Notes on activities for teachers/

technicians for Chapter 11

Activity 11.1
Fractional distillation of petroleum
This activity simulates the industrial distillation of petroleum (crude oil) in the laboratory.
Apparatus and chemicals
Bunsen burner teat pipette
heatproof mat beaker (100 cm3)
side-arm hard-glass test tube hard-glass (borosilicate) watch glass
bent delivery tube and rubber connection tubing mineral or ceramic fibre
four small sample tubes (min. size 20 mm 5 mm) wooden splints
(small test tubes can also be used) petroleum (crude oil) substitute
thermometer 0360 C with cork to fit side-arm test tube
Hazards
F, H petroleum substitute
Safety
Wear eye protection. The petroleum is highly inflammable and harmful.
Practical points
Real petroleum (crude oil) contains more than 0.1% benzene, which is carcinogenic. Therefore its use is
not permitted in schools in some countries, and in all cases it is inadvisable. Petroleum substitute, about
2 cm3, is used instead.
Side-arm boiling tubes produce more consistent results than boiling tubes fitted with bungs with two
holes, one for a thermometer and one for a delivery tube.
It is important to try the experiment beforehand. It may be necessary to add an additional low boiling
point fraction (such as cyclohexane) to obtain something distilling over below 70 C.
This is quite a messy experiment. If it is done regularly, it is probably best to keep sets of apparatus apart
from the thermometer and watch glasses dedicated to the experiment. This is because the apparatus is
difficult to get clean but it still works for this if oil residues are present.
The fractions increase in viscosity with boiling temperature and should become more coloured as the
temperature increases. With some artificial mixtures, the difference in colour can be difficult to observe.
The descriptions of smells vary from student to student, but students can be encouraged to liken them to
familiar smells (e.g. like lubricating oil).

Answers to questions
A1 The viscosity of the fractions increases with boiling point. This is related to the increased chain length
of the molecules in the higher boiling fractions the longer the molecules, the more they tangle up with
each other.
A2 The flammability of the fractions reduces as the molecular size and boiling point increase.

Cambridge University Press 2014 IGCSE Chemistry Notes on activities for teachers/technicians: Chapter 11 1
 Activity 11.2
Cracking hydrocarbons
The exact composition of petroleum varies depending on where it comes from, but most oil contains more
of the larger molecules than the smaller ones. The smaller ones, however, are more useful and therefore more
economically important. To increase the profit that can be made from a barrel of oil, the larger hydrocarbons
are broken down into smaller ones. This activity involves a small-scale version of this conversion, which is
performed in industry every day.
Apparatus and chemicals
two ComboPlates two lid 2 for the ComboPlate (with one long
syringe (1 10 cm3) and one short port)
straight glass tube (1015 cm piece) microspatula
two L-shaped pieces of glass tube mineral wool
silicone tubing (4 12 cm lengths) aluminium oxide
plastic pipette liquid paraffin , approx. 0.5 cm3
microburner filled with ethanol bromine water (less than 1%), approx. 3 cm3
Hazards
H bromine water
F ethanol or methylated spirits for microburner
Safety
Wear eye protection at all times during this experiment, including during set-up and dismantling. When
connecting up the apparatus, hold the L-shaped glass tubes near the end to which you are attaching the
silicone tube. This reduces the risk of breaking the glass and cutting yourself.
Ethanol is highly flammable. Always keep the microburner upright to prevent spills.
Bromine water is harmful and an irritant. Avoid contact with the skin and do not breathe in the fumes. If
you get bromine on your hands, wash them immediately.
Practical points
For the best results, the catalyst should first be heated strongly. Once this is hot, the paraffin can be heated.
The catalyst should continue being heated, with the occasional flick of the burner over to the paraffin it is
possible to see when it is boiling.
Gently depressing the syringe ensures that there is no suck-back, and that the gases flow through the
system to end up at the bromine water. When the syringe is empty, simply remove it, pull back the plunger,
re-attach and continue depressing it. This is a big advantage over the traditional version of this experiment.
The expected observations are that a gas is produced which turns the bromine water colourless. (If
there are difficulties in getting the bromine water to change completely, use a more dilute solution.) The
disadvantage of this experiment is that it is not possible to collect a full container of the product to show
that it is a gas at room temperature. However, it is possible to light any remaining ethene which comes out
of the open porthole on the lid over the bromine. An impressive 1015 cm flame can be achieved. Paraffin
does not catch fire easily.
Bromine water does not change colour when paraffin is shaken with it.

Cambridge University Press 2014 IGCSE Chemistry Notes on activities for teachers/technicians: Chapter 11 2
 Answers to questions
A1 The exact composition of petroleum varies depending on where it comes from, but most oil contains
more of the larger molecules than the smaller ones. The smaller ones, however, are more useful and
therefore more economically important. To increase the profit that can be made from a barrel of oil, the
larger hydrocarbons are broken down into smaller ones.
A2 The fact that the product is a gas while the reactant is a liquid suggests that the product molecules are
smaller (have shorter chains) than the reactants. The boiling point of the product is lower than that of
the reactant.
A3 With an alkene, bromine water is immediately decolourised from orange/brown to colourless. With an
alkane, there is no change.

Cambridge University Press 2014 IGCSE Chemistry Notes on activities for teachers/technicians: Chapter 11 3
 Activity 11.2 Alternative method
Cracking hydrocarbons
Apparatus and chemicals
boiling tubes aluminium oxide or porous pot fragments
large crystallising dish or trough liquid paraffin
large beaker bromine water
delivery tubing mineral wool
Bunsen burner clamp

Hazards
F liquid paraffin
H bromine water
Safety
Wear eye protection.

paraffin soaked broken porcelain

into absorbent or aluminium
wool oxide granules

delivery
tube

strong
warm heat

cold water bath

crystallising dish

Practical points
It is important to ensure that the bung and the boiling tube fit well.
It is important to prevent sucking back at the end of the experiment. To do this, a safety trap can be fitted
between the heated tube and the collection of the gas (see diagram) or a Bunsen valve can be fitted to the
end of the delivery tube.
Bunsen valves can be made by attaching a 3 cm long piece of clean, unused, soft rubber tubing to the
delivery tube, and then attaching a short length (12 cm) of glass rod, as shown in the diagram below. The
rubber tubing should be slit on one side along about 1 cm of its length in the direction of the tubing.

rubber tubing

end of slit cut glass rod plug

delivery tube with scalpel

Cambridge University Press 2014 IGCSE Chemistry Notes on activities for teachers/technicians: Chapter 11 4
 Method
1 Place a plug of mineral wool in the bottom of the boiling tube and gently press it in place with a glass rod.
Drop the liquid paraffin on to the wool, using a dropping pipette. Use enough paraffin to soak the mineral
wool completely. Do not use so much paraffin that it flows freely out from the mineral wool.
2 Clamp the boiling tube near the mouth so that it is tilted slightly upwards, as shown in the diagram.
Place a heap of catalyst (aluminium oxide or porous pot fragments) in the centre of the tube and fit the
delivery tube.
3 Set up the rest of the apparatus and the tubes for gas collection.
4 Strongly heat the catalyst in the middle of the tube for a few minutes, until the glass is up to a dull red heat.
Avoid heating the tube too close to the rubber bung.
5 While keeping the catalyst hot, flick the flame from time to time to the end of the tube for a few seconds to
vaporise some of the liquid paraffin. Try to produce a steady stream of bubbles from the delivery tube. Be
careful not to heat the liquid paraffin too strongly or let the catalyst cool down. Do not remove the flame
from heating the tube while gas is being collected.
6 When a steady stream of gas bubbles is established, collect tubes full of gas by holding them over the end
of the delivery tube.
7 When gas collection is complete, first remove the delivery tube from the water by tilting or lifting the
clamp stand. Only then stop heating.
8 Test the gas to see if it burns and then with bromine water.

Cambridge University Press 2014 IGCSE Chemistry Notes on activities for teachers/technicians: Chapter 11 5
 Activity 11.3
Comparing fuels
In this activity, students are asked to design an experiment to compare two fuels: one a fossil fuel and the
other a renewable fuel.
Apparatus and chemicals
The students have a diagram from which to plan their experiment, but the following apparatus needs to be
available to them.
two boiling tubes ceramic wool
stand and clamp liquid paraffin, approx. 5 cm3
thermometer (0 C to 100 C) ethanol
heatproof mat two small syringes or disposable pipettes
Hazards
F ethanol and paraffin
Practical points
Spirit burners could be used instead of the ceramic wool pictured in the diagram. This, however, makes the
planning more complex because it is more difficult to ensure that the amount of fuel used each time is the
same.
If the ceramic wool method is adopted, a suitable amount of fuel is 1 cm3, added using a small plastic
graduated pipette.
Paraffin produces quite a lot of sooty smoke when burnt and this should be taken into consideration when
thinking about ventilation and the number of students undertaking the practical.
More volatile hydrocarbons such as petrol (gasoline) are not suitable.

Assessment of skills AO3.2 (Planning experiments and investigations) and AO3.5 (Evaluating methods
and suggesting possible improvements)
This activity is designed to assess practical skills AO3.2 (Planning experiments and investigations) and AO3.5
(Evaluating methods and suggesting possible improvements). A suggested mark scheme for assessing these
planning and evaluation skills is included here.
As with all planning exercises, this cannot be used to assess skill AO3.1 (Demonstrating knowledge of
how to safely use techniques, apparatus and materials (including following a sequence of instructions where
appropriate)) because there are no detailed instructions to follow.
The activity could be used to assess skill AO3.3 (Making and recording observations, measurements and
estimates) and also skill AO3.4 (Interpreting and evaluating experimental observations and data) but it is not
ideal for either, and students with a poor plan would be disadvantaged when it came to assessing these skills.

Mark scheme
6 marks: Plan is written clearly so that another could carry it out. Variables are explicitly held constant
(same amount of water, same amount of fuel or same heating time); measurements accurately taken. Errors/
inconsistencies are spotted and improvements suggested or implemented (e.g. weighing fuel or minimising
heat loss); account may be taken of the sooty flame of paraffin.

4 marks: A plan is written which has a number of stages. Student makes an attempt to control the variables
(e.g. always using the same amount of water). Some comment is made about the reliability of the procedure
with a suggestion for coping with it.

2 marks: The student makes an attempt to write a plan with some success and may attempt some
modification while carrying out the practical work.

Cambridge University Press 2014 IGCSE Chemistry Notes on activities for teachers/technicians: Chapter 11 6
 Activity 11.4
Comparing different plastics
Different plastics have been devised for different purposes. This activity explores both the physical property
of density and the chemical properties of acid/alkali and solvent resistance of a range of different materials.
The results of the investigation can be linked with the uses to which the plastics are put.

The densities of different plastics

Apparatus and chemicals
scissors (strong enough to cut samples of different plastics (each student group
the plastic samples) could test three different plastics)
boiling tubes a series of liquids/solutions of different densities
rack for tubes (see table)
glass stirring rods

Liquid/solution composition Density / g/cm3

liquid 1 ethanol 0.79
liquid 2 596 cm3 ethanol + 439 cm3 distilled water 0.91
liquid 3 448 cm3 ethanol + 586 cm3 distilled water 0.94
liquid 4 distilled water 1.00
liquid 5 184 g of potassium carbonate dissolved in 965 cm3 distilled water 1.15
liquid 6 513 g of potassium carbonate dissolved in 866 cm3 distilled water 1.38

Hazards
F ethanol
Safety
Wear eye protection.
Practical points
The following table gives the density ranges of the most commonly used plastics.

Polymer Density range / g/cm3

EPS 0.020.06
PP 0.890.91
LDPE 0.910.93
HDPE 0.940.96
PS 1.041.11
PVC 1.201.55
PET 1.381.40

Cambridge University Press 2014 IGCSE Chemistry Notes on activities for teachers/technicians: Chapter 11 7
 The chemical resistance of different plastics
Apparatus and chemicals
expanded polystyrene cup dilute sulfuric acid solution (2 mol/dm3)
large beaker dilute sodium hydroxide solution (2 mol/dm3)
propanone test tubes
samples of various plastics test-tube rack
(e.g. polythene, polystyrene, nylon)
Hazard
C dilute sulfuric acid and dilute sodium hydroxide solutions
F propanone

Cambridge University Press 2014 IGCSE Chemistry Notes on activities for teachers/technicians: Chapter 11 8
 Activity 11.5
The nylon rope trick
This demonstration shows the production of nylon at the interface between two reactant layers.
Apparatus and chemicals
beaker (50 cm3 or less) distilled water
measuring cylinders (50 cm3 and 10 cm3) decanedioyl chloride
glass stirring rod cyclohexane
1,6-diaminohexane
Hazards
C 1,6-diaminohexane and decanedioyl chloride
F cyclohexane
Safety
Wear eye protection. Take care handling the solutions and the product; it is useful to wear disposable nitrile
gloves. Note that cyclohexane is flammable.
Practical points
It can be useful to add a few drops of phenolphthalein to the aqueous layer. This shows that the amine
monomer is alkaline, helps distinguish the two layers and is a useful visual addition.

Answers to questions
A1 HCl, hydrogen chloride, which will dissolve in the aqueous layer
A2 The diamine will react with the hydrochloric acid produced and so it is useful for it to be in excess.
A3 because the monomers have 6 and 10 carbon atoms in their chains, respectively

Cambridge University Press 2014 IGCSE Chemistry Notes on activities for teachers/technicians: Chapter 11 9
 Activity 11.6
Chromatography of amino acids
The artificial sweetener aspartame contains two amino acids. These are aspartic acid and phenylalanine.
In this activity, aspartame is hydrolysed by heating with hydrochloric acid (6 mol/dm3). The hydrolysed
product is then analysed by paper chromatography using amino acid standards to demonstrate their identity.
The amino acids are located using a UV lamp or ninhydrin spray. The activity can be extended to analyse
standard mixtures of amino acids and explore the use of two-dimensional chromatography.
Apparatus and chemicals
Stage 1: Hydrolysis of aspartame (Canderel or NutraSweet )
This is best carried out in one batch to provide material for all the groups to use in preparing chromatograms.
12 g aspartame
water-cooled condenser
hydrochloric acid (6 mol/dm3), 200 cm3
Bunsen burner or heating mantle
round-bottomed flask (500 cm3)
Stage 2: Paper chromatography
5 cm3 of the solution produced in Stage 1
100 mg activated charcoal
50 cm3 of solvent mixture for chromatography (ethanol : water : conc. ammonia in the ratio 80 : 10 : 10)
ninhydrin, 0.2% solution in propanone, stored in a spray bottle (Ninhydrin is also available
in a spray can as a 0.5% solution in butanol from some suppliers)
a UV lamp can be used as an alternative to show up the spots without the need for spraying
dropping pipette
measuring cylinders (5 cm3 and 50 cm3)
test tubes
small funnel and filter paper
chromatography tank or beaker (1 dm3) and cling film or aluminium foil to cover
chromatography paper (Whatman No. 1)
capillary melting point tubes
clips for paper
pencil
hairdryer or heat lamp
Reference amino acids:
1 cm3 of a DL-aspartic acid 0.01 mol/dm3 solution dissolved in 10% v/v propan-2-ol/water
1 cm3 of a DL-phenylalanine 0.01 mol/dm3 solution dissolved in 10% v/v propan-2-ol/water
Hazards
C hydrochloric acid (6 mol/dm3) and conc. ammonia
T, F ninhydrin spray in propanone or butanol
F ethanol
Safety
Wear eye protection throughout. Take care when using hot concentrated hydrochloric acid it is corrosive.
Wear thin surgical gloves when handling the chromatography paper.
The use of the ninhydrin spray is best carried out by the teacher and done in a fume cupboard. The
chromatogram must be hung up inside the fume cupboard to be sprayed.

Cambridge University Press 2014 IGCSE Chemistry Notes on activities for teachers/technicians: Chapter 11 10
 Answers to questions
A1 The carboxylic acid group, COOH
A2 a CONH
b COOC

Cambridge University Press 2014 IGCSE Chemistry Notes on activities for teachers/technicians: Chapter 11 11