CHAPTER 4

MEMBRANE SCIENCE
4.1. ACTIVATED COCONUT SHELL CHARCOAL MEMBRANE.
4.2. SAP WOOD MEMBRANE.
4.3. WET LAND MEMBRANES.
4.4. COMBINATION MEMBRANE.
4. 1. ACTIVATED COCONUT SHELL CHARCOAL MEMBRANE
4. 1. 1 Introduction:
A black, gray form of carbon, produced by heating wood or other organic substance in
an enclosed container without air Present research work is based on easy, cheap methods which
may be useful for common people, hence it is the first simple technique of water
filtration.Charcoal burns better than wood, hence it is superior; hence it was acting as fuel
historically. Since 3750 B. C, Charcoal was used to smelt ores.Sumerians, Egyptians were using
charcoal for the reduction process of ores of Copper, Zinc, and Tin which was used for Bronze
manufacture.For the prevention of various material, charcoal was used, Charcoal was acting as
antibacterial, antifungal in wet situations.For caulking (coating with hot tar) ships, wood tar was
used, which was produced from charcoal. Since 450 B. C, drinking water was used to store in
th
wooden barrels which were charred (burnt, carbonized), till 16 century, the procedure was
continued

Figure.4. 1: Ancient method of charcoal preparation and transport.

Around 1500 BC Charcoal was used for medicinal purpose by Egyptian papyri.The main
role of charcoal is to adsorb unpleasant smell which comes from putrefying wounds and it may
be from the intestinal tracts. Charcoal is rated as category no-1, which is safe, effective tool. As
per FDA, charcoal is used against toxic poisoning.It absorbs poisonous gases, activated charcoal
absorb excess gasses which are formed due to bean and other food products.The gases are also
formed by bacteria, which are absorbed by a charcoal
Carbon an element with a symbol C with atomic number 6, atomic weight 12, non
metallic with tetra valency. The Latin word coal means carbon, the thermodynamically stable
element. Graphite is an ore of carbon, which is soft, black and good electrical conductor
Diamond other form of carbon, which is hard, transparent and bad conductor of electricity. For
smelting purpose charcoal was used since 1750 B. C, which was obtained from woods,
especially from softwood and hard word.
Following are certain applications where activated charcoal plays an important role.Air
filter in gas masks, purification of gas,coloring of food,purification of gold, extraction of metals,
finishing of metals, plants of nuclear power, solvent recycling, printing in commercial purpose,
treatment of sewage, soil enhancement, soil which become toxic owing to spills of chemicals or
spraying of chemicals,volatile compounds especially organic from paint, aquarium, swimming
pools, municipal as well as domestic water system.If the activated carbon size is smaller than the
rate of adsorption will be high.The activated carbon available in the form of cloth and fibers,
which are used for bio-chemical protective clothing, gloves and socks etc.It is used in wood
dressing, mask protection.
*Biochar:
It is recent charcoal introduced in activated form, which is formed by pyrolysis method
and is in fine granular form.For Biochar, the temperature range is found to be in between 400 to
oc.
500 Iodine number is another basic term which is useful to see level of carbon as many
carbons adsorb smaller molecules. An activity level of carbon is measured by Iodine number;
higher the Iodine number higher is the activity of that carbon, Micro pore content of carbon.
Iodine adsorb into charcoal pore which is an indicator of Iodine numbers, which is one of the
standard measure of water application.Molasses from solution get adsorbed by activated
charcoal.Higher the molasses number, higher the absorption of bigger molecules ranging from
95-600.
Some activated carbons are coated with Iodine, Silver or cations such as Al, Mn, Zn, Fe,
Li, and Ca etc. These coated activated carbons are used to mercaptans, H2S gas for flue gas,
wine, treatment in coal-fire plants etc. These are also called, IAC (Impregnated activated carbon)
and also acting as antibacterial and antiseptic purpose.
*Polymer coating activated carbon (P C A C)
P C A C (Polymer coating activated carbon) is another activated carbon, which is covered
with polymer, which do not block the pores of carbon but makes it smooth and
permeable.Hemoperfusion is the process where blood with large volume is passed through GAC
or PCAC for removing toxics. (Polymer coating activated carbon

Figure.4. 2: Activated charcoal coated with polymer.

Figure.4. 3: Activated charcoal coated with Iodine

*Activated carbons coated with Iodine:
A. C (activated carbon) are mostly divided into following different categories depending
upon their physical characteristics, P A C (powdered activated charcoal) is fine granule of size
near about 0.15 mm to 0.25 mm.Activated carbon is made by crushing or by grinding carbon
particles.Electrostatic force (Vander Waal) is present among the particles of activated
carbon.Alcohol, Glycols, Ammonia fluorine boric acid, Iron, Lithium lead metals do not bind
with activated charcoal. Some chemical treatments, to activated charcoal improve the absorptive
power which is said to be chemisorptions.The chemicals used are H2S, NH3, HCHO,
radioisotopes and mercury, etc..Technical name is activated carbon which is used as an exploited
agent of the 21st century.
 Tap water is contaminated with industrial waste, some cancer forming substances such as
nitrogen oxide (NO), SO2 (sulfur oxide) due to this reason many people purify and filter their
water by using charcoal which become safe and tasty. Dirty raw charcoal is not suitable for
boiling purpose, so we should wash it with scrubber without any chemicals, detergents etc.After
washing charcoal should keep in to boiling water for sterilization purpose in an open container,
stainless steel container should be used.Charcoal contain many cavities (pores) where micro-
organisms can be trapped as they live on organic matter as it is present into pores of charcoal
.Once charcoal used for near about 4-6 month it should be crushed into fine powder and can be
spread into garden or soil which can improve soil quality and can be beneficial for crop yield
too.All types of trees manufactures charcoal, but by experiences the people slowly come to know
that harden the charcoal better is the quality of charcoal.Saw dust, bamboo coconut shell, olive
pits, hard woods are used for preparation of charcoal.
4. 1. 2 Membrane Science:
The color of raw sugar is absorbed by charcoal powder. Charcoal has a microcrystalline
graphite particle size which is so small to consider it as an amorphous substance.The crystalline
structure is of hexagonal network shape. Adsorption as well as absorption process depends upon
particle size, surface area, pore structure, acidity (pH), Temperature, etc. Smaller particles are
present in nature as well as in wastewater, which are suspended in water and form clouds. As we
know that colloidal particles carry same charge, hence they never come to each other, as these
practices repel to each other and scattered everywhere in the media and never settle down and
never form large sized particle.We should add some chemicals or follow some physical
technique to help them to settle down, which combines and form large sized particles and which
settle down.Another method is flocculation where high molecular weight compounds attracts or
traps small sized particles and settles at the bottom. (E.g. Starch.)
Al2 (SO4)3. 12 H2O Al aq+3 + 3 SO4-- + 12 H2O.

SO4aq + H2O HSO4 aq + OH - (Causing pH change)

Ca(OH )2 Ca+ + + 2OH- (Causing pH change)

 With the help of alum and lime dirty water can be cleaned. These electrolytes change the
pH value of water.Basic compounds like Ca (OH) 2, Fe (OH) 2 which are the final product of this
reaction settle at the bottom and water become clear with some basic character, generally we
found water with yellow, muddy appearance due to suspension of Iron oxide (FeO) particles and
clinic organic matter present in the water sample. Earliest to 2000 BC Egyptian and Romans
were using such techniques for water purification.Both these impurities are removed by
flocculation and coagulation method.In the sedimentation process heavy particles settle at the
bottom i.e. it is good for dense particle like silt (heavy mass) and minerals, while flotation
process is best for lighter weight particles like algae and colored pigments or particles etc.The
tank which is used should be as big as to settle particles for long period, ideal 4-5 hours so pure
water can easily separated out by long and narrow outlets channels etc.
In aeration process, the air is coming in contact with water where there is exchange of
certain components took place between two phases.Oxygenation is the main aim of aeration, the
other aim is to remove volatile matter H2S, NH3, etc from water sample. Gaseous substances
dissolve in water and form near product, such reaction is called as hydration.
+
HCl (g) + x H2O H (H2O) X + Cl (aq)
H2S H + (aq) + HS - (aq)
Above reaction is reversible, aeration is dehydration also which results to gases from water. This
type of equilibrium reaction is as per Henrys law some aeration methods are as follows:
1. Air stripping
2 .Spray aeration
3. Cascade aeration
4. Diffused aeration
5. Multiple-tray aeration
*Filtration;
It is a simple process of removing solids from liquid fluid through porous medium fine
porous, course, medium has been used.In this case artificial filter medium, nets, sand filter etc.
are used.For filtration flow pressure is required which can be obtained by gravity or pressure
applied from external sources.
Activated carbon (A.C), a natural material which is obtained from lignite, bituminous,
wood, coconut shell, etc.Activation is done by steam or by other methods. Different coal has
different adsorption / absorption property. For sweet taste, we can use coconut charcoal.
Activated charcoal is hydrophobic as well as oleophilic. Chlorine along with its various by
products are adsorbed by charcoal.Some volatile compounds are also adsorbed by alachlor
atrazine, benzene, carbofuran, carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), 2,4, Ddibromochloropropane Cis 1-
3 dichloropropylene, toxaphene, chlordane, radon, London, simazine, PCB S, Toluene, xylenes
etc. The alachlor is a particular chloroacetanilide herbicide.
4. 1. 3 How to reuse activated charcoal:
The charcoal, which is used for cooking food, in barbecue bit is totally different from
activated charcoal.The absorptive and adsorptive power of activated charcoal is greater than
normal charcoal.The porous form of activated charcoal makes it more beneficial, like backing
out the odors and induce high reactivity, we can reuse activated charcoal for two to three hours
till the pores are completely blocked, blocked or outdated charcoal is washed, Cleaned
thoroughly with hot (steam) water under pressure so that we can achieve pored form of carbon
again,
Above activated charcoal should be dried fully
The above charcoal should dry in oven kept above 150 0c, the above charcoal should be
spread in the form layer so that uniform heating will be given.
The above charcoal should be baked in the above at 150 0c for 1 hour to remove all the
unpleasant odor and impurities if any.
4. 1. 4 How to clean activated charcoal:
A) Used activated charcoal is taken into mesh kitchen strainer and warm water is forced through
it to rinse all the impurities present in charcoal cavities continue the process for 2 to 3 minutes.
B) If you we keep the charcoal near ear we get subtle cracking, popping noise from charcoal. If
we fail to get such noise, then it is useless, we cant use further. Activated charcoal is somewhat
expensive, so it is better to generate activated charcoal by simple process.
4. 1. 5 How to regenerate activated charcoal:
Activated charcoal is soaked into the solution of hydrogen peroxide about 10% or we can
use distilled water (demonized) water. During this process, we should use gloves for safety
purpose. The mixture is stirred randomly after 15 minutes. Once the solution absorbed by
activated charcoal adds more solution to above and repeat it for two to three times. Final step is
to remove soaked charcoal dry it in sunny area otherwise, for speedy process, put into oven at
220 to 230 degrees Fahrenheit for approx 2 hours.
Activated charcoal has the following applications via absorption of poisonous gases,
infiltration of water, soil improvement and also in case of odor absorption. Activated charcoal is
one of most non toxic substance which can be applied in the medical field. It is derived from
simple wood, charcoal, etc. Charcoal is porous, better absorptive product and can be available in
market, department store, online also, in hardware stores, pet shops etc..
4. 1. 6 How Activated charcoal can be applied for absorption purpose:
It we put powdered form activated charcoal in one pan and put into refrigerator than the
unwanted odor from the freeze is absorbed. We can keep the tray inside till the odor
vanishes.Smelly shoe rack also prevented by keeping charcoal powder (into plastic bags) after
few days smell removed totally.
Basement with musty odors also gets cleared, if we put shallow pan with activated
charcoal in different area. If there is a moisture problem, then continue the application of
charcoal powder is must.If we keep charcoal sachets into bed room closets, garbage pails, living
space which can remove odors, pet odour, smoke, fume, garbage odor even diaper pad odour is
also removed.
Bone char, coconut shells, peat, petroleum coke, olive oil, and coal saw dirt, a raw
material which is used to prepare activated charcoal by an oxidation process by using air/steam
at highest temperature. Charcoal briquettes; Some material which is useful for making activated
charcoal may also used to in making charcoal briquette. Agricultural waste, and other dry
biomass also used in making briquettes. In commercial charcoal the toxins are present, which are
similar to lighter fluid.All types of briquettes are harmful to human being.Briquettes of charcoal
are used as fuel in 3 rd world counties, (poor catogary) owing this reason it becomes expensive,
the charcoal briquettes are used to control odor in garages, closet etc.
People are now days concerned with contaminants, present in their water supply, which
may cause taste, odor problems.The waste water, which is coming from Industries, leaking of
underground storage tank releases the contaminants in the environment and are listed as,
Benzene Chlorobenzene, trichloroethylene,CCl4 (carbon tetra chloride), CH2Cl2 (methylene
dichloride), and Vinyl Chloride. Some examples of pesticides such as Atrazine, which can cause
health diseases, if are above the level of EPA. The activated charcoal (AC) can filter organic
chemicals as well as certain harmless bad smell producing compounds present in water or
drinking water supply.Some quantity of drinking water is infected by chlorine or chloramines,
the organic matter, which is present in water, (drinking or domestic wastewater) reacts with
chlorine (Cl2 to form some compounds like trihalomethane (THMS) as a byproduct.
These by-products may cause cancers. As per EPA the limit of THMS should not be
more than that of 80 ppb.The activated charcoal filtration is good to remove chlorine,
chloramines and some byproducts too.Lead, from old pipe lines, soldering joints comes in
contact with water and can be filtered by charcoal.Not single treatment method is available for
water purification which removes all the contaminant present in waste water sample.Hence we
should treat domestic waste water with combination of two or more combined carbon filter
technique, which still does not remove contaminants at maximum efficiency.
Bacteria and viruses i.e (microbial contaminant) from waste water samples are not
removed by carbon filters, the metallic ions like calcium, magnesium from hard water sample
also not removal by filter, some other ions like fluoride, nitrate and other compounds are not
removed by charcoal filters.There are various filters sediments or (mechanical) filters which are
filtering particles with different size and other are adsorptive or reactive filters which absorb
water contaminants.The contaminants attached to absorbent and held on the surface. The carbon
characteristic is responsible for adsorption efficiency, which is completely depends upon the
nature of particle size, pore size, surface area, density and hardness of absorbent. Adsorption
process also depends upon concentration, a tendency to leave the water, solubility, contaminant
attraction towards the carbon surface.
In order to improve the quality of activated charcoal it is treated with an acid or coated
with some compounds to enhance the removal speed of contaminants from waste water. The
adsorption process depends upon the contact time, the greater contact time leads to more
adsorption i. e, maximum contaminants are removed from waste unwanted water, and the
substance which gives bad taste and odour are removed by adding small quantity of activated
charcoal. Once the adsorption site is reached to its capacity, then it stop its working, where it is
saturated and it will not absorb/adsorb any contaminants.If one of the adsorption membrane is
exhausted then there should be other membrane as an alternative otherwise it will not filter
contaminable water, but it will become more contaminated.If we want the process breakfree we
should use or shut down the water supply after certain time either, we should change filter.Use
two AC filters and cartridges in a series can be a safeguard against the breakthrough. Most
powerful absorbent known is activated charcoal, which is basically solid in nature, which is
made up of pure carbon.
Porous structure is one of the main important characteristic features of carbon. The
surface area available is about 1500 m2/gm. Solutes as well as gaseous components (adsorbates)
adsorb on the surface of charcoal (AC). It is a physical state i. e, there is no chemical reaction
observed between solute and adsorbent. There is vander-waal force present between these
layers, an attractive force that bind solute as well as gaseous particles or molecules. Various
pores which are present in charcoal, they get opened due to steam heat. Inside the AC there are
two type pores micro pore and macro pores.The macrospores or transport pores are responsible
for showing direction or pathway to adsorbates or solute or organic particles towards the
adsorption site.
The macropore size is exceeding to 500A0.Transport or macropore network should be
distributed through carbon particle in order to take particles, waste particles, organic compounds
to smaller pore sites. The pore size of diameter 50 A0 is said to micoropore or also said to be
finest pores which are also said to be adsorption pores which are present inside the carbon
particles where adsorption phenomenon is observed. Methylene blue adsorption is one of the
best common parameters which is useful to check the power of adsorption of A. C. The actual
size of methylene blue particle is 12 of which will not adsorb on the charcoal surface as the size
of pore size smaller than 12 Ao, i.e.with better pore size will not give better methylene blue value
and will work or adsorb impure particles with very smaller size too.
4. 1. 7 Applications of charcoal in various fields:
* A, C reduces BOD, COD, Colour from domestic as well as industrial waste water.
* Air, Gas mask, also in purification of drinking water.
* Compressed air moisture from paint shop also gets absorbed by A. C.
* Swimming pool, soft drink plant is dechlorinated by A, C (Activated charcoal)
* Oil from vapours get absorbed and also vapours from stream of gas.
* Insolvent and gold recovery.
* Some dissolved organic impurities are absorbed by A. C.
* It is also used as catalyst carrier in petroleum Refineries. Some industrial gas, CO2 is removed
by AC (activated charcoal). Plasticizer, glycerin, fine chemicals, dyes intermediates are
decolorized by AC. There are many properties of activated charcoal among these properties,
some are explained here which indicates that the AC is versatile.
* High modulus, rigidity, strength, thermal conductivity, chemical resistivity, also non corrosive.
* In whitening the teethes- stain from tea, coffee, some wine or food material adhere to teeth and
teeth become reddish and a bad odor comes from the mouth, but after applying AC powder the
pH is balanced and it improves the oral health. It is also useful to prevent tooth cavities, dirty
smell and other gum related diseases. Small tidbits, plaque, are adsorbed by charcoal and makes
the teeth white (clean).
Another type of charcoal can be made from Bamboo stick, which can filter hard water
sample chlorine chloramines compounds are filtered by charcoal.One most important advantage
of bamboo charcoal is that it mineralized the water. Potassium, magnesium minerals is added to
water. Bamboo charcoal is having fine porous structure. 1 gm high quality charcoal of Bamboo
has greater surface area which is as equal as 3 tennis courts. Working like sponge and absorb
many different impurities into the sponge. Generally filtering ability is greater than wood
charcoal owing to the large number of porous cavities.
4. 2: SAP WOOD MEMBRANE
4. 2. 1 Introduction and scope
Conversion of dirty lake water into drinkable water by using peel is one of the most
important methods to purify waste water sample. Slowly if we pour waste water sample through
this peel (wood), bacteria are trapped, leaving us drinkable water, uncontaminated water. Water
and minerals are absorbed by plants. The cambium ring is present in the plant. Xylem, porous
tissues are present in the tube. Xylem tissue, a younger wood lies in between concentric circles.
These are present in between the bark and central heart wood.
The pit membranes, which are also called tiny pores, are scattered throughout vessel
walls, which allow sap for flow from one to another vessel. The pores which are present are also
trapping air, if these air bubble increased in wood, then it can be spread into xylem also, which
ultimately kill the plant.A small piece of sapwood can filter 99 percent of E. coli from water.
Sap wood is a smooth portion which covers heartwood.The heartwood is the Heartwoodrt which
is hard and central portion of the tree.It contains various materials which deposits and gives
darker colour.
 On the contrary sapwood is soft, young outer part of the tree, but lies in between
cambium and heart wood.This layer is permeable, less durable and usually not that much darker
in colour than heartwood.The sapwood is almost creamy white, yellow in colour and 2 to 5 cm
thick. Maximum species shows a clear difference between sapwood and heart wood.
4. 2. 2 Chemistry of wood
From species to species the chemical composition varies, but near about 50% carbon, 6%
hydrogen, 42% oxygen,1% nitrogen, while 1% other elements viz Calcium, Potassium, Sodium,
Magnesium, Iron, Chlorine, and other element are also present in small quantity.Apart from the
water the wood is also composed of cellulose, a crystalline substance.The percentage is 41 to 43,
about 20 % in deciduous while 30% in conifers. It is five members ring which in an irregular
manner. In contrast to cellulose, lignin a very important part wood presents, near about 27% in
coniferous while 23% in deciduous trees.
Sapwood is outermost, living woody portion of the branch or stem. Heartwood is dead
part of the tree. It is a major part of the tree which supports the tree or gives strengthen, as per
earlier discussion sapwood and heart wood can be distinguished by color.Sapwood, a wood
formed under the bark covered by a thin layer called cambium, stem size increases every year,
because of new layer formation.
Tissues:
Tissues are formed from small cells, generally there are two types of tissues, one is
meristimatic and other is permanent tissues. Meristimatic tissues are divided into Apical,
Intercalary, Lateral or cambium, Vascular and Cork etc.While permanent tissues are of two types

Figure.4. 4: Different types of tissues.

 One simple and other is Complex.Simple tissues further divided into the parenchyma,
collenchymas and Sclerchyma, while complex tissues are of xylem and phloem. Xylem and
phloem are very important permanent tissues which are helping in the absorption of water and
minerals from the soil.
Parenchyma:
It is a thin walled live tissue with isodiametric cell. Intercellular space is present among
them. Parenchyma is main storage part of the plant.Chlorenchyma is a green part of
parenchyma.Owing to green part it is helpful in the photosynthesis process. If there is space
which may contain large air or maybe an air chamber present in the parenchyma than it is said to
be aerenchyma.Hydrilla is one of the best examples of this type.
Collenchymas:
Similar to parenchyma, a live tissue, but the wall is a thick isodiametric cell. Cellulose is
deposited at certain corners due to which it becomes thick walled, due to this reason the space is
reduced.It is working as mechanical tissue in dicot aerial young organs and also in some
Gymnospermic plants.Generally it is absent in underground parts and in monocots also.
Sclerenchyma:
Cells present in Sclerenchyma is somewhat hard, thick, lignified and is dead tissue.Cells
are very compact due to which there is space observed among the cells. If we take transverse
section the cells are appear to be elongated vertically, polygonal in shape. There is no
protoplasmic content. From the external side cell wall is thick, very hard because of presence of
lignin or deposition of it.Generally all vascular plants contain this type of mechanical tissue.
Complex tissue:
Xylem-It is also said to be wood, it is a vascular tissue with complex structure. Xylems
nature is heterogeneous with four different constituents, namely tracheids, vessels, xylem fibers
which are also said to be wood fiber, and parenchyma of xylem also called as wood
parenchyma.Except xylem parenchyma remaining constituents are dead.As these are dead cells
because of presence of wall with hard lignified and the wall is not having any protoplasmic
material.This clearly indicates that only xylems living species is xylem parenchyma.
Some functions of xylem are mentioned here.
1. In the plant a strand of vascular is formed with the help of phloem and xylem.
2. As per earlier discussion soil is composed of water and minerals, from that root of plants it is
absorbed it, the xylem which is only the living part of the plant absorb it and transport to the
different parts of the plant body.
3. As we have already discussed about its hardness and lignified nature which make it as one of
the most important mechanical tissue material in the gymnosperms and also in ducts especially
the organs of older parts of the plants.
Trachieids:
It is a main water conducting material in the species pteridophytes and in gymnosperm. It
is present in various vascular plants. The wall present is hard lignified and is tubular, elongated
in shape.Some functions of trachieds are maintained here
1. Water and minerals are conducted by the present cells
2. It is alo useful to give the mechanical support.
Vessels:
Conducts water and highly important and specialized material of the plant. Generally,
these vessels are absent in plants like pteridophytes and also on gymnosperms. Perforated either
completely or partially cross walls or end walls are present in vessels. Lumen observed in a
vessel which is large. A system which is like a pipe is observed in vessels and these vessels are
end to end arranged systematically, so that it can carry or conducts water and minerals very
efficiently in the plant. Some functions of Vessels are maintained here,
1. Similar function like trachieds ie. Conduction of mineral and water
2. It is also useful to give mechanical support.Annular, Spiral, Scalariform; reticulate, pitted are
different parts of trachieds and vessels which are formed due to lignin pattern observed on their
wall.
Xylem fibre:
It is also called wood fibre, it is having a tapering end, which is elongated and also
observed as a dead cell.These are with lignified wall and where there is absent of lumen.The
main function of xylem fibre is only to support which we called mechanical and there is no
conduction observed in this type. Xylem membrane consists of Xylem parenchyma, Primary
xylem, Secondary xylem, which is explained in detail here with their position and
functions.Various thickenings observed in the xylem membrane, which is shown in fig no 4.5.
The thickening is depend on the type of lyer sitiuated in the internal wall of xylem.It is a central
part of the wood, which decides either wood is hard or soft.

Figure.4. 5: Structure of xylem fiber, a tissue present in cambium.

Xylem parenchyma:
It is also called wood parenchyma, one of the important living materials. Cellulose
containing thick or thin walled cell wall which is observed in the present xylem parenchyma.The
main function of xylem parenchyma is to storage the food material only.
Primary xylem:
Embryo originates this xylem, which comes from apical Meristem. Generally observed
in young organ.This xylem is divided into protoxylem (first formed) and metaxylem (later
formed).Following are the various types of primary xylem a) In stem, endarch xylem is
observed b) In root region,exarch xylem is observed c)In Rachis and in leaflets, mesarch xylem
is found.Especially in cycus plant this type xylem is observed.
Secondary xylem:
Vascular cambium activates, at the time of secondary growth and gives this xylem
secondarily.Generally it is observed in older parts of the plant body, especially in the stem, roots,
of type dicot and gymnosperms.This type of xylem is totally absent in the young parts of the
plants.Monocots and Pteridophytes do not show this type of secondary xylem.
Phloem:
 Another name for phloem is bast and lepton. It is a tissue useful to conduct food
material.It is one of the tissue which living and complex in structure. Some functions of phloem
are mentioned,
1) A solute or organic food is conducted from the green part of the plant, especially leaf to non
green parts of the plant and stored
2) From the storage region again solute or organic matter is transferred to different parts of the
plant body
3) As a mechanical tissue its role is minor. Following are the important parts of phloem as it is
heterogeneous. a) Sieve tubes, b) phloem fibres, c) companion cells) phloem parenchyma
a) Sieve tube One of the important materials of the phloem, highly active, efficient, principal,
food carrier part of the plant. Sieve plates which are end walls. These are supported by
particular areas said to be sieved. Strands of cytoplasm vertically interconnected through sieve
tubes with each other. These tubes are very unique and are without a nucleus. Deposition of
cellulose along the walls of these tubes makes them thicker.
b) Companion cells- These are also called sister cell. There is a close association between sieve
tubes and the companion cells. There is a presence of dense cytoplasm in the companion
cell.The cytoplasm is with distinct nucleus.Helps in the function of sieve tubes.
c) Phloem fibre or bast fibre- They have tapered ends with very long cells. As usual due to
deposition of cellulose the wall becomes very thick and so that it can give good mechanical
support.These fibres are not useful in conduction of water and minerals. d) Phloem
parenchyma-These are also called living cells interconnected with phloem material, generally
working as storage material.

Figure.4.6: Structure of phloem fibre, a tissue present in cambium

Similar to xylem, the phloem is also having two types of phloem as primary and
secondary, the primary phloem is present in the younger parts of the plants while secondary
phloem is present in the older parts of the plants.Apical meristem and vascular cambium
originates the primary as well as secondary phloem respectively Dicots and gymnosperm only
shows the growth of secondary phloem.
4. 2. 3 Study on pine wood
Karniks team worked on pine wood filtration, they concluded that small piece of
sapwood can also filter 99% of E
E- coil from waste water sample. To check potential, the Karnik
team collected
llected white pine branches which are stripped off (outer bark), they fix the wood into
plastic tubing, which was sealed with epoxy and secured by clamps.
 Figure.4. 7: Wood showing cambian ring xylem and phloem and its fixation in tube
(Karnik ref)

Figure.4. 8: Trapped bacteria in a tissue cell. (Courtesy: Google)

4. 2. 3 Neem stick used for water filtration;
*Scientific Classification;
*Kingdom-plantae
*Division-Magnoliophyla
*Order-Sapindales
*Family-Meliaceae
*Genus-Azadirachta.
It is fast growing, reach up to 20 m (about 65 feet) height plant, some time grow up to
131 feet also. It is an evergreen plant. Some time on drought condition it may lose all leaves.
Branches are huge and spread all over. Neem products used in India over two millennia. They
also used as antifungal, antibacterial purpose. Some time some Neem products are used as
antiviral, anti diabetic contraceptive, sedative etc.. Every part of Neem tree used in medicine,
especially for skin diseases.Some part of neem can be used as spermicidal also.
Neem oil used in cosmetic products, in skin care such as acne treatment.For mosquito
repellent neem oil is used.Neem can damage more than 500 types of insects, mites, ticks and
nematodes.It does not kill but can be useful to stop the growth. Neem oil is also used as pest
control. For treatment of chicken pox, Neem leaves are applied. If we take Neem tea, it can
reduce headache and fever.Neem leaves are used as an analgesic, cure fever malaria diseases

Figure.4. 9: Actual photograph secondary Branches of Neem tree.

(Courtesy: Google)

Figure.4. 10: actual photograph Neem twigs, used as sapwood filler.

More than 135 compounds are isolated from different parts of Neem plant. The
compounds which are formed from different parts of Neem plant, are divided into two major
classes.Iso prenoids like diterpenoids and triterpenoids etc., while non isoprenoids are proteins
(amino acids) and carbohydrates (polysaccharide) sulfurous compounds, flavonoides, glycosides,
dihydro chalcone, coumarin, tannin, aliphatic compounds etc.. Nimbidin is a major bitter
compound extracted from oil of seed, tetranortriterpenes, including Nimbin nimbolide, nimbidic
acid has been taken.
Neem compounds show some biological compounds:
*Anti-inflammatory
*Antiarthritic
*Antipyretic
*Hypoglycemic
*Ant gastric ulcer
*Spermicidal
*Antifungal
*Diuretic
*Antimalerial
*Antitumor
*Immunomodulatory etc.
4. 2. 4 Ayurvedic uses of NEEM:

Table. 1 Ayurvedic Applications of Neem plant

Part Medicinal Use

Leaf Skin ulcers Leprosy, eye

Problem, epistaxis
Intestinal worms, anorexia,
Biliousness, skin ulcers.

Bark Analgesic, alternative and

Curative of fever.

Flower Bile suppression,

Intestinal worms and
Phlegm elimination.
Fruit Piles, intestinal worms, urinary
Disorder, epistaxis phlegm, eye
Problem, diabetes, wounds
and leprosy
 Twig Cough, asthma, piles, phantom
Tumor Intestinal
Worms, spermatorrhoea
Obstinate, urinary disorder,
Diabetes

Gum scabies wounds, ulcers,

Skin diseases

Seed Leprosy and intestinal worms

Oil Leprosy and intestinal worms

Table.4. 1: Applications of different parts of neem in medicinal field.
Everyday Neem consumption keeps cancer away.Neem has many medicinal uses but if
we consume Neem every day it kill the cancerous cells.Every human bears cancerous cells in the
body, but are not that much organized. The organization of these cells depends upon the
situation created by human being in their body. Collection of these cells at one place can create
a big problem. The cancerous cell keeps under control by Neem consumption. Our body is full of
bacteria, which are present in a body beyond our imagination.Most of the bacteria which are
present in our body are used for digestion purpose without which we cant survive the life.
Some bacteria which are harmful to body, our body constantly fight with them and spend
maximum energy in defense, when our body fails to fight with them, then we feel down, as our
energy lost against fighting bacteria.By using Neem plant internally as well as externally we can
easily manage these bacteria in such way that it will not go out of control.If we consume Neem,
it destroys troublesome bacteria in the intestinal region, so that our colon will become clean and
will be safe from infection if any.
If the body gets smelted on certain part then it is clear that some bacteria are growing
there. Every one suffers from minor skin diseases, but if we clean out the body with Neem than
it become clean, radiant too, Neem paste rubbing on the body before bathing, keep dry for some
time, wash it, which make the body clean and will act as good antibacterial cleanser.Alternately
we can keep the Neem leaves in water overnight and that water can be utilized for taking bath.
The Neem plant generates heat, which is supportive to generate energy in the body Woman
should avoid to consume Neem during pregnancy period or if she planning to conceive.
Neembark.It is not used as much as its seed and leaves. Slightly used as it is hard, dry. The green
stem part leaves, are used herein filtering membrane so that bacteria virus, can be trapped in it
and filtered water is free from all unwanted bacteria.

Flame of forest Delonix regia (The Gulmohar tree)

*Kingdom- Plantae
*Angiosperm
*Order- Fabales
*Family- Fabaceae
*Sub- family - Caesalpinioideae
*Genus - Delonix
*Species - D. regia
*Origin Madagascar
Gulmohar flowers in different month in different country:
Bangladesh April- may
Hawelli- May-June
South Florida- May -June
Israel- May -June
Manitius- November December
Honey- Kong- May June
Zambia and Zimbabwe: October December.
Egypt- May June
Vietnam- May June
Thailand- April -May
Caribbean- May- September
Indian subcontinent- April-June
Brazil- November December
Southern Sudan- March May
Philippines- April-May
Peru- Jan- March
Another name for above plant is built monospermous. Threes trees are available which
are commonly called the flame of forest. These tress belongs to various genera.
1) Butea-monosperma or Palash tree
2) Delonox regia or Gulmohar tree
3) Spathodea or African tulip tree.
Flame of forest-Gulmohar tree, Latin name Delonix regia Family- Fabaceae. Other
names to this plant are flame tree, flamboyant, gold mohar royal, Poinciama. Gulmohar tree, one
of the beautiful tropical trees on earth.Its height is about 2025 feet maximum up to 50 feet.It is
evergreen, deciduous with highly broad spread branches everywhere like umbrella.During
summer it shades its leaves, but in other season it looks green.Grows well in tropical and
subtropical area.In shaded area it doesnt grow.Its flowering tree bears red crimson orange, rarer
yellow coloured floured flower.The salty conditions also bear by such type of tree so it can grow
in coastal area also.Large leaves are there, which are doubly pinnate with 20-25 pairs pinnate,
among this each bears 30-60 opposite leaflets.Feathery feel with green color.
The branches which use used in research work are smooth, break easily and can be used
feasibly for research work. The young stem, external bark (some part is cut and some are kept in
long form) and put into membrane so that microbes present into domestic waste water are
trapped into it.The flowers use 5 petaled, out of which one is of different colour.All petals are
claw shaped; this petal has red flecks with white to yellow blotch.These flowers are bisexual and
pollinated by birds.
 Figure.4. 11: Actual photograph of Gulmohar tree, (fire of forest).
Mature seed pods; extremely long seed pods flattened with strap shape. It bears near about 50
seeds in each. At maturity, seed turns brown.
4. 2. 5 Applications of Gulmohar tree:
This plant is grown in garden, road side as an ornamental plant.Valuable shade provided
by this plant during summer season.Seeds are useful in artificial Jewellery. Gum which is
obtained from seeds (especially dried seeds) which as used as binder for tablets. E. g paracetamol
etc.. The bark is used in antipyretic medicine.In Thailand inner part of the seed is eaten by
locals.The seeds are useful in medicine as it gives 18 to 30% fatty oil which is known as pangam
or karanga oil of commerce.
In tanning industry, this seed oil is used. The oil obtained from the seed is used as
insecticidal and for antibacterial purpose.Some pharmaceutical industries use oil seed for the
preparation of soap.After use of seed oil, the waste oil cake, which is a side product, can also be
used as fertilizer.As a carminative the seeds are used, which purifies and enrich the blood. In
case of inflammation, ear ache, chest ache oil can apply. For lack insects it is acting as host.
4. 3 WET LAND MEMBRANES
4. 3. 1 Introduction
A constructed wetland is useful to treat waste water sample which is thrown to rivulets by
society after their basic use, but it can be recycled by wetland membrane. The wetland
membrane uses natural vegetation, special quality soil, organisms which are used to treat waste
water sample. The wetland is used to treat pollutants, sediments, heavy metals from water. There
are two types of wetlands one is subsurface flow and other is the surface flow wetland. The
plants which grow on wetland absorb contaminants from waste water sample. The filter bed used
in wetland system may contain sand and gravel too.Root, stem, leaves are the substrates provided
by vegetation on which there is growth of micro-organisms, which are helpful to break down
organic matter.
This micro-organism community is known periphyton.This periphyton and various
chemical reactions which are taking place in the wetland are useful to remove about 90% of
pollutants from waste water sample.We can grow various types of plants into wetland, which
may absorb heavy metals.In the subsurface flow constructed wetland, the wetland is vertical
flow, where waste water after treatment, move vertically through substrate root, and stem etc.
While in case of horizontal, substrate movement is horizontally, parallel to surface.

Figure.4. 12: Constructed wetland for water treatment with wet well, cover
 Figure.4. 13: Constructed wetland with different pipe set set up.
Vertical flow constructed wetland is more beneficial then horizontal one, because it
occupies less space.Different waste water sample such as agricultural, house hold, and paper mill
waste water, mining runoff, tannery or meat processing waste etc.Can be treated by wetland
construction methods.The water sample after treatment with wetland filtration can be reused for
irrigation, household toilet, fishing purpose, for street gardening, washing railway platforms,
heavy utensils from Industries (huge boilers) etc.
The effluent which is obtained from base passes through different layers (filter beds) as
grain size is decreased towards the basal side, i.e from the gravel side towards the sand side. This
treatment is based on biological, physical method like adsorption; filtration and
nitration.Mosquito growth is the biggest problem in surface wetland compare to subsurface
wetland where there is no problem of water exposes. The mosquito problem can overcome by
adding Neem sticks, leaves of Neem to the wetland tanks. In order to avoid order some quantity
of ash can be added to the wetland tank. The present research work is based on the subsurface
wetland type as it occupies less space and can be handled by anyone, which can benefit to
society in the future to filtrate their own water and can be reused again.
 Figure.4. 14: Constructed wetland without pipes (with gravel setup)
The surface flow wetland is good for wildlife as it requires more land, one more
advantage of this method is there is no sludge formation, and hence there is no problem of
disposal, there is no need of primary and secondary settling tanks also. Free water surface
constructed wetland is also said to be surface flow wetland which is used to treat waste water
effluent, which can also be used to storm water drainage. As water from such wetland is directly
coming in contact with sunlight, so organic matter present in a wastewater sample destroyed
naturally, hence it is called natural decay, which destroys the pathogens also. Direct sunlight
(ultra violet radiation), natural decay, sedimentation destroys pathogens, hence this type of
wetland cannot be selected for present research work, and deep sub surface wetland gives
priority here.
4. 3. 2 Wetlands Science
*Role of wetland plants in wastewater treatment
The plants which grow in a wetland system provide maximum surface area to attach and
to grow microorganism. The components of the plants are playing a vital role in this system,
usually stabilizes surface area of the bed and flow of water is also controlled. It also plays a role
in sediment settling, trapping process, etc. Here water transparency also increases. Wetland
entrophication is prevented by nutrients retention and removal by plants which grow in wetland.
 Figure.4. 15: structure of aquatic plant with rhizome (root) used to absorb minerals.
The marshy plants like reed Phragmites karka and cattail Typha angustifolia are excellent
examples which hold or uptake nutrients. This plant shows large biomass both in the leaves as
well as in underground roots, stems. The plant tissues spread or grow vertically horizontally
creates a matrix, which is useful to bind soil particles. Plant tissue contains hollow vessels enable
the oxygen to be travelled from leaves to root and root to soil of surrounding (Armstrong et al
1990; Brix and schierup 1990).

Figure.4. 16: Subsurface constructed wetland with clay, sandy layer.

This oxygen activates microbial activity. The decomposition of organic matter proceeds
fast, owing to oxygen rich substances, metallic ions are absorbed and waste water is cleared.
The wetland plants are performing following function;
*Physical:
Plant bed surface stabilize by macrophytes which provide better condition for filtration
and also gives large surface area for microbial growth, and for sedimentation
*Soil hydraulic conductivity:
 In emergent plant bed system soil hydraulic conductivity is improved. Root mass does
turnover owing to which macro pores are formed in the CWTS soil, which is an excellent
process for water percolation, which increases the interaction between effluent and plant.
*Release of organic compounds:
Through root system, plant releases numerous organic compound at a rate up to 20 to
25% of photo synthetically carbon.This carbon is acting as food for denitrifying micro-organism
(bacteria), source (Brix-1997), the plant biomass which are decomposed also act as a carbon
source for microbial activity. Microbial growth of macrophytes provides a large surface area for
microbial growth, which form biofilm for various microbial activity, these films are responsible
for nitrogen oxidation, reduction process.

Figure.4. 17: Aquatic (grass) which can grow in wetland for water purification.
*Creation of aerobic soils:
Nitrification process takes place at root and rhizome level, where aerobic degradation of
organic (biomass) matters taken place. Macrophytes transfer oxygen through hollow plant tissue
Wetland plants are adapted with submerged and lignified layers which are present in outer cortex
and hypodermis which losses least oxygen to the surrounding.
 Figure.4. 18: Lotus plant can grow in water for purification
*Constructed wetland mechanism:
In the form of orthophosphate, dehydrated orthophosphate, (polyphosphate) and organic
phosphorus, phosphorus observed in waste water.Owing to biological oxidation process,
phosphorus is converted into ortho phosphate forms (H2PO4-, PO4-,PO4---) In the soil media
phosphorus components are mixed, which are removed by certain physico-chemical reaction, viz
adsorption, complexation, precipitation etc., These reactions may involve Ca++,Fe++,Se+++,Al+3
ions.
4.3.3 Nitrogen fixation by wet soil:
The soil, which is under water, is lack of oxygen, which is said to be anaerobic. The
organic matter present in water is decomposed by anaerobic and aerobic microorganism.
Nitrifications, the denitrification process evolves nitrogen. Phosphorus gas, which is co-
precipitated with Al, Mg, Fe, etc.. Bacteria and virus which are harmful reduced due to filtration
and are absorbed by biofilms. Ammonia is removed through wetland treatment, which is
removed from Nitrogen cycle
NH3 (g) NH4+ ion Nitrite Nitrate.
Organic and Inorganic nitrogen containing compounds are converted into a more oxidized
state by biological process by using bacteria.It is a strictly aerobic process which gives the final
product NO (nitric oxide). Ammonia from the waste water sample is converted into nitrogen
oxide. Nitrite is oxidized to nitrate.
 Figure.4. 19: Root nodules used in the nitrification process.
*Denitrification:
It is a biochemical reduction reaction, where nitrogen anion is oxidized and converted to
NO, nitrous oxide (N20) with N2. The N20 and N2 are in a gaseous state and enter into the
environment. The algae, which grow in water is the only source of phosphorus, an element
unlike N2. Constructed wetland itself is only part which can remove or store phosphorus from
wastewater samples.
 Figure.4. 20: Flow diagram of Nitrification process.

Figure.4. 21: Systematic representation of Nitrogen cycle

*Metal removal:
Wetland constructed is useful to remove metals and metalloids. Generally, these metals
are present in an oxide form and come from mine Industries, storm water, and landfill leachate
etc.
1) How does wetland treatment work?
2) Why to build a wetland treatment (plant);
3) How are they built?
4) Design and planning consideration;
4. 3. 4 How does wetland treatment work?
Both human being and wildlife can get the benefit of wetland construction, as it performs
many functions. Among important functions one of most important function of wetland
construction is water purification.Many suspended particles are settled at the bottom, as they are
trapped by vegetation.Microorganism requires necessary condition which is faster by wetland
plant.The micro-organism removes or transforms pollutants from water sample.From storm
water runoff nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus are deposited into wetland, also from area
where fertilizer and manure is spread; various nutrients are absorbed by soil.Wetland, which
contain microbes are useful to convert organic nitrogen into useful inorganic forms like NO3,
NH4 + which are necessary for plant growth.
4. 3. 5 Why to build wetland:
 Wetland is biological natural ecosystem which is applicable in improving water quality
which support wild life habitat.It is cost effective and most feasible method of waste water
treatment, this method has less maintenance expense.It is useful to remove odour from waste
water sample.Habitat creation for compensation to natural wetlands which are useful for
agricultural, urban growth, also improvement in water quality.It is also useful to control flood on
large scale.This system motivates local resource applications,which is environmental friendly.It
is created on lower cost than other treatment process,it is based on low technology method, also
relies on renewable sources of energy. E. g. Solar and kinetic energy, wetland plants, micro-
organism too
This wetland system can consume both small as well as great volume of water which is
coming from sources like municipal and domestic wastewater, urban storm runoff, wastewater
from agricultural, waste water from Industries. Polluted surface water from river, lake etc. The
C. W. T. S. promotes certain potential user's voice, government departments, tourism Industry,
private entrepreneurs, residences, aquaculture Industries and agro industries etc.
4. 3. 6 How are they building?
At large scale if anyone wants to build wetland, then it should away from natural wetland
to avoid damage of natural one.In the past, CWTS (constructed wetland treatment system) were
used to treat low volume of waste water which includes degradable organic matter. The aim of
CWTS is to reclaim and reuse. Now days CWTS are used worldwide for the waste water
treatment purpose. Some countries like the United States, New Zealand and Australia showing
lot of interest in CWTS (Constructed wetland system).While in European countries CWTS are
used for providing secondary treatment especially in village area where domestic sewage
treatment is done. CWTS is energy efficient, economically attractive, and also provide high
standard.