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Renewable Energy II

Prof. Ramzy R. Obaid

HW 6.14 through 6.19


With many thanks
and appreciation to

Professor Mohamed A. El-Sharkawi


Renewable Energy
Solar
Wind
Fuel Cell
Small Hydro
Geothermal
Tidal
Biomass
Active Solar Cell
(Photovoltaic PV)
Silicon
Silicon is a good insulator
To make the silicon more conductive
electrically, additives (impurities) are
added (doping)
Phosphorus (P), which has 5 electrons in
its outer shell
Boron (B), which has 3 electrons in its
outer shell
P-N Material
Electron without
bonding
SI SI SI SI SI SI
Extra
space for
electron
SI SI SI
Ph SI B

SI SI SI
SI
SI SI

n-type p-type
Lens I

-
N-Type
Load

-
P-Type

Base
Main Parts of PV
Glass cover or lens

Antireflective coating

Contacts grid

n-type material
p-type material

Base
Ideal PV Model: P-N Junction
Cathode (K) Cathode (K)

n
p Vd
I

Anode (A) Anode (A)


Ideal PV Model: P-N Junction
Vd

I
I
+
Vs Vl R Forward biased
region
-

Io Reverse saturation current

Vd
Reverse biased
region
Ideal PV Model: P-N Junction
Vd
kT I

I = Io e VT
1 VT = Forward

q biased


region

Io Reverse saturation
current
Vd
Io: reverse saturation current Reverse biased
region
VT: thermal voltage
q: elementary charge constant (1.602 10-19 Coulomb)
k: Boltzmanns constant (1.380 x 10-23 J/K)
T: absolute temperature in Kelvin (K).
PV Model
Solar Cell I = Is Id

Is Id V=Vd I

Is: the solar current (is a nonlinear variable that changes


with light density (irradiance)
Id: the forward current through the diode.
Id Is
PV Characteristics
Io
Vd Vd

I=Is-Id

QII QI

Vd
QIII QIV
PV Power Characteristics
P = VI Solar Cell

V = Vd
I = Is Id Is Id V=Vd I

Vd

Id = Io e VT
1


Vd

P = V I =Vd I s Vd I o e VT
1


PV Power Characteristics
I
Isc
Imp
Pmax
P

Vmp Voc Vd
PV Power Characteristics
Main variables
Short Circuit Current (Isc)
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc)
Maximum Power Operating Point (Pmax,
Vmp, Imp)
Short Circuit PV

Is Id=0 Isc=Is

I sc = I s
Open Circuit PV

Is Id=Is Voc


Voc

I d = I s = I o e 1
VT


Is
Voc = VT * ln + 1
Io
Example
An ideal PV cell with reverse saturation
current of 1nA is operating at 30oC. The
solar current at 30oC is 1A. Compute
the output voltage and output power of
the PV cell when the load draws 0.5A.
Solution
k T 1.38*10 23 * (30 + 273.15) 3
VT = = 19
= 26.11*10 V
q 1.602 *10
VV
I = I s I o e T 1


V

0.5 = 1 10 * e
9 0. 02611
1

[
V = ln (1 0.5)*10 + 1 *VT = 0.523 V
9
]
P = V I = 0.523 * 0.5 = 0.2615 W
Example
An ideal solar cell with reverse
saturation current of 1nA is operating at
20oC. The solar current at 20oC is 0.8A.
Compute the voltage and current of the
solar cell at the maximum power point.
Solution
P = VI
VV
P I I = I s I o e T 1
= Vmp +I =0
V V
I I o V / VT
= e
V VT

At maximum Power

P Vmp Vmp / VT
= (I s + I o ) 1 + I o e =0
V VT
Solution
k T 1.38*10 23 * (20 + 273.15) 3
VT = = 19
= 25. 25 * 10 V
q 1.602 *10
Vmp Vmp / VT I s + I o
1 + e =
VT Io

Vmp Vmp / 25.25


1 + e = 0.8 *10 9
25.25

Vmp 443.8479 mV
Solution
Vmp
I mp
= I s I o e 1
VT


443.8479

I mp = 0.8 10 e
9 25.25
1 = 0.7569 A

Pmax = Vmp * I mp = 443.8479 * 0.7569 = 335.948 mW


Operating Point of PV
The operating point of the solar cell depends
on the magnitude of the load resistance R
The load resistance is the output voltage V
divided by the load current I.
The intersection of the PV cell characteristic
with the load line is the operating point of the
PV cell.
Solar Cell

Is Id V=Vd I
Operating Point of PV
I R1 R1<R2<R3
1
R2
Load lines 2

3
R3

Vo V
c
Example
For the solar cell in the previous example, compute
the load resistance at the maximum output power.
Solution
From the previous example
Vmp 443.8479 mV
I mp = 0.7569 A

Vmp 443.8479
Rmp = = = 0.5864
I mp 756.9
Example
An ideal PV cell with a reverse saturation current of 1nA is
operating at 30oC. The solar current at 30oC is 1A. The cell
is connected to a 10 resistive load. Compute the output
power of the cell
Solution
k T 1.38*10 23 * (30 + 273.15) 3
VT = = = 26.1 * 10
q 1.602 *10 19
V V
I = I s I o e VT 1 =
R

VV
V = I s R I o R e T 1


V

V = 10 10 e
8 0 . 0261
1

Iteratively, solve for V

V 0.4722 V
2 2
V 0.4722
P= = = 22.29 mW
R 10
Effect of Irradiance
1<2<3
I 3
3
2 Load line
2
1
1

Voc V
Effect of Irradiance
P 1<2<3 1
2
3

V
Effect of Temperature T

P
T1>T2>T3 T1
T2
T3

V
PV Module (Series
Connection)

Is1 Id1 V1
V=Vd1+Vd2
Is=Is1=Is2

Id2 V2
Is2
PV Module (Parallel
Connection)

Is1 Id1 V1
V=Vd1=Vd2
Is=Is1+Is2

Is2 Id2 V2
Example
An ideal PV module is composed of 50
solar cells connected in series. At 20oC,
the solar current of each cell is 1A and
the reverse saturation current is 10nA.
Draw the I-V and I-P characteristics of
the module.
Solution
k T 1.38*10 23 * (20 + 273.15)
VT = = 19
= 25.25 mV
q 1.602 *10
VV V

T
I d = I o e 1 =10 * e8 0. 02525
1


Vcell

I cell = I s I d =1 10 * e
8 0 .02525
1
20
Module Current and Power

Current
15
Power

Pcell = Vcell I cell 10

Vmod ule = n *Vcell 5

0
Pmod ule = n * Pcell 0 5 10 15 20 25
Module Voltage
Losses of PV Cell

Irradiance Losses
Electrical Losses
Irradiance Losses
1. Due to the reflection of the solar radiation at
the top of the PV cell.
2. The light has photons with wide range of
energy levels
Some dont have enough energy to excite the
electrons.
Others have too much energy that is hard to
capture by the electrons.
These two scenarios account for the loss of
about 70 percent of the solar energy
Real PV Model
To account for the electrical losses only

Solar Rs
Cell
I
Ip V I
Is Id Vd Rp

Rs : Resistance of wires and traces


Rp : internal resistance of the cell
Efficiency of PV Cell
Sun power converted to electricity Pse Vd * I s
irradiance = = =
Sun power Ps A

Output power of the cell Pout V *I


e = = =
Sun power converted to electricity Pse Vd * I s

Pse Pout Pout V * I


= irradiance e = = =
Ps Pse Ps A
Example
A 100 cm2 solar cell is operating at 30oC
where the output current is 1A, the load
voltage is 0.4V and the saturation current of
the diode is 1nA. The series resistance of the
cell is 10 m and the parallel resistance is
1k. At a given time, the solar power density
is 200W/m2. Compute the irradiance
efficiency and the overall efficiency.
Solution
Solar Rs
Cell

I
Ip V I
Is Id Vd Rp

k T 1.38*10 23 * (30 + 273.15) 3


VT = = 19
= 26.1 * 10 V
q 1.602 *10

Vd = V + IRs = 0.4 + 1* 0.01 = 0.41 V


VVd 0.41

I d = I o e 1 =10 * e
T 9 0. 0261
1 = 6.64 mA


Solution
Solar Rs
Cell

I
Ip V I
Is Id Vd Rp

Vd 0.41
Ip = = = 0.41 mA
R p 1000

I s = I + I d + I p =1 + 0.00664 + 0.00041 = 1.00705 A

Vd * I s 0.41 *1.00705
irradiance = = = 0.205
A 200 * 0.01
Solution
Solar Rs
Cell

I
Ip V I
Is Id Vd Rp

2 2
p
2
(
Peloss = I Rs + I R p = 1.0 * 0.01 + 0.41*10 ) *1000 = 10.168
3 2
mW
Pout Pout VI 0 .4 * 1 . 0
e = = = = = 0.975
Pse Pout + Peloss VI + Peloss 0.4 *1.0 + 0.010168

= irradiance e = 0.205 * 0.975 = 0.20


Conclusion: Most of the losses are irradiance
Assessment of PV Systems
$6.0

$5.0 $5.0

$4.0
$/kWh

$3.0

$2.0
$1.5
$1.0 $0.6 $0.4 $0.3
$0.0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Assessment of PV Systems

In remote areas without access to power


grids, the PV system is often the first choice
among the available alternatives.
Assessment of PV Systems
By the end of the 20th century, the PV
systems worldwide had the capacity of more
than 900 GWh annually
this PV energy is enough for about 70,000 homes
in the USA, or about 4 million homes in developing
countries.
The largest PV plant in the world is 60MW in
Spain
75 MW PV plant is being built in Cle Elum,
Washington
Fuel Cell
Generation of Hydrogen
H2O
Hydrocarbon fuel CO2

CH2

CO conversion
Reformer

H2
Water
(H2O) Fuel
Cell
CO2
H2

O2
CO
Fuel Cell (Electrochemical Process)

- --
-
Load
I

- --
-- -
2H2 O2
-- 4H+
Hydrogen Ions Oxygen (Air)

Cathode
Anode

Water
Electrolyte 2 H2O
Chemical Reaction
Main idea

electrons
ions
Anode: 2H2 --> 4H+ + 4e-

Cathode: 4e- + 4H+ + O2 --> 2H2O

Overall: 2H2 + O2 --> 2H2O


Fuel Cell
Produces power without combustion or
rotating machinery.
Makes electricity by combining
hydrogen ions, drawn from a hydrogen-
containing fuel, with oxygen atoms.
Fuel Cell
The current is proportional to the size
(area) of the electrodes.
The voltage is limited electrochemically
to about 1.23 volts per electrode pair, or
cell.
Cells can be stacked until the desired
power level is reached.
Types of Fuel Cells
Fuel Cell Electrolyte Anode Gas Cathode Gas Approximate Typical
Temperature Efficiency

Proton Exchange Solid polymer Hydrogen Pure or 80C 3560%


Membrane (PEM) membrane atmospheric
oxygen
Alkaline (AFC) Potassium Hydrogen Pure oxygen 65-220C 5070%
hydroxide
Phosphoric Acid (PAFC) Phosphorous Hydrogen Atmospheric 150-210C 3550%
oxygen
Solid Oxide (SOFC) Ceramic Hydrogen, Atmospheric 6001000C 4560%
Oxide methane oxygen
Molten Carbonate Alkali- Hydrogen, Atmospheric 600-650C 4055%
(MCFC) Carbonates methane oxygen
Direct Methanol Solid polymer Methanol Atmospheric 50-120C 3540%
(DMFC) membrane solution in oxygen
water
Process of Ideal Fuel Cells
Fuel cell has two processes
Thermal process
Tell us how much energy can be produced by
the fuel cell
Electrical processes.
Gives the value of the voltage and current.
Modeling of FC: Losses
Activation loss (electrode kinetic)
due to the anode and cathode reactions at low
currents or when the cell is activated (oxygen are not
fully diffused at starting)
Ohmic loss
due to the resistances of the electrolyte and
electrodes
Mass transport loss
When the input reaction is less than the output
reaction (when the output current is very high and the
input reaction cannot match the needed demand)
Polarization Characteristics of FC

Activation Ohmic Mass


Transport
Power

Voltage

Current
Evaluation of FC
FCs have great potential in transportation, household
use and utility size generation.
Several generations of fuel cell automobiles and buses
are already roaming city streets.
Fuel cells are used as backup systems or independent
source of energy.
Several sensitive installations such as hospitals,
satellites, and military installations are using fuel cells
as backup systems.
FCs have relatively short lifetime
Their various components can suffer from pollution
and corrosions
Issues
Pure hydrogen is a volatile gas, and requires
special storage and transportation.
Hydrogen cannot be found free in nature, it is
often extracted by reformers
Efficiency of fuel cells including the reformer
process is 26 to 40%
Efficiency of internal combustion engines is
15 to 22%

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