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n-type p-type
Lens I
-
N-Type
Load
-
P-Type
Base
Main Parts of PV
Glass cover or lens
Antireflective coating
Contacts grid
n-type material
p-type material
Base
Ideal PV Model: P-N Junction
Cathode (K) Cathode (K)
n
p Vd
I
I
I
+
Vs Vl R Forward biased
region
-
Vd
Reverse biased
region
Ideal PV Model: P-N Junction
Vd
kT I
I = Io e VT
1 VT = Forward
q biased
region
Io Reverse saturation
current
Vd
Io: reverse saturation current Reverse biased
region
VT: thermal voltage
q: elementary charge constant (1.602 10-19 Coulomb)
k: Boltzmanns constant (1.380 x 10-23 J/K)
T: absolute temperature in Kelvin (K).
PV Model
Solar Cell I = Is Id
Is Id V=Vd I
I=Is-Id
QII QI
Vd
QIII QIV
PV Power Characteristics
P = VI Solar Cell
V = Vd
I = Is Id Is Id V=Vd I
Vd
Id = Io e VT
1
Vd
P = V I =Vd I s Vd I o e VT
1
PV Power Characteristics
I
Isc
Imp
Pmax
P
Vmp Voc Vd
PV Power Characteristics
Main variables
Short Circuit Current (Isc)
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc)
Maximum Power Operating Point (Pmax,
Vmp, Imp)
Short Circuit PV
Is Id=0 Isc=Is
I sc = I s
Open Circuit PV
Is Id=Is Voc
Voc
I d = I s = I o e 1
VT
Is
Voc = VT * ln + 1
Io
Example
An ideal PV cell with reverse saturation
current of 1nA is operating at 30oC. The
solar current at 30oC is 1A. Compute
the output voltage and output power of
the PV cell when the load draws 0.5A.
Solution
k T 1.38*10 23 * (30 + 273.15) 3
VT = = 19
= 26.11*10 V
q 1.602 *10
VV
I = I s I o e T 1
V
0.5 = 1 10 * e
9 0. 02611
1
[
V = ln (1 0.5)*10 + 1 *VT = 0.523 V
9
]
P = V I = 0.523 * 0.5 = 0.2615 W
Example
An ideal solar cell with reverse
saturation current of 1nA is operating at
20oC. The solar current at 20oC is 0.8A.
Compute the voltage and current of the
solar cell at the maximum power point.
Solution
P = VI
VV
P I I = I s I o e T 1
= Vmp +I =0
V V
I I o V / VT
= e
V VT
At maximum Power
P Vmp Vmp / VT
= (I s + I o ) 1 + I o e =0
V VT
Solution
k T 1.38*10 23 * (20 + 273.15) 3
VT = = 19
= 25. 25 * 10 V
q 1.602 *10
Vmp Vmp / VT I s + I o
1 + e =
VT Io
Vmp 443.8479 mV
Solution
Vmp
I mp
= I s I o e 1
VT
443.8479
I mp = 0.8 10 e
9 25.25
1 = 0.7569 A
Is Id V=Vd I
Operating Point of PV
I R1 R1<R2<R3
1
R2
Load lines 2
3
R3
Vo V
c
Example
For the solar cell in the previous example, compute
the load resistance at the maximum output power.
Solution
From the previous example
Vmp 443.8479 mV
I mp = 0.7569 A
Vmp 443.8479
Rmp = = = 0.5864
I mp 756.9
Example
An ideal PV cell with a reverse saturation current of 1nA is
operating at 30oC. The solar current at 30oC is 1A. The cell
is connected to a 10 resistive load. Compute the output
power of the cell
Solution
k T 1.38*10 23 * (30 + 273.15) 3
VT = = = 26.1 * 10
q 1.602 *10 19
V V
I = I s I o e VT 1 =
R
VV
V = I s R I o R e T 1
V
V = 10 10 e
8 0 . 0261
1
Iteratively, solve for V
V 0.4722 V
2 2
V 0.4722
P= = = 22.29 mW
R 10
Effect of Irradiance
1<2<3
I 3
3
2 Load line
2
1
1
Voc V
Effect of Irradiance
P 1<2<3 1
2
3
V
Effect of Temperature T
P
T1>T2>T3 T1
T2
T3
V
PV Module (Series
Connection)
Is1 Id1 V1
V=Vd1+Vd2
Is=Is1=Is2
Id2 V2
Is2
PV Module (Parallel
Connection)
Is1 Id1 V1
V=Vd1=Vd2
Is=Is1+Is2
Is2 Id2 V2
Example
An ideal PV module is composed of 50
solar cells connected in series. At 20oC,
the solar current of each cell is 1A and
the reverse saturation current is 10nA.
Draw the I-V and I-P characteristics of
the module.
Solution
k T 1.38*10 23 * (20 + 273.15)
VT = = 19
= 25.25 mV
q 1.602 *10
VV V
T
I d = I o e 1 =10 * e8 0. 02525
1
Vcell
I cell = I s I d =1 10 * e
8 0 .02525
1
20
Module Current and Power
Current
15
Power
0
Pmod ule = n * Pcell 0 5 10 15 20 25
Module Voltage
Losses of PV Cell
Irradiance Losses
Electrical Losses
Irradiance Losses
1. Due to the reflection of the solar radiation at
the top of the PV cell.
2. The light has photons with wide range of
energy levels
Some dont have enough energy to excite the
electrons.
Others have too much energy that is hard to
capture by the electrons.
These two scenarios account for the loss of
about 70 percent of the solar energy
Real PV Model
To account for the electrical losses only
Solar Rs
Cell
I
Ip V I
Is Id Vd Rp
I
Ip V I
Is Id Vd Rp
I
Ip V I
Is Id Vd Rp
Vd 0.41
Ip = = = 0.41 mA
R p 1000
Vd * I s 0.41 *1.00705
irradiance = = = 0.205
A 200 * 0.01
Solution
Solar Rs
Cell
I
Ip V I
Is Id Vd Rp
2 2
p
2
(
Peloss = I Rs + I R p = 1.0 * 0.01 + 0.41*10 ) *1000 = 10.168
3 2
mW
Pout Pout VI 0 .4 * 1 . 0
e = = = = = 0.975
Pse Pout + Peloss VI + Peloss 0.4 *1.0 + 0.010168
$5.0 $5.0
$4.0
$/kWh
$3.0
$2.0
$1.5
$1.0 $0.6 $0.4 $0.3
$0.0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Assessment of PV Systems
CH2
CO conversion
Reformer
H2
Water
(H2O) Fuel
Cell
CO2
H2
O2
CO
Fuel Cell (Electrochemical Process)
- --
-
Load
I
- --
-- -
2H2 O2
-- 4H+
Hydrogen Ions Oxygen (Air)
Cathode
Anode
Water
Electrolyte 2 H2O
Chemical Reaction
Main idea
electrons
ions
Anode: 2H2 --> 4H+ + 4e-
Voltage
Current
Evaluation of FC
FCs have great potential in transportation, household
use and utility size generation.
Several generations of fuel cell automobiles and buses
are already roaming city streets.
Fuel cells are used as backup systems or independent
source of energy.
Several sensitive installations such as hospitals,
satellites, and military installations are using fuel cells
as backup systems.
FCs have relatively short lifetime
Their various components can suffer from pollution
and corrosions
Issues
Pure hydrogen is a volatile gas, and requires
special storage and transportation.
Hydrogen cannot be found free in nature, it is
often extracted by reformers
Efficiency of fuel cells including the reformer
process is 26 to 40%
Efficiency of internal combustion engines is
15 to 22%