Political science is the study of politics and power from domestic, international, and

comparative perspectives. It entails understanding political ideas, ideologies, institutions,

policies, processes, and behavior, as well as groups, classes, government, diplomacy, law,
strategy, and war.

the activities associated with the governance of a country or other area, especially the
debate or conflict among individuals or parties having or hoping to achieve power.
"the president's relationship with Congress is vital to American politics"
synonyms: government, affairs of state, public affairs;
diplomacy
"a career in politics"
the activities of governments concerning the political relations between countries.
plural noun: politics
"in the conduct of global politics, economic status must be backed by military capacity"
the academic study of government and the state.
"a politics lecturer"
synonyms: political science, civics, statecraft
"she studies politics"
Here are the basic differences between the two: A state is composed of territory, population,
sovereignty, and government. ... However, there are no such political classification of states.
While astate's powers are sovereign, those of a government are derivative (derived from
powers under authority of the state). A government is the political administration of a country
or state. A state is the geographic entity that has a distinct fiscal system, constitution, and is
sovereign and independent from other states as recognized by them. It is where
a government can exercise its powers.

Government is only an element of the state:

A State has four essential elementsPopulation, Territory, Government and
Sovereignty. Government is only one element of the State. It is just one part of
the State which acts for the state.

Government is an Agency or Agent of the State: Government is an agency

of the State. It acts for the state. It is that agency of the State which formulates
the will of the state into laws, implements the laws of the state and ensures
conformity to the laws of the state. Government exercises power and authority
on behalf of the state.

State is Abstract, Government is Concrete:

State is a concept, an idea or a name used to denote a community of persons
living on a definite territory and organised for the exercise of sovereignty.
State cannot be seen. Government is made by the people of the State. It is
formed by the representatives of the people. It has a definite and defined
organisation and form. It can be seen as a team of people exercising the
power of the State.

Government is organised only by a portion of the population of State:

The whole population is a part of the State. All the people are citizens of the
State. However, government is made by the representatives of the people.
Only some people, who get elected act as representatives of the people, form
the government of the State. Their number is limited to few hundred only. In
India around 5500 MPs and MLAs represent the total population of around
110 crores and exercise the political power at the centre and in all states of
India.

5. Membership of a State is compulsory but not of Government:

All people are citizens of the State. They together constitute the population of
the State. Each one normally gets the membership (citizenship) of a state
automatically right at the time of ones birth and continues to live life as such.
However, membership of the government is not automatic. No one can be
forced to become its part. Anyone can voluntarily seek an election, get elected
as a representative of the people and become a part of the government. Only
some persons form the government.

6. Sovereignty belongs to State and not to Government:

Sovereignty is the hallmark of the State. It belongs to the State. The
government exercises power on behalf of the State. It acts on the basis of the
sovereignty of the State. Sovereignty is comprehensive, absolute, unlimited
and all inclusive supreme power of the State. The government exercises only
well defined and limited powers.
7. Territory belongs to the State:
The State has sovereign ownership and jurisdiction over its territory. State is a
territorial entity and territory belongs to it. The government has the
responsibility to preserve, protect and defend the territory of the State. The
laws made by the government are applicable to all parts of the territory of
State but territory belongs to the State and not to the government.

8. Every State has uniformly four essential elements, however the forms
and features of Government differ from State to State:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

Each State has a uniform personality with its four essential elements
Population, Territory, Government and Sovereignty. However, governments
can be of different forms Parliamentary or Presidential, Unitary or Federal or
a mixture of these. A government can be monarchical or aristocratic or
democratic or a dictatorship. The people can by choice change the form of
their government. But the State exists independently and has a uniform
character.
9. State is Permanent, Government is Temporary:
Governments come and go regularly. After every general election the
government changes. It can also undergo a total change through an election
or even through a revolution. State is permanent. It continuously lives so long
as it continues to enjoy sovereignty. Independent India continues to live as a
sovereign independent state since 1947. However, she has witnessed the rise
and fall of several governments at the national and state levels.
Thus, there are several well-defined and well-recognised differences between
the State and Government. In common usage no distinction is made between
the two. A government department is often referred to as state department.

Like-wise State Transport, State College of Sports is really government

transport and Government College of sports. It is indeed a loose and inexact
use of the name State. A student of Political Science fully realises and
accepts the difference between State and Government.

A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which

a state or other organization is governed.

imple Curves
Terminologies in Simple Curve
PC = Point of curvature. It is the beginning of curve.
PT = Point of tangency. It is the end of curve.
PI = Point of intersection of the tangents. Also called vertex
T = Length of tangent from PC to PI and from PI to PT. It is known as subtangent.
R = Radius of simple curve, or simply radius.
L = Length of chord from PC to PT. Point Q as shown below is the midpoint of L.
Lc = Length of curve from PC to PT. Point M in the the figure is the midpoint of Lc.
E = External distance, the nearest distance from PI to the curve.
m = Middle ordinate, the distance from midpoint of curve to midpoint of chord.
I = Deflection angle (also called angle of intersection and central angle). It is the
angle of intersection of the tangents. The angle subtended by PC and PT at O is also
equal to I, where O is the center of the circular curve from the above figure.
x = offset distance from tangent to the curve. Note: x is perpendicular to T.
= offset angle subtended at PC between PI and any point in the curve
 D = Degree of curve. It is the central angle subtended by a length of curve equal to
one station. In English system, one station is equal to 100 ft and in SI, one station is
equal to 20 m.
Sub chord = chord distance between two adjacent full stations.

Sharpness of circular curve

The smaller is the degree of curve, the flatter is the curve and vice versa. The sharpness
of simple curve is also determined by radius R. Large radius are flat whereas small
radius are sharp.

Formulas for Circular Curves

The formulas we are about to present need not be memorized. All we need is geometry
plus names of all elements in simple curve. Note that we are only dealing with circular
arc, it is in our great advantage if we deal it at geometry level rather than memorize
these formulas.
Length of tangent, T
Length of tangent (also referred to as subtangent) is the distance from PC to PI. It is the
same distance from PI to PT. From the right triangle PI-PT-O,

tanI2=TR
T=RtanI2

External distance, E
External distance is the distance from PI to the midpoint of the curve. From the same
right triangle PI-PT-O,

cosI2=RR+E
R+E=RcosI2
E=RsecI2R

Middle ordinate, m
Middle ordinate is the distance from the midpoint of the curve to the midpoint of the
chord. From right triangle O-Q-PT,

cosI2=RmR
RcosI2=Rm
m=RRcosI2

Length of long chord, L

Length of long chord or simply length of chord is the distance from PC to PT. Again,
from right triangle O-Q-PT,

sinI2=L/2R
RsinI2=L/2
L=2RsinI2

Length of curve, Lc
Length of curve from PC to PT is the road distance between ends of the simple curve. By
ratio and proportion,
LcI=2R360
Lc=RI180

An alternate formula for the length of curve is by ratio and proportion with its degree of
curve.

LcI=1stationD
Lc=1stationID
SI units: 1 station = 20 m
Lc=20ID

English system: 1 station = 100 ft

Lc=100ID

If given the stationing of PC and PT

Lc=Stationing of PT Stationing of PC

Degree of curve, D
The degree of curve is the central angle subtended by an arc (arc basis) or chord (chord
basis) of one station. It will define the sharpness of the curve. In English system, 1
station is equal to 100 ft. In SI, 1 station is equal to 20 m. It is important to note that 100
ft is equal to 30.48 m not 20 m.

Arc Basis
In arc definition, the degree of curve is the central angle angle subtended by one
station of circular arc. This definition is used in highways. Using ratio and
proportion,
1stationD=2R360
SI units (1 station = 20 m):
20D=2R360

English system (1 station = 100 ft):

100D=2R360

Chord Basis
Chord definition is used in railway design. The degree of curve is the central angle
subtended by one station length of chord. From the dotted right triangle below,

sinD2=halfstationR
SI units (half station = 10 m):
sinD2=10R

English system (half station = 50 ft):

 sinD2=50R

Minimum Radius of Curvature

Vehicle traveling on a horizontal curve may either skid or overturn off the road due
to centrifugal force. Side friction f and superelevation e are the factors that will
stabilize this force. The superelevation e = tan and the friction factor f =
tan . The minimum radius of curve so that the vehicle can round the curve without
skidding is determined as follows.

From the force polygon shown in the right

tan(+)=CFW
tan(+)=Wv2gRW
tan(+)=Wv2WgR
tan(+)=v2gR
The quantity v2/gR is called impact factor.
 Impact factor

if=v2gR

Back to the equation tan ( + ) = v2/gR

tan(+)=v2gR
tan+tan1tantan=v2gR
Recall that tan=e and tan=f
e+f1ef=v2gR
But ef0, thus
e+f=v2gR

Radius of curvature with R in meter and v in meter per second

R=v2g(e+f)
For the above formula, v must be in meter per second (m/s) and R in meter (m).
For vin kilometer per hour (kph) and R in meter, the following convenient formula
is being used.

( )(
R= vkmhr 2 )
1000mkm1 hr3600 sec 2g(e+f)

( )
R=v2 13.6 2g(e+f)

R=v2(3.62)g(e+f)
R=v2(3.62)(9.80)(e+f)

Radius of curvature with R in meter and v in kilometer per hour

R=v2127(e+f)
Using the above formula, R must be in meter (m) and v in kilometer per hour (kph).

Problem 01 - Simple Curve

Problem
The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 45 30' and its radius is 198.17 m. PC is at
Sta. 0 + 700. Compute the right angle offset from Sta. 0 + 736.58 on the curve to
tangent through PC.

A. 2.98 m
B. 3.37 m
C. 3.09 m
D. 3.87 m

Solution

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Length of curve from PC to A:

s=736.58700s=736.58700
s=36.58 ms=36.58 m

Angle subtended by arc s from the center of the curve:

s=2R360s=2R360
36.58=2(198.17)36036.58=2(198.17)360
=10.58=10.58

Length of offset x:
cos=RxRcos=RxR
x=RRcos=198.17198.17cos10.58x=RRcos=198.17198.17cos10.58
x=3.37 mx=3.37 m [ B ] answer