NON TIDAL ALLUVIAL RIVER

Papers
This task is structured to meet the Rekayasa Sungai courses taught by
Dr. Very Dermawan, ST., MT.

By :
Mutiara Atthahirah 155060400111007
Faris Abdurrahman 155060400111015
Kamilia Kusumawardhani 155060400111027
Arfinsyah Hanandha Sukoco 155060400111029
Ayu Khurotul Aini Amalia 155060400111037
Novi Fadhilah Rahma 155060401111001
Nabilah Zahra Ayu Rizqy 155060401111010
Siire Halimathussadiah 155060401111044
Dwi Laksana Aji Putra 155060401111052

BRAWIJAYA UNIVERSITY MALANG

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING
September 2017
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 General
Tides is a process of periodic increase and decrease in the sea water as a result of
the influence of gravity the moon and sun. The process of periodic is a natural process by
which the incident happened in a repetitive manner so that it can help it is predicted. In
contrast to the wave that is the incident random, tides are periodic so that it can help
determined with certainty scene of tides. Alluvial is the type of land that formed because
the sediment. Regional precipitate happening in a river, lake which is located in lowland,
or the basin allow for the sediment.
Sediment is the deposition of the material rock transported by water, wind or
glaciers. Where the deposition of the material rocks can occur around water flow in rivers,
beach, the seabed, lake, and the mainland particular. Sedimentation by river water
produces notching nature, namely delta, flood plains, meanders, and fan alluvial. The
content of non-tidal alluvial river are about introductory matters, river hydrolics, river
survey, river models, and river engineering.

1.2 Limitation of Problems

1. What are the characteristics of non-tidal alluvial river?
2. How sediment transport on the non-tidal alluvial river?
3. How the quality of non-tidal alluvial river water?
4. How the water movement of non-tidal alluvial river?

1.3 The Purpose

From the limitation of problems above we have some purpose to be reached, in
example as follow:
1. To know what are course the characteristics of non-tidal alluvial river.
2. To know sediment transport on the non-tidal alluvial river.
3. To know the quality of non-tidal alluvial river water.
4. To know the water movement of non-tidal alluvial river.
1.4 The Benefit
If the goal to above can be good achieved, it will give you some benefits, among
others:
1. Provide insight about importance of the characteristics of non-tidal alluvial river.
2. Provide insight about importance of sediment transport on the non-tidal alluvial
river.
3. Provide insight about importance of quality of non-tidal alluvial river water.
4. Provide insight about importance of water movement of non-tidal alluvial river.
 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

2.1 Non-Tidal Alluvial River

Non-tidal river is a river which water levels are not influenced by tidal forces. The
non-tidal river is usually located in the upper river area. Upper river is part of the river that
is located at the very beginning or the highest of the river. Topography in the upstream
region usually consists of steep mountain slopes and its geologic conditions consist of hard
rock layers. The valley in the upper part of the upstream is V-shaped river, and has a rapids
flow, so it calls rapids river. In non-tidal rivers the water level is strongly influenced by the
large flow of water that flows in the river.

2.2 The Characteristics of Non-Tidal Alluvial River

The Characteristic of the river classified into four parts, there are:
1. The channel
Rivers vary in appearance from trickles running through gullies to mighty channels
suitable for ocean-going vessels. It will be clear that the primary function of a river channel
is the conveyance of water and sediment. This will be furtner described in general terms in
the next three sections. It should be appreciated that this primary function cannot be
stopped. Nor can the long-term average be changed by measures carried out in the river
bed. Thus alterations in space and time can only be made within the context of an ultimate
equilibrium. Whereas the equilibrium of local scour at a groyne or a bank can usual1y be
well taken care of, problems in connection with the equili-brium state of morphological
processes of long duration are sometimes pushed aside to be solved later. Yet, weirs which
initially stop part of the sediment transport must ultimately pass the average load;
reservoirs inevitably silt up sooner or later. Because many of the larger riv er works are
quite young from a morphological point of view, the river channel and river valley are still
in the process of adapting to a new equilibrium. Here the engineer is confronted with
problems which touch on those dealt with by geo-morphologists.
Changes in discharge cause changes in water level in a river channel. At very high
discharges a river channel overflows its bnks on to the adjacent land. This periodically
flooded land is called the flood plain. Whilst in the upper reaches the flood plains are
usually narrow or even non-existent, in the lower reaches of a river the flood plains can be
tens of kilometers wide. In areas with population pressures the flood plains are usually
reduced in width by dikes.

2. The catchment area

Eagleson (1970) calls the combined surface and subsurface system the drainage
basin and calls the surface system the catchment, whilst he defines the catchment area as
the horizontal projection of the area enclosed by the catchment boundary. The main river
flowing to the sea or to an inland lake is fed by numero us tributaries and also by smail
gullies through which water trickles from rain, snow, ice or from a subsurface source. The
area which is so drained is called the drainage area, drainage basin or catchment area.
Usually this definition suffices. There are instances, however, where the boundaries ofthe
subsurface drainage system do not coincide with the boundaries of the surface drainage
system. A catchment can be described in terms of size, topography, geology, vegetation
cover and surface drainage pattern. The main characteristic of a catchment is its area. Au
analysis of the area A as a function of its mainstream length L is given by Eagleson (1970)
as presented bellow. A further analysis of the catchment topography includes the shape.
Eagleson intro duces the largest width B of a catchment and expresses the shape in two
ways:
A
the catchment planform factor m and
BL
B
the catchment aspect ratio a
L
 Correlation between catchment area and mainstream length (after Eagleson,1970)

The dotted line shows the relationship between A and L. It appears that larger
catchments are usually somewhat more elongated than smaller ones, but there is on the
whole a fair sirnilarity in shape. The sirnilarity of the shape of catchments is greatest
within the same catchment: sub-catchments and main catchment often have similar
characteristics. This is the reason why the aspect ratios of sub-catchments and ofthe main
catchment tend to be the same.

3. Rainfall-runoff
The most conspicuous feature of a river channel, apart from its size, is the
hydrograph. A hydrograph is a time-series of water level data or discharge data. The
primary data consist of water level observations and discharge measurements from which a
stage discharge rating curve is established. The amount of this information time-wise
depends on the period of water level observations. Because these data are of a stochastic
nature, and the engineer often requires information on extreme high or extreme low water,
long time-series are needed. Now existing water level observations can only be extended if
a great deal of time (years) is available and, therefore, recourse to already existing and
longer time-series of related even ts is sought. Because rainfall data are usually available in
longer time-series than water level observations, one then tries to establish the relation
between rainfall and discharge.
 There is a large amount of literature on this subject because it has proved
impossible to describe the process of rainfall turning into runoff in terms of physicallaws
supplemented by areasonabie quantity of physical data of the catchment area. This is
because of the complexity of river basins.
The first object of parametric hydrology is to determine the relation between
rainfall and runof. As in the Stanford Watershed Model this relationship can be used to
investigate changes in the hydrograph due to changes in the catchment area. An
introduction to the effects of watershed changes is given by W. L. Moore and Morgan
(1969).
As mentioned earlier, the rainfall-runoff relationship, in combination with long
time-series of rainfall data, can be used to calculate long time-series of discharge data
when observed discharges (water levels plus rating curve) are of too short a duration for
the solution of a particular problem. When stillionger time-series are required, data
generation techniques can be applied. First the deterministic elements (evolving according
to a fixed mechanism) and stochastic elements (evolving entirely or in part according to a
random mechanism) are separated.

4. Sediment yield
Sediment is partly of mineral and partly of organic origin. The mineral part
originates from the decomposition of rock. Large pieces of rock have the same mineral
composition as the mother rock but further weathering usually causes a separation of the
minerals and eventually each sediment partic1e is of a homogeneous composition. For
example, granite becomes sand and c1ay. Clays are the weathering products of silicates:
feldspars, hornblende, micas and other silicates.
The total sediment outflow from a catchment area passing a control station for that
catchment area is called the sediment yield. It can either be expressed in tonsper annum, in
tons per square kilometre per annum, or in m3 per square kilometre per annum. The latter
denomination is the average denundation or degradation speed of the catchment area in
mm per thousand years. Sediment yield expressed in tons or m3 km-2 per annum is also
referred to as sediment production rate or as specific annual degradation.
The speed of erosion usually varies from one point to another, and when particles
move from an area of great erodibility to an area of smaller erodibility, the second area will
silt up (aggradate). Thus part of the sediment yield of the former area does not pass
through. It follows that the sediment yield of a catchment area is usually smaller than the
sum of the sediment yields of its sub-systems. This is expressed as a percentage or a ratio
between the sediment yield of the whole catchment area and the total on-site erosion in that
area: the sediment delivery ratio. Whilst the sediment delivery ratio of small areas
approaches 100%, the sediment delivery ratios oflarge areas ean be lower than 10%
(ASCE, 1970).

2.3 Sediment Transport on the Non-Tidal Alluvial River

When flow conditions reach the critical stage, the loose bed material starts moving.
While observing increasing flow velocity on a sand bed in a laboratory flume, the
following picture is seen. Above a certain flow velocity individual particles start moving
along the bed: rolling, sliding or making small jumps. At higher velocities more particles
move at increasing speeds. For fme sediment some grains are carried away from the bed by
turbulent velo city fluctuations and they remain suspended for some time.
The sediment transport can be classified according to origin and mechanism as in
the following scheme: Bed load (transport) is defmed as the transport of bed material by
rolling and sliding. In water, saltation can be neglected (Kalinske, 1942) due to the small
difference in density between water and sediment. Suspended load (transport) is defined as
the transport of sediment which is suspended in the fluid for some time.
In some cases a free exchange of the bed material load with the bed is not possible
due, for instance, to the presence of gravel layers. In that case the sediment transport may
be smaller than the transport capacity of the flow: the sediment transport then depends only
on the sediment supply to the reach. For an alluvial channel, however, the sediment
transport is generally equal to the transport capacity of the flow, with a few exceptions if
the flow conditions show relatively abrupt changes in space or time.
The methods available for roughness prediction all deal with steady and uniform
flow. This is a drawback since in nature the discharge usually varies with time. Moreover
straight channels are exceptional in nature. Therefore, the accuracy of the predictions
cannot be very good. For river studies it is advisable to select a predictor on the basis of
available observations and to use the predictor to extrapolate to circumstances for which no
data are or will be available.

2.4 The Quality of Non-Tidal Alluvial River Water

The quality of river water - which is of ten affected by discharges of untreated or
partially-treated sewage and trade wastes and other pollutants is generally expressed in
terms of physical and chemical standards. Although the pollution may be caused by
physical, chemical and bacteriological agents, it is in fact a biological phenomenon and it
is therefore essential to give some basic information on some aspects of the biology of
stream life.
1. Biology of stream life
Of the stream flora, the bacteria form the smallest group, a!though one of the most
important. The fungi rely on organic matter for their nutrition just as the bacteria do. The
algae form a diverse group of simple pigment-bearing plants which are able to manufacture
their own food. Apart from these forms there is macro vegetation, consisting mainly of
mosses and flowering plants.
The stream fauna can be roughly classified into several groups. First there are the
microscopic unicelluiar Protozoa which show a great diversity of species. Then there are
the flatworms (Plat yhelminthes), the non-segmented round worms (Nematoda), the
Rotifera (wheel animais) and the segmented worms (Annelida).
A river, however, cannot be considered as an isolated aquatic environment.
Because of the flow of water through the habitat, organisms and organic and mineral
materials are lost by the community and eventual1y pass into the sea. Without gain of
material from environments outside the river itself, the river would become infertile and
barren.
Matter entering the streams comprises material of different energy levels. Nutrient
salts such as nitrates and phosphates may come from the drainage area of the river. These
mineral salts may increase the growth of algae, thereby boosting the primary food cycle.
2. Sources of pollution
Waste waters come from five primary sources:
- municipal sewage,
- urban runoff,
- in dus trial wastewaters,
- agricultura! runoff,
- nature.
As municipal and industrial wastewaters are gradually receiving more treatment,
increasing emphasis must be placed on the pollution effects of urban and agricultural
runoff. Agricultural runoff is a major contributor to eutrophication in lakes and other
natural bodies of water. Effective control measures have yet to be developed for this
problem. Runoff of pesticides should also receive increasing attention. Oil pollution from
municipal and industrial sources and from urban runoff causes increasing difficulties in
densely populated areas. The spread of waterborne diseases through infected river water
can often be traced back to pollution by sewage and urban runoff. In some cases the river
can be polluted by natural sources such as minerals from its watershed or large amounts of
detritus from swamps and marshes.
Bacteria are present in sewage and stormwater runoff in many millions per milli
litre. Most sewage bacteria are relatively harmless and feed on dead organic matter. The
pathogenic bacteria, however, which cause disease in humans and animals are important
from the point of view of public health. Pathogenic organisms have been detected in
effluents from many sewage treatment plants because the biological treatment hardly
reduces their number. There is still insufficient evidence to prove that virus infections in
humans and animals are waterbome, but the contrary has not been proved either.

3. Oxygen balance
The concentration of dissolved oxygen and its distribution in rivers depends on the
balance between the processes which supply oxygen and those which consurne oxygen.
The most important supplies are from absorption of atmospheric oxygen and from
photosynthesis; an additional source is oxygen due to reduction processes such as
denitrification. The major consumption is through the oxygen demand of the organic
material, followed by the oxygen requirements for the nitrification of all nitrogen
compounds and the benthal oxygen demand of the sludge deposits on the bottom of the
river. Finally there is the respiration of algae and zooplankton.
When some waste exhibiting first phase carbonaceous oxygen demand has been
discharged into the river, the k va1ue in the river lies between approx. 0.2 and 0.3 (per
day). In some cases the BOD of the effluent is not a good measure of the oxygen demand
and other methods have been developed for that purpose. But none of the Chemical
Oxygen Demand (COD), the Total Organic Carbon (TOC) or the Total Oxygen Demand
(TOD) tests have given satisfactory results, and their interrelationship is still open to many
questions (Davis, 1971).
Benthal deposits in a river or a reservoir will affect the quality of the overlying
water, because the organic matter in these deposits will have a certain oxygen requirement.
In principal there are two distinct processes taking pI ace between the deposit and the
water above it (Ogunrombi and Dobbins, 1970).
 The other process concerns the organic material which is transferred from the
henthai deposit to the water flowing above, thereby increasing the BOD of this water.
Under aerobic conditions the rate of both processes is independent of dissolved oxygen
concentration, but it is obvious that when the overlying water is anaerobic, the first-
mentioned processes will be hampered by a lack of oxygen. The total oxygen demand of a
benthal deposit never reaches the potential aerobic demand of the sludge, whereby a
shallow deposit satisfies a greater percentage of its potential demand than the deeper
deposits. This can be explained by the anaerobic decomposition of the deeper layers which
produce some end products which cannot be oxidized.

2.5 The Water Movement of Non-Tidal Alluvial River

Phenomena in rivers may vary considerably in magnitude, both in time and space.
In most cases, however, they have two elements in common: the movement of water and of
sediment. This chapter presents an analysis of the knowledge of water movement in rivers.
It is to be considered as a tooI to be used in subsequent chapters, either directly for studies
of rivers and river works, or through the intermediary of mathematical or scale modeis.
Each application needs careful investigation of the type of mathematical procedure to be
used; the degree of detail required will vary from one application to another. In this
chapter, therefore, an attempt is made to indicate what is and what is not important in
certain practical situations. However, it is not meant as a series of prescriptions.
The water movement of non tidal alluvial river are content by:
1. Steady Flow
The dynamics of river flow is influenced basically by the bottom shear stress.
Without information about it the set of equations derived in the preceding section cannot
be solved. However , theoretical treatment of the bottom stress can only be applied to the
very special case of steady, uniform, two-dimensional flow. The simplest approach is to
assume that the turbulent stress will behave in the same way as the viscous stress. The
latter is negligible except very near the river bottom. A coefficient of turbulent viscosity or
eddy-viscosity can be defined by :
u
xz
z
For sub-critical flow, however, the influence of the downstream condition does extend
upstream. Therefore the following rule applies: for sub-critical flow the boundary
condition should be specified at the downstream section, for super-critical flow at the
upstream section. n the subsequent region the velocity maximum shifts outwards from the
inner bank and consequently the flow is not uniform. Further details on the lateral
distribution of flow are still the subject of research, for which the reader is referred to
Rozovsk (1957) and de Vriend (1976).

2. Non Steady Flow

The discussion of unsteady flow in this section is limited to long waves, i.e . waves
with length much greater than the depth of water. Theoretical considerations defining a
long wave are to be found in, for example, Stoker (1957) where a large number of
theoretical results are also given. In rivers, most kinds of waves except wind waves can be
considered to be long. The main part of the following discussion is devoted to flow in
channels or rivers, i.e. in one spatial dimension.
An important engineering question is the maximum water level, discharge or
velocity occurring in a river. It should be realized that two types of maxima can be
discemed: local andflood maxima. A local maximum is the largest value observed in the
course of time at a fixed position. This is the type usually of interest. A flood maximum is
the largest value observed along the river at one particular instant.
Van de Nes and Hendriks (1971) described a correction for the effect of the inertial
terms in which these terms were approximated using the kinematic-wave equation. The
above-mentioned uncertainty of the reference situation remains and this may be more
important than the influence of the inertial terms.
It can be concluded that linear models like these offer rather restricted possibilities.
They have, however, one important advantage, namely that they can often be solved
analytically, avoiding numerical computations. Preissmann (1971) states that this property
can be applied, for example in the optimization of water resource systems where the flood
wave propagation is only one ofthe components.
Rivers play an important part in both the transport of wastewater and the transfer of
heat from cooling water circuits. Here, the case of neutrally buoyant quantities is
considered, Le. wastes or pollutants in small concentrations and with small temperature
differences. These assumptions do not cover, for example, the flow near a cooling water
outlet, where density differences may not be negligible. Such cases are outside the scope of
this discussion.
2.6 Use of Non-Tidal Alluvial River
This non tidal alluvial river wishes to change the natural water levels for the
purpose of pondage (watersupply, hydropower), increased water depth (navigation), or
increased head(energy) and they may bene fit from each other or their interests may clash.
A. Navigation
It may be argued that navigation should not be the first aspect treated sin ce that may
create the impression that it is the most important usage of a river, which it of ten is
not. The question then arises which aspect is the most important, and a general answer
cannot be given because there are rivers large and small, majestically flowing through
wide meanders or rushing down in torrents, passing through uninhabited areas or
through the most industrialized parts of the world. These circumstances determine
which aspects, which usages of a particular river are most important.
For a specific river, the trade increases in the downstream direction, since international
trade is sea-oriented. It is fortunate , therefore, that the navigational potential of rivers
also increases in the downstream direction.
B. Hydropower
As indicated by the name, hydro-electric power plants produce energy in the form of
electricity. Since there are other possible methods of electricity production, the
decision to construct a hydropower plant must be evaluated against the economic and
other merits of alternative plants. The alternative plants use coa1, natural gas, oll or
nuc1ear energy as a primary energy source, a1l ofwhich cost money to buy.
C. Water supply
The title 'water supply' is normally used in the context of water for domestic and
industrial purposes. This section wiIl mainly deal with domestic water supply aspects;
there are some remarks on industrial water supply, coo1ing water and agricultura1
water aspects at the end of the section. Some small, unpolluted rivers are used
exclusively for water supply. When the low flow of such a river falls short of the water
demand, reservoirs can be constructed and, in fact, thousands of water supply
reservoirs have been constructed throughout the world. Problems with respect to
intakes and reservoirs are similar to those for irrigation but on a different scale because
irrigation may require 10-100 times as much water as domestic and industrial users.
D. Irrigation
When soil conditions, temperature and sunlight permit the growth of crops but there is
insufficient precipitation, the diversion of river water to make up the water deficiency
will make agriculture possible. This water gift to plants other than from natural rainfall
is caUed irrigation. It is always concemed with a redistribution of water in space.
When combined with storage reservoirs, a redistribution in time is also obtained. How
important is irrigation? Addison (1961) estimates that, very roughiy, less than 10% of
the present world food production comes from irrigated or artificially drained land,
and that less than 5% of this total food supply depends upon the control of water on an
engineering scale. This shows how modestly science, labour and capita! spent on
irrigation projects contribute to the increase offood for the world masses. On the ot her
hand, the technical and administrative sophistication of irrigation projects, the
increased reliability of crop production and the concentration of people because of
high yields per hectare in irrigated areas have contributed significantly to the
formation of nuclei of civilization, also to developments outside the field of
agriculture. Although some authors feel that irrigation on a sizeable scale could only
have developed in an already fully developed social and political structure, it seems
more likely that the gradual eniargement of irrigation projects required increasingly
elaborate cooperation and management and that, therefore, response to this challenge
was at least one of the causes, for example, for the emergence of incipient cities in
Sumer, and for a unified monarchy in Egypt (Hammond, 1972).
E. Planning, legislation
It has been shown above that a river can have many uses. It will also be clear that the
merits of a particular river development are not easy to establish. Even if all
advantages and disadvantages, all bene fits and costs, could be expressed in monetary
terms, it is still questionable which objective should be achieved. A task force reported
to the USA Water Resources Council in 1970 that the following objectives should be
distinguished:
(i) To enhance national economie development by increasing the value of the
nation's output of goods and services and improving national economic efficiency.
(ii) To enhance the quality of the environment by the management, conservation,
preservation, creation, restoration, or improvement of the quality of certain natural
and cultural resources and ecological systems.
(iii) To enhance social well~being by the equitable distribution of real income,
employment and populatioh, with special concern for the incidence of the
consequences of a plan on affected persons or groups; by contributing to the
 security of life and health; by providing educational, cultural, and recreational
opportunities; and by contributing to national security.
(iv) To enhance regional development through increases in a region's income;
increases in employment; and improvements of its economic base, environment,
social weU-being, and other specified components of the regional objective.

2.7 Introducion of Water-movement Non-Tidal Alluvial River

Phenomena in rivers may vary considerably in magnitude, both in time and space.
In most cases, however, they have two elements in common: the movement of water and of
sediment.
The complexity of mathematical procedure to be used depends strongly on the
number of dimensions involved. Flow in rivers is generally variabie in time: it is unsteady.
For some practical applications, however, the variation may be con sidered so slow that a
steady (or quasi-steady) flow situation can be assumed. Considering the spatial distribution
of flow, it can be conc1uded that it is essentially three-dimensional, Le. the direction and
magnitude of the flow vary from one point to another.
Detailed knowledge of this three-dimensional flow structure in rivers is still very
limited, but for many (but not all) engineering applications it is sufficient only to have
information about certain mean values. Depending on the type of mean value required, a
number of situations can be identified:
(i) a two-dimensional situation is obtained by averaging over the depth of the river at a
particular point; the resulting velo ei ties are still variabie both in longitudinal and lateral
directions.
(ii) a quite different two-dimensional situation is obtained by averaging in the lateral
direction. The resulting values then depend on longitudinal and vertical coordinates.
(iii) final1y, by far the most important case is the one-dimensional situation, obtained by
averaging over an entire cross-section. The resulting values depend only on the
longitudinal coordinate. For many practical purposes this is the type of information
required and therefore an important part of the present chapter is concemed with one-
dimensional treatments.
2.8 Basic equations of Water-movement Non-Tidal Alluvial River
The three-dimensional equations of motion describe the conservation of mass and
the conservation of momentum as expressed by Newton's second law (Lamb, 1963;
Oswatitsch, 1959). For the present purposes, they are conveniently written as:
conservation of mass

conservation ofmomentum

Figure 2/2.1 Coordinate system

A right-handed coordinate system is used, as shown in Fig. 2/2.1. The components
of velocity in the x, y and z directions are denoted by U, Vand W respectively; g is the
acceleration due to gravity and Zw is the water level above a horizontal reference level. A
few approximations have been incorporated in these equations and they should be stated
explicitly. Firstly, the fluid density p has been assumed constant which may not always be
true since suspended sediment may cause a variabIe density. Such cases need a separate
treatment (see Section 3.3). Secondly, the geostrophic acceleration due to the rotation of
the earth has been neglected. It can be shown to be unimportant for rivers not exceeding
several kilometers in width. Thirdly, in order not to burden the discussion unnecessarily,
the terms describing viscosity have been omitted. This is justifiabIe for practically all
applications described here, as the turbulent stresses, discussed in Subsection 2.2.1, are
much more important. However, for completeness, Eqs (2.1-5c, d) give the full results
including viscosity. Finally, it is noted that the third momentum equation for the vertical
direction has been omitted. This is justified by the assumption that the vertical
acce1erations in the fluid are negligible compared to gravity. In rivers, this is gene rally
appropriate. As a consequence, the acceleration due to gravity is balanced only by the
vertical gradient of pressure P:

which can be integrated directly to

assuming the pressure to vanish at the water level zw. This expression has already been
incorporated in the pressure-gradient terms in Eqs (2.1-2a, b), resulting in the surface-slope
terms Zw/x and Zw/y.
Generally , river flow is turbulent, which means that the velo city components and
pressure fluctuate about their mean values U, U, w, Ti;

where the prime denotes the deviations from the mean (Hinze, 1975). The timeaveraging
procedure, implied in this definition, requires an averaging interval of, say, several minutes
in order to elirninate the turbulent fluctuations. The longterm variations due to, for
example, flood waves do not disappear in this operation. Consequently the 'mean' values
are still smooth functions of time (see Fig. 2/2.2). When applying this averaging procedure
to Eqs (2.1-1) and (2.1-2),

Fig. 2/2.2 Averaging of turbulent fluctuations. Note: this is a schematic representation; in

reality the time-scale of the mean velocity TI will be much larger relative to the time-scale
of turbulence
the convective acceleration terms which are quadratic in the velocity components result in
expressions like

where the horizontal bar denotes the mean value. Terms like uw' vanish because the mean
fluctuation is zero by definition. The additional term u'w', when multiplied by -p, can be
interpreted physically as a shear stress, called Reynolds stress, between horizontallayers of
water. It is caused by partic1es of water entering regions of a different mean velocity
because of the turbulent fluctuations. They accelerate or decelerate their neighbour
partic1es before returning to their mean positions and this has the effect of an apparent
shear stress. Five more stresses of this kind resuIt from the other terms. As the velo city
fluctuations in all directions will have the same order of magnitude, this will also be the
case for the Reynolds stresses. However, only their gradients enter into the equations. As
generally comparable variations in the Reynolds stress occur over much smaller distances
vertically than in lateral or longitudinal directions, the vertical gradients are the most
important ones.
Combining the approximations discussed above, the equations of motion become

represent the remaining stresses. As stated before, the contributions of viscosity have been
included in these equations for completeness; IJ is the coefficient of kinematic viscosity. In
most cases considered here the viscous stress es may, however, be neglected. Hereafter the
bars over the rnean va/ues wil! be ornitted as no unaveraged quantities wil! be used. Of
course, no system of differential equations is complete without boundary conditions. At the
river bottom the normal component ofvelocity must vanish:

Also the tangential velo city component must vanish (no-slip condition). No water can
cross the water surface , thus:

The condition of constant pressure at the surface has already been applied in Eq. (2.1-3). In
addition the stresses vanish at the surface, assuming wind influence to be absent:

2.9 River morphology

The study of river morphology attempts to describe and explain typical features of
rivers. These features are formed by a threedimensional time-dependent water movement
over a mobile bed and because of the complex phenomena involved, they cannot usually
be explained in detail; their treatment is mainly of a de scriptive nature. To this end
stochastic and simplified deterministic models are set up.

2.10 Sediment transport

In rivers, however, the boundaries are generally loose, leading to the complex
phenomena of interrelated water movement and sediment movement. For a basic
understanding of these morphological processes in rivers knowledge of sediment transport
is essential. On the one hand it provides the necessary information (notablyon bed
roughness) to be used for the computation of water movement; on the other hand it gives
the necessary insight into the mechanism of loose boundary hydraulics and river
morphology.
Sediment characteristics
Both cohesive and non-cohesive sediments take part in morphological processes.
For the non-cohesive sediments th ere is no physical-chemical interaction between
individual particles. Most of the treatment of sediment transport in this chapter will deal
with these non-cohesive sediments. For cohesive sediments the physical-chemical
interaction between particles plays a significant role. This is important for initiation of
motion (erosion of clay banks) and also for transportation (problems of flocculation for
instance). Problems of cohesive sediments will not be treated here; a general reference is
made to Graf (1971) for a comprehensive compilation of the existing literature. A first
measure with which to characterize non-cohesive sediments is the particle size or diameter.
There are various definitions for the particle diameter; common definitions are:
sieve diameter : size of sieve opening through which the particle will just pass;
nominal diameter :diameter of a sphere with the same volume as the particle;
sedimentation diameter: diameter of a sphere with the same density and same settling
velocity (fall velocity) as the given partic1e in the same fluid.
 REFERRAL LIST

Jansen, P.Ph, L. van Bendegom, J.van den berg, M. de Vries dan A.Zanen. 1979.
Principles of River Engineering The Non-Tidal Alluvial River. Pitman. London,
England.