CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) is a type of hot-mix asphalt (HMA) that has been used
in Europe for over 20 years to resist studded-tyre wear and to provide better rutting
resistance. SMA consists of two parts: a coarse aggregate skeleton and a high binder. The
coarse aggregate skeleton provides the mixture with stone-on-stone contact, giving it
strength, while the high binder content mortar adds durability. The mortar is typically
composed of fine aggregate, mineral filler, asphalt binder and a stabilizing additive. This
stabilizing additive acts as to hold the asphalt binder in the mixture during the high
temperatures of production and placement.
Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) which basically is a gap graded mixture containing 70-
80% coarse aggregate of total aggregate mass, 6-7% of binder, 8-12% of filler, and about
0.3-0.5% of fibre or modifier. The stabilizing additives composed of cellulose fibres,
mineral fibres, or polymers are added to SMA mixtures to prevent drain down from the
mix.
SMA provides improved performance for high speed, heavily trafficked roads when
compared to more conventional forms of asphalt such as Dense graded asphalt. SMA
provides a smooth, low noise pavement with sufficient texture to promote safety through
reduced water splash and spray and good frictional resistance for vehicle traffic. Its
durability and stability are enhanced by the higher bitumen content and it is able to
support even heavier traffic loads with use of polymer modified binders. At the end of its
service life, like others asphalt, it is 100% recyclable.
SMA has a high proportion of coarse aggregate that interlocks to form a stone-on-
stone skeleton to resist permanent deformation. The stone skeleton is filed with mastic of
bitumen and filler to which fibers are added to provide adequate stability of bitumen and
to prevent drainage of binder during transport and placement. Generally, fibres or
modified binders are used to prevent drainage of the relatively high binder content during
transport and placing.
The rut resistance capacity of SMA stems from a coarse stone skeleton providing
more stone-on-stone contact than with conventional dense graded asphalt. Improved
binder durability is a result of higher bitumen content, a thicker bitumen film and lower
air voids content. This high bitumen content also improves flexibility.

1
 SMA pavements are proving to be a good alternative to traditional pavements in high
traffic areas. It seems that the benefits outweigh the cost of the mix, and SMA will have a
future in India.
1.2 Desirable properties of Stone Matrix Asphalt
The overall objective of the design of bituminous mixture is to determine an
economical blend of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, mineral filler and binder.
Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement.
Sufficient voids in compacted mix to allow slight amount of additional
compaction and traffic loading without flushing and bleeding.
Sufficient workability to permit sufficient placement of the mix without
segregation.
Sufficient flexibility to meet traffic loads, especially in cold season.
Sufficient amount of fibres to control draining of bitumen.
The mix should be an economical for the designed period.
1.3 Advantages of Stone Matrix Asphalt
The following are the advantages of Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA).
High stability against permanent deformation (rutting) and high wear resistance.
It provides resistance to deformation at high pavement temperatures.
Slow aging and durability to premature cracking of the asphalt.
Longer service-life.
SMA has a higher macro-texture than dense-graded pavements for better friction.
Reduced spray, reduced hydroplaning and reduced noise.
Good low temperature performance.
Even though SMA has a higher cost than conventional dense mixes, approximately 20
to 25 percent, the advantages of longer life (decreased rutting and increased durability),
reduced splash and spray, and reduced surface noise may compensate for the added cost.
The higher cost of SMA is attributed to the addition of mineral filler, fibres, modified
binders, and possible higher asphalt contents.

2
1.4 Objectives of the Present Study
To design the Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) mix with Lime (1% and 2%), Cement
(1% and 2%) as fillers and Bagasse (0.3%) as a stabilizing additive by Marshall
Method of mix design.
To compare the Marshall Properties of Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Lime (1%
and 2%), Cement (1% and 2%) as fillers and Bagasse (0.3%) as a stabilizing
additive.
To determine the voids in coarse aggregate by VCA dry rodded test.
To determine the drain down characteristics of Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with
Lime (1% and 2%), Cement (1% and 2%) as fillers and Bagasse (0.3%) as a
stabilizing additive at optimum bitumen content.
To determine the indirect tensile strength and tensile strength ratio of Stone Matrix
Asphalt mix with Lime (1% and 2%), Cement (1% and 2%) as fillers and Bagasse
(0.3%) as a stabilizing additive at optimum bitumen content.
To conduct Indirect Tensile Fatigue test on Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Lime
(1% and 2%), Cement (1% and 2%) as fillers and Bagasse (0.3%) as a stabilizing
additive at 25oC with variation in stress levels.
To carryout Linear Regression analysis for the data obtained from Indirect Tensile
Fatigue test conducted on Stone matrix Asphalt mix with Lime (1% and 2%),
Cement (1% and 2%) as fillers and Bagasse (0.3%) as a stabilizing additive at
25oC with variation in stress levels.
To compare the overall cost required per km for the construction of Stone matrix
Asphalt layer prepared using Lime and Cement as fillers.

3
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 GENERAL
Stone mastic asphalt had its origins in Germany in the late 1960s as an asphalt
resistant to damage by studded tyres. Stone mastic asphalt is a popular asphalt in Europe
for the surfacing of heavily trafficked roads, airfields and harbour areas. It is also called
split mastic asphalt in German speaking countries and elsewhere may be called split
mastic asphalt, grit mastic asphalt or stone matrix asphalt. In Australia it is normally
called stone mastic asphalt or SMA for short.
There are many definitions of SMA. APRG Technical Note 2 (1993) defines SMA as
a gap graded wearing course mix with a high proportion of coarse aggregate content
which interlocks to form a stone-on-stone skeleton to resist permanent deformation. The
mix is filled with mastic of bitumen and filler to which fibres are added in order to
provide adequate stability of the bitumen and to prevent drainage of the binder during
transport and placement.
The European definition of SMA (Michaut, 1995) is a gap-graded asphalt concrete
composed of a skeleton of crushed aggregates bound with a mastic mortar.
An explanatory note is added indicating that the binder content is generally increased
because of segregation problems. These materials are not pourable. It is common
practice to use additives and/or modified binders in the manufacture of these materials
especially to allow the binder content to be raised and to reduce segregation between the
coarse fraction and the mortar.
Australian Standard AS2150 (1995) defines SMA as a gap graded wearing course
mix with a high proportion of coarse aggregate providing a coarse stone matrix filled with
a mastic of fine aggregate, filler and binder.
The BCA (1998) defines SMA as a gap graded bituminous mixture containing a high
proportion of coarse aggregate and filler, with relatively little sand sized particles. It has
low air voids with high levels of macro texture when laid resulting in waterproofing with
good surface drainage.

The development of transportation plays an important role in the development of

nation. With flexible pavements being widely used in India, steps must be taken to
increase the life of the bituminous pavements. Flexible pavements are often plagued with

4
problems of cracking and rutting due to repeated traffic loads. Hence one needs to address
these problems in order to improve the performance of flexible pavements.
The layered pavement structure transmits vertical or compressive stresses to the lower
layers by grain to grain transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure
with strong graded aggregates and should transfer the compressive stresses to a wider
area. In light of the above factors, it can be learnt that bituminous mix is one of the best
flexible pavement layer materials.
Bituminous mix is generally used as a surface course and wearing course in flexible
pavements since it is necessary that the wearing course must provide a smooth riding
surface that is dense and at the same time take up wear and tear due to traffic.
2.6 A LABORATORY STUDY OF BITUMINOUS MIXES USING A NATURAL

FIBRE (7)
Debashish Kar et.al, (2012) investigated the comparison between BC and SMA Mix
with varying binder content (4-7%) and varying the fibre content (0.3-0.5%). In this paper
Marshall Properties of BC mixes using three different types of fillers without fibre (fly-
ash, cement, stone dust). Marshall Properties of BC mixes with fly ash and sisal fibres.
Marshall Properties of SMA mixes with fly ash and sisal fibres as stabilizer. Evaluation of
SMA and BC mixes using different tests like Drain Down test, Static Indirect Tensile test,
and Static Creep test.
Coarse aggregates consisted of stone chips collected from a local source, up to
4.75 mm IS sieve size. Fine aggregates, consisting of stone crusher dusts were collected
from a local crusher with fractions passing 4.75 mm and retained on 0.075 mm IS sieve.
Aggregate passing through 0.075 mm IS sieve is called as filler. Here cement, fly ash and
Stone dust are used as filler. Here 60/70 penetration grade bitumen is used as binder for
preparation of Mix. Here sisal fibre is used as additive whose length is about 900 mm.
and diameter varied from 0.2 to 0.6 mm.
The mixes were prepared according to the Marshall procedure specified in ASTM
D1559. For BC and SMA the coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and filler were mixed
according to the adopted gradation. First a comparative study is done on BC by taking
three different type of filler i.e. cement, fly ash, stone dust. Here Optimum Binder
Content (OBC) was found by Marshall Test where binder content is very from 0% to 7%.
Then Optimum Binder Content (OBC) and Optimum fibre Content (OFC) of both BC and
SMA was found by Marshall Method where binder content is very from 0% to 7% and
5
fibre content is vary from 0.3% to 0.5%. The sisal fibres after being cut in to small pieces
(15-20 mm) were added directly to the aggregate sample in different proportions. The
mineral aggregates with fibres and binders were heated separately to the prescribed
mixing temperature. The temperature of the mineral aggregates was maintained at a
temperature 10C higher than the temperature of the binder. Required quantity of binder
was added to the pre heated aggregate-fibre mixture and thorough mixing was done
manually till the colour and consistency of the mixture appeared to be uniform. The
mixing time was maintained within 2-5 minutes. The mixture was then poured in to pre-
heat Marshall Moulds and the samples were prepared using a compactive effort of 75
blows on each side. The specimens were kept overnight for cooling to room temperature.
Then the samples were extracted and tested at 60C according to the standard testing
procedure.
There are several methods to evaluate the drain-down characteristics of
bituminous mixtures. The drain down method suggested by MORTH (2001) was adopted
in this study. The loose un-compacted mixes were then transferred to the drainage baskets
and kept in a pre-heated oven maintained at 150C for three hours.
Indirect tensile test is used to determine the indirect tensile strength (ITS) of
bituminous mixes. In this test, a compressive load is applied on a cylindrical specimen
(Marshall Sample) along a vertical diametrical plane through two curved strips the radius
of curvature of which is same as that of the specimen.
Static Indirect Tensile Strength test was conducted using the Marshall Test
apparatus with a deformation rate of 51mm per minute. A compressive load was applied
along the vertical diametrical plane and a proving ring was used to measure the load.
Perspex water was prepared and used to maintain constant testing temperature. Two
loading strips, 13 mm wide, 13 mm deep and 75 mm long, made up of stainless steel were
used to transfer the applied load to the specimen. The inside diameter of the strip made
was same as that of a Marshall sample (102 mm) the static indirect tensile test being
carried out on a specimen. The sample was kept in the water bath maintained at the
required temperature for minimum 1/2 hours before test. The Perspex water bath
maintained at the same test temperature was placed on the bottom plate of the Marshall
apparatus. The sample was then kept inside the Perspex water bath within the two loading
strips. Loading rate of 51 mm/minute was adopted.
Addition of 0.3% of fibre not only increases the stability value but also binder
quantity decreases. If binder content is more then it causes drain down of binder in mixes.
6
Hence for SMA OFC is taken as 0.3%. Drain Down value is more for SMA Mix than BC
Mix because of more percentage of bitumen.
Indirect Tensile Strength Test value decreases with increase in temperature and for
a particular binder, when fibre is added to the mix it increases. From ITS test results it is
concluded that tensile strength of SMA Mix is more than BC Mix.
From Static Creep Test it is concluded that by addition of fibre to BC and SMA
mixes deformation reduced.
Generally by adding 0.3% of fibre properties of Mix is improved. From different
test like Drain down test, Indirect Tensile Strength and static creep test it is concluded that
SMA with using sisal fibre gives very good result and can be used in flexible pavement.

2.7 INFLUENCE OF ADDITIVES ON THE DRAIN DOWN CHARACTERISTICS

OF STONE MATRIX ASPHALT (8)
Bindu C.S et.al, (2012) studied the influence of additives like coir, sisal, banana
fibres (natural fibres), waste plastics (waste material) and polypropylene (polymer) on the
drain down characteristics of SMA mixtures. A preliminary investigation was conducted
to characterize the materials used in this study. Drain down sensitivity tests were
conducted to study the bleeding phenomena and drain down of SMA mixtures.
Aggregate of sizes 20mm, 10mm and stone dust procured from a local quarry at
Kochi, Kerala was used in this investigation. Ordinary Portland cement from a local
market which makes a better bond with aggregate, bitumen and additive is used as the
filler material. Bitumen of 60/70 penetration grade obtained from Kochi Refineries
Limited, Kochi, was used in the preparation of mix samples.
Three natural fibres namely coir, sisal and banana fibre, a polymer, polypropylene
and waste plastics in shredded form were used as stabilizing additives for the present
study. The production of natural fibres in India was more than 400 million Tonnes. In this
study, coir, sisal and banana fibre at different percentages by weight of mixture were used
as the stabilizing additives. The coir fibres and sisal fibre for the work had locally
procured from Alappuzha, and banana fibre from Banana Research station, Thrissur,
Kerala.
For the proposed design mix gradation, four specimens are prepared for each
bitumen content within the range of 5.5 7.5% at increments of 0.5 %, in accordance
with ASTM D 1559 using 50 blows/face compaction standards. All bitumen content shall
be in percentage by weight of the total mix. As soon as the freshly compacted specimens
7
have cooled to room temperature, the bulk specific gravity of each test specimen shall be
determined in accordance with ASTM D 2726. The stability and flow value of each test
specimen shall then be determined in accordance with ASTM D 1559. After the
completion of the stability and flow test, specific gravity and voids analysis shall be
carried out to determine the percentage air voids in mineral aggregate and the percentage
air voids in the compacted mix and voids filled with bitumen. Values which are obviously
erratic shall be discarded before averaging. Where two or more specimens in any group of
four are so rejected, four more specimens are prepared and tested.
The average values of bulk specific gravity, stability, flow, VA, VMA and VFB
obtained above are plotted separately against the bitumen content and a smooth curve
drawn through the plotted values. Average of the binder content corresponding to VMA of
17 % and an air void of 4% are considered as the optimum binder content [14]. Stability
and Flow values at the optimum bitumen content are then found from the plotted smooth
curves The optimum bitumen content (OBC) for the SMA mixture is determined and is
found to be 6.42 % (by wt. of total mix). The SMA mixture without additives is
considered as the control mixture for the drain down test.
From the drain down study of the SMA mixtures, it was concluded that all the five
additives used in the stone matrix asphalt for the present investigation act as effective
stabilizing agents. The role of additive is to stiffen the mastic and thereby reducing the
drainage of the mixture at high temperatures during storage, transportation, placement
and compaction of SMA mixtures. Due to the gap graded gradation and rich binder
content in SMA, the control mixture is subjected to heavy drain down. This strongly
supports the need of the additive in SMA mixtures. The coir fibre which has a higher
stabilizing capacity as compared to other additives is found to be more effective than the
others. From the studies it can be concluded that the natural fibres and the waste plastics
can replace the imported synthetic fibres and the expensive polymers in Stone Matrix
Asphalt.

2.8 LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF STONE MATRIX ASPHALT USING

BAGASSE FIBER (9)
Rajendra Soren et.al, (2012) studied the replacement of conventional fibres with a
non-conventional natural waste fibre such as bagasse fiber which is obtained after
extraction of juice from sugarcane, and to study its effect on various properties of SMA.
Marshall Properties of SMA samples with varying binder Concentrations are compared
8
and OBC is obtained with the help of Marshall Test data. Drain Down characteristics of
the SMA mixes prepared at OBC are studied. Other engineering properties such as static
indirect tensile test at OBC are compared.
Marshall Tests were conducted on various SMA specimens with and without
fibres to obtain various Marshall Properties such as stability, flow, air voids, unit weight
and various others properties. The results were used to determine the optimum binder
content (OBC) with which further test were to be conducted. It is found from previous
research that the stability value is low at lower binder content, then increases with
increase in binder, attains maximum and finally reduces with further increase in binder.
Drain down test was conducted to obtain the drain down percentage in SMA
samples at OBC with and without fibres and the results were compared. It was found that
the drain down significantly reduces with the use of fibres.
The static indirect tensile test was used to determine the tensile strength of SMA
samples with fiber under static load at the OBC. Its tensile strength characteristics at
varying temperature were also studied to obtain the effect of temperature on tensile
strength of SMA.
Mineral filler occupies a good portion in the SMA mixes hence they do affect the
quality of SMA mixes , therefore it becomes essential to study the effect of fillers in SMA
.Various types mineral fillers are being used in SMA namely rock dust, slag dust,
hydrated lime, hydraulic cement, fly ash, or other suitable mineral filler. They provide
stiffness to the asphalt matrix, thus preventing the rutting and also help in lowering the
drain down. Fly ash is being widely used as mineral filler in SMA and is showing the
requisite results as laid down by the Transportation department guidelines.
SMA contains very high content of bitumen as compared to conventional mixes
i.e.> 6.5 %. It is used to bind the aggregates, fillers and stabilizing additives. Different
studies on SMA have been conducted by using different bitumen grades namely bitumen
of grade 60/70, polymer modified bitumen such as CRMB, PMB and others.
Fibres are used as stabilizing additives in SMA. Since SMA is a gap graded mix
and it contains large number of voids there is a significant chances of drain down of the
binder matrix. Hence fibres are used as stabilizers which not only prevent the drain down
but also add to the rut resistance. Various fibres used are cellulose fibres, mineral fibres,
polymers and plastics etc.
The SMA samples were prepared using varying bitumen content of 4%, 4.5%, 5%,
5.5%, 6%, and 7%. This was done to find out the effect of increasing bitumen content on
9
the stability value. This plot also helps us to find the Optimum binder content for this
mix. The plot below indicates that the stability value increases initially with increase in
bitumen content but then decreases gradually.
Flow is the deformation undergone by the specimen at the maximum load where
failure occurs. The flow value increases with the increase in the bitumen content both the
mixes with and without fibres .The increase is slow initially, but later the rate increases
with the increase in the bitumen content. The flow value of mixes with fibres is more than
that without fibres initially.
The VMA value, for a given aggregate should theoretically remain constant.
However, in this case, it is sometimes observed that, at low bitumen content, VMA slowly
decreases with the increase in bitumen content, then remains constant over a range, and
finally increases at high bitumen content.
The VA of mix with fiber is much less than that without fiber. This is because the
fiber already filled up some portion of air voids (VA) which further decreases as the
bitumen goes on filling the air voids with increase in bitumen content. At 6% binder the
VA values for sample with fiber are quite more than that without fiber.
The Voids Filled Bitumen (VFB) is expressed basically as a fraction of VMA. .
The VFB of a mix generally increases with the increase in the bitumen content. Here in
our result too, we can clearly observe that VFB increases since increase in bitumen
content causes more and more bitumen to fill the voids present in the mix as well as that
inside the aggregates causing the overall increase in the bitumen inside the voids or VFB.
The drain down remains to be one of the most important problems associated with
SMA due to its high bitumen content .To counter this fibres as stabilizers are generally
used . Here the drain down tests was carried out to compare the drain down characteristic
s of samples with and without fibres at OBC .Three different percentages of fibres were
used namely 0.2%, 0.3% and 0.4%. It was found out that with the use of fibres no drain
down was obtained. Hence we can easily observe that use of fibres significantly reduce
the drain down in a SMA Mix.
The result of the indirect tensile test clearly indicates that the indirect tensile
strength of the SMA sample decreases considerably with increase in temperature. At low
temperature the tensile strength is very high but it reduces significantly with increase in
temperature. This may be attribute to the fact that at lower temperature the binder
becomes very stiff thus increasing the binding ability considerably, but at higher

10
temperature the bitumen softens, loosens its binding ability , thus attributing to the loss of
its tensile strength .The results are very high in case of 50 and very less for 40.

2.9 COMPARISON OF STONE MATRIX ASPHALT MIXTURES PREPARED IN

MARSHALL COMPACTION AND GYRATORY COMPACTOR (10)
Goutham Sarang et.al, (2014) investigated the SMA mixtures which were prepared
by Marshall Compaction (MC) and also in Superpave Gyratory Compactor (SGC), and
their performances in laboratory were compared. The mixtures were prepared using
Viscosity Graded (VG)30 bitumen and a chemical named Zycosoil was used as a
stabilizing additive. Volumetric properties, Marshall Characteristics, behaviour to
moisture action etc. were determined in laboratory. In Marshall Mix design, only 50
blows are given to compact SMA samples, compared to 75 blows in the case of
conventional dense graded mixtures. This is due to the gap graded structure of SMA and
the presence of higher concentration of coarse aggregates, which lead to the breakdown of
aggregates if more compaction pressure is given. Increasing Marshall compactive effort
to obtain the increased density is not suitable since it increases the breakdown of
aggregates, especially for mixtures like SMA. In such situations, gyratory compactor is a
suitable option to prepare mixtures with higher density without causing severe aggregate
breakdown.
For this study, crushed granite aggregates from nearby local quarry and VG30
bitumen were used. Hydrated lime was used as the mineral filler and a chemical named
Zycosoil (manufactured by Zydex Industries, Gujarat) was used to stabilize the mix.
SMA mixtures were prepared according to Marshall Method of mix design
specified by Asphalt Institute Manual Series (MS)2.Loose SMA mixture with Zycosoil
was prepared for bitumen contents 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5and 7 % by weight of aggregates. Two
types of compacting methods, by Marshall Compactor and SGC, were adopted. For
preparing the samples in MC, 50 blows were given on either sides of the specimen using
Marshall Hammer, whereas for compacting in SGC, 100 gyrations were provided for each
sample. For Zycosoil application, 0.1% of concentrated Zycosoil (by weight of bitumen)
should be added with bitumen. But for better results, it can be diluted with some
anhydrous alcohols such as methanol, ethanol or iso-propanol in the ratio of 1:10
11
(Zycosoil to alcohol) and 1g of this solution can be added with 100g of bitumen. In this
study, methanol was used to dilute Zycosoil.
Resistance of SMA samples to moisture action was checked in two methods, using
Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR) and Retained Marshall Stability (RMS). TSR was found out
from the Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) test conducted as per AASHTO T 283 (Standard
Method of Test for Resistance of Compacted Asphalt Mixtures to Moisture- Induced
Damage) and RMS from the Marshall stability values of conditioned specimens as per
CRD-C 652-95 (Standard Test Method for Measurement of Reduction in Marshall
Stability of Bituminous Mixtures Caused by Immersion in Water).
Two sets of specimens were prepared in both MC and SGC at their respective
OACs. One set, called unconditioned specimens, was tested in the normal way and the
other set was subjected to conditioning by one freeze and thaw cycle. The samples were
kept in the mould and tested for tensile strength. The ratio between the ITS value of
conditioned subset to that of unconditioned subset is known as TSR which is an
assessment parameter for moisture susceptibility of asphalt mixtures. A set of specimens
prepared from MC and SGC were kept in water bath maintained at 60 for 24 hours.
These specimens are known as conditioned specimens and were tested for Marshall
Stability. The ratio of stability of conditioned specimens and conventional Marshall
Stability of similar specimens (with same bitumen content) is termed as RMS.
For SGC samples, OBC got reduced to 6.3% from 6.6% (of Marshall Samples)
and the bulk density at corresponding OBC increased from 2.32 to 2.33. In SGC method,
conventional Marshall Stability showed an increase of 17%, whereas it was 20% for
stability of conditioned specimens. ITS value was observed as 24% and 30% higher for
unconditioned and conditioned samples respectively, in the case of SGC preparation.
Resistance to moisture was better for SGC samples with comparatively higher TSR and
RMS values. Overall, it can be concluded that to prepare SMA samples, compaction in
SGC is the more suitable than MC.

2.10 STUDY OF STONE MATRIX ASPHALT FOR THE FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

(11)

Ashish Talati et.al, (2014) determined the various physical properties of the bitumen
and aggregates used for SMA Mix. SMA samples were prepared by varying the binder
content in Marshall Method and Super pave Gyratory Compactor (SGC). Those

12
specimens were analyzed for the density-voids and stability-flow. The optimum bitumen
content for the mix with CRMB-55 and Terrasil treated aggregates were determined.
The laboratory performances of the SMA mixes were checked for moisture
susceptibility, rutting and repeated load tests. Drainage test was conducted to check for
the binder drainage. Permeability tests were conducted to study permeable nature of SMA
mixes with CRMB-55 and treated aggregates. Moisture susceptibility tests include the
evaluation of Indirect Tensile Strength, Tensile Strength Ratio and boiling test for
stripping.
The rutting studies included the determination of rutting depth by using
Immersion Wheel Tracking Device (IWTD). Repeated load tests were carried out on
SMA samples with CRMB-55 and treated aggregates to determine its fatigue life.
Disposal of waste tires is a serious environmental concern in many countries. In order to
solve this environmental problem partly and at the same time to improve the performance
of Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA), CRMB-55 was used for the investigation. Another
attempt of SMA Mix using an anti-stripping additive was done.
The objective of the investigations were to reduce anti-stripping by treating
aggregates using anti-stripping agents, also to study the characteristics of SMA mixes
using CRMB-55 binders and a mix using treated aggregates and VG-30 and to evaluate
the stability, flow value and volumetric properties of SMA mixes with CRMB-55 and
treated aggregates by using Marshall Method and Superpave Gyratory Compactor.
There is no specific mix design method for SMA, but there are information sheets
for initial suitability tests on hot mix asphalt. The steps of the evaluation of an appropriate
job mix formula (JMF) according to the information sheet mentioned above are as
follows: In accordance with the RFP (requirements for pavement) and with respect to its
experiences with former JMFs, mixing, paving, performance during the time of warranty,
and - last but not least - the price, the contractor selects the aggregates and the filler with
the selected material (aggregates, sand, filler, additives) and on the basis of the feedback
from other sites and JMFs, a tentative gradation is chosen. But there are requirements for
abrasion value, polish stone value, freezing-thawing-test, etc. Mixes with the required
minimum asphalt content and with three adjacent asphalt contents are prepared. Marshall
specimen are prepared at 135/145 5C and by 50 blows on each side the Marshall tests
are running for the evaluation of the air void content which must range from 3 to 5 % by
volume (i.e., depending on German climate conditions). If the required air void content is
not achieved, the following alterations of the tentative mix within the enforceable limits
13
of the specifications are recommended: Change total content or content of single sizes of
crushed aggregates, Change filler content, and Change mortar content.
Drain-down test: Additives are necessary to avoid drainage of binder from the
coarse aggregates during mixing, transportation and paving. Therefore, a drain-down test
must be performed for the evaluation of the appropriate and necessary content of the
additive. On the basis of the mix design results, the contractor decides on the JMF and
submits it to the client for his approval.
In this paper about additives the description was given that though fibres,
polymers and siliceous materials are also permitted, cellulose fibres are used very
extensively. By tests, trials and by experience, it was discovered that only the use of
polymer is not adequate to avoid segregation of the gap-graded coarse aggregates and the
high bitumen content. The additive has to be a bitumen carrier; polymer as a bitumen
improver is not sufficient. All SMA-JMFs with polymers also had lower bitumen content
than required or they had additionally fibres mixed in to achieve the requirements.
Cellulose fibre shows no chemical reaction with the bitumen and it is inert to mixing
temperatures and it works excellently. Because of the performance of the cellulose fibres,
the technical assistance of the supplier and - last but not least - the relatively low price of
the fibres, the usage and the market share of the different types of additives for SMA e.g.
in Germany is as follows: Cellulose fibres 95%, the rest mineral fibres and other
additives.
It was concluded that Addition of CRMB-55and modified aggregates improves the
volumetric properties of SMA. The OBC of the SMA mixes with CRMB-55 and modified
aggregates were 6.2% and 6% using Marshall and SGC respectively. From the results, it
is clear that there is not much difference in the volumetric properties of SMA prepared
using Marshall and 80 gyrations in SGC. The SMA mixes were found to be having good
stone-on-stone contact. Addition of CRMB-55 and modified aggregates decreased the
drain down value and hence the stabilizer additives can be avoided.
The test proved that there is no stripping in the SMA Mix prepared using modified
aggregates and 10% stripping in the mix with CRMB-55. TSR was found to be more than
80% for all the SMA mixes used in the study. Higher TSR is obtained for SMA Mix using
modified aggregates which indicate better cohesive strength of this mix as compared to
SMA Mix using CRMB-55.Test results indicate that the SMA specimen using CRMB-55
is less susceptible to permanent deformation (rutting) than that with modified aggregates.

14
Repeated load test results prove that the fatigue life of SMA specimen using CRMB-55
was higher as compared to the fatigue life of SMA specimen using modified aggregates.

2.11 LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS ON SMA MIXES WITH DIFFERENT

ADDITIVES (12)
Pawan Kumar et.al, (2007) studied the Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with naturally
occurring jute fibres were coated with low viscosity binder and were used in the present
study as an alternative to the patented fibres. Use of crumb rubber modified binder
(CRMB) is also investigated as stabilizer in SMA mixes. The performance of these mix
were evaluated by conducting drain down by two different methods, moisture
susceptibility test, durability test, rutting test and fatigue life tests. German drain down
test is not suitable for modified binder. NCAT basket test is better in evaluating mixes
prepared with both stabilizers. The results of mix prepared with indigenously available
fibres are comparable to the patented fibres. Mix prepared with modified binder alone
provides encouraging results.
The aggregates were procured from a jaw type stone crusher with vertical shaft
impactor in Delhi derived from igneous rock. The percentage of combined flakiness and
elongation indices was less than 30%, which is the requirement for dense graded
bituminous mixes. The crusher dust was used as fine aggregates and it was non plastic in
nature. The aggregates of different sizes were used in suitable proportions by trial and
error method to obtain the average proportions of the grading as specified by NAPA.
The fiber as stabilizer was added in the SMA mixture to prevent the drain down
and improving the performance related properties of the mix. The properties of the two
fibres chosen for the study The fiber-1 contains 66% cellulose fiber and pelletized with
34% low melting asphalt. Jute is a coarse natural fiber. The jute plants commonly
cultivated as corchorus capsularis are 2.53.5m in height.
The paving bitumen 60/70 grade was used in this study. The bitumen was tested
for physical properties before and after Thin Film Oven test (ASTM D 1754 2002). The
CRMB was also used as one of the stabilizers in the SMA mixes.
Marshall Method of mix design was used to find out the OBC as per ASTM
procedure (ASTM D 1559 1989) in all the mixes. Specimens of 100mm diameter and
63.5mm height were prepared by applying 50 blows on each face. The mixing and
15
compaction temperatures were obtained from viscosity-temperature relationships
developed for neat and CRMB binders corresponding to mixing and compaction
viscosities of 0.17 and 0.28 Pa.s, respectively. The mixing and compaction temperature
from figure 1 was observed to be 160 and 150 for unmodified binder and slightly
higher for CRMB binder respectively. OBC was calculated as per Asphalt Institute MS-2
series (Sixth edition) by taking the bitumen corresponding to 4.5 percent air voids (mid
value of the range) and checked for other parameters.
Drain down results reported that the optimum percentage of fiber-1 and fiber-2
was 0.3% by weight of mixture. German test is not suitable for modified binder
stabilizers. Therefore, NCAT drain down test is considered suitable for both stabilizers.
TSR for all mixes was higher than 90 percent and visual stripping was less than 5
percent. These data indicated little susceptibility to moisture damage in all the three mixes
taken for the study. However, the conventional mix had 84% TSR, which is less than that
of SMA Mix. The higher value of the latter mix as compared to the former mix is due to
higher film thickness of asphalt on aggregate and higher percentage of filler, which is an
anti-stripping agent.
Results of strength tests on SMA mixes obtained with natural fibres are
comparable to the patented fibres as indicated by Marshall Stability tests, permanent
deformation test and fatigue life test. However, aging index of mix prepared with natural
fiber (fiber-2) is better than that of mix prepared with patented fiber (fiber-1). This is an
important finding of this research, as the use of natural fiber will substantially reduce the
cost of construction of SMA Mix.
Moisture susceptibility as indicated by TSR of all mixes is higher than the
prescribed values. Therefore, all mixes are expected to perform satisfactorily in field.
The results of Hamburg wheel tracking tests, aging tests and flexural fatigue tests
carried out on three mixes of SMA indicate that the mix prepared by using aggregate
gradation as specified for SMA and CRMB without fibres (SMA-CRMB) will perform
similar to or better than conventional SMA although it does not follow the terminology of
SMA. Field trials should however, be made to further investigate and strengthen this
point.

2.12 EFFECT OF ADDITIVES TYPES AND CONTENTS ON THE PROPERTIES

OF STONE MATRIX ASPHALT MIXTURES (13)

16
 Noor M. Asmael et.al, (2010) evaluated the effect of additives type and content on
the performance of stone matrix asphalt mixtures. A detailed laboratory study was carried
out by preparing asphalt mixtures specimens using aggregate from Al-Nibaay, (40-50)
grade asphalt from dourah refinery and two types of fiber (carbon fiber and
polypropylene fiber) with percentages (0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5%) by weight of total mix and two
types of polymer (phenol and polyethylene) with percentages (7.5, 10, 12.5, 15%) by
weight of total mix were tested in the laboratory. Compacted mixtures were tested to
evaluate the effects on SMA bulk specific gravity, maximum specific gravity, void
content, Marshall Stability, Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) and permanent deformation.
Three different tests temperatures (20, 40,60C) were employed in the creep test and two
temperatures (5, 25 C) were used in indirect tensile test to investigate the susceptibility
of these mixes to change in temperature.
The Objective of the Study was to evaluate SMA properties for various additives
types and contents, to predict the performance of SMA mixes and to identify the influence
of modifiers on the performance of HMA. Marshall Specimens were prepared with 6% of
bitumen weight and different percentage of additives types. In order to determine optimal
additive percent, 12 specimens were produced for each additive. All specimens were
compacted with energy 50 blows. The Stability, flow and void content were considered to
obtain optimum additive content for each additive type.
The indirect tensile strength test was used to determine the tensile properties of the
asphalt concrete which can be further related to the cracking properties of the pavement.
Specimens with phenol additive resulted in higher tensile strength if compared with
polyethylene specimens. The flow value for phenol and polyethylene specimens is similar
approximately. Whereas specimens with carbon fiber additive have higher tensile strength
from polypropylene in temperature degree 50C, but polypropylene specimens have higher
tensile strength from carbon fiber in temperature degree 25C. This behavior is because
that tensile strength is related primarily to a function of the modified binder properties,
and its stiffness influence the tensile strength. Furthermore the results shows flow for
carbon fiber specimens is higher than polypropylene specimens.
Specific conclusions from this study were that the gap graded mixes are thought to
be weak in rutting resistance at high temperature. SMA mixes were found high fatigue
performance at lower temperature. The fatigue life and rutting resistance increased to a
maximum when polymer content was used. According to the study results, polymers
additives were found to be more effective than fibres additives, but it need more research
17
to prove this point. SMA Mix modified with phenol additives can be used in cold and
normal temperature area, whereas SMA Mix modified with polyethylene additive can be
used in high temperature area.

2.13 LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF CRUMB RUBBER MODIFIED

BITUMEN ON STONE MATRIX ASPHALT (14)
Chenthil Kumari. N et.al, (2015) studied the properties of CRMB and Polymer
Modified Bitumen (PMB) on SMA. The SMA mixes are evaluated in terms of Marshall
Properties such as Marshall Stability, flow value, unit weight and air voids, drain down
characteristics, static and repeated load indirect tensile strength characteristics, and
moister susceptibility characteristics. The Tensile strength Ratio values are found to be in
the range 85 -94 % which is more than 85 % as specified for a SMA mixture. The SMA
mixes designed with available aggregates showed good stone on stone contact(VCA
DRC<VCA MIX).The 17% Voids in Mineral aggregate and 3 - 5% air voids in the mix
were fulfilled as SMA Mix design criteria. The Drain down values was in the range of
0.04% to 0.17% by weight of the mix. Based on the above performance, Combined
Combination of Crumb Rubber could be used as stabilizing additive in the form of dry
processing showed without affecting the design criteria of SMA mixture.
The materials used in this study for the preparation of specimens are,
Aggregate9.5 mm size Dust, Lime60/70 Penetration Grade Bitumen of Crumb rubber and
Low Density Polyethylene as additive using the materials they are tested to ensure the
quality parameters of the materials as laid down in the respective Indian Standards.
The Tensile strength Ratio values are found to be in the range 85 -94 % which is
more than 85 % as specified for a SMA mixture. The SMA mixes designed with available
aggregates showed good stone on stone contact(VCA DRC<VCA MIX).The 17% Voids
in Mineral aggregate and 3 - 5% air voids in the mix were fulfilled as SMA Mix design
criteria. The Drain down values was in the range of 0.04% to 0.17% by weight of the mix.
Based on the above performance, Combined Combination of Crumb Rubber could be
used as stabilizing additive in the form of dry processing showed without affecting the
design criteria of SMA mixture.

2.14 A STUDY OF EFFECTS OF BINDER QUALITY AND NATURAL FIBER ON

18
 STONE MATRIX ASPHALT MIXTURES (15)
Arpita Suchismita et.al, (2009) made an attempt to study the engineering properties
of mixtures of stone matrix asphalt made with three types of binders namely conventional
bitumen 80/100 and 60/70 and modified binder CRMB 60, with a non-conventional
natural fiber, namely coconut fiber. The binders and fibres in different proportions are
used for preparation of mixes with a selected aggregate grading. The role of a particular
binder and fiber with respect to their concentrations in the mix is studied for various
engineering properties. For this, various Marshall Samples of SMA mixtures with and
without fibres with varying binder type and its concentration are prepared. The optimum
binder content is determined keeping the suggested air voids content in the mix. Marshall
Properties such as stability, flow value, unit weight, air voids are used to determine
optimum binder content and optimum fiber content for each type of binder for further
studies on SMA mixes. Thereafter, the drain down characteristics, both static and repeated
indirect tensile strength parameters and moisture susceptibility characteristics in terms of
tensile strength ratio and retained stability of different SMA mixtures values have been
studied for such mixes. It is observed that only 0.3% addition of coconut fiber
significantly improves the Marshall properties of SMA mixes. Addition of nominal 0.3%
fiber considerably improves the drain down, indirect tensile strength and fatigue
characteristics of the SMA mixes with conventional bitumen, which would otherwise
have not been able to meet the prescribed criteria.
In this study the Marshall properties of SMA samples with binder type and its
Concentrations, to compare the Marshall properties of SMA samples with varying fiber
concentration using different binders, to analyze the results of Marshall tests of SMA
mixes for deciding the optimum binder content (OBC) and optimum fiber content (OFC)
for further studies, to study the drain down characteristics of the SMA mixes prepared at
OBC and OFC, to evaluate the SMA mixes with fixed fiber concentration and various
binders (at OBC and OFC), in terms of engineering properties such as static indirect
tensile test and repeated load indirect tensile test including fatigue characteristics at
various temperatures, to study the moisture susceptibility characteristics of SMA mixtures
in terms of their tensile strength ratio and retained stability.
In this study three types of binders, two unmodified penetration grade binders
such as 80/100 and 60/70 bitumen, and one modified binder such as CRMB 60 have been
used in SMA mixes along with coconut fiber as stabilizing additive. The SMA mixes are
evaluated in terms of Marshall Properties such as Marshall Stability, flow value, unit
19
weight and air voids, drain down characteristics, static and repeated load indirect tensile
strength characteristics, and moisture susceptibility characteristics.
Three types of binders, such as conventional 80/100 and 60/70 penetration grade
bitumen and a modified binder such as CRMB 60 have been tried for preparation of
mixes with and without fiber. Coconut fiber, which is a low cost and abundantly available
natural fiber, has been used in the mixes. It has been observed that a marginal fiber
concentration of 0.3% considerably improves the Marshall properties of SMA mixes even
for the same with 80/100 bitumen. The optimum binder contents are found to reduce
considerably by addition of fibres, which is an important advantage from economy and
quality point of view. It has been observed that the drain down and moisture susceptibility
characteristics have improved by using modified binder and fiber in the mix. It is also
found that addition of fiber substantially increases the tensile strength of mixes with any
binder type. The mixes with CRMB 60 binder result maximum tensile strength. These
mixes also perform satisfactorily under repeated load test conditions and in terms of
fatigue characteristics. From the overall discussion of the test results on SMA mixes with
three types of binders, it can be concluded that all the mixes made at 0.3% fiber content
perform satisfactorily and can be used in mixes in the wearing courses of flexible
pavements. However further studies such as permanent deformation and creep properties
need to be carried out, and for validation of the above test results, experimental track
should be laid to study the performance of pavements with such SMA mixes.

2.15 EFFECTS OF FILLER TYPE AND PARTICLE SIZE ON PERMANENT

DEFORMATION OF STONE MASTIC ASPHALT (SMA) MIXTURES (16)
Ratnasamy Muniandy et.al, (2012) evaluated effects of filler type and particle size
on the permanent deformation properties of SMA mixtures incorporating granite
aggregates, 80/100 penetration grade asphalt, and four different fillers (limestone as
control, ceramic waste, coal fly ash, and steel slag). The selected fraction of filler (10%
by the total weight of aggregate) was blended in three different proportions 100/0, 50/50,
and 0/100 passing the 75 and 20 micron. Permanent deformation characteristics of
bituminous mixtures is determined by repeated cyclic axial load indirect tensile testing
using the Universal Testing Machine (UTM) in accordance with procedures outlined in
BSEN 12697-25:2005. The results and the analysis of the fundamental parameters of
permanent deformation and resilient modulus have indicated the improved stiffness and
the potential benefits in terms of high temperature rutting (increased stiffness and elastic
20
response) of laboratory blended and proprietary of SMA mixtures incorporating ceramic
waste and steel slag fillers with medium size particles (50/50 proportion) compared to the
control mix. For the test temperature of 50C and based on minimum strain rate;
improvement in rutting resistance was observed for the medium particle size filler
mixtures regardless the filler type. In the SMA asphalt concrete testing regardless the
filler type, the small size particles showed the highest strain rate which indicating low
resistance to rutting as well as the lowest resilient modulus which indicating low load
spreading ability. All the fillers used in this study play an important role in improving the
rutting resistance of SMA. These filler materials significantly enhance the potential high
temperature performance in SMA and are being encouraged for use in hot climates. As
the filler size increased (medium to large) the stiffening effect was much more significant
than the increased lubrication effect, which resulted in stiffer mixtures as indicated by the
performance of steel slag, ceramic waste, and coal fly ash. Therefore, the rut resistance
was significantly improved compared to the control filler. The coal fly ash mixtures are
the least susceptible to permanent deformation.
To satisfy the objective of this study, the SMA specimens were prepared at
optimum asphalt content (OAC). Granite aggregate, asphalt with 80/100 penetration,
cellulose oil palm fiber (COPF), one gradation, and four types of fillers with three
different particle size proportions were used in preparing SMA specimens. Each SMA
mixture was evaluated for resilient modulus and permanent deformation performance.
The Resilient Modulus test was carried out in accordance with ASTM D 4123 and the
RLAT test was done using the Universal Testing Machine (UTM) in accordance with
procedures outlined in BSEN 12697-25:2005 to evaluate the effect of filler type and
particle size on the deformation properties of SMA mixture.
Since the performance of the fillers were of concern in this study, the commonly
used 80/100 penetration grade soft binder was selected. This is to make sure there are no
additional properties derived from additives if modified binders such as 60/70 and PG 76
were used.
One aggregate gradation was chosen such that it was within the master gradation
band for a 12.5 mm Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size (NMAS) SMA. The crushed
granite aggregate was blended to meet the gradation recommended by the National
Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA).

21
 In this study four fillers namely Limestone, Ceramic Waste, Coal Fly Ash, and
Steel Slag with particle size proportion (passing 75 / passing 20 ) with three
combination of filler 100/0, 50/50, and 0/100 were evaluated for direct comparison.
The fiber selected for inclusion in the testing matrix was Cellulose Oil Palm Fiber
(COPF). This COPE is a University Putra Malaysia (UPM) initiated technology product
and have had extensive use in SMA on Malaysian roads. The COPF has been tried during
full-scale and placement on an experimental basis and has proven very effective. The
(COPF) is introduced to the mix at a dosage of 0.3% of the total weight of mix.
The method of Optimum Asphalt Content (OAC) determination based on the
Marshall Method of mix design. The filler particle size combinations (passing 75/20
micron) were mixed at three different ratios, 100/0, 50/50, and 0/100, twelve mix designs
were made with the same blend of coarse and fine aggregates to keep aggregate
angularities and mineralogical characteristics constant. The only variable in the mixtures
was the filler type and the filler proportion. The twelve mix designs were labelled as
shown in Table 4 represent four types of filler and three combinations of particle size to
produce SMA mixtures at established mixing and compacting temperatures using
Marshall Mix Design procedure to sustain medium traffic using 50 blows per side. In this
study triplicate specimens were prepared at each optimum asphalt content, a total of 36
specimens were prepared to evaluate the effects of the added filler type and particle size
on the stiffness and deformation properties of SMA mixtures.
The Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus (ITSM) test which is defined by BS DD
213 is a non-destructive test and has been identified as a potential means of measuring the
stiffness properties and study effects of temperature and load rate.
The aggregates, mineral fillers, asphalt binder, and cellulose fiber were tested for
compliance with the applicable specifications in the Standard Specification for
Designing Stone Mastic Asphalt. All materials were found suitable for use in SMA.
The Resilient Modulus or Stiffness Modulus is considered to be a very important
performance characteristic of the pavement. It is a measure of the load-spreading ability
of the bituminous layers and controls the level of traffic induced tensile strains at the
underside of the road base, which are responsible for fatigue cracking together with the
compressive strains induced in the subgrade that can lead to permanent deformation. The
results of resilient modulus testing of SMA mixtures showed that the medium size particle
had caused the highest stiffening effect among the other particle size proportions
regardless filler type.
22
 For the test temperature of 50C and based on minimum strain rate; improvement
in rutting resistance was observed for the medium particle size filler mixtures regardless
the filler type.
All the fillers used in this study play an important role in improving the rutting
resistance of SMA. These filler materials significantly enhance the potential high
temperature performance in SMA and are being encouraged for use in hot climates. As
the filler size increased (medium to large) the stiffening effect was much more significant
than the increased lubrication effect, which resulted in stiffer mixtures as indicated by the
performance of steel slag, ceramic waste, and coal fly ash. Therefore, the rut resistance
was significantly improved compared to the control filler.

2.16 LABORATORY EVALUATION OF SMA MIXES PREPARED WITH SBS

MODIFIED AND NEAT BITUMEN (17)
S.S. Awanti et.al, (2013) carried out experimental investigations on stone matrix
asphalt mixes (SMA) prepared using polymer modified bitumen PMB 70 with SBS and
coconut fibres to prevent drain down of asphalt. Results were compared with SMA mixes
prepared with neat bitumen VG 30 grade and coconut and cellulose fibres to prevent drain
down of asphalt. Experimental work includes SMA mix design, static indirect tensile
strength test at different temperatures, indirect tensile fatigue test and permanent
deformation test. From the test results it was observed that stone matrix asphalt mix with
PMB 70 and coconut fiber shows higher static indirect tensile strength at different
temperatures, higher fatigue life and higher rut resistance when compared to control mix
of SMA.
To determine optimum binder content for stone matrix asphalt (SMA) mix with
PMB-70 using two types of fibres namely coconut and cellulose by using Marshall
method of mix design and results would be compared with control mix of SMA prepared
using VG30 grade bitumen with two different fibres. To evaluate the static indirect tensile
strength for SMA Mix with PMB-70 using coconut fiber at different temperatures and the
results would be compared with control mix of SMA prepared using VG30 grade bitumen
with coconut fiber. To determine the moisture susceptibility of SMA Mix with PMB-70
using coconut fiber by conducting tensile strength ratio (TSR) test and the results would
be compared with control mix of SMA.
Crushed basalt type of coarse aggregates 13 mm and down. Crushed basalt type of
fine aggregate 2.36 mm and down. Basalt stone dust as mineral filler. VG 30 grade
23
bitumen and PMB 70 with SBS (Styrene- Butadiene-Styrene) block copolymer as
binders. Cellulose and Coconut fibres as stabilizers.
The Schellenberg Drain down test was selected to determine the efficiency of the
Coconut and Cellulose fibres as stabilizer used to prevent drain down of the binder and
mineral filler. In this test method a sample of the SMA mixture to be tested was prepared
in the laboratory. The sample was placed in a beaker, which is weighed. The sample along
with the beaker is placed in the oven for one hour at a prescribed tem. At the end of one
hour, the beaker containing the sample is taken out from the oven and immediately
emptied the beaker without any shaking or vibration. Re-weight the beaker to nearest
0.1gm to determine the amount of drain down that occurred and calculate the percent of
binder drain down.
The optimum binder content obtained for PSMA-ctf is 0.3% higher than SMA-ctf.
This may be due to higher viscosity of PMB-70 when compared to VG 30 grade bitumen.
This resulted in lower coverage area of coating per gm. of PMB 70. The asphalt drain
down in PSMA-ctf is 36% lower than SMA-ctf. This may be due to presence of polymers
in PMB-70 reduced the drain down when compared to neat bitumen.
Static indirect tensile strength values for PSMA-ctf at 10, 20, 30 and
40temperatures are higher than SMA-ctf. This shows that PSMA-ctf performed better
than SMA-ctf. The moisture susceptibility of PSMA-ctf is marginally lower than SMA-
ctf. PSMA-ctf shows 36% higher fatigue life when compared to SMA-ctf at a tensile
stress of 0.6 MPa and at 30. PSMA-ctf shows 42% higher rut resistance when
compared to SMA-ctf.

2.17 AGGREGATE AND BITUMEN MODIFIED WITH CHEMICALS FOR

STONE MATRIX ASPHALT MIXTURES (18)
Goutham Sarang et.al, (2014) investigated to eliminate the use of additional
stabilizing material, by modifying the aggregates and bitumen with suitable chemicals.
Modification of aggregates was done by treating them with a chemical named Terrasil and
bitumen modification was achieved by the addition of another chemical called Zycosoil.
Effect of these chemicals was determined from testing the SMA mixtures for volumetric
and Marshall Properties, tensile strength and rutting behaviour. Samples were prepared in
Superpave Gyratory Compactor (SGC) for testing. From the results it was observed that
proper usage of these chemicals eliminates the necessity of stabilizing additive. Also it

24
was seen that chemical treatment with aggregates is a better method to improve the
overall performance of SMA mixtures compared to bitumen modification.
The primary objective of this investigation was to prepare SMA mixtures without
any additional stabilizing material, by modifying the aggregates and bitumen with
suitable chemicals. Modification of aggregates was done by treating them with a chemical
named Terrasil and bitumen modification was achieved by the addition of another
chemical called Zycosoil. Here two types of mixtures, one with modified bitumen and the
other with treated aggregates, were prepared in SGC. It is also aimed to compare the
laboratory performance of these mixtures by conducting the volumetric and Marshall
tests, Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) test, rutting test and moisture susceptibility test.
For preparing SMA mixtures, VG 30 bitumen and crushed granite aggregates
from nearby quarry were used. Quarry dust and lime were used as mineral filler and were
used 8% and 2% respectively, by weight of total aggregates. Commercially available
chemicals, named Zycosoil and Terrasil, were also used for this study. Zycosoil was used
to modify the conventional bitumen and Terrasil was used to treat normal aggregates.
Marshall Method of mix design for bitumen contents 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5 and 7 % by
weight of aggregates. For mixes with aggregate treatment with Terrasil conventional VG
30 bitumen without any modification was used and in the case of mixes with Zycosoil
modified bitumen, natural aggregates without any treatment was used. Compaction of
mixture was done in SGC by providing 100 gyrations for each sample.
Drain down test was conducted as per ASTM D 6390 on loose SMA mixtures with
and without modifier. Drain down was observed to be about 0.380% for SMA without any
modifier whereas it was 0.240% and 0.192% for mix with modified bitumen and treated
aggregates respectively. This showed that mixes with treated aggregates with
conventional bitumen and mixes with modified bitumen with normal aggregates satisfy
drain down criteria without any stabilizer materials. It was also seen that, aggregate
modification is the better method to control drain down compared to the use of modified
bitumen.
ITS testing is a method to measure the diametrical tensile strength of bituminous
mixture specimens, according to AASHTO 283 specification. In this method tensile
strength of compacted specimen is tested in normal conditions and also after subjecting
accelerated weathering phenomenon. Accelerated weathering is provided by conditioning
the specimens for one freeze and thaw cycle. The specimen is subjected for freezing at
153 and then keeping in hot water bath maintained at 60 for duration of 24 hrs.
25
The samples were tested for tensile strength. The ratio of ITS value of conditioned
specimens to that of normal specimens is known as Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR), which
is a measure of moisture resistance of bituminous mixtures.
Boiling or stripping test was conducted as per ASTM D 3625 on loose hot
mixtures with both modified bitumen and treated aggregates at their corresponding OBC
values. Stripping was observed to be within limits for both mixtures, and was around 2
5 %. Suitable chemicals be used to modify the conventional bitumen and to treat the
normal aggregates in SMA, can control drain down of the mixture without any additional
stabilizer material.
SMA mixtures of chemically modified bitumen with normal aggregates and
chemically treated aggregates and conventional bitumen were satisfied the drain down
criteria. In a comparative study of SMA mixtures with modified bitumen and treated
aggregates, it is observed that mix with treated aggregates is performing better than the
other. Treated aggregateSMA mixtures showed better volumetric and Marshall
Properties. OBC was reduced from 6.295% in the case of modified bitumen-mix to
6.255% for treated aggregate-mixture. Even though stripping was almost same for both
mixtures, the loss in tensile strength after accelerated weathering was more for SMA with
modified bitumen, which was having a TSR of 85%, whereas it was 89% for treated
aggregates-mixture.

2.18 FATIGUE CHARACTERISTICS OF STONE MATRIX ASPHALT MIXES IN

WARM CLIMATE (19)
Suchismita. A et.al, (2011) studied the details of stone mastic asphalt mixes, with
emphasis on engineering characteristics under repeated load conditions. In this paper,
conventional binders namely locally used penetration grade bitumen 80/100 and 60/70,
with locally available aggregates and cement as filler have been used. A non-conventional
natural fiber, namely coconut fiber to the extent of 0.3% by weight, has been added to the
mix to act as a stabilizer.
In this study naturally and abundantly available low cost material such as locally
available coconut fiber was been utilized in the preparation of SMA mixes and study had
been made on the fatigue properties of the SMA mixes. Marshall samples were prepared
for study of fatigue characteristics. In the similar line, the fatigue characteristics were
studied on the Marshall samples. The required quantity of coarse aggregates, fine
aggregates and cement according to the adopted gradation were taken on a pan on a hot
26
plate. Coconut fibres after being cut to small pieces approximately 3-5 mm long, (0.3%)
by weight were added directly to the aggregate sample and thoroughly mixed before
adding required quantity of binder (4.2% by weight).
It was concluded that the Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) mix, which is basically gap
graded mix, characterized by high coarse aggregates, high asphalt contents and polymer
or fiber additives as stabilizers, have been suggested. Coconut fibres have been used in
this study as a stabilizing additive in place of conventional cellulose fibres in SMA mixes
and the paving mixes have been evaluated in terms of the static and resilient properties.
Marshall Samples were used in this investigation. Addition of fibres results in higher
tensile strength for a given bitumen sample at a given temperature. The resilient modulus
value does not change significantly with applied tensile stress. It has been observed that a
mere 0.3% incorporation of binder results in considerable increase of the resilient moduli
and fatigue life of the mixes at all tested temperatures, which is an added advantage to the
paving industry, particularly in the context of prevailing warm temperatures in tropical
countries and even beyond to produce durable paving mixes, particularly when dense
graded aggregates are not easily available.

2.19 EVALUATION OF RESILIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF STONE MATRIX

ASPHALT (SMA) (20)
Neha Sharma et.al, (2016) conducted a study to evaluate the performance of stone
matrix asphalt (SMA) mix, with modified binders and Warm Mix Asphalt technology in
comparison to convention asphalt for use as a surface course in India. They investigated
the influence of modified binders and Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) technology in regards
to resilient properties of mixtures. It is observed that the use of modified bitumen and
warm mix asphalt technology improved the performance of SMA mixes when compared
to the conventional bitumen. The performance of the mixes with conventional asphalt is
lower than the warm mix asphalt and modified binder. Elastic property of OGFC mix
decreased with increase in test temperatures for all types of mixtures. WMA showed
increased resilient modulus of the mix at all three temperature parameter than modified
and plain bitumen.
The combined aggregate gradation as per MORTH, 2013 were achieved using
nominal maximum coarse aggregate sizes of 13 mm, with the OGFC gradation limit
satisfied. 10% Hydrated lime was added in dry mass of aggregate to fill the requirement
of filler and an anti-stripping agent. Cellulose fibres were added at a dosage rate of 0.4%
27
by weight of the total mix (aggregate and asphalt binder) and mixed with the aggregate
before the asphalt binder was introduced.
The indirect tensile resilient modulus test was conducted using the Universal
Testing Machine (UTM). Each specimen was tested at 25C after 4 hours conditioning.
The samples were initially subjected to 5 condition pulses. A 1200 N peak load was
applied along the vertical diameter of the sample. The pulse period and pulse width were
respectively 3000 ms and 100 ms while the rise time was 50 ms. Linear variable
differential transducers monitored the resultant indirect tensile strain along the horizontal
diameter. Modified binder showed not significant differences. PMB-40 improves mix
quality at 25C and 30 C. CRMB-55 mix increases M R value at 30C but slightly
decrease MR Value at 40C.
The performance of the mixes with conventional asphalt is lower than the warm
mix asphalt and modified binder. Elastic property of OGFC mix decreased with increase
in test temperatures for all types of mixtures. WMA showed increased resilient modulus
of the mix at all three temperature parameter than modified and plain bitumen.

2.20 EVALUATION OF PERMANENT DEFORMATION OF STONE MATRIX

ASPHALT MIXTURES (21)
Tung-Wen Hsu et.al, (2009) evaluated the permanent deformation of stone matrix
asphalt (SMA) mixtures with the applications of linear viscoelasticity. The results of a
series of repeated load triaxial tests with various rest periods indicated that fine-type SMA
mixtures afford the best resistance against rutting among all of three types of aggregate
gradation mixtures. With viscoelastic characteristics of asphalt concrete mixtures, the
energy dissipation of the specimen during repeated loading is applied to examine the
rutting response of the mixtures. It was found that fine-type SMA mixtures exhibited the
least dissipated energy associated with the smallest phase angles measured in the
experiments, which resulted in the lowest permanent deformation in the repetition loading
tests. Similar trend was found that specimens with an asphalt content 0.5% more than the
optimum undergo more deformation as compared to those with lower asphalt contents
due to the larger phase angles determined in the tests. Moreover, specimens with higher
rest periods in all three mixtures displayed more deformation with the larger phase angles
measured in the experiments.

28
 All the aggregate materials used in this research were taken from the Wu-Shi
riverbed in Taiwan. The physical properties of asphalt cement with a penetration grade of
85/100. Two types of different aggregate gradations of SMA mixtures constructed in
Atlanta city of Georgia, as well as the IV b dense graded bituminous mixtures according
to the Asphalt Institute. The gradation distribution of aggregate used in this study together
with its specification limits of these three types of mixtures are also illustrated in Figures
1(a)-1(c), respectively. Here, the fine type SMA mixes have 19.05-mm (3/4-in.)
maximum aggregate size; whereas the coarse type SMA mixes have 25.4-mm (1-in.)
maximum aggregate size, respectively. The difference between these two types of SMA is
that the aggregate size of 9.53 mm (3/8 in.) is the primary portion of coarse particles in
the fine-type SMA, while in the coarse-type SMA, the coarse aggregate size is in the
range between 9.53 mm (3/8 in.) and 19.05 mm (3/4 in.). Both types of mixes have
around 30 percent passing No. 4 sieve.
The Marshall method of mix design was used to establish the optimum asphalt
content with 75 blows compact effort of heavy traffic on the asphalt concrete mixture. At
this asphalt content, the properties of three gradation mixtures were then determined.
Based upon the Marshall Design results, the 101.6-mm, 203.2-mm (4-in.8-in.) cylindrical
test specimens were prepared by compaction in three lifts placed on top of each other. All
three lifts received the similar unit compact effort as used in the mixture design, which
indicated that 80 blows were proportionally applied on each lift of the mixture. And the
specimens were prepared at optimum asphalt content and also at optimum asphalt content
0.5%, of each gradation mixture, respectively.
The Marshall mixture design results It was found that the fine type SMA showed
the highest stability value, optimum asphalt content and unit weight among these three
mixtures. This may be due to the aggregate size of primary coarse particles in the fine-
type SMA, which is smaller than the coarse-type SMA as described earlier. As a
consequence, it results in the more stone-to-stone contact area to provide more aggregate
interlock for the fine-type SMA mixtures. However, in general the difference in the
Marshall Test properties between these two types of SMA mixtures was less pronounced,
as compared with the dense graded mixtures.
In this study, only the variables of aggregate gradation and asphalt content were
considered in the influence of rest periods on the permanent deformation of asphalt
concrete mixtures. In examining how the gradation of the mixtures behave relative to one

29
and another under repeated loading, the relationship of axial strain versus number of
repetitions for all mixtures at the optimum asphalt content with the various loading ratios.
It can be seen that the fine-type SMA mixtures afford the best resistance to permanent
deformation, following the coarse-type SMA and dense graded mixtures, respectively. All
the series of the test results are depicted. It is interesting to note that under the same
loading conditions, specimens with asphalt content 0.5% more than the optimum
undergoes more deformation comparing those with other two asphalt contents, regardless
of the types of aggregate gradation. Also, the permanent strain was shown to increase
with a increase in the loading ratio in this series of tests.
Based upon the experimental results of the repeated load triaxial tests, it was
found that the fine-type SMA affords the best resistance against rutting among all of three
mixtures. With viscoelastic characteristics of asphalt concrete mixtures, the energy
dissipation of the specimen during repeated loading is applied to examine the rutting
behaviour of the mixtures. It was found that fine-type SMA mixtures exhibited the least
dissipated energy associated with the smallest phase angles measured in the experiments,
which resulted in the lowest permanent deformation in the repetition loading tests.
Similar trend was found that specimens with an asphalt content 0.5% more than the
optimum undergo more deformation as compared to those with lower asphalt contents
due to the larger phase angles determined in the tests. Moreover, specimens with the
higher rest periods sustained more deformation with the larger phase angles measured in
the experiments.

2.21 RESILIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF STONE MATRIX ASPHALT MIXES

(22)

Arpita Suchismita et.al, (2011) studied the resilient characteristics of SMA Mix, the
resilient properties of mixtures of stone matrix asphalt made with two types of
conventional binders namely bitumen 80/100 and 60/70, with 0.3% by weight of a non
conventional natural fiber, namely coconut fiber were utilized and the mixes were
subjected to both static and repeated load indirect tensile strength tests.
For preparation of SMA mixes, coarse aggregates up to 4.75 mm IS sieve size,
consisted of stone chips collected from a local source. Fine aggregates, consisting of
stone crusher dusts were collected from a local crusher with fractions passing 4.75 mm
and retained on 0.075 mm IS sieve. Portland slag cement (Grade 43) collected from local
market passing 0.075 mm IS sieve was used as filler material. Conventional penetration
30
grade bitumen 80/100 and 60/70, collected from a local depot was used in preparation of
mix samples. Coconut fibre/ coir fibre is a natural fibre derived from the mesocarp tissue
or husk of the coconut fruit. It is also termed as Golden Fibre due to its colour. The
individual coconut fibre cells are narrow and hollow, with thick walls made up of
cellulose. These fibres are pale when immature but later they become hardened and
yellowed as a layer of lignin gets deposited on it. Brown coir fibres are stronger as they
contain more lignin than cellulose, but they are less flexible. Coconut fibres are made up
of small threads and are relatively water proof. The peelings of ripe coconut were
collected locally, dried and neat fibres taken out manually. The lengths of such fibres were
normally in the range of 75 to 200 mm and diameter varied from 0.2 to 0.6 mm. The
tensile strength of these fibres was tested in a materials testing machine, Tinious Olsen,
UK, Model HIOKS. The average tensile strength of the fibre was found to be 70.58
N/mm2.
The mixture of coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and cement are heated to the
required temperature. Coconut fibres after being cut to small pieces approximately 3-5
mm long, (0.3%) by weight are added directly to aggregate sample and thoroughly mixed
before adding required quantity of binder. The mixes are thoroughly mixed and prepared
as per the normal Marshall procedure.
It was seen that the fibre addition results higher tensile strength. It was also
observed that for a particular binder, the tensile strength decreases with increase in
temperature. At lower temperature, the mixes with 60/70 bitumen has the higher indirect
tensile strength than 80/100 bitumen. But at higher temperatures, the mixes with 60/70
binder have the highest tensile strength as compared to the mixes with other two binders.
The parameters studied in repeated load indirect test were the resilient Poissons ratio,
resilient modulus of elasticity (MR) and fatigue life (Nf) at varying stress levels and at
three most prevailing temperatures, namely 25C, 30C and 35C. The variations of resilient
modulus of elasticity with tensile stress for different mixes at three different testing
temperatures. For mixes without fibre the decrease in MR value with stress level is more
as compared to the mixes with fibre. In case of mixes with and without fiber, at a
particular temperature and a particular stress level mixes with 60/70 bitumen have more
MR value than that with 80/100 bitumen.
It was observed that addition of fiber to the mix improves its fatigue life. At a
particular test temperature and for a particular stress difference value, the mixes with
60/70 binder have the longest fatigue life value as compared mixes with 80/100 binder. It
31
was concluded that addition of fibres results in higher tensile strength for a given bitumen
sample at a given temperature. The resilient modulus value does not change significantly
with applied tensile stress. It is also observed that a mere 0.3% incorporation of binder
results in considerable increase of the resilient moduli and fatigue life of the mixes, which
is an added advantage to the paving industry.

2.22 LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF STONE

MATRIX ASPHALT MIXTURES MODIFIED WITH RGPSBS (23)
Mojtaba Ghasemi et.al, (2011) evaluated the advantages of adding recycled glass
powder (RGP) and styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) polymer to the base bitumen with the
penetration grade of 60/70 and to modify stone matrix asphalt (SMA) in flexible
pavement. Initial studies were conducted for determining the physical properties of
bitumen and modifiers. Seven different combinations were provided by mixing different
amounts of SBS and RGP with base bitumen. Then, asphalt mixture performance tests
including Marshall Stability, indirect tensile strength and resilient modulus were
performed on the modified and control asphalt samples. The results of the evaluation
showed that SMA mixtures modified by 3.5% RGP and 1.5% SBS presented the best
results in the experiments conducted in this research and also considerably increased
mechanical and physical properties of asphalt and bitumen. Test results showed that the
modified binders increased SMA resistance and workability.
A single gradation was also specified which corresponded with the European 16
mm SMA with 100 percent passing the 19.0 mm sieve and 85 to 95 percent passing the
12.5 mm sieve The applied filler was calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) which came from an
asphalt plant. Calcium carbonate was constructed for passing through an ASTM #200
sieve. In this research, a kind of asphalt binder with the normal paving of 60/70-
penetration grade was used for producing all test specimens which was taken from the
Isfahan Mineral Oil Refinery.
For preparing the mix design, the mix design procedure for SMA was followed
which was as proposed in the National Cooperative Highway Research Program
(NCHRP) Rep. No. 425 [15]. Locally available materials with normal SMA specifications
were used for producing the reference mix which including the 60/70 penetration grade
32
asphalt without any mineral fibres. Laboratory specimens were prepared using 50 blows
of the Marshall hammer per side. The optimum asphalt content for SMA mixtures is
usually selected for producing 4% air voids and less than 0.3% drain down. In the present
study, all SMA samples were compacted using 50 blows of the Marshall hammer per side.
The optimum asphalt content for the control mixture was 6.11% at 4% air voids which
was used in preparing SBS-RGP-modified SMA mixtures for maintaining consistency
throughout the study. Three identical samples were constructed for each mixture.
Water sensitivity of mixture can be evaluated using the value of tensile strength
ratio (TSR) in the following way: TSR = ITS1/ITS2 where ITS1 is the average indirect
tensile strength of the conditioned specimen, MPa and ITS2 is the average indirect tensile
strength of unconditioned specimen, MPa.
The resilient modulus (MR) shows the ratio of an applied stress to the recoverable
strain which takes place after removing the applied stress. Here, it was determined from
doing tests on cylindrical specimens for each mixture at the designed asphalt contents in
an indirect tension mode. Approximately 15% of the indirect tensile strength of each
mixture was applied on the vertical diameter for the conventional and SBS-RGP modified
specimens. The frequency of load application was 1 Hz with the load duration of 0.1 s in
order to represent field conditions and the resting period of 0.9 s. The tests were
conducted at 25C which was according to ASTM D4123. Using an environmental air
chamber, the test temperature was maintained. Each specimen was placed inside the
chamber at the set temperature for 3 h before testing. Three samples were made for each
of the eight kinds of evaluated mixtures and their averages represented MR for each
mixture.
The binder test results exhibited higher softening point, less temperature
susceptibility, less percentage loss in weight and susceptibility to aging and satisfactory
compatibility of SBSRGP with the base asphalt cement. The mixture test results
demonstrated up to 79% higher stability, 34% higher tensile strength in the temperature
range of 25C, up to 26% lower moisture susceptibility, 167% higher toughness index,
higher compression strength in different conditions and 127% increase in resilient
modulus values at 25C. In sum, test results showed that the modified binders increased
SMA resistance and workability.

2.23 EFFECTS OF FIBER TYPE AND CONTENT ON THE RUTTING

PERFORMANCE OF STONE MATRIX ASPHALT (24)
33
 Behbahani. H et.al, (2009) evaluated the effect of fiber type and content on the
rutting performance of stone matrix asphalt. In this research two types, cellulose fibres
and mineral fibres with various percentages are used and Marshall Properties of the mixes
determined. Dynamic creep test were used as an indicator of rutting performance of SMA
specimens. Results of the laboratory tests showed that variation of fiber type and content
lead to considerable changes in rutting performance of SMA. Specimens made with 3%
cellulose fibres has resulted to highest value of ITS and least permanent deformation.
Results show that SMA specimens with mineral fibres have less optimum binder
content and VMA than cellulose fibres. SMA samples made by 0.3% cellulose fibres has
provided more indirect tensile strength than other samples, also using 0.4% of Iranian
cellulose and mineral fibres significantly affects indirect tensile strength of specimens.
Marshall Test results, alone cannot be used as a proper standard for determining
SMA samples rutting. Considering results of dynamic creep and ITS test, using German
cellulose fibres and mineral fibres has more positive effects on SMA than all other fibres.
Also using 0.4% of Iranian cellulose and mineral fibres significantly affects indirect
tensile strength of specimens.
Optimal fibre content can differ considering fibres type and quality. In order to
determine optimum fibre content in each specific case, its necessary to organize related
test. In this study, optimum fibre content for cellulose-GER was fond to be 0.3% and
mineral or cellulose IRI was 0.4% of total weight of the mix.

2.24 STUDYING PROPERTIES OF STONE MATRIX ASPHALT MIXTURE BY

ALTERING AGGREGATE GRADATIONS AND FILLER TYPES (25)
Salam Ridha Oleiwi Al-Etba et.al, (2013) attempted to study the effect of
aggregate gradation and filler type in properties of SMA. Four of different aggregate
gradations with two types of fillers, such as Hydrated Lime and Crushed Stone Dust have
been tried for preparation of mixes. First three gradations; upper, middle, and lower
curves, middle gradation curve had better Marshall Properties of them. For fourth
gradation that modified curve, crushed Stone has been improves the Marshall properties
such as Marshall Stability and unit weight values more than Hydrated Lime. Hydrated
Lime of SMA mixes has been improves air voids and Moisture Susceptibility in the same
gradations of samples with Crushed Stone.

34
 For preparation of SMA mixes, aggregate gradations according to IRC SP
79:2008for nominal aggregate size 19mm, a particular type of binder and fibre in required
quantities were mixes as per Marshall Procedure.
In this study two fillers namely Hydrated Lime and crush stone with particle size
proportion (passing 75m) with different combinations of filler were evaluated.
Conventional binder, namely 60/70 bitumen was used in this investigation to study
the effects of filler type and aggregate gradation on SMA mixes. These binders were
collected from the Hindustan Petroleum Refinery Ltd., Vizag, India
Fibres, as a stabilizing agent, are usually added to reduce the drain down of the
binder material during mixing, hauling and placing operations. Loose organic fibres, such
as cellulose, are typically added at the rate of 0.3 percent by weight of mixture.
It is recommended to use the weight to change in grade to evaluate the resistance
of aggregate particles to gradations in SMA mixes. The measurement of weight can be
very valuable procedures to evaluate the resistance of aggregate. Four of different
gradations with two types of fillers, Hydrated Lime and Crushed Stone have been tried
for preparation of mixes.
Crushed Stone has been used in the mixes had high Marshall Stability and unit
weight values more than Hydrated Lime. Hydrated Lime of SMA mixes has been
improves air voids and Moisture Susceptibility in the same gradations of samples with
Crushed Stone. The optimum binder contents are found with Hydrated Lime is less,
which is an important advantage from economy and quality point of view. It has been
observed that the drain down and moisture susceptibility characteristics have improved by
using Hydrated Lime filler in the mix. It creates multiple benefits for pavements:
1. Hydrated lime acts as mineral filler, stiffening the asphalt binder and SMA.
2. It improves resistance to fracture growth (i.e., it improves fracture toughness) at low
temperatures.
3. It favourably alters oxidation kinetics and interacts with products of oxidation to reduce
their deleterious effects.
Hydrated lime is an additive that increases pavement life and performance through
multiple mechanisms. It is also found that Crushed Stone increases the stability value and
tensile strength ratio of mixes. Both of lower and upper curve were failed to get the
optimum binder content in both types of filler used, middle curve behaviour same to
modified curve but lower in result values. From the overall discussion of the test results
on SMA mixes, it can be concluded that all the mixes made with middle curve and
35
modified curve content of both filler types perform satisfactorily and can be used in mixes
in the wearing courses of flexible pavements. However validation of the above test
results, experimental track should be laid to study the performance of pavements with
such SMA mixes.

2.25 LABORATORY DIAMETERAL FATIGUE PERFORMANCE OF STONE

MATRIX ASPHALT WITH CELLULOSE OIL PALM FIBER (26)
Ratnasamy Muniandy et.al, (2006), studied mixes prepared using cellulose fibres
which were pre-blended in PG64-22 binder with fiber proportions of 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%,
0.8% and 1.0% by weight of aggregates. The fiber-modified binder showed improved
rheological properties and showed that the PG64-22 binder can be modified and raised to
PG70-22 grade. The cellulose oil palm fiber (COPF) was found to improve the diameteral
fatigue performance of SMA design mix. The fatigue life increased to a maximum at a
fiber content of about 0.6%, whilst the tensile stress and stiffness also showed a similar
trend in performance. The initial strains of the mix were lowest at a fiber content of 0.6%.
Aggregate and asphalt are the two basic components of any asphalt mixture,
including gap graded mixtures such as SMA. Unlike the traditional dense graded mixes,
SMA is known to provide good rut resistance. However, SMA mixes showed poor fatigue
resistance due to its coarse aggregate matrix. Since SMA is sensitive to the type of
materials selected, stringent tests were performed to ensure good quality of mix. The
cellulose oil palm fibres (COPF) were made from empty fruit bunch (EFB) by way of
various methods of pulping, of which the Chemical-R type.
The cellulose oil palm fibres (COPF) of sizes between 50 and 100 micron, pre-
blended in PG64- 22 binder with fiber proportions of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0% by
weight of aggregates, showed improved rheological properties. The tests showed that the
PG64-22 binder could be modified and raised to PG70-22 with the COPF. The optimum
asphalt contents for SMA mixes without the COPF were slightly lower than those without
the COPF. SMA without fibres had an optimum asphalt content ranging from 6.39 to
6.69%, whilst SMA mixes with the fibres had a range of 6.30 to 6.84%. The use COPF
was found to improve the fatigue performance of SMA. The fatigue life increased to a
maximum at fiber content of about 0.6%. Likewise, the tensile stress and stiffness also
36
showed a similar trend in performance. The initial strains of the SMA mix at were lowest
at fiber content of 0.6%. A similar trend was also observed for the initial stiffness of the
SMA mix. Maximum stiffness values were observed at about 0.4% - 0.6% fiber content.

2.26 FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF POLYMER MODIFIED BITUMINOUS

CONCRETE MIXTURES (27)
Shivangi Gupta et.al, (2009) studied the benefit of SBS (Styrene Butadiene Styrene)
polymer modified bituminous mixes on fatigue performance. The physical and
mechanical properties of polymer modified and conventional binder mixes are evaluated.
Mixes are compacted using both Marshall and Super pave Gyratory Compactor (SGC)
and a comparison between the two is established in terms of the resilient modulus and
fatigue life. Repeated load indirect tensile test equipment is used to evaluate the life to
crack initiation and resilient modulus of the bituminous mixes. Retained Marshall
Stability and indirect tensile strength ratio tests were conducted. The improvement in
fatigue life of polymer-modified mixes over the conventional mixes is reported. The
research paper also describes the application of LEFM (linear elastic fracture mechanics)
to characterize crack propagation using Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test (ITFT). The results
obtained from the present investigations show the superiority of SBS modified mixes over
the conventional mixes. Thus polymer modified mixes may be recommended for national
highways where traffic volume is substantially high.

2.27 A PERFORMANCE BASELINE FOR STONE MATRIX ASPHALT (28)

Kevin K. McGhee et.al, (2005) documented the SMA implementation initiative
of VDOTs 2003 and 2004 paving seasons. The report summarizes and presents detailed
information on costs and quantities, volumetric properties, compaction, permeability,
aggregate quality, and initial functional character of SMA pavements placed during the
2003 and 2004 seasons. It is anticipated that these data will be used as a baseline from
which future performance trends can be developed.
The purpose of this report was to document the SMA implementation initiative
of VDOTs 2003 and 2004 paving seasons. The report summarizes and presents detailed
37
information on costs and quantities, volumetric properties, compaction, permeability,
aggregate quality, and initial functional character of SMA pavements placed during the
2003 and 2004 seasons. It is anticipated that these data will be used as a baseline from
which future performance trends can be developed.
It was concluded that SMA is expensive. It is used on Virginias highest priority
facilities and placed under the most challenging conditions. It requires premium
materials, sophisticated production processes and specialized placement equipment. The
performance expectations are (and should be) extremely high. Average daily production
for SMA is approximately 900 tons/day. However, production close to or just over 1,500
tons per night appears achievable for nearly every mix (with typical project constraints,
which included night paving). Although results were mixed, the control of liquid AC
content for surface mixes (as evidenced through producer standard deviations) appears to
have decreased between the 2003 and 2004 seasons. Stone-on-stone contact is being
achieved with consistency. The two SMA surface mixes (9.5 mm and 12.5 mm) have
generally well (i.e., low) permeability.
Many of the 19.0 mm mixes, however, would have difficulty passing VDOTs
proposed limit for permeability of Superpave surface mixes. In contrast to the acceptable
average field density results as reported by the producers, the core data from VTRC
testing indicates an alarming concentration (1 in 3) of under compacted material .The F/E
particle content of the coarse aggregate sources (and blends) was much improved for the
2004 season. Producers are finding sources and/or applying aggregate handling
techniques that ensure that aggregates meet shape requirements for SMA. Achieved
smoothness for SMA improved and net disincentives dropped slightly in 2004 as
compared to 2003. Lower early-age friction improves rapidly under traffic for SMA.
SMA mixes also exhibit prototypical seasonal variation, with the lowest friction in the
summer months. The two 9.5 mm mixes from 2003 (heavy stone and high relative
volume of AC) continue to exhibit the most significant dips in seasonal friction.

2.28 LABORATORY PERFORMANCE OF STONE MATRIX ASPHALT

CONTAINING COMPOSITE OF FLY ASH AND PLASTIC WASTE (29)
Umadevi Rongali et.al, (2013) studied the performance of asphalt with fly ash and
concluded that fly ash can be used as filler in place of traditional lime in Stone Matrix
Asphalt. Properties of fly ash as well as SMA can be improved by coating fly ash with
plastic. Plastic waste in fly ash led to increase in values of indirect tensile strength to
38
resist cracking. Plastic waste reduces rutting in Stone Matrix Asphalt mixture
considerably. SMA containing composite can be used as wearing surface and bituminous
base course subjected to heavy traffic for flexible pavements. The results of mechanistic
analysis indicate that there is an increase in allowable number of traffic on modification
of SMA.

2.29 ASPHALT PAVEMENT MATERIAL IMPROVEMENT: A REVIEW (30)

Mohamed Sulyman et.al, (2014) the work was concerned with assisting the
interested readers to be familiarized with the paving material asphalt-modifiers obtained
from SIW by providing historical perspective on its first invention and development. The
paper has also provided highlights on common processes of asphalt mixture production. It
was also worth mentioning that there are two asphalt production technologies: the warm
mix asphalt (WMA) and hot mix asphalt (HMA) technologies, and the various advantages
of using each one. Additionally, the paper has provided the reader with an overview of a
number of case studies which were conducted by scientists and researchers for serious
attempting to reach development and capturing significant properties of incorporating
SIWs in civil engineering represented by scrap tires in form of crumb rubber (CR),
plastics (polymers) in their different forms.
In regard to the application of LDPE, another study on recycling of CR and LDPE
blend on stone matrix asphalt SMA by use of dry process was conducted [58]. The study
was planned to reduce pollutions from waste tires disposals and to investigated the
benefits of stabilizing the so-called SMA using CR and LDPE in 15% and 30% by weight
of asphalt respectively. SMA had an optimum dosage of the additives of a combination of
30% (combined combination with 30% CR & 70% LDPE) by weight of the asphalt.
Results of tensile strength test has found its ratio values to be in the range of (85 94)%
which was more than 85% as specified for a SMA mixture, while the compression
strength test values were found to be in the range of (1600 4000) kg/cm2 which has
improved longevity. Generally, the results revealed that the addition of CR & LDPE to
SMA using dry process could improve the engineering properties of SMA mixture, and
the rubber content has added a significant effect on long term performance.

39
 It was concluded that the blending of recycled waste rubber tires in the form of
CRs and plastics with the asphalt requires a number of experimental factors to be
controlled and various techniques to be selected in order to reach improvement in
engineering properties of asphalt binder. The number of case studies supplied throughout
this paper was sufficient to help readers to be familiar with the different technologies
applied of producing and incorporating modifiers in asphalt mixtures that are important in
construction of roads with very qualified pavements and improved longevity and
pavement performance.

2.30 POTENTIAL OF USING STONE MATRIX ASPHALT (SMA) FOR THIN

OVERLAYS (31)
Allen Cooley. L et.al, (2003) conducted the study to evaluate the potential of
designing fine SMAs and to compare these fine SMAs to more conventional SMA mixes
(larger NMAS). Data accumulated from this study showed that these fine SMAs could be
successfully designed to have stone-on-stone contact. Rut susceptibility testing with the
Asphalt Pavement Analyzer confirmed that the designed fine SMA mixes were rut
resistant. Permeability testing indicated that these fine SMA mixes were less permeable
than conventional SMA mixes, at similar air void levels, and thus should be more durable.
Based upon all information from this study, it was concluded that fine SMAs are a viable
option for thin overlays.

2.31 A STUDY ON RECYCLING OF CRUMB RUBBER AND LOW DENSITY

POLYETHYLENE BLEND ON STONE MATRIX ASPHALT (32)
Ganapathi Malarvizhi et.al, (2012) the work focuses on how to minimize the
pollution from waste tires and to improve the properties of SMA, Recycled Crumb
Rubber (CR) plus Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) flakes were used as additive using
dry process as a research study. This research investigated the feasibility of using 15%
and 30% CR+LDPE by weight of bitumen with 60/70 penetration grade bitumen for
SMA.
The materials that have been used in this study are crushed blue granite stone for
coarse aggregate and fine aggregate, hydrated lime as mineral filler with SMA13 grading
as per Indian specification IRC-SP: 79-2008. The bitumen used for this study was 60/70
penetration grade. In this study, the size of CR was below 30 mesh (0.600 mm) and LDPE

40
flakes of 16MA400 grade injection molding grade film was used as additive in SMA
mixture.
ANOVA analysis was conducted to determine the effect of CR+LDPE on
properties of SMA. In the Single- factor tests of ANOVA, rubber content was chosen as
factor and compressive strength were response respectively.
It was concluded that The Tensile strength Ratio values are found to be in the
range 85 - 94 % which is more than 85 % as specified for a SMA mixture. The
Compressive strength values are found to be in the range 1600 kg/cm2 - 4000 kg/cm2.
The Compressive strength of SMA Mix with Crumb Rubber and LDPE blend as additive
improved the longevity from the Compressive strength value. The SMA mixes designed
with available aggregates showed good stone on stone contact (VCA DRC< VCA MIX).
The 17% Voids in Mineral aggregate and 3 - 5% air voids in the mix were fulfilled as
SMA Mix design criteria.
The Drain down values was in the range of 0.04% to 0.17% by weight of the mix.
Based on the above performance, Combined Combination of Crumb Rubber and LDPE
could be used as stabilizing additive in the form of dry processing showed without
affecting the design criteria of SMA mixture. The optimum dosage of the Additive was
found to be 30 % (Combined Combination with 30% Crumb Rubber and 70 % LDPE) by
weight of the bitumen. From the results of ANOVA analysis of UCS, 30% rubber content
by weight of bitumen has significant effect on best performance. The long-term
performance of recycled CR+LDPE blend on SMA mixture using dry process will need to
be further studied.

2.32 THE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF STONE MASTIC

ASPHALT MIXTURES USING OIL PALM FRUIT ASH-MODIFIED
BITUMEN (33)

Gatot Rusbintardjo et.al, (2014) investigated the use of oil palm fruit ash-
modified bitumen (OPFA-MB) as a binder in stone-mastic asphalt (SMA) mixtures. The
OPFA was used to take advantage of a waste by-product of the palm oil milling industry
which could help to reduce environmental pollution. Binder tests such as penetration,
softening point, viscosity, storage stability, dynamic shear rheometer (DSR), bending
beam rheometer (BBR), and the direct tension test (DTT) were conducted on both
unmodified and OPFA-modified bitumen.

41
 Oil palm fruit ash (OPFA) is a by-product of palm oil milling, or the ash from
burning the mesocarp of the fruitlets. This by-product is currently disposed of as waste,
thus polluting the environment and affecting the health of the surrounding community.
Physically, OPFA is greyish in colour and becomes dark with increasing proportions of
unburned carbon.
OPFA originates from palm oil milling and consists of rough grains. The grain is
elongated-flat in shape with a maximum grain length of 6 mm. Two grain sizes were used
in this research. One was very fine with a uniform grain size of 75 m resulting from
grinding the original OPFA and sieving through sieve size 75 m, and the other resulted
from sieve analysis using a maximum sieve size of 300 m and a minimum size of 75
m. OPFA with a uniform grain size of 75 m is known as Fine-OPFA, and OPFA with a
maximum grain size of 300 m is known as Coarse-OPFA.
OPFA was mixed in increments of 2.5% by weight (to a maximum of 10%) with
bitumen at a mixing temperature of 160C, a mixing time of 60 minutes and a stirring
speed of 800 revolutions per minute (rpm). The mix of OPFA and bitumen was called
OPFA-Modified Bitumen (OPFA-MB). Based on the particle size of OPFA and its content
in the bitumen, there were four OPFA-MBs with Fine-OPFA and four OPFA-MBs with
Coarse-OPFA. The four Fine-OPFA-MBs (hereafter abbreviated as F-OPFA-MB), namely
2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10% of F-OPFA-MBs, and the four Coarse-OPFA-MBs (hereafter
abbreviated as C-OPFA-MB), namely 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10% of C-OPFA-MBs, were used
for further study.
In this study, stone mastic asphalt-14 (SMA-14) mixes were designed using the
Marshall Mix design, based on the Malaysian PWD Specification [10]. The Marshall
Specimens were prepared in accordance with ASTM D1559 [32], using 50 blows per face
compaction standard. The Malaysian Specification of 75 compaction blows was not used,
since they would tend to break down the aggregate more and would not result in a
significant increase in density over that provided by 50 blows. The gradation of the
aggregate used is given in Table 4. Five different bitumen contents, namely 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5
and 7% (by weight of aggregates) were used to determine the optimum bitumen content
(OBC). Three samples were prepared for each binder contents. The Marshall Stability and
specific gravity test were then conducted on each sample. The specific gravity of the
sample was used to determine the void content of the mix (VMA) of SMA mixes. The
OBC was found to be around 5.8% from the mix design used for the SMA-14 mixtures.
After obtaining the OBC, laboratory tests were carried out on SMA-14 specimens using
42
F-OPFA-MBs and C-OPFA-MBs, control bitumen, and PG 76-22 binder. Several
performance tests conducted on SMA mixes are discussed in the following sections.
The indirect tensile test to determine the resilient modulus of bituminous mixtures
was performed in accordance with ASTM D412382 [33]. The specimens used in this
study were Marshall Specimens, which have an average height of 70 mm and an average
diameter of 101.6 mm. The test was conducted at 5, 25, and 40C (1C) at a loading
frequency of 0.5 and 1 Hz for each test temperature and load duration of 0.1 second. The
test was conducted by applying compressive loads with a haversine waveform. The load
was applied vertically in the vertical diametric plane of a cylindrical specimen. The
resulting horizontal deformation of the specimen was measured and an assumed Poissons
ratio was used to calculate the resilient modulus. For a test temperature of 5C, the
Poissons ratio was assumed to be 0.25, and for 25 and 40C, the Poissons ratio was
assumed to be 0.40 [30]. The values for the vertical and horizontal deformation were
measured by linear variable differential transducer (LVDT). The total resilient modulus
was calculated using the total recoverable deformation, which includes both the
instantaneous recoverable and the time-dependent continuing recoverable deformation
during the unloading and rest period portion of one cycle.
The static uniaxial creep test was the simplest method of assessing the resistance
to permanent deformation or rutting. The Marshall specimen was used in the static
uniaxial creep test. Its dimensions were similar to those of the specimen used in the
indirect tensile resilient modulus test. The test was conducted in accordance with the
Texas Department of Transportation Standard Test, TxDOT Designation Tex-231-F [34].
The specimen was placed in a controlled temperature chamber maintained at a test
temperature of 40C for three to five hours prior to the start of the test. The specimen was
then mounted on a compression head and the temperature was maintained at 40C. Three
cycles of a 125 lb (556 N) square wave preload were applied at one-minute intervals
followed by a one-minute rest period for each cycle. This was to allow the loading plates
to achieve more uniform contact with the specimen. A 125 lb (556 N) load was then
applied to the specimen for one hour. At the end of one hour the load was removed,
allowing the specimen to rebound for ten minutes. During the entire loading and
unloading time, the applied load was monitored and recorded, resulting in vertical
deformation for each LVDT. The average deformation for each specimen was calculated
by averaging the readings from the two LVDT. The average deformation values were
converted to strain using the ratio of permanent deformation to thickness of the specimen.
43
 It was concluded that Based on the PI and PVN results, adding OPFA to the
bitumen improves the temperature susceptibility of bitumen. Only 50% of OPFA-MBs
show that OPFA cannot be dissolved into bitumen, but other tests show that its presence
strengthens the properties of bitumen. The OPFA does not dissolve in bitumen due to the
fact that it has higher specific gravity values compared to bitumen. The findings show that
OPFA added to bitumen at certain percentages improves binder durability in terms of
rutting and fatigue cracking at high and low temperatures, respectively. In addition, the
use of OPFA-MB in SMA-14 mixes improves the resistance to low temperature cracking,
improves the Marshall Stability value, and minimizes rutting at high temperatures
compared to SMA-14 mixed with conventional bitumen. However, the use of PG 76-22
binder results in a stronger mixture compared to SMA-14 mixed with OPFA-MB. The
presence of OPFA-MB improves binder adhesion to the aggregates in SMA-14.

2.33 EFFECT OF MINERAL FILLER TYPE AND PARTICLE SIZE ON

ASPHALT-FILLER MASTIC AND STONE MASTIC ASPHALT
LABORATORY MEASURED PROPERTIES (34)
Ratnasamy Muniandy et.al, (2013) The main objective of this study was to
facilitate decisions concerning the effectiveness of using new filler types with different
particle size obtained from by-product wastes to improve the engineering properties of
paving mixtures to enhance pavement performance.
This study examines four types of industrial and by-product wastes filler, namely;
limestone as reference filler, ceramic waste, coal fly ash, and steel slag. One filler content
consists of 10% by total weight of aggregate with three proportions; 100% passing
75micron (m), 50/50 % passing 75m/20m, and100% passing 20m was used.
Laboratory tests were performed to determine the impact of different filler types and filler
particle size on some properties of asphalt-filler mastics and Stone Mastic Asphalt
mixture (SMA).
Most agencies would normally specify a higher PG grade, such as a PG 76-22
instead of the 80/100 penetration grade for highway construction projects. Since the
performance of the fillers were of concern in this study, the commonly used 80/100
penetration grade soft binder was intentionally selected. This is to make sure there are no
additional properties derived from additives if modified binders such as 60/70 and PG 76-
22 were used. The laboratory tests performed to evaluate the asphalt properties were:
penetration, softening point, viscosity, and specific gravity tests.

44
 Cellulose oil palm fiber is used in SMA as a stabilizer to prevent drain-down of
the asphalt binder during construction. The Cellulose Oil Palm Fiber (COPF) used in this
study is a University Putra Malaysia (UPM) initiated technology product (Muniandy,
2004). Four filler types namely Limestone Dust (LSD), Ceramic Waste Dust (CWD),
Coal Fly Ash (CFA), and Steel Slag Dust (SSD). The filler content of 10% by total weight
of aggregate with three particle size proportions; (100 passing 75m, 50/50 passing 75/20
m, and 100 passing 20 m) were evaluated for direct comparison in this study. Fillers
were crushed and ground to pass the standard sieve size 0.075 mm and 0.02 mm.
Resilient modulus is a relative measure of mixture stiffness and load distribution
ability; higher resilient modulus values lead to stiffer mixtures with higher load
distribution ability. The Resilient Modulus was determined from tests on cylindrical
specimens for each mixture at designed bitumen contents in the indirect tension mode.
The frequency of load application used was 1 Hz, with load duration of 0.1 second to
represent field conditions and a resting period of 0.9 second. Constant test temperature
was maintained using an environmental air chamber. Each specimen was placed inside
the chamber at the set temperature for two hours before testing. The test was carried out at
temperature of 25 C using Material Testing Apparatus (MATTA) in accordance with
ASTM D 4123.
The reported improvement in the engineering properties of the paving mixtures
containing ceramic waste, coal fly ash, and steel slag can be attributed to the bonding and
cementations properties of the fillers. This tends to increase the viscosity of the filler-
asphalt mastic and the particles texture of the fillers which tends to increase the frictional
resistance among the aggregate particles an increase in the stability of the mix. From the
investigation reported in this study, using different types of fillers with different particle
size, the following conclusions can be summarized as follow:
Filler type and particle size plays an important role on the engineering properties
of the asphalt mixtures. The filler component, in addition to filling the voids, interacts
with the binder present in the mix making it stiff and brittle. The change in mix properties
is very much related to the properties of the filler. The major finding of this study, is that
ceramic waste and steel slag as a filler were found to be effective in improving the
Marshall Stability, Resilient Modulus, and Marshall Stiffness Index or Marshall Quotient
(MQ) as compared to limestone filler. Coal Fly Ash had the lowest optimum asphalt
content. On the other hand, it had little improvement in Marshall Stability and the
Resilient Modulus value compared to the reference filler.
45
 In this study; a general trend was observed that, the properties of the asphalt-filler
mastics and SMA mixtures increased by increases the filler particle size at a given
asphalt/filler ratio regardless filler type. The results of the laboratory tests on the ceramic
waste and steel slag fillers were found to improve the overall mixture properties. The use
of these special filler improves the pavement performance, thus reducing the maintenance
and rehabilitation cost of the pavement. It can be concluded that utilization of industrial
and by-product wastes in SMA results in the improvement of the engineering properties
and reduction in the optimum asphalt content. The reduction in optimum asphalt content
results in significant cost saving.

2.34 IMPACT OF BINDER CONTENT ON SELECTED PROPERTIES OF

STONE MASTIC ASPHALT (35)
O.Neubauer, M.N. Partl et.al, (2004)studied the behaviour of stone mastic asphalts
SMA 11 and SMA 16 with different ller/binder combinations was investigated in order
to nd out whether Marshall and Gyratory methods provide the same optimum binder
content. The investigations were complemented by determinations of rutting at relatively
high temperatures of 60C using the LCPC (Laboratories Central des Ponts et Chausses)
wheel tracking test. In this report we focused on the results of SMA 11 because the nal
conclusions for SMA 16 were similar.
The research program focused on the optimization of SMA for wearing-courses
using the Marshall and Superpave Gyratory compactor methods. Given the high
agreement of results for SMA 11 and SMA 16, the following analysis will primarily focus
to the ndings for SMA 11. It should be emphasized that the two binders and two llers
used in the test mixes are merely intended to represent different material types. No
preferences or criticisms with regard to specic products are implied. Standard road
bitumen (Bitumen 50/70 with and without SBS modier) was used as binder. The two
llers an established lime ller and a tempered phonolite ller both meet the
requirements of the relevant Swiss standard [5] in terms of stiffening effect. The lime
ller exhibited a stiffening effect of 16C for 65% and 24C for 70% by weight of ller in
bitumen. The corresponding gures for the phonolite ller were 51C and 126C. The
polymer-modied bitumen mixes used only the standard lime ller and not the heavily
stiffening phonolite llers.
The study also included a series of rutting tests at the relatively high temperature
of 60C using the LCPC wheel tracking test. The investigations focused on the behaviour
46
of stone mastic asphalt of approximately optimum binder content with different
ller/binder combinations. Two 500 mm x 180 mm x 100 mm specimens were produced
for each mix. The bitumen 50/70 mixes were compacted at 135C and the polymer-
modied bitumen mixes at 145C as prescribed by the relevant French standard [3].
Following determination of the bulk density, the specimens were stored for at least 48
hours at room temperature before being mounted in the wheel tracking device and
subjected to 1,000 wheel pass cycles at room temperature. The thickness was measured
and taken as the starting value.
The specimens were then temperature-equalized for at least 12 hours at 60C
prior to testing. Each test cycle comprised two wheel passes within 1 second. The mean
values for the relative permanent rut depth (compared to starting thickness) for two
specimens were taken after 30,000 cycles at 60C. The varying gradients of the curves for
SMA 11 mixes with optimum binder content (Figure 9) imply that the different binder
types have a signicant impact on the magnitude of the relative permanent rut depth in
these specimens at 60C.
It was concluded that the Marshall and Gyratory methods for determining the
optimum binder content of stone mastic asphalt clearly failed to produce the same results.
Divergent gures for the optimum binder content were recorded for all the selected
ller/binder combinations with both SMA 11 and SMA 16. The Marshall results suggest
signicantly higher optimum binder content than the Gyratory data. Different compaction
methods lead to different volumetric values. The air void contents and voids in the
mineral aggregate (VMA) values for all investigated mixes indicate that stone mastic
asphalt is more efciently compacted by the Gyratory than by the Marshall apparatus.
The kneading action of the Gyratory compactor allows the aggregate particles to move
and ll voids more readily than the impact compaction of the Marshall apparatus. It was
found that Marshall Compaction was not suitable for stone mastic asphalt mixes. In
respect of rutting, note should be taken of the volumetric values for the Gyratory
compacted mixes.

2.35 A STUDY ON USE OF WASTE POLYETHYLENE IN BITUMINOUS

PAVING MIXES (36)
Monika Mohanty et.al, (2013) The objectives of this investigation were to study of
Marshall properties of mixes using both Stone dust as filler and Slag as fine aggregate
and fly ash as filler. The effect of polyethylene as admixture on the strength of bituminous
47
mix with different filler and replacing some percentage of fine aggregate by slag. The
performance of bituminous mix under water with and without polyethylene admixture
with different filler and replacing some percentage of fine aggregate by slag. To study
resistance to permanent deformation of mixes with and without polyethylene. Evaluation
of SMA, BC, and DBM mixes using different test like Drain down test, Static Indirect
tensile Strength test, Static Creep test etc.
In present study polyethylene is used as stabilizing additive (OMFED
polyethylene used for milk packaging which is locally available). The Omfed
polyethylene packets were collected; they were washed and cleaned by putting them in
hot water for 3-4 hours. They were then dried.
The mixes were prepared according to the Marshall procedure specified in ASTM
D1559.For SMA, BC, and DBM mixes the coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and filler
were mixed with bitumen and polyethylene according to the adopted gradation. First a
comparative study was done on SMA, BC, and DBM mixes by using stone dust as filler
in between with and without polyethylene in mixes. Again a comparative study was done
on SMA, BC, and DBM mixes by using slag and fly ash as filler in between with and
without polyethylene in mixes. Here Optimum Binder Content (OBC) and optimum
polyethylene content (OPC) was found by Marshall Test.
In this study, three types of mixes i.e. SMA, DBM and BC are prepared with
VG30 grade bitumen used as a binder. The effect of addition of waste polyethylene in
form of locally available artificial milk with brand OMFED packets in the bituminous
mixes has been studied by varying concentrations of polyethylene from 0% to 2.5% at an
increment of 0.5%. Using Marshall Method of mix design the optimum bitumen content
(OBC) and optimum polyethylene content (OPC) have been determined for different
types of mixes. It has been observed that addition of 2% polyethylene for SMA and DBM
mixes and 1.5% polyethylene for BC mixes results in optimum Marshall Properties where
stone dust is used as filler. But when small fraction of fine aggregates are replaced by
granulated blast furnace slag and filler is replaced by fly ash, optimum Marshall
Properties for all types of mixes result with only 1.5% polyethylene addition. The OBCs
in case of modified SMA, BC and DBM mixes by using stone dust as filler are found 4%
and OBCs in case of modified (i) SMA, and (ii) BC, and DBM by using fly ash and slag
are found to be 5% and 4% respectively.
Using the same Marshall specimens prepared at their OPCs and OBCs by using
both (i) stone dust as filler and (ii) replacing of stone dust by fly ash and fine aggregate by
48
slag, for test under normal and wet conditions it is observed that the retained stability
increases with addition of polyethylene in the mixes, and BC with polyethylene results in
highest retained stability followed by DBM with polyethylene and then SMA with
polyethylene. Addition of polyethylene reduces the drain down effect, though these values
are not that significant. It may be noted that the drain down of SMA is slightly more than
BC without polyethylene. However, for all mixes prepared at their OPC there is no drain
down.80 In general, it is observed that the Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) value decreases
with increase in temperature and for a particular binder, when polyethylene gets added to
the mixes the value further increases in both cases.
The BC mixes with polyethylene result in highest indirect tensile strength values
compared to SMA, followed by DBM. It is observed that by addition of polyethylene to
the mixture, the resistance to moisture susceptibility of mix also increases. BC with
polyethylene results in highest tensile strength ratio followed by DBM mixes with
polyethylene and SMA mixes with polyethylene for both cases. It is observed from the
static creep test that deformation of mix generally decreases by addition of polyethylene
at all test temperatures used. The BC mixes with polyethylene result minimum
deformation compared to others. From the above observations it is concluded that use of
waste polyethylene in form of packets used in milk packaging locally results in improved
engineering properties of bituminous mixes. Hence, this investigation explores not only in
utilizing most beneficially, the waste non-degradable plastics, but also provides an
opportunity in resulting in improved pavement material in surface courses thus making it
more durable.

49
2.36 LITERATURE SUMMARY
From the literature review it showed that Stone Matrix Asphalt is an ideal paving
mixture for Indian conditions especially to our Highways. Literature shows that it has
been possible to improve the performance of bituminous mixtures used in the surfacing
course with the help of various types of additives like fibres, polymers and waste
materials. Synthetic fibres are conventionally used in the construction of Stone Matrix
Asphalt. They are not manufactured in India and are imported at a high cost. The
excessive use of synthetics has led to environmental pollution. This ecological crisis has
necessitated the use of bio-renewable resources and plant fibres. Resources in terms of
materials consumed for construction and maintenance of roads are very scarce and
limited. Therefore, there is an urgent need to identify new technologies that can work well
with alternative resources such as agro based materials and renewal of existing resources
without affecting the performance. Some limited studies have been reported on the use of
natural fibres and waste materials in SMA. This will result in improving the
characteristics and service life of bituminous surfacing, eventually leading to
conservation of construction materials.
It can also be concluded that the Conventional bituminous pavements have less
strength, durability and longevity than SMA. There are several factors for which we can
say that SMA is better than many conventional mixes. SMA provides excellent resistance
to rutting due to slow, heavy and high volume traffic, resistance to deformation at high
pavement temperatures, it also improves skid resistance, reduces noise when compared to
conventional alternative pavement surfaces. SMA also shows improved resistance to
fatigue effects and cracking at low temperatures, also increases durability, and reduces
permeability and sensitivity to moisture.

50
 CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
3.1 MATERIALS
3.1.1 Coarse and Fine Aggregates
Aggregates form the major portion of bituminous mixes and play a major role in
the performance of a bituminous mix. Aggregates constitute of approximately 88% to
96% by weight and volume of the total mix, affecting the stability and working properties
of a mix. Aggregates form the major constituent of road construction materials. Since
they have to bear the brunt of traffic, they should be strong enough to resist the
degradation and should have enough structural stability which is offered by the
mechanical interlock of aggregate in the layer. IS 2386-1963 gives the methods of tests
for aggregates in road construction. Aggregates used are mainly divided in to coarse and
fine aggregates based on their size. Aggregates retaining on 2.36mm sieve are referred as
coarse aggregates and aggregates passing on 2.36mm sieve size are referred as fine
aggregates. Specific gravity of coarse aggregates and fine aggregates is 2.68 and 2.69
respectively. The test results obtained are presented in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Test results of aggregates

Requirements as per Table

500-35 of MORT&H ( V
Aggregate Test Test results Revision) Specifications

Aggregate impact value, % 16.76% Max 18%

Los Angeles abrasion value, % 21.60% Max 25%

Crushing value, % 22.83% -

51
 Flakiness and Elongation Index
28.03% Max 30%
(Combined), %

Water absorption, % 0.2% Max 2%

3.1.2 Mineral Filler

Mineral filler occupies a good portion in the SMA mixes hence they do affect the
quality of SMA mixes. Filler fills the voids between aggregate grains and improves the
wearing capabilities of mix. The filler also improve the binding property between the
aggregate. The filler also improve the binding property between the aggregate. It is
designed to fill the voids and form stiff mastic with bitumen binder and stabilizing
additive. It increases the cohesion of the mix resulting in a significant increase in shear
resistance. A higher percentage of filler may stiffen the mixture excessively, making it
difficult to compact and may be resulting in a crack susceptible mixture. In general,
amount of material passing through the 0.075 mm sieve is 8-12 % of the total amount of
aggregate in the mix.Various types mineral fillers are being used in SMA namely rock
dust, slag dust, hydrated lime, hydraulic cement, fly ash, or other suitable mineral filler.
For this study Lime and Cement have been used as filler materials for Stone Matrix
Asphalt mix. Specific gravity of Lime and cement is 2.34 and 3.10 respectively. The filler
shall be graded within the limits indicated in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Mineral Filler Gradation
Cumulative %

Obtained gradation (% passing), % passing by weight

of total aggregates
IS sieve(mm) as per Table 500-36

Cement of MORT&H ( V
Lime
Revision)
Specifications
0.6 100 100
100
0.3 100 95-100
100
0.075 98.85 85-100
97.65
52
 Table 3.3: Physical Property of Filler Materials

Filler
Property
Lime Cement
Colour White Gray
3.1.3Binder
Bitumen is a non-crystalline viscous material black/ dark brown in colour, which is a
hydrocarbon material of either natural or pyrogenous origin, found in gaseous, liquid,
semisolid or solid form and is completely soluble in Carbon disulphide and Carbon Tetra
chloride. Bituminous materials are very commonly used in highway construction because
of their binding and water proofing properties. Bitumen acts as a binder in Stone Matrix
Asphalt mix. As per IRC SP: 53-2010 in this work Polymer Modified Bitumen-40 is used
as binder. The various tests are conducted on the Polymer Modified Bitumen-40 and the
results are shown in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Test results of Polymer Modified Bitumen-40

Requirements as per
Particulars of tests Test Results
IRC SP: 53-2010
Penetration at 25C, 100gm, 5 Seconds,
39 30-50
0.1mm
Softening point (Ring & Ball), C 68 Min 60

Flash point, C 280 Min 220

Elastic recovery @150C, % 62 Min 60

Separation (Difference in softening
2 Max 3
point R&B), oC

Viscosity* @ 150oC, Poise - 5-9

Thin Film Oven Test

Loss in mass,% 0.8 Max 1.0

Increase in softening point, C 3 Max 5

Reduction in penetration of residue @
30.76 Max 35
25C, %

Elastic recovery @ 25C, % 56 Min 50

53
*Facilities are not available in the laboratory to conduct the test.
3.1.4 Stabilizing additive
Stabilizing additive must be used to hold the binder in SMA mixture which is rich
in binder content, during mixing, transportation and placement operations. In order to
prevent the unacceptable drain down, fibres or polymers as stabilizing additives can be
added to the mixture. Various fibers used are cellulose fibers, mineral fibers, polymers
and plastics etc. In this study waste sugarcane bagasse fibers are used as stabilizing
additives. The specific gravity of bagasse is found to be 0.9. The specifications for
stabilizing additive are shown in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Specifications of stabilizing additive
Type of Fiber Only Cellulose fibers
Dosage Rate, % 0.3 by weight of the mix
Maximum Fibre length, mm 8
Ash Content, % Max 20 % nonvolatile

Figure 3.1: Sugar Cane Bagasse fiber

3.2 Aggregate Gradation

The properties of a bituminous mix including the density and stability are very
much dependent on the aggregates and their grain size distribution. The nominal size of
the aggregate adopted depends on the compacted thickness of the pavement layer,
provided all factors are fulfilled. Maximum aggregate sizes of 25-50mm are used in the
bituminous mixes for base course and 12.5-18.7mm sizes are used for surface course.
Generally, the maximum size of aggregate varies from one-third to two-thirds of the layer
thickness.
The coarse and fine aggregate particles were separated into different sieve size
and proportioned to obtain the desired gradation for bituminous mixtures of ASTM 3515
for 13mm nominal aggregate size. The aggregate gradation (13mm SMA) was adopted

54
for Stone Matrix Asphalt mixes as per MORT&H (V revision) specifications. The
gradation values are presented in Table 3.5

Table 3.5: Aggregate Gradation for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix (13mm SMA) as per
MORT&H (V revision) Specifications
Obtained gradation
Sieve Size in
% Passing (Specified) ( Sieve analysis results),
mm
% Passing
19 100 100

13.2 90-100 95

9.5 50-75 62.5

4.75 20-28 24

2.36 16-24 20

1.18 13-21 17

0.600 12-18 15

0.300 10-20 15

0.075 8-12 10

3.3 MARSHALL METHOD OF MIX DESIGN

This test procedure is used in designing and evaluating bituminous paving mixes and
is extensively used in routine test programmes for the paving jobs. There are two major
features of the Marshall method of designing mixes namely, density voids analysis and
stability flow test.
Strength is measured in terms of the Marshalls Stability of the mix which is
defined as the maximum load carried by a compacted specimen at a standard test
temperature of 60C. In this test compressive loading was applied on the specimen at the
rate of 51 mm/min till it was broken. The temperature 60C represents the weakest
condition for a bituminous pavement.
The flexibility is measured in terms of the flow value which is measured by the
change in diameter of the sample in the direction of load application between the start of
loading and at the time of maximum load. During the loading, an attached dial gauge
55
measures the specimen's plastic flow (deformation) due to the loading. The associated
plastic flow of specimen at material failure is called flow value.
The two major features of Marshall Mix Design method are
Density-Void Analysis.
Stability-Flow Tests.

3.3.1 PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMENS

The preparation of specimen depends on the stability test method employed. Hence
the size of the specimen, compaction and other specifications should be followed as
specified in the stability test method. Here in this work we are adopting Marshall Method
of Mix Design. Hence the test specimens are prepared as in the following steps.
1. Sieve analysis is carried out on the aggregates collected and stored.
2. The specific gravity of the coarse and fine aggregates and the bituminous binders
used are determined.
3. The coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and the filler materials are proportioned as
per the Gradation given in Table 3.4.
4. The proportioned coarse aggregates and fine aggregates are heated to a
temperature of 165C-185C.
5. Simultaneously the required quantity of PMB-40 is heated to a temperature of
165C - 185C.
6. The Stabilizing additive Sugarcane Bagasse fibers having length 8mm are added
to the heated aggregates.
7. The bitumen is added to the heated aggregate and mixed thoroughly. The mineral
filler is added while mixing the aggregate with bitumen.
8. The mixing is done at a specified mixing temperature of 150C -170C, by hand
mixing with trowel until surface of the aggregates are uniformly and fully coated
with the binder.
9. The mix is placed in the pre-heated mould and is compacted by the standard
rammer having weight 4.54kg and with height of drop of 457mm at the specified
temperature, by applying 50 blows on either side.
10. After the compaction the specimen with the mould is allowed to cool down to the
room temperature and the test specimen is carefully extruded from the mould.

3.3.2 TESTING OF THE SPECIMENS

56
 1. Before testing the specimens the weight (weight in air and weight in water) and
mean dimensions or volume are determined for each specimen.
2. The specimens are kept immersed in thermostatically controlled water bath which
is maintained at 60C for 30-40min.
3. One specimen is taken out from the water bath and is placed in the Marshall Test
head.
4. Place the complete breaking head assembly in position on the testing machine.
5. The proving ring and dial gauge readings are made zero before starting the
machine.
6. Load is applied to the specimen by a constant rate of movement of the testing
machine head of 51 mm per minute.
7. Load is applied until a maximum load is reached; the maximum load reading and
the corresponding deformation dial reading are noted.
8. The maximum load value expressed in kg is recorded in the proving ring is the
Marshall Stability value.
9. The vertical deformation of the test specimen corresponding to the maximum load
is recorded as the Flow value.
10. The specimen is removed from the test head, another specimen is taken out of the
water bath, inserted in the test head of the machine and test is repeated.

3.4 VOIDS IN COARSE AGGREGATE: DRY RODDED METHOD

VCA is used to assess skeleton stability for SMA mixes. This is done by
comparing the VCA of the coarse aggregate only (the dry-rodded condition or VCADRC) to
the VCA of the mix (VCAMIX). As long as the VCAMIX is less than or equal to the VCADRC,
a mix is considered to have adequate stone-on-stone contact and the ratio of VCA MIX to
VCADRC will be closer to unity.
The dry-rodded method has been standardized in ASTM C 29, where its thorough
description has been included.
The equipment needed includes a balance, a steel tamping rod (rammer), a
cylindrical metal measure and a shovel. The sample of aggregate is dried in an oven to a
constant mass. The sample should be about 125200% of an amount that fits in the
container. The cylindrical measure is calibrated by determining the volume using water
and the glass plate.

57
The test is performed as follows:
Fill the container with aggregate up to one third of its height, level the surface of
the poured aggregate using fingers, and then tamp the layer down with 25 strokes of the
tamping rod, taking care to evenly distribute the strokes over the surface and avoiding
hitting the bottom of the container. Having completed the tamping of the first layer of
aggregate, fill the container with a second layer of aggregatethis time up to two thirds
of its heightand repeat the tamping procedure. Having completed tamping the second
layer of aggregate, fill the container with aggregate to overflowing and continue tamping
down as previously described. Even out the aggregate using fingers or scrape away any
excess aggregate with a rod so that protruding coarse particles will compensate for any
gaps between them. Determine the mass of the compacted aggregate by weighing the
measure with aggregate and weighing it empty. Calculations are done using following
formula:
Calculate the bulk density of an aggregate according to the formula
(GT )
M=
V
Where, M=Bulk density of the coarse aggregate, kg/m3
G=Mass of a cylindrical measure and aggregate, kg
T=Mass of a cylindrical measure, kg
V=Volume of a cylindrical measure, m3
Calculate the void content in a compacted aggregate according to the formula
( G ca x w ) M
VCADRC = [ ] x 100
(G ca x w)

Where, M=Bulk density of a coarse aggregate in the dry-rodded

condition, kg/m3
Gca=Bulk specific gravity coarse aggregate
w=Density of water, kg/m3
Calculate the void content in coarse aggregate according to the formula
G mb x P ca
VCAMIX= [ G ca ] x 100
Where, Gmb = Bulk specific gravity of compacted mixtures
Gca = Bulk specific gravity coarse aggregate
Pca = Percentage coarse aggregate in the total mixture

58
3.5 DRAIN DOWN TEST
Drain down is considered to be that portion of the mixture (fines and bitumen) that
separates itself from the sample as a whole and flows downward through the mixture.
Drain down test is more significant for SMA mixtures than for conventional dense-graded
mixtures. It can be used to determine whether the amount of drain down measured for a
given bituminous mixture is within the specified acceptable levels. This test is primarily
used for mixtures with high coarse aggregate content (the internal voids of the uncompact
mix are larger, resulting in more drain down) such as Stone Matrix asphalt and porous
asphalt (open-graded friction course). Potential problems with SMA mixtures are
drainage and bleeding. Storage and placement temperatures cannot be lowered to control
these problems due to the difficulty in obtaining the required compaction. Therefore,
stabilizing additive has been added to stiffen the mastic and thereby reducing the drainage
of the mixture at high temperatures and to obtain even higher binder contents for
increased durability.
SMA mixtures exhibited a very high bitumen binder film thickness (6-7% by
weight of mix). This high binder content and the filler content (as compared to that of
dense-graded HMA) lead to higher susceptibility for the bitumen binder to drain off the
aggregate skeleton (i.e., drain down) in SMA mixtures. Irregular distribution of bitumen
binder due to its drain down can lead to raveling and fat spots.
Test procedure
In the present study, the SMA mixtures obtained at optimum binder content are
checked for drain down. The mass of loose SMA mixture sample and the initial mass of
the pan is determined to the nearest 0.1 g. The loose SMA sample is then transferred and
placed into the wire basket without consolidating or disturbing it. The basket is placed on
the pan and the assembly afterward is placed in the oven (170 C) for 1hour. After the
sample has been in the oven for 1 hour, the basket and the pan is removed and the final
mass of the pan is determined and recorded to the nearest 0.1 g. The Drain down of the
mixture can be calculated as follows,
DC
Drain down, % = [ B A ] x 100
Where, A = Mass of empty wire basket, g
B = Mass of wire basket + sample, g
C = Mass of empty catch tray, g
59
 D= Mass of tray + drained material, g
The drain down test is conducted at optimum bitumen content for each type and
percentages of mineral filler used.

3.4 TENSILE STRENGTH INDIRECT TEST (ITS)

The tensile properties of bituminous mixtures are of interest to pavement engineers
because of the problems associated with cracking hence tensile strength of bituminous
mix is important in pavement applications. The indirect tensile strength test is used to
determine the tensile properties of the bituminous mixture which can further be related to
the cracking properties of the pavement. Low temperature cracking, fatigue and rutting
are the three major distress mechanisms
The resistance of bituminous mixtures to fatigue cracking is dependent upon its
tensile properties, notably its tensile strength and extensibility characteristics. The layers
in a flexible pavement structure are subjected to continuous loading as a result of the
traffic loads that they carry, resulting in tensile stresses and strains at the bottom of the
bituminous layers of the pavement. The magnitude of the strain is dependent on the
overall stiffness of the pavement. Indirect tensile strength test is an indicator of strength
and adherence against fatigue, temperature cracking and rutting. Tensile strength is
difficult to measure directly because of secondary stresses induced by gripping a
specimen so that it may be pulled apart. Therefore, tensile stresses are typically measured
indirectly by a splitting tensile test.

Fig. 3.1 Indirect Tensile Strength test setup (PHOTO)

STRESS DEVELOPED PHOTO

The Indirect Tensile Test is performed by loading a cylindrical specimen with a single
or repeated compressive load, which acts parallel to and along the vertical diametric
plane. This loading configuration develops a relatively uniform tensile stress
perpendicular to the direction of the applied load and along the vertical diametric plane,
which ultimately causes the specimen to fail by splitting along the vertical diameter. The
Indirect Tensile Test is one of the most popular tests used for hot bituminous mixture
characterization in evaluating pavement structures. Indirect Tensile test setup and
mechanism is shown in Fig. 3.1 and Fig 3.2

60
 (A) Indirect Tensile Test during loading (B) Indirect Tensile Test at failure

Fig 3.2 Indirect Tensile Strength Test Mechanism

3.4.1 Test Procedure for Conducting Indirect Tensile Strength Test

The test specimens are prepared at the optimum bitumen content using Marshall
Method mix design for Stone Matrix Asphalt as per MORT&H (V Revision)
specifications.
The height of the specimens is recorded. Each set of specimens was tested at test
temperature of 25C for two different fillers specimens to determine their indirect
tensile strength. This was achieved by using breaking head under a load applied at a
rate of 50 mm per minute.
Load at failure is recorded and the indirect tensile strength is computed using the
relation given below.

2xP
x = x D xt --------------------- Eq 3.1

Where, x= Horizontal tensile stress/tensile strength, N/mm2

P= Failure load, N
D= Diameter of the specimen, mm
t = Height of the specimen, mm.

3.5 MOISTURE SUSCEPTIBILITY TEST

61
 It is well known fact that the continuous contact of water with pavement causes
premature pavement damage. Moisture induced distress may be regarded as one of the
most significant problem for bituminous pavement.
Moisture susceptibility of bituminous mixes can be quantified by several methods
such as stripping of binder from aggregate, retained stability, tensile strength ratio and
ratio of resilient modulus. In the present investigation an attempt was made to study the
effect of moisture by conducting tensile strength ratio and retained stability on Stone
Matrix Asphalt mixes prepared with three different aggregate gradations.
Test Procedure for conducting Tensile Strength Ratio test (TSR)
Similar to Indirect Tensile Strength test procedure, Marshall Specimens are prepared
at optimum bitumen content for the gradations as per ASTM D-1075
Samples were divided into two group i.e. Group-1 and group-2.
The Group-1 of specimens are tested in a dry condition (unconditioned state), while
the Group-2 specimen are tested in soaked condition.
For the Group-1, specimens are treated as control without any conditioning and then
all specimens are tested for ITS at test temperature of 251C (by storing them in a
water bath maintained at the test temperature for not less than 2 hour) under the
loading rate of 50 mm per minute. The load at failure is recorded and the indirect
tensile strength is computed using the equation 3.1.
The average value for the indirect tensile strength of Group-1 set is calculated.
For the Group-2, specimens are placed in water bath maintained at 60C for 24
hours. Then specimens were transferred to the second water bath maintained at
25C stored for 2 hours.
All the specimens are tested for ITS at test temperature of 251C and indirect
tensile strength for the saturated conditioned specimens is computed.
The indirect tensile strength ratio (TSR) can be determined using the following
relation
Indirect Tensile Strength of Conditioned specimens
TSR = X 100
Indirect Tensile Strength of Unconditioned specimens

cs
TSR = x 100 --------- Eq.3.1
ucs

3.6 INDIRECT TENSILE FATIGUE TEST

Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test was conducted at 25C to study the effect of filler
materials on the fatigue behavior of Stone Matrix Asphalt with Lime and Cement as fillers
and Bagasse stabilizing additive, by varying stress levels at 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%.

62
The stress levels were decided based on the Indirect Tensile Strength Test conducted on
cylindrical specimens of Stone Matrix Asphalt. Indirect Tensile Fatigue test setup is
shown in Fig. 3.4.
Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test apparatus
Salient features of the equipment
Capacity - 2 Tons
Load type - Half Sine
Major component - LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transducers)
- Load cell
- Loading frame
- Temperature controlled chamber
- Position controller
- Data acquisition system

Fig. 3.2 Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test Setup

The equipment was designed and developed by Spanktronics Ltd. was used to
carry out the Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test. A thermostatically controlled unit was used to
regulate the temperature during the test. A load cell is provided for applying the required
magnitude of load applied parallel to and along the vertical diametrical plane of the
Marshall specimen controlled by a servo valve operated by a computer. The load is
applied over the specimen through two metal strips of 12.5mm width and radius of
63
curvature equal to that of the specimen. The horizontal and vertical deformation of the
specimen due to application of load during the experiment was measured using two sets
of LVDTs. The equipment has a facility to apply the repetitions in half sine waveform.
The recording job of the applied load, deflection of both horizontal and vertical LVDTs
for every cycle and the total number of repetitions before failure for each individual test
was done by a data acquisition system which comprises of a computer and software
developed by Spanktronics Ltd.
The frequency of loading and rest period can also be fixed as per the requirement.
In this present investigation the loading frequency adopted was 2 Hz (2 cycles per
second) and the rest period was 0.2 seconds.
3.6.1 Procedure for conducting Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test
Marshall Specimens of Stone Matrix Asphalt mix were prepared at Optimum
Bitumen Content using Lime (1% and 2%) and Cement (1% and 2%) as filler materials
and Bagasse as stabilizing additive. Before testing the specimens were conditioned at the
test temperature in water for 2 hours in a temperature controlled water bath. After the
conditioning period of two hours the specimen is placed in the testing mould between the
two metal strips used for applying the load on to the specimen with care to see that the
load is applied exactly one the center of the specimen after which the bolts are locked up
to hold the specimen intact at its position. The horizontal and vertical LVDTs are fixed in
their respective positions. The loading jack is brought down to just rest on the metal strip
used to transfer the load on to the specimen. The data acquisition software specially
designed using Visual Basic program was used for the repeated load testing. The software
declares the specimen failed when the LVDTs reach the specified limit and saves the data
in a excel format.
The data provided by the software in an excel format was analyzed to determine
Resilient Modulus, Applied Stress, and Initial Tensile Strain for all the specimens tested
using the following equations:

2xP
Tensile stress, x = x D xt --------------------------Eq-3.1

Where, x= Tensile Stress, MPa

P = applied repeated load, N

64
 D= diameter of the specimen, mm
t = thickness of the specimen, mm

P x (0.27+ )
Resilient Modulus, MR = ------------------------Eq-3.2
HR x t

Where, MR = Resilient Modulus, MPa

HR = Resilient Horizontal Deformation
= Resilient Poissons Ratio (@ 25C = 0.35 as per
TRL)

x (1+3 )
Initial tensile strain, = --------------------------------Eq-3.
MR

Where, x= Tensile Stress, MPa

= Resilient Poissons Ratio (@ 25C = 0.35 as per
TRL)

CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1 GENERAL

65
 Marshall Stability test was conducted on Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Lime
(1% and 2%) and Cement (1% and 2%) as a filler material and Bagasse as stabilizing
additive (0.3% by weight of mix) and PMB-40 as binder to determine optimum bitumen
content, Marshall Stability, flow, bulk density, total air voids, voids in mineral aggregates
and voids filled with bitumen at mixing temperature (160 oC) and compaction temperature
(140oC) respectively. The results obtained are compared to check effect of stabilizing
additive Bagasse and to determine the type of filler which gives maximum stability at
optimum bitumen content
The two major features of Marshall Mix Design method are
Density-Void Analysis.
Stability-Flow Tests.
4.2 MARSHALL PROPERTIES OF STONE MATRIX ASPHALT MIX WITH
LIME (1%) AS FILLER MATERIAL AND BAGASSE (0.3%) AS
STABILIZING ADDITIVE
The Marshall properties of the Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Lime (1%) as filler
material and stabilizing additive (0.3%) at 160C mixing temperature and 140C
compaction temperature are presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Marshall Properties of Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Lime (1%) as filler
material
Voids in Voids
Bitumen Marshall Flow, Bulk Total air Mineral filled
content, stability, mm density, voids, % Aggregates with
% kg g/cc , bitumen,
% %
5

5.5

6.0

6.5
Marshall Properties of the Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Lime (1%) as filler
material and Bagasse (0.3%) as stabilizing additive at 160 C mixing temperature and

140C compaction temperature are shown graphically, from Fig 4.1 to Fig 4.5

66
 Object 23

Fig 4.1: Marshall Stability V/s Bitumen Content

Object 25

Fig 4.2: Flow V/s Bitumen Content

67
 Object 27

Fig 4.3: Bulk density V/s Bitumen Content

Object 30

Fig 4.4: %Air Voids V/s Bitumen Content

68
 Object 32

Fig 4.5: VFB V/s Bitumen Content

The Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC) for the mix design is found by taking the
average value of the following three bitumen content found from the graphs of the test
results.
1. Bitumen content corresponding to maximum Stability Value.
2. Bitumen content corresponding to maximum unit weight/ bulk density.

3. Bitumen content corresponding to the median of designed limits of % voids in

total mix (4%).
Therefore the OBC for the Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Lime (1%) as filler
material and bagasse (0.3%) as stabilizing additive is found to be 5.90%.
The results obtained after conducting Marshall Stability test on Stone Matrix Asphalt
mix with Lime (1%) as filler material and Bagasse (0.3%) as stabilizing additive at
optimum bitumen content is presented in Table 4.2.

69
Table 4.2: Marshall Properties of Stone Matrix Asphalt mix prepared at Optimum
Bitumen Content with Lime (1%) as filler material
Requirements as
Requirements as per
per IRC SP: 53-
SL Test Table 500-38 of
Marshall Properties 2010
No. Results MORT&H (V revision)
Specifications for
Specifications
wearing course
Optimum Bitumen
1 5.90 Min 5.8 Min 5.6
Content, %
2 Marshall Stability, kg 1320 Min 900* Min 1200**

3 Flow, mm 3.0 2.0 - 4.0 2.5 - 4.0**

4 Air voids, % 4.43 Min 4.0 3.0 - 5.0**

5 VMA, % 17.85 Min 17 --

6 VFB, % 74.21 65 - 75* --

*Requirements for wearing course as per Table 500-19 of MORT&H (V revision)
Specifications
** Requirements for wearing course as per IRC SP: 53-2010 Specifications

4.3 MARSHALL PROPERTIES OF STONE MATRIX ASPHALT MIX WITH

CEMENT (1%) AS FILLER MATERIAL AND BAGASSE (0.3%) AS
STABILIZING ADDITIVE
The Marshall Properties of the Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Cement (1%) as
filler material and stabilizing additive (0.3%) at 160C mixing temperature and 140C
compaction temperature are presented in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3: Marshall Properties of Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Cement (1%) as
70
 filler material
Bitumen Marshall Flow, Bulk Total air Voids in Voids
content, stability, mm density, voids, % Mineral filled
% kg g/cc Aggregates with
, bitumen,
% %
5

5.5

6.0

6.5

Marshall Properties for the Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Cement (1%) as
mineral filler and Bagasse (0.3%) as stabilizing additive at 160 C mixing temperature and

140C compaction temperature are shown graphically, from Fig 4.6 to Fig 4.10

Object 34

Fig 4.6: Stability V/s Bitumen Content

71
 Object 36

Fig 4.7: Flow V/s Bitumen Content

Object 38

Fig 4.8: Bulk Density V/s Bitumen Content

72
 Object 40

Fig 4.9: %Air Voids V/s Bitumen Content

Object 42

Fig 4.10: VFB V/s Bitumen Content

The Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC) for the mix design is found by taking the
average value of the following three bitumen content found from the graphs of the test
results.
1. Bitumen content corresponding to maximum Stability Value.
2. Bitumen content corresponding to maximum unit weight/ bulk density.

3. Bitumen content corresponding to the median of designed limits of % voids in

total mix (4%).
Therefore the OBC for the Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Cement (1%) as mineral
filler and bagasse (0.3%) as stabilizing additive is found to be 5.95%.
73
 The results obtained after conducting Marshall Stability test on Stone Matrix
Asphalt mix at with Cement (1%) as filler material Bagasse (0.3%) as stabilizing additive
at optimum bitumen content is presented in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Marshall Properties of Stone Matrix Asphalt mix prepared at Optimum
Bitumen Content with Cement (1%) as filler material
Requirements as
Requirements as per
per IRC SP: 53-
SL Test Table 500-38 of
Marshall Properties 2010
No. Results MORT&H (V revision)
Specifications for
Specifications
wearing course
Optimum Bitumen
1 5.90 Min 5.8 Min 5.6
Content, %
2 Marshall Stability, kg 1320 Min 900* Min 1200**

3 Flow, mm 3.0 2.0 - 4.0 2.5 - 4.0**

4 Air voids, % 4.43 Min 4.0 3.0 - 5.0**

5 VMA, % 17.85 Min 17 --

6 VFB, % 74.21 65 - 75* --

*Requirements for wearing course as per Table 500-19 of MORT&H (V revision)
Specifications
** Requirements for wearing course as per IRC SP: 53-2010 Specifications

4.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN STONE MATRIX ASPHALT MIX

WITH
LIME (1%) AND CEMENT (1%) AS MINERAL FILLER AT
OPTIMUM BITUMEN CONTENT (OBC)
At Optimum Bitumen Content the Marshall properties of the Stone Matrix Asphalt mix
with Lime (1%) and Cement (1%) are compared. And the Comparison is as shown below
Table 4.5.

74
 Table 4.5 Marshall Properties of Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Lime (1%) and
Cement (1%) as mineral filler at optimum bitumen content

SMA mix with Bagasse (0.3%)

SL No. Marshall Properties
Lime (1%) Cement (1%)
1 Optimum Bitumen Content, % 5.90 5.95

2 Marshall Stability, kg 1320 1250

3 Flow, mm 3.0 3.2

4 Air voids, % 4.43 4.36

5 VMA, % 17.85 18.05

6 VFB, % 74.21 74.32

Marshall Properties for the Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Lime (1%) and Cement
(1%) as mineral filler and Bagasse (0.3%) as additive at 160 oC mixing temperature and
140oC compaction temperature are graphically compared and shown from Fig 4.11 to
4.15

Object 44

Fig 4.11: Stability V/s Bitumen Content

75
 Object 46

Fig 4.12: Flow V/s Bitumen Content

Object 48

Fig 4.13: Bulk density V/s Bitumen Content

76
 Object 50

Fig 4.14: Total Air Voids V/s Bitumen Content

Object 52

Fig 4.15: VFB V/s Bitumen Content

77
4.3 MARSHALL PROPERTIES OF STONE MATRIX ASPHALT MIX WITH
LIME (2%) AS FILLER MATERIAL AND BAGASSE (0.3%) AS
STABILIZING ADDITIVE
The Marshall properties of the Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Lime (1%) as filler
material and stabilizing additive (0.3%) at 160C mixing temperature and 140C
compaction temperature are presented in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6 Marshall Properties of Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Lime (2%) as
filler material
Voids in Voids
Bitumen Marshall Flow, Bulk Total air Mineral filled
content, stability, mm density, voids, % Aggregates with
% kg g/cc , bitumen,
% %
5

5.5

6.0

6.5

Marshall Properties for the Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Lime (2%) as filler
material and Bagasse (0.3%) as stabilizing additive at 160 C mixing temperature and

140C compaction temperature are shown graphically, from Fig 4.16 to 4.20

78
 Object 54

Fig 4.16 Stability V/s Bitumen Content

Object 56

Fig 4.17 Flow V/s Bitumen Content

79
 Object 58

Fig 4.18 Bulk Density V/s Bitumen Content

Object 60

Fig 4.19 %Air Voids V/s Bitumen Content

80
 Object 62

Fig 4.20 VFB V/s Bitumen Content

The Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC) for the mix design is found by taking the
average value of the following three bitumen content found from the graphs of the test
results.
1. Bitumen content corresponding to maximum Stability Value.
2. Bitumen content corresponding to maximum unit weight/ bulk density.

3. Bitumen content corresponding to the median of designed limits of % voids in

total mix (4%).
Therefore the OBC for the Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Lime (2%) as mineral filler
and bagasse (0.3%) as stabilizing additive is found to be 5.95%.
The results obtained after conducting Marshall Stability test on Stone Matrix Asphalt
mix specimens prepared at optimum bitumen content with Lime (2%) as filler material
and Bagasse (0.3%) as stabilizing additive are presented in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7 Marshall Properties of Stone Matrix Asphalt mix at Optimum Bitumen
Content with Lime (2%) as filler material
Requirements as
Requirements as per
per IRC SP: 53-
SL Test Table 500-38 of
Marshall Properties 2010
No. Results MORT&H (V revision)
Specifications for
Specifications
wearing course
Optimum Bitumen
1 5.90 Min 5.8 Min 5.6
Content, %

81
 2 Marshall Stability, kg 1320 Min 900* Min 1200**

3 Flow, mm 3.0 2.0 - 4.0 2.5 - 4.0**

4 Air voids, % 4.43 Min 4.0 3.0 - 5.0**

5 VMA, % 17.85 Min 17 --

6 VFB, % 74.21 65 - 75* --

*Requirements for wearing course as per Table 500-19 of MORT&H (V revision)
Specifications
** Requirements for wearing course as per IRC SP: 53-2010 Specifications

4.3 MARSHALL PROPERTIES OF STONE MATRIX ASPHALT MIX WITH

CEMENT (2%) AS FILLER MATERIAL AND BAGASSE (0.3%) AS
STABILIZING ADDITIVE
The Marshall properties of the Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Cement (2%) as
filler material and stabilizing additive (0.3%) at 160C mixing temperature and 140C
compaction temperature are presented in Table 4.8.

Table 4.8 Marshall Properties of Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Cement (2%) as
filler material
Voids in Voids
Bitumen Marshall Flow, Bulk Total air Mineral filled
content, stability, mm density, voids, % Aggregates with
% kg g/cc , bitumen,
% %
5

5.5

6.0

6.5

82
 Marshall Properties for the Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Cement (2%) as
mineral filler and Bagasse (0.3%) as stabilizing additive at 160 C mixing temperature and

140C compaction temperature are shown graphically, from Fig 4.21 to 4.25

Object 64

Fig 4.21 Stability V/s Bitumen Content

Object 66

Fig 4.22 Flow V/s Bitumen Content

83
 Object 68

Fig 4.23 Bulk Density V/s Bitumen Content

Object 70

Fig 4.24 %Air Voids V/s Bitumen Content

84
 Object 73

Fig 4.25 VFB V/s Bitumen Content

The Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC) for the mix design is found by taking the
average value of the following three bitumen content found from the graphs of the test
results.
1. Bitumen content corresponding to maximum Stability Value.
2. Bitumen content corresponding to maximum unit weight/ bulk density.

3. Bitumen content corresponding to the median of designed limits of % voids in

total mix (4%).
Therefore the OBC for the Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Cement (2%) as mineral
filler and bagasse (0.3%) as stabilizing additive is found to be 5.95%.
The results obtained after conducting Marshall Stability test on Stone Matrix Asphalt
mix with Cement (2%) as filler material and Bagasse (0.3%) as stabilizing additive at
optimum bitumen content is presented in Table 4.9.

Table 4.9 Marshall Properties of Stone Matrix Asphalt mix at Optimum Bitumen
Content with Cement (2%) as filler material
Requirements as
Requirements as per
per IRC SP: 53-
SL Test Table 500-38 of
Marshall Properties 2010
No. Results MORT&H (V revision)
Specifications for
Specifications
wearing course
1 Optimum Bitumen 5.90 Min 5.8 Min 5.6

85
 Content, %

2 Marshall Stability, kg 1320 Min 900* Min 1200**

3 Flow, mm 3.0 2.0 - 4.0 2.5 - 4.0**

4 Air voids, % 4.43 Min 4.0 3.0 - 5.0**

5 VMA, % 17.85 Min 17 --

6 VFB, % 74.21 65 - 75* --

*Requirements for wearing course as per Table 500-19 of MORT&H (V revision)
Specifications
** Requirements for wearing course as per IRC SP: 53-2010 Specifications

4.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN STONE MATRIX ASPHALT MIX

WITH
LIME (2%) AND CEMENT (2%) AS MINERAL FILLER AT
OPTIMUM BITUMEN CONTENT (OBC)
At Optimum Bitumen Content the Marshall Properties of the Stone Matrix Asphalt
mix with Lime (2%) and Cement (2%) are compared, and the comparison is shown below
in Table 4.10.

Table 4.10 Marshall Properties of Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Lime (2%) and
Cement (2%) as mineral filler at optimum bitumen content

SMA mix with Bagasse (0.3%)

SL No. Marshall Properties
Lime (2%) Cement (2%)
1 Optimum Bitumen Content, % 5.90 5.95

2 Marshall Stability, kg 1320 1250

3 Flow, mm 3.0 3.2

4 Air voids, % 4.43 4.36

5 VMA, % 17.85 18.05

6 VFB, % 74.21 74.32

86
 Marshall Properties for the Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Lime (2%) and Cement
(2%) as mineral filler and Bagasse (0.3%) as additive at 160 oC mixing temperature and
140oC compaction temperature are graphically compared and shown from Fig 4.26 to
4.30

Object 75

Fig 4.26 Stability V/s Bitumen Content

Object 77

Fig 4.27 Flow V/s Bitumen Content

87
 Object 79

Fig 4.28 Bulk density V/s Bitumen Content

Object 82

Fig 4.29 Total Air Voids V/s Bitumen Content

88
 Object 84

Fig 4.30 VFB V/s Bitumen Content

4.2 DRY RODDED TEST

Dry rodded test was conducted on coarse aggregates in a cylindrical measure. The
test results are presented in Table 4.11.
Table 4.11 Voids in coarse aggregates mix (VCAMIX) and Voids in coarse aggregates
dry rodded (VCADRC)

Fillers (1%) Fillers (2%)

Stone Matrix Asphalt mix
(13mm grade) Lime Cement Lime Cement
Voids in Coarse aggregate Mix
69.88 70.65 69.94 70.71
VCAMix, %
Voids in Coarse aggregate
71.88 71.88 71.88 71.88
(Dry rodded) VCA DRC, %
VCAMIX < VCADRC Satisfying Satisfying Satisfying Satisfying

4.3 Drain down Test

Drain down test was conducted on loose mix placed in a basket at 170 oC of Stone
Matrix Asphalt (13mm grade) with Lime (1% and 2%), Cement (1% and 2%) as fillers
and bagasse as stabilizing additive at optimum bitumen content. The test results are
presented in Table 4.12.

89
Table 4.12 Drain Down of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime and Cement as
fillers
Requirements as
Fillers (1%) Fillers (2%) per Table 500-38
Drain down
MORT&H (V
properties
Lime Cement Lime Cement Revision)
Specifications
Drain down, (%) 0.124 0.158 0.00 0.00 0.30

4.10 INDIRECT TENSILE STRENGTH (ITS)

Indirect Tensile Strength test is conducted on Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA -13mm)
with Lime (1% and 2%), Cement (1% and 2%) as filler materials and Bagasse as
stabilizing additive at optimum bitumen content. Specimens are conditioned at 25C in
water bath for duration of 2 hours. The test results are presented in Table 4.13 and Figure
4.31.

Table 4.13: Indirect Tensile Strength of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime and
Cement as filler materials

Indirect Tensile Strength, N/mm2

Mix Type Filler Content
Lime Cement
Stone Matrix 1% 0.835 0.619
Asphalt 2% 0.951 0.743

Figure 4.31: Indirect Tensile Strength of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mixes Prepared Using
Stone Dust and Cement as Filler Materials

4.11 TENSILE STRENGTH RATIO (TSR)

Moisture damage in bituminous mixes refers to the loss of serviceability due to
the presence of moisture. The extent of moisture damage is called the moisture
susceptibility. The ITS test is a performance test which is often used to evaluate the
moisture susceptibility of a bituminous mixture. Tensile strength ratio (TSR) is a measure
of water sensitivity or to say moisture susceptibility. TSR is expressed as the percentage
of ratio of average indirect tensile strength of the conditioned specimens to the average
indirect tensile strength of the unconditioned specimens.
TSR value of Stone Matrix Asphalt with Lime (1% and 2%), Cement (1% and
2%) as filler materials at optimum bitumen content are presented in Table 4.14.

90
Table 4.14: Tensile Strength Ratio of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime and
Cement as filler materials

Indirect Tensile Strength, Requirements

N/mm2 as per IRC SP:
Type of 53-2010
Filler TSR, %
mix Unconditione Conditioned Specifications
d at 60C for wearing
course TSR, %

Lime (1%) 0.853 0.782 91.6

Stone Lime (2%) 0.951 0.894 94.00
Matrix
Asphalt Cement (1%) 0.685 0.619 90.36 Min 90

Cement (2%) 0.743 0.674 90.71

4.4 INDIRECT TENSILE FATIGUE TEST

Indirect Tensile Fatigue test was conducted on Marshall Specimens at 25 test
temperature on Stone Matrix Asphalt with Lime (1%) as filler and bagasse as stabilizing
additive at optimum bitumen content. The test results are presented in Table 4.15 Fig 4.32
to 4.36
Table 4.15 Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test on Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix Prepared using
Lime (1%) as Filler at 25oC
Initial
Height Resilient Resilien Fatigu
Tensile Tensile
Stress Load, of Horizontal t e Life,
Stress, strain,
level N specime Deformation Modulu No. of
MPa Micro
n, mm , mm s, MPa cycles
strain
10% 890 65.00 0.08578 0.02599 326.687 538.305 4007
10% 890 65.66 0.08492 0.02695 311.798 558.341 4023
0.08535 319.243 548.323 4015
20% 1780 66.67 0.16727 0.03871 427.594 801.941 2495
20% 1780 67.25 0.16583 0.03771 435.202 781.126 2487
0.16655 431.398 791.534 2491
30% 2670 66.10 0.25307 0.04408 568.106 913.196 1501
30% 2670 66.50 0.25155 0.04226 589.068 875.404 1487
0.25231 578.587 894.300 1494
40% 3560 65.66 0.33968 0.05060 664.371 1048.147 848
40% 3560 67.00 0.33289 0.05123 643.095 1061.170 860
0.33629 653.733 1054.659 854

91
 Object 86

Fig. 4.32 Fatigue Life v/s Stress Level of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime (1%)
as
filler

Object 88

Fig. 4.33 Fatigue Life v/s Tensile Stress of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime (1%)
as filler

92
 Object 90

Fig. 4.34 Fatigue Life v/s Resilient Modulus of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime
(1%) as filler

Object 93

Fig. 4.35 Fatigue Life v/s Initial Tensile Strain of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix Lime
(1%) as filler

Indirect Tensile Fatigue test is conducted on cylindrical specimens at 25 test

temperature on Stone Matrix Asphalt with Cement (1%) as filler and bagasse as
stabilizing additive at optimum bitumen content. The test results are presented in Table
4.16 and Fig 4.36 to 4.39.

93
Table 4.16 Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test on Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Cement
(1%) as Filler at 25oC
Initial
Resilient Fatigue
Stres Height of Tensile Resilient Tensile
Load, Horizontal Life,
s specimen Stress, Modulus strain,
N Deformatio No. of
level , mm MPa , MPa Micro
n, mm cycles
strain
0.0686
10% 720 65.67 0.02398 283.457 496.778 3469
9
0.0680
10% 720 66.30 0.02410 279.330 499.320 3480
4
0.0683
281.394 498.049 3475
6
0.1353
20% 1440 66.67 0.03431 390.337 710.683 2405
2
0.1374
20% 1440 65.66 0.03648 372.708 755.747 2418
0
0.1363
381.523 733.215 2412
6
0.2019
30% 2160 67.00 0.04066 491.587 842.292 1128
8
0.2047
30% 2160 66.10 0.04154 487.687 860.588 1143
3
0.2033
489.637 851.440 1136
5
0.2747 1049.53
40% 2880
65.67 6 0.05066 536.680 0 823
0.2683 1002.67
2880
40% 64.30 1 0.04840 573.730 0 811
0.2715 1026.10
3 555.205 0 817

94
 Object 96

Fig. 4.36 Fatigue Life v/s Stress Level of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Cement
(1%) as filler

Object 98

Fig. 4.37 Fatigue Life v/s Tensile Stress of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Cement
(1%)
as filler

95
 Object 100

Fig. 4.38 Fatigue Life v/s Resilient Modulus of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with
Cement (1%) as filler

Object 103

Fig. 4.39 Fatigue Life v/s Initial Tensile Strain of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with
Cement (1%) as filler

Indirect Tensile Fatigue test is conducted on cylindrical specimens at 25 test

temperature on Stone Matrix Asphalt with Lime (2%) as filler and bagasse as stabilizing
additive at optimum bitumen content. The test results are presented in Table 4.17 and Fig
4.40 to 4.43

Table 4.17 Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test on Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime
(2%) as filler at 25oC

96
 Initial
Height Resilient Fatigue
Stres Tensile Resilient Tensile
Load, of Horizontal Life, No.
s Stress, Modulu strain,
N specime Deformatio of
level MPa s, MPa Micro
n, mm n, mm cycles
strain
0.0920
10% 980 66.67 0.02651 343.766 549.182 4998
9
0.0944
10% 980 65.00 0.02884 324.17 597.343 5012
6
0.0932
333.968 573.263 5005
7
0.1857
20% 1960 66.10 0.03803 483.418 787.800 2896
7
0.1860
20% 1960 65.70 0.03685 501.936 763.354 2881
0
0.1858
492.677 775.577 2889
8
0.2728
30% 2940 67.50 0.04698 574.836 973.158 1895
8
0.2833
30% 2940 65.00 0.04563 614.636 945.480 1877
8
0.2781
594.736 959.319 1886
3
0.3683 1060.08
40% 3920
66.67 7 0.05117 712.359 0 1028
0.3711 1115.00
3920
40% 66.10 5 0.05382 683.114 1 1040
0.3697 1087.54
6 697.737 1 1034

97
 Object 105

Fig. 4.40 Fatigue Life v/s Stress Level of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime (2%)
as
filler

Object 108

Fig. 4.41 Fatigue Life v/s Tensile Stress of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime
(2%) as filler

98
 Object 110

Fig. 4.42 Fatigue Life v/s Resilient Modulus of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime
(2%) as filler

Object 112

Fig. 4.43 Fatigue Life v/s Initial Tensile Strain of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with
Lime (2%) as filler

Indirect Tensile Fatigue test is conducted on cylindrical specimens at 25 test

temperature on Stone Matrix Asphalt with Cement (2%) as filler and bagasse as
stabilizing additive at optimum bitumen content. The test results are presented in Table
4.18 and Fig 4.44 to 4.47

99
Table 4.18 Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test on Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Cement
(2%) as filler at 25oC

Initial
Height Resilient Fatigue
Stres Tensile Resilient Tensile
Load, of Horizontal Life, No.
s Stress, Modulu strain,
N specime Deformatio of
level MPa s, MPa Micro
n, mm n, mm cycles
strain
0.0740
10% 790 66.83 0.02526 290.190 523.188 4856
6
0.0748
10% 790 66.16 0.02434 304.213 504.124 4845
1
0.0744
297.202 513.656 4851
3
0.1507
20% 1580 66.50 0.03686 399.635 763.583 2688
4
0.1484
20% 1580 66.67 0.03545 414.522 734.283 2673
8
0.1496
407.079 748.933 2681
1
0.2261
30% 2370 65.67 0.04569 489.716 946.502 1598
1
0.2194
30% 2370 67.66 0.04630 469.033 959.173 1609
6
0.2227
479.375 952.838 1604
8
0.2977 1074.18
40% 3160
66.50 1 0.05185 568.161 0 924
0.2969 1092.56
3160
40% 66.67 5 0.05274 557.180 0 939
0.2973 1083.37
3 562.671 0 932

100
 Object 114

Fig. 4.44Fatigue Life v/s Stress Level of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Cement
(2%) as Filler Material

Object 117

Fig. 4.45Fatigue Life v/s Tensile Stress of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Cement
(2%) as filler

101
 Object 120

Fig. 4.46 Fatigue Life v/s Resilient Modulus of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with
Cement (2%) as filler

Object 122

Fig. 4.47 Fatigue Life v/s Initial Tensile Strain of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with
Cement (2%) as filler

4.5 LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS

Linear regression analysis is carried out for the data obtained from Indirect Tensile
Fatigue test conducted at 25oC by varying stress level on stone matrix asphalt with Lime
(1%) and Cement (1%) as fillers. The details are presented in Table 4.19 and graphs are
shown in Fig 4.48 to Fig 4.51.
Table 4.19 Linear Regression Analysis for data obtained from Stone Matrix Asphalt
Mix with filler content 1%
102
 Type of Filler
Relationship R2 value Equations
Materials
Lime Fatigue 0.9654 y = -104.8x + 4833.5
Stress Level
Cement Life 0.9539 y = -92.5x + 4272.5

Lime Fatigue 0.9624 y = -12477x + 4835.2

Tensile Stress
Cement Life 0.9529 y = -13666x + 4281.9

Lime Fatigue Resilient 0.9753 y = -9.0918x + 6720.7

Cement Life Modulus 0.9863 y = -10.069x + 6258.8

Lime Fatigue Initial Tensile 0.9839 y = -6.4342x + 7503.7

Cement Life Strain 0.9409 y = -5.3519x + 6119.5

Object 124

Fig. 4.48 Fatigue Life v/s Stress Level of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime
(1%) and Cement (1%) as fillers

103
 Object 127

Fig. 4.49 Fatigue Life v/s Tensile stress of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime (1%)
and Cement (1%) as fillers

Object 130

Fig. 4.50 Fatigue Life v/s Resilient Modulus of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime
(1%) and Cement (1%) as fillers

104
 Object 132

Fig. 4.51 Fatigue Life v/s Initial Tensile Strain of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with
Lime (1%) and Cement (1%) as fillers

4.6 LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS

Linear regression analysis is carried out for the data obtained from Indirect Tensile
Fatigue test conducted at 25oC by varying stress level on stone matrix asphalt prepared
using Lime (2%) and Cement (2%) as fillers. The details are presented in Table 4.20 and
graphs are shown in Fig 4.52 to Fig 4.55.

Table 4.20 Linear Regression Analysis for data obtained from Stone Matrix Asphalt
Mix with filler content 2%
Type of Filler
Relationship R2 value Equations
Materials
Lime Fatigue 0.9493 y = -129.16x + 5932.5
Stress Level
Cement Life 0.9337 y = -128.34x + 5725.5

Lime Fatigue 0.9502 y = -14020x + 5953

Tensile Stress
Cement Life 0.9351 y = -17312x + 5737.8

Lime Fatigue Resilient 0.9871 y = -10.964x + 8512.2

Cement Life Modulus 0.9655 y = -14.965x + 9050.4

Lime Fatigue Initial Tensile 0.9806 y = -8.409x + 9701

Cement Life Strain 0.9770 y = -6.8098x + 8133

105
 Object 134

Fig. 4.52 Fatigue Life v/s Stress Level of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime (2%)
and Cement (2%) as fillers

Object 137

Fig. 4.53 Fatigue Life v/s Tensile stress of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime (2%)
and Cement (2%) as fillers

106
 Object 140

Fig. 4.54 Fatigue Life v/s Resilient Modulus of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with Lime
(2%) and Cement (2%) as fillers

Object 142

Fig. 4.55 Fatigue Life v/s Initial Tensile Strain of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mix with
(2%) and Cement (2%) as fillers

107
 CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
5.1 Discussions
5.1.1 Optimum Bitumen Content
1. The Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC) for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with
Stone Dust, Cement as filler are 5.90% and 5.95% respectively.

2. It is observed that Optimum Bitumen Content for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix
with Stone Dust is found to be 0.84% lower than that of mix with Cement as
filler.
5.1.2 Marshall Stability
1. The Marshall Stability for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix prepared at OBC with
Stone Dust and Cement are 1320kg and 1250kg respectively.

2. It is observed that Marshall Stability for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix prepared at
OBC with Stone Dust as filler is found to be 5.30% greater than that of mix with
Cement as filler.
108
5.1.3 Bulk Density
1. The Bulk density for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix prepared at OBC with Stone
Dust, Cement as filler are 2.362g/cc and 2.372g/cc respectively.

2. It is observed that Bulk density for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix prepared at OBC
with Stone Dust as filler is found to be 0.42% lower than that of mix with
Cement as filler.
5.1.4 Flow
1. The Flow for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix prepared at OBC with Stone Dust,
Cement as filler are 3.0 mm and 3.2 mm respectively.

2. It is observed that Flow for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix prepared at OBC with
Stone Dust as filler is found to be 6.25% lower than that of mix with Cement as
filler.

5.1.5 Total air Voids

1. The Total air voids for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix prepared at OBC with Stone
Dust, Cement as filler is 4.43% and 4.36% respectively.

2. It is observed that Total air voids for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix prepared at
OBC with Stone Dust as filler and Bagasse as stabilizing additive is found to
be 1.58% lower than that of mix with Cement as filler.
5.1.6 Voids in Mineral aggregate (VMA)
1. The VMA for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix prepared at OBC with Stone Dust,
Cement as filler and Bagasse as additive are 17.85% and 18.05% respectively.

2. It is observed that VMA for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix prepared with Stone
Dust as filler and Bagasse as additive is found to be 1.10% lesser than that of
mix with Cement as filler.
5.1.7 Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB)
1. The VFB for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix prepared at OBC with Stone Dust,
Cement as filler and Bagasse as additive are 74.21% and 74.32% respectively.
109
 2. It is observed that VFB for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix prepared at OBC with
Stone Dust as filler and Bagasse as additive is found to be 0.14% greater than
that of mix with Cement as filler.

5.2 Conclusions
1. Marginal increase in Optimum Bitumen Content for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix
with Stone Dust as filler when compared to Cement as filler.
2. Substantial increase in Marshall Stability for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix at OBC
with Stone Dust as filler when compared to Cement as filler.
3. Marginal decrease in Bulk density for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix at OBC with
Stone Dust as filler when compared to Cement as filler.
4. Substantial decrease in Flow value for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix at OBC with
Stone Dust as filler when compared to Cement as filler.
5. Marginal decrease in Total air voids for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix at OBC with
Stone Dust as filler when compared to Cement as filler.
6. Marginal decrease in VMA for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix at OBC with Stone
Dust as filler when compared to Cement as filler.
7. Marginal increase in VFB for Stone Matrix Asphalt mix at OBC with Stone
Dust as when compared to Cement as filler.

110
 8. Based on Marshall Properties of Stone Matrix Asphalt mix it is concluded that
Stone Matrix Asphalt mix with Stone Dust as mineral filler are superior than
mix prepared using cement as filler.

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