Mitochondria occupy a substantial portion of the cytoplasmic volume of eucaryotic cells,

and they have been essential for the evolution of complex animals. Without mitochondria,
present-day animal cells would be dependent on anaerobic glycolysis for all of their ATP.
When glucose is converted to pyruvate by glycolysis, only a very small fraction of the total
free energy potentially available from the glucose is released. In mitochondria,
the metabolism of sugars is completed: the pyruvate is imported into the mitochondrion and
oxidized by O2 to CO2 and H2O. This allows 15 times more ATP to be made than that
produced by glycolysis alone.
Mitochondria are usually depicted as stiff, elongated cylinders with a diameter of 0.51 m,
resembling bacteria. Time-lapse microcinematography of living cells, however, shows that
mitochondria are remarkably mobile and plastic organelles, constantly changing their shape
(Figure 14-4) and even fusing with one another and then separating again. As they move
about in the cytoplasm, they often seem to be associated with microtubules (Figure 14-5),
which can determine the unique orientation and distribution of mitochondria in different
types of cells. Thus, the mitochondria in some cells form long moving filaments or chains. In
others they remain fixed in one position where they provide ATP directly to a site of
unusually high ATP consumptionpacked between adjacent myofibrils in a cardiac
muscle cell,

3.

The nucleus can be thought of as the control center of a eukaryotic cell because it contains
most of the genetic material that carries the instructions for the cell's operations. Inside the
nucleus, DNA directs the sequence of chemical steps needed for the synthesis of proteins
and, by way of the proteins' action, it controls the metabolism of the rest of the cell.
Inside the cell's nucleus rests a long molecule called DNA. This strand of genetic material
contains the instructions needed to build a body, influence its behavior and drive the
chemistry of the cell itself. These instructions are coded as a sequence of nucleotides called
genes that can be read by single strands of nucleotides called messenger RNA. Messenger
RNA reads off the sequence of instructions coded in the DNA, alters its shape in response to
the exact sequence it has read and passes out of the nucleus to instruct the cell's internal
machinery in the steps needed to synthesize proteins. Some of these proteins help digest
food, some build or destroy other proteins and some are useful in transporting chemicals
through the wall of the cell. Very nearly every action the cell takes is in some way influenced
by the DNA of the nucleus.