would normally last
for 1-2 seconds, but firing is continuous provided the diesel entry is continued. In the boiler are coils of pipes through
which water flows. The heat from the combustion of diesel oil, heats up water in the coils and as it flows downwards, its
temperature would increase. Thus, water entered cool but would leave the boiler hot. A fuel pump is attached to the
boiler barrel which pumped the diesel from the tank into the spray gun. Also, a transformer of 11KVA rating is coupled
with the boiler barrel. High tension is generated and maintained by the transformer at the spark plug, and this would
initiate the spark and continuous firing. 30litres of diesel was consumed per every 30mins of running the boiler with
continuous intake and exit of waste hot water. Pressure and temperature gauges were also attached to the boiler unit and a
pressure within 4-6kg/m2 and temperature between 130-150 C was maintained. At high pressure and temperature beyond
the working condition, the boiler stopped operation. An alarm system helped to check for faults within the boiler and
inconvenient working pressures and temperature. There is a photocell of converging lens connected to this alarm system
which initiated the sound on detection of faults.

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 Blow down unit removed impurities such as concentrated dust particles from the boiler vessel which could inhibit
steam production. It bled out excess water concentrations from the boiler unit to ensure continuous water intake and
steam generation. Through this, flue gases are ejected via the chimney unit. The combined operation of these units
ensured the heating up of the cool inlet water into steam and its passage to the Heat exchanger unit.

Fig7.0 The Spray gun for firing

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Fig 8.0. Pressure and Temperature gauges

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Fig9.0 The Blow-down unit

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fig 10.0 Chimney for removal of flue gases

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Fig.11.0 The fuel pump

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Fig 12.0. The water pump unit and inlet to boiler vessel.

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Fig 13.0 The Bleeding of water and impurities (concentrated dust) via the blow-down unit.

HEAT EXCHANGER UNIT

Hot water entered the heat exchanger from the boiler vessel outlet. The Heat exchanger had coils of pipes in which
water flowed through which gradually increased its temperature further. This ensured that maximum heat would be
sucked by the blower unit. Pipes are coiled inside to minimise heat losses.

Fig 13.0 The heat exchanger unit.

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THE BLOWER

Heat from hot-water into the heat exchanger is sucked by the blower. The heat is then channelled into the Fluid Bed
Dryer at inlet temperature of 130oC. This heat is used to dry food materials such as sugar, and ejected out back to the heat
exchanger at 80-90oC to be increased, then the cycle would start again.

Fig15.0 The Blower unit.

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 APPLICATIONS

The boiler generates heat from water and this heat is used to dry food materials. This heat is used by the Fluid Bed Dryer
machine for drying granulated sugar before packaging in bags. It is also used for drying moisture from powders used in
making drugs.

Fig17.0 Sugar dried by fluid bed dryer

fig 16.0.Fluid Bed Dryer.

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 LAGGING OF PIPES

The pipes were lagged with fibre-glass material. This helped to minimize heat losses as fluid travelled from one component of the
boiler to the other. Maintenance Personnel are also protected from the high an injurious heat from the boiler by the lagging.

Fig18.0. Fibre glass lagged pipe at heat exchanger unit.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

In course of this industrial visit to Me Cure Ltd., the following precautions were taken.

The Extra High Tension (EHT) or Transformer was not touched throughout the industrial visit.
Safety helmets were worn to protect the head from damage.
Safety foot wears were worn.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

In conclusion, this industrial visit has helped in the understanding of the processes adopted by the different components
of a water tube boiler. It has helped to substantiate the theoretical background introduced in school and also to a great
extent; comparison between two types of boilers was investigated. Water tube boiler therefore was found to be more
efficient in steam production compared to fie tube boiler investigated in laboratory. Water flowed through the coil of
pipes and therefore heat-up within a short time, compared to fire tube boiler in which fire flowed through coils of pipes
and water was heated up by convection, radiation or conduction.

In addition, fibre-glass lagging was employed to minimise heat losses and from experiments in laboratory, fire-glass
material was the best lagging material.

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 REFERENCES

(1) Nag P.K., Power Plant Engineering, 3rd ed., McGraw Hills, New-Delhi, 2007, Chapter 6, pp. 317-321.

(2) Yunus A.C., Heat transfer- A Practical Approach, 2nd ed., McGraw Hills, New York, 2002, Chapter 1, pp.17-30.

(3) James J.J., Steam Boiler Operation, Prentice-Hall Inc., New Jersey, 1980.

(4) Sebastian T., and Anne J., Heat Exchangers in Boilers, Energy Engineering and Environmental Protection

Publications, Mechanical Engr. Dept., Helsinki Univ., Nov.2002.

(5) John H.L., A Heat Transfer Textbook, 3rd ed., Phlogiston Press, Cambridge, U.S.A., 2006, pp. 139-523.

(6) Electrical4U, Steam Boiler- Working Principle and Types of Boiler, URL: http://electrical4u.com/steam-boiler-

working-principle-and-types-of-boiler/html (Retrieved on May4, 2015).

(7) Woodruff, Everett B., Herbert B. and Lammers, Thomas F., Steam- Plant Operation, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, 1984,

ISBN 0-07-071732.

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