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history-of-materials1metallurgical-heritage-of-india/
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(a) (b)
Although the Bohrs model was the first and best model
available at the time of its discovery, it had certain limitations
and could not explain many phenomena involving electrons.
Heisenbergs uncertainty principle:
The position and momentum of an electron can not be
determined simultaneously.
This also disapproves the hypothesis in the Bohr model
that electrons revolve around certain circular orbits.
Wave-Mechanical Model
The wave-mechanical or wave-particle model was
proposed to address the limitations in the Bohr model.
Orbital s p d f
No. of states 1 3 5 7
Quantum numbers
Spin quantum number, ms
Each electron is associated with a spin moment. The fourth
quantum number, ms is related to this spin moment of
electrons. It can have only two values, + and
2. Madelungs rule:
Orbitals fill in the order of increasing (n+l). 4s (n+l = 4+0 = 4)
will be filled before 3d (n+l = 3+2 = 5) and 5s (n+l = 5+0 = 5)
For orbital with same values of (n+l), the one with lower
n will be filled first. 3d will be filled before 4p
Electron Configuration
The Aufbau principle and Madelung rule
Aufbau principle
Madelung rule
Electron Configuration
Based on the foregoing discussion, it is now possible to find
the electron configuration for a given atom. For example,
Sodium, ( Na 11
23 ) has 11 electrons the configuration is
shown in the first figure. The second picture shows the Bohr
configuration.
11
Na
23
Valence electrons
The electrons in the outer most shell are known as valence
electrons. Na has one valence electron (the 3s electron).
These electrons are responsible for chemical reaction and
atomic bonding
Electron configuration of elements
Atomic Symbol Electron Atomic Symbol Electron Atomic Symbol Electron
No. configuration No. configuration No. configuration
1 H 1s1 21 Sc [Ar] 4s23d1 41 Nb [Kr] 5s14d4
2 He 1s2 22 Ti [Ar] 4s23d2 42 Mo [Kr] 5s14d5
3 Li [He] 2s1 23 V [Ar] 4s23d3 43 Tc [Kr] 5s24d5
4 Be [He] 2s2 24 Cr [Ar] 4s13d5 44 Ru [Kr] 5s14d7
5 B [He] 2s22p1 25 Mn [Ar] 4s23d5 45 Rh [Kr] 5s14d8
6 C [He] 2s22p2 26 Fe [Ar] 4s23d6 46 Pd [Kr] 4d10
7 N [He] 2s22p3 27 Co [Ar] 4s23d7 47 Ag [Kr] 5s14d10
8 O [He] 2s22p4 28 Ni [Ar] 4s23d8 48 Cd [Kr] 5s24d10
9 F [He] 2s22p5 29 Cu [Ar] 4s13d10 49 In [Kr] 5s24d105p1
10 Ne [He] 2s22p6 30 Zn [Ar] 4s23d10 50 Sn [Kr] 5s24d105p2
11 Na [Ne] 3s1 31 Ga [Ar] 4s23d104p1 51 Sb [Kr] 5s24d105p3
12 Mg [Ne] 3s2 32 Ge [Ar] 4s23d104p2 52 Te [Kr] 5s24d105p4
13 Al [Ne] 3s23p1 33 As [Ar] 4s23d104p3 53 I [Kr] 5s24d105p5
14 Si [Ne] 3s23p2 34 Se [Ar] 4s23d104p4 54 Xe [Kr] 5s24d105p6
15 P [Ne] 3s23p3 35 Br [Ar] 4s23d104p5 55 Cs [Xe] 6s1
16 S [Ne] 3s23p4 36 Kr [Ar] 4s23d104p6 56 Ba [Xe] 6s2
17 Cl [Ne] 3s23p5 37 Rb [Kr] 5s1 57 La [Xe] 6s25d1
18 Ar [Ne] 3s23p6 38 Sr [Kr] 5s2 58 Ce [Xe] 6s24f15d1
19 K [Ar] 4s1 39 Y [Kr] 5s24d1 59 Pr [Xe] 6s24f3
20 Ca [Ar] 4s2 40 Zr [Kr] 5s24d2 60 Nd [Xe] 6s24f4
Stable Configuration
Look at the electron configuration of inert gases (He, Ne, Ar,
Kr, Xe) in the previous table. Their valence electron cell is
completely filled unlike any other element.
(a)
(b)
6
VL
Atomic interaction
is the distance at which the interaction energy is zero. is
the depth of the potential well (see Fig. b) and is a measure of
the bonding energy between two atoms.
oIonic
oCovalent
oMetallic
Electrons
sea
Ion core
Characteristics of primary bonds
Structure-property correlation
Ionic and covalent bonds posses high bond energy
450 1000 kJ/mole
High bond strength in ionic and covalent solids results in
high melting point, high strength and hardness. e.g. diamond
As the electrons are tightly bound to the atoms they are
generally poor conductors of heat and electricity
Are brittle in nature
Most of the ceramics consist of covalent (SiC) or ionic bonds
(Al2O3) or a mix of both and hence, exhibit all the properties
described above.
Structure-property correlation
Metallic bonds on the other hand provide good thermal and
electrical conductivities as the valence electrons are free to
move.
The metallic bond energy is 68 kJ/mol (Hg) on the lower
side and 850 kJ/mol (W, tungsten) on the higher side.
Bond strength increases with atomic number as more
electrons are available to form the bonds with the ion cores.
As a result melting point, hardness and strength increases
with atomic number.
Metals are ductile as the free moving electrons provides
agility to the bonds and allows plastic deformation.
Secondary Bonds
Van der Waals bonding
Van der Waals bonding between molecules or atoms arise
due to weak attraction forces between dipoles
H 2O
Evaluation and Examples
At this point one should be able to
Crystalline Amorphous
b
Symmetry
Symmetry
Symmetry refers to certain pattern or arrangement. A body is
symmetrical when it is reproduced by certain operation.
1. Translation
2. Rotation
3. Reflection
4. Inversion
Translation
uT
Symmetry operations
Rotation
T = T cos + pT + T cos = pT +2T cos
T T cos = (1 p)/2
p n-fold Symbol
pT 0 60 6
Tcos Tcos 1 90 4
T
2 120 3
3 180 2
-1 0/360 1
2 2 2
Rotation
Similarly we have 3, 4 and 6-fold rotational symmetry
3 fold 2/120
4 fold 2/90
6 fold 2/60
Rotation
Is it possible to have 5, 7 or 8-fold rotation symmetry?
Objects with 5, 7 and 8 or higher order symmetry do exist in
nature, e.g. star fish (5-fold), flowers with 5 or 8-fold symmetry.
5 fold 8 fold
Reflection or Mirror symmetry
An object with a reflection symmetry will be a mirror image of
itself across a plane called mirror plane (m).
y
-xy xy
m
2-fold 3, 6-fold
a2
Parallelogram Hexagonal
a1 a2, = Any a1 = a2, = 120
a1
2 5
6 i 3
i i
3 6
5 2
4 1
i
xyz -x -y -z (xyz)
Combined operations
Combined symmetry operations also exist. For example,
rotation can be combined with inversion which is called
roto-inversion. The roto-inversion axis is denoted as n.
For example, a 6-fold roto-inversion (6 ) involves rotating
the object by 60o (360/6), and inverting through a symmetry
center.
6
Inversion
center
Rotation axis
Point and Space groups
Symmetry operations generate a variety of arrangements of
lattice points in three dimensions. There are 32 unique ways
in which lattice points can be arranged in space. These
non-translation elements are called point-groups.
m
m
4/m2/m2/m (b)
(a)
2/m2/m2/m
Summary
Space lattice is arrangement of points with each point having
exactly same surroundings.
Symmetry operations restore a body to its original position.
There are four symmetry operations Translation, reflection,
rotation and inversion.
There are 32 point groups and 230 space groups.
Hermann-Mauguin symbols are used to denote point groups.
References
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/index.html#Lecture
Notes
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/introsymmetry.pdf
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/32crystalclass.pdf
Crystal Systems
The space lattice points in a crystal are occupied by atoms.
The position of any atom in the 3D lattice can be described
by a vector ruvw = ua + vb + wc, where u, v and w are integers.
(a) (b)
Unit Cell
The three unit vectors, a, b, c can define a cell as shown by the
shaded region in Fig.(a) This cell is known as unit cell (Fig. b)
which when repeated in the three dimensions generates the
crystal structure.
Crystal Systems
Bravais Lattice
Tetragonal: a = b c, = = = 90o
Simple Body-centered
Tetragonal Tetragonal (BCT)
Crystal Systems
Orthorhombic: a b c, = = = 90o
Monoclinic: a b c, = = 90o
Simple Base-centered
monoclinic monoclinic
Crystal Systems
Triclinic
Rhombohedral Hexagonal
abc
a=b=c a=bc
90o
= = 90o = = 90 = 120
o o
Crystal Systems
Note the shift of origin from blue to red circle for the negative indices
Planes in Hexagonal system
In the cubic system all the faces of the cube are equivalent,
that is, they have similar indices.
However, this is not the case in the hexagonal system. The
six prism faces for example have indices (1 0 0), (0 1 0),
(1 1 0 ), (1 0 0 ), (01 0), (11 0 ), which are not same.
(010)
(100)
index i is used along with hkl. Therefore
the indices of a plane is given by (hkil)
whre i = -(h+k). Sometime i is replaced
with a dot and written as (h k . l)
Planes in Hexagonal system
(1 1 0 0)
(0 11 0)
(1 01 0)
Interplanar spacing
The spacing between planes in a crystal is known as
interplanar spacing and is denoted as dhkl
In the cubic system spacing between the (hkl) planes is
l
1 1 2 2
d
a
given as 2
2 2
a
/
For example, dhkl of {111} planes d111 = 3
l
1 1 2 1
d
c
In Tetragonal system 2
2 2
2
2
h
k
l
l
1
1 2 1 2 1 2
d
c
In Orthorhombic system 2 2
2 2
h
k
l
h
k
h
l
1 4 1
d
c
In Hexagonal system 2 2 2 2 2 2
3
h
k
l
Crystal Directions
The directions in a crystal are given by specifying the
coordinates (u, v, w) of a point on a vector (ruvw) passing
through the origin. ruvw = ua + vb + wc. It is indicated as
[uvw]. For example, the direction [110] lies on a vector r110
whose projection lengths on x and y axes are one unit (in
terms of unit vectors a and b).
Directions of a form or family like [110], [101], [011] are
written as <110>
V
o
l
m
e
f
o
a
t
o
m
s
A
P
F
V
o
l
u
m
e
o
f
u
n
i
t
c
e
l
l
Atomic packing factor
FCC lattice
In the FCC unit cell effective number of atoms = 8 corner
atoms x (1/8) (each atom is shared by 8 unit cells) + 6 face-
centered atoms x1/2 (each shared by two unit cells) = 4
4 3
4 R
3 16 2 2 a3
APF ( FCC ) 0.74
a 3
3 64a 3
Atomic packing factor
BCC
For BCC crystals effective number of atoms per unit cell is
8 x 1/8 + 1 = 2 and the relation between R and a is
3a 4 R
4 3
2 R
3 8 3 3 a
3
4
6 R3
8 a
3
N
u
m
b
e
r
f
o
a
t
o
m
s
o
n
a
p
l
a
n
e
P
l
a
n
a
r
D
e
n
s
i
t
y
A
r
e
a
o
f
p
l
a
n
e
2a
Planar density
In the {111} planes of the FCC lattice there are 2 atoms
(1/6 x 3 corner atoms + 1/2 x 3 side atoms). Planar density
of {111} planes in the FCC crystal
2 4
PD(111)
1 3 3a 2
2a 2a
2 2
This is higher than {110} and any other plane. Therefore,
{111} planes are most densely packed planes in the FCC
crystal
2a
Linear Density
Linear density (LD) is the number of atoms per unit
length along a particular direction
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
a
t
o
m
s
o
n
t
h
e
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
v
e
c
t
o
r
L
i
n
e
a
r
D
e
n
s
i
t
y
L
e
n
g
t
h
o
f
t
h
e
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
v
e
c
t
o
r
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qh29mj6uXoM&feature=relmfu
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8zWySdeXB0M&feature=relmfu
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rm-i1c7zr6Q&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PWQ89UoxOK8&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mQy2CdKYqX0&feature=related
g
c
c
.
/
4 26 98
.
2 697
4 05 10
8 3
6 023 10 23
Examples
Ex. 2: Show the point having coordinates 1/2, 1, 1/3 .
Solution: Select one of the corners of the unit cell as the
origin. Move a/2 from the origin along the x axis and mark
this point. From this point move b units along the y axis
and then c/3 units along the z axis.
Ex. 3: Draw the plane ( 31 2) in a cubic unit cell.
z
c/2
y
a/3
b
x
Examples
Ex. 4: Draw the directions [236] and [203] and [21 1] in a
cubic unit cell.
[211]
c/2
-b/2
.
4 4 0 124
3 4 and 0 286 nm
3 3
Quiz
1. Show that only four types of rotational symmetry are
possible.
2. Why it is not possible to have 5, 7 or higher order
symmetry in crystallography?
3. What is point group? How many point-groups are possible?
4. Find out the Hermann-Mauguin symbol for a cube.
5. For a point at xyz write a translation, a reflection and an
inversion operation.
5. What is unit cell? What is lattice parameter?
6. What is Bravais lattice? How are the Bravais lattices
obtained from the primitive cell? How many types of Bravais
lattices are there?
7. What is the effective number of atoms in a simple cubic unit
cell?
Quiz
8. What is coordination number (CN)? Show that CN for FCC
and HCP structure is 12 while it is 8 for BCC.
9. Show that packing efficiency of FCC is 74% and that of
BCC is 68%.
10. Show that the ideal c/a ratio in a hexagonal unit cell is
1.633 and calculate the packing efficiency.
11. What are the coordinates of the center atom in the BCC
unit cell.
12. What is miller index? How is it obtained?
13. Draw the planes (11 0), (12 1), (23 4), (1 12 ) and
directions[1 11], [123], [120], [1 2 1] in a cubic unit cell.
14. Why it is necessary to include a fourth miller index in the
hexagonal system?
15. Convert the directions [112], [12 3], [110], [111], [130] to
four indices in a hexagonal lattice.
Quiz
16. What is family of planes? Draw the {111} family of planes
in cubic system?
17. What is linear density? What is planar density?
18. Find the planar of density {111} planes and linear density
of <110> directions in FCC system.
19. What is the linear density of <111> directions in the
BCC crystal.
20. What is interplanar spacing? Find the interplanar spacing
of the vertical planes in the HCP system?
21. What is the stacking sequence of FCC and HCP crystals?
22. What is slip system?
23. Why FCC metals are ductile while BCC and HCP metals
are not?
24. Calculate the theoretical density of Cu from its crystal
structure.
Quiz
25. Lattice constant of Al is 4.05 . What is the atomic
radius of Al?
26. Calculate the theoretical density of Mg, Cu and Fe and
compare them to the standard values.
27. A metal has a density of 10.22 g/cc, atomic weight of
95.94 and atomic radius of 0.136 nm. Is it BCC or FCC?
28. Calculate the volume of the unit cell of Zn crystal. a and
c of Zn are 266.5 pm and 494.7 pm respectively.
29. Calculate the planar density of {110} planes in -Fe
(BCC) crystal. a = 0.287 nm.
30. Calculate the linear density of [110] direction in a Cu
crystal. a = 0.361 nm.
Polycrystalline, single crystal and
Non crystalline Materials
Polycrystalline
Polycrystalline material Aggregate of several crystals or
grains
The boundary between the grain is the grain boundary across
which the orientation of the crystal changes.
The point at which three boundaries meet is called the triple
junction.
Triple junction
Grain size determination
Line intercept method
This is one of the most commonly used methods. Number of
grains intersecting a given length of a random line is counted.
Grain size D = Length of the line/no of grains intersected
Grain size measurement
ASTM grain size number, G Number of grains per unit
area at a particular magnification
ASTM Grains/mm2 Grains/mm3 Avg. grain
No. size, mm G = -2.9542 + 1.4427 ln N
-1 3.9 6.1 0.51 where, N is number of
0 7.8 17.3 0.36 grains/mm2
1 15.5 49.0 0.25 G is compared in ASTM
2 31.0 138 0.18
grain size chart to obtain
3 62.0 391 0.125
the grain size.
4 124 1105 0.09
5 248 3126 0.065
6 496 8842 0.045
7 992 25010 0.032
8 1980 70700 0.022
9 3970 200000 0.016
10 7940 566000 0.011
Grain size measurement
Calculate the grain size from the micrographs using the line
intercept method
Grain size Property relationship
Hall-Petch Relation
A general relationship between mechanical properties and
grain size is given by the Hall-Petch equation
k
d
/
o
i
1 2
Processing routes:
RSP - Melt spinning
Ball milling
Solid-state amorphisation reaction
Nuclear irradiation
Properties of BMGs
Mechanical properties High strength, low ductility
Formation of small crystallites in glassy matrix by annealing
can improve ductility.
Some Properties of Vit1 (R D Conner et al. Scripta mater. 1997;37:13738)
Elastic Tensile Youngs Shear Hardness Fracture
strain strength Modulus Modulus toughness
2% 1.9 GPa 96 GPa 34.3 GPa 534 VHN 55 MPa m1/2
Processing Techniques
http://www2.mmae.ucf.edu/~sury/Online_Pub/Nano-
Hyperfine.pdf
http://library.iyte.edu.tr/tezler/master/kimyamuh/T000294.pdf
Extra half-plane
Slip vector
Screw Dislocations
The other type of dislocation is the screw dislocation where
the Burger vector is parallel to the dislocation line (AD).
The trace of the atomic planes around the screw dislocation
makes a spiral or helical path (pink shade) like a screw and
hence, the name.
Atomic positions along a screw dislocation is represented in
Fig. (b)
(a) (b)
Burger Circuit
The Burger vector can be found by the gap in the Burger
circuit which is obtained by moving equal distances in each
direction around the dislocation.
Dislocation movement and deformation
Slip plane
Observing dislocations
Grain 1 Grain 2
Grain 3
Porosity
Inclusions
Cracks
These defects form during manufacturing processes for
various reasons and are harmful to the material.
Bulk defects
Interstitial Diffusion
Kirkendall Effect
If the diffusion rates of two metals A and B in to each other
are different, the boundary between them shifts and moves
towards the faster diffusing metal as shown in the figure.
A-rich B-rich
Diffusion rate
B A> B
A t = t1 t = time
t=0
dd
Cx
by
J
Ct
Cx
2
D
2
A solution to this equation can be obtained for a semi-infinite
solid with the following boundary conditions.
For t = 0, C = Co at 0 x . For t > 0, C = Cs (surface
concentration) at x = 0 and C = Co at x =
CxCs
CoCo
xD
e
r
f
1
t C
2 Cx
xD
x
,
t
A
B
e
r
f
2
t
The more generalized form is
Factors affecting Diffusion
Diffusing species
The magnitude of the diffusion coefficient, D, is an indication of
the rate at which atoms diffuse. As the value of D is fixed for a
given element in a given material, the extent of diffusion is first
decided by the diffusing species itself.
Temperature
Temperature is a major factor which affects diffusion.
Temperature dependence of the diffusion coefficient is
expresses as
QR
D
Do
e
x
p
T
Where, Do is the pre-exponential factor and the Q is the
activation energy for diffusion
Example
Ex.1. The carbon content of a steel at the surface is 0.9%.
The steel is being carburized at 927 C. The nominal C
content in the steel is 0.2%. Calculate the time needed to
increase the carbon content to 0.4% at 0.5 mm depth.
D = 1.28 x 10-11 m2/s at 927 C.
CxCs
CoCo
xD
e
r
f
Solution. 1
------ (1)
t
2
Cs = 0.9%, Co = 0.2%, Cx = 0.4%, x = 0.5 mm = 5 x 10-4 m
Substituting these values in equation (1)
6
9
.
8t
8
6
9
.
8t
8
e
r
f
0
.
7
1
4
3
0
.
7
5
5
or
t = 8567 s = 143 min
References
http://dev.matter.org.uk/matscicdrom/manual/df.html
http://highered.mcgraw-
hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation_
_how_diffusion_works.html
http://web.mse.uiuc.edu/courses/mse280/notes/06/ch06_diffu
sion.ppt
http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/abstracts/L1-2.pdf
http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/kirkendall.html
http://www.eng.utah.edu/~lzang/images/lecture-6.pdf
http://people.virginia.edu/~lz2n/mse209/Chapter5.pdf
Solvent
Solute
Water phase
diagram
Binary Phase diagrams
A binary phase is a two component system. Binary phase
diagrams are most commonly used in alloy designing.
The simplest binary system is the Cu-Ni which exhibits
complete solubility in liquid and solid state.
Cu-Ni equilibrium
phase diagram
Binary Phase diagrams
The line above which the alloy is liquid is called the liquidus
line. At temperature just below this line crystals of solid
solution start forming.
The line below which solidification completes is called
solidus line. Hence, only solid solution exists at any
temperature below the solidus line.
The intermediate region between liquidus and solidus lines
is the two-phase region where liquid and solid coexist.
It can be noted that the two metals are soluble in each other
in the entire range of compositions in both liquid and solid
state. This kind of system is known as Isomorphous system.
The Tie line
The composition of phases in the two-phase region is not
same.
To find the composition of the individual phases in the two-
phase region, a horizontal line (XY), called tie line, is drawn and
its intercepts on the liquidus and solidus lines, Cl and Cs, are
taken as the composition of the liquid and solid respectively.
Lever rule
The relative fractions of the phases at a given temperature for
an alloy composition Co is obtained by the lever rule. This rule
gives the fraction of a phase by the ratio of the lengths of the tie
line between Co and composition of the other phase to the total
length of the tie line. For example, fraction solid, fs is given by
MX
XY
CoCs
ClCl
fs
MX
YY
CsCs
CoCl
fl
Cooling curves
Upon cooling from liquid state, the temperature of the pure
metal (A or B) drops continuously till melting point at which
solidification starts. Solidification happens at a constant
temperature (line PQ) as F =0 (F = 1 2 +1 = 0). The
temperature drops again on completion of solidification.
For any alloy (1, 2, 3 etc.) temp. drops till the liquidus (L1, L2,
L3). However, in this case, solidification proceeds over a range
of temperature as F = 1 (2 2 + 1 = 1). Once solidification
completes at the solidus (S1, S2, S3) the temp. drops again.
Phase diagrams- Limited solubility
Not all metals are completely soluble in each other.
Distinctions can be made between two types solid solutions
with limited solubility (i) Eutectic and (ii) Peritectic.
When the melting points of two metals are comparable, a
eutectic system forms while a peritectic results when melting
points are significantly different.
A eutectic reaction is defined as the one which generates
two solids from the liquid at a given temperature and
composition, L +
Peritectic is Liquid + Solid 1 Solid 2 (L + )
In both the cases three phases (two solids and a liquid)
coexist and the degrees of freedom F = 2 3 + 1 = 0. This is
known as invariant (F = 0) reaction or transformation.
Eutectic Phase diagram
In the eutectic system between two metals A and B, two
solid solutions, one rich in A () and another rich in B () form.
In addition to liquidus and solidus lines there are two more
lines on A and B rich ends which define the solubility limits B in
A and A in B respectively. These are called solvus lines.
Eutectic Phase diagram
Three phases (L++) coexist at point E. This point is called
eutectic point or composition. Left of E is called hypoeutectic
whereas right of E is called hypereutectic.
A eutectic composition solidifies as a eutectic mixture of
and phases. The microstructure at room temperature (RT)
may consist of alternate layers or lamellae of and .
In hypoeutectic alloys the phase solidifies first and the
microstructure at RT consists of this phase (called
proeutectic ) and the eutectic (+) mixture. Similarly
hypereutectic alloys consist of proeutectic and the eutectic
mixture.
The melting point at the eutectic point is minimum. Thats
why Pb-Sn eutectic alloys are used as solders. Other eutectic
systems are Ag-Cu, Al-Si, Al-Cu.
Eutectic Cooling curves
While cooling a hypoeutectic alloy from the liquid state, the
temp. drops continuously till liquidus point, a, at which crystals
of proeutectic begins to form.
On further cooling the fraction of increases. At any point, b,
in the two-phase region the fraction is given by the lever rule
as bn/mn.
Eutectic Cooling curves
Solidification of proeutectic continues till the eutectic
temperature is reached. The inflection in the cooling curve
between points a and e is due to evolution of the latent heat.
At the eutectic point (e) the solidification of eutectic mixture
(+) begins through the eutectic reaction and proceeds at a
constant temperature as F = 0 (2 3 + 1).
The cooling behavior in hypereutectic alloy is similar except
that proeutectic forms below the liquidus.
For a eutectic composition, the proeutectic portion is absent
and the cooling curve appears like that of a pure metal.
Any composition left of point c or right of point d ( and
single phase region respectively) will cool and solidify like an
isomorphous system.
Peritectic Phase diagram
L + . An alloy cooling slowly through the peritectic
point, P, the phase will crystallize first just below the liquidus
line. At the peritectic temperature, TP all of the liquid and will
convert to .
Any composition left of P will generate excess and similarly
compositions right of P will give rise to an excess of liquid.
Peritectic systems Pt - Ag, Ni - Re, Fe - Ge, Sn-Sb (babbit).
Monotectic Phase diagram
Another three phase invariant reaction that occurs in some
binary system is monotectic reaction in which a liquid
transforms to another liquid and a solid. L1 L2 + .
Two liquids are immiscible like water and oil over certain
range of compositions. Cu-Pb system has a monotectic at 36%
Pb and 955 C.
Cu-Pd system
Monotectic portion
Phase diagrams with intermediate phases
Mg - Pb phase
diagram
Ternary Phase diagram
A ternary or three component phase diagram has the form of
an triangular prism with an equilateral triangle as a base.
Pure components are at each vertex, sides are binary
compositions and ternary compositions are within the triangle.
The composition lines on the triangle is constructed from
projections of surfaces.
Wt.% C
Ternary phase diagram
The temperature varies along the height of the prism. The
composition triangle is an isothermal section. Alternatively
projections of different surfaces and lines can be shown as
temperature contours.
The composition of any point in the triangle is determined by
drawing perpendiculars from corners to the opposite sides and
measuring the distance of the point along the perpendicular.
Point p, for example, lies on the isocomoposition line 25% A
along the perpendicular A-50. Hence, percentage of A in the
alloy is 25%. Similarly B is 50% and C is 25%.
Examples
Ex.1. A 53% Ni Cu-Ni alloy is cooled from liquid state to
1300 C. Calculate the % of Liquid and solid at 1300 C.
Solution: The tie line at 1300 C intersects solidus at 58% Ni
and liquidus at 45% Ni.
Apply the lever rule to get the liquid fraction
% Liquid = 100* (58 53)/(58 45) = 38%
%Solid = 100* (53 45)/(58 45) = 62% (100 %Liquid))
16 3
Gv
IL = IS + SL cos
2
r
SG
L v
With a similar approach it can be shown that and
4 3
G *Het ( 2 3 cos cos 3
) G *Hom S( )
3( Gv ) 2
PA
PA
cc
oo
ss
c
o
s
c
o
s
k
D
1
/
2
o
i
Hall-Petch relationship
k is known as locking parameter, which is a measure of the
relative hardening contribution of grain boundaries and i is
known as friction stress which represents overall resistance
of the lattice to dislocation motion.
Solid solution strengthening
Solute atoms introduce lattice strain as their size is different
from the host atoms.
A larger substitutional solute atom will impose a compressive
stress (Fig. a) while a smaller interstitial atom will cause tensile
stresses in the lattice (Fig. b).
Interstitial atoms are often bigger than the interstitial space
they occupy, resulting in a compressive stress field.
(a) (b)
Solid solution hardening
Dislocations have strain field at their cores due to lattice
distortion
Solute atoms with a tensile strain field will diffuse to the
dislocation core to nullify part of the compressive strain field of
the dislocation to reduce the strain energy.
This hinders motion of the dislocation and hence, the
strength increases.
uv 0
u
v
v
w
wv c
and [u2v2w2] is given as
c
o
s
1
2
1
2
2
ua 2
w
u
w
2
a3
1
2
c
o
s
.
7
0
7
o
s
0
.
5
7
7
a
a
Therefore, and
Hardness
PD
B
H
N
t
D
d
(kgf/m2) (1)
2 2
2 D
P = Applied load
D = Diameter of ball
d
d = Dia of indentation
t = Depth of impression
Brinell Hardness
BHN varies with load. P/D2 value needs to be kept
constant according to eqn. (2). P1/D12 = P2/D22 = P3/D32
D
P
B
H
N
c
o
s (2)
2
1 d
2
d = D sin
Vickers Hardness
Vickers test uses a square-base diamond pyramid indenter
having an angle of 136 between the opposite faces. This angle
approximates the ideal d/D ratio (0.375) in Brinell test (Fig. a)
The hardness, called DPH or VHN (Diamond pyramid
hardness no. or Vickers Hardness no.), is obtained by dividing
the load (1 120 kg) with the surface area of the indentation.
The surface area is calculated from the diagonals length of
the impression. D
(b)
(a)
d
P
P
s
i
nL
/
.
D
P
H
V
H
N
2 2 1 854
L
2
2
Microhardness
Sometime hardness determination is needed over a very small
area.
For example, hardness of carburised steel surface, coatings or
individual phases or constituents of a material.
The load applied is much smaller compared to macrohardness.
The indentation is very small. An optical microscope is used to
observe it. Sample preparation is needed.
Two methods are used for microhardness testing.
Microhardness
Knoop Indentation
Knoop indenter is a diamond pyramidal indenter. Produces
diamond shaped indentation with long and short diagonal
lengths in the ratio of 7:1
The hardness is called Knoop Hardness number (KHN) and
is obtained by dividing the load (25 - 300 g) with the projected
surface area of the indentation.
P Ap
PL
K
H
N
2
(kgf/m2)
L Lo
L
Lo
e
Lo
Strain, -------------- (2)
Lo = Original length
L = Final length
L = L Lo is the elongation
High resilience is a
property required in spring
steels whereas structural
steels have high toughness
but lower resilience.
Ductile Vs. Brittle Fracture
The fracture strain ef = (Lf - Lo)/Lo, or reduction of area at
fracture, q = (A Ao)/Ao, is taken as the measure of Ductility.
A ductile material exhibits high fracture strain, that is, it
undergoes significant plastic deformation before fracture.
A brittle material is the one which exhibits little or no plastic
deformation before fracture.
True Stress and Strain
The engineering stress and strain are based on the
original sample dimensions which change during the test.
True stress and strain on the other hand are based on the
actual or instantaneous dimensions and hence, are better
representation of the deformation behavior of the material.
L
L
L
L
L
L
o
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 2 1 3
L
LL
L
2
True strain,
odL
1 2
L
e
l
n
l
n
L
L
o
1
Lo
x
Shear Stress and Strain
The deformation in a body may also result in change in the
initial angle between any two lines.
The angular change is known as the shear strain, , which is
produced by a shear stress, .
ah
t
a
n
=G
G is the shear modulus
a
h
Structure-Property Correlation
Structure-insensitive: Elastic modulus
Structure-sensitive properties: Yield stress, UTS, Ductility.
These properties vary with the structure of the material.
For example, the same material having a finer grain size will
have higher strength as per the relation -
k
d
/
1 2
o
i
This is known as the Hall-Petch equation which relates the
yield strength to grain size.
o is the yield strength, d is the grain size and i and k are
material dependent constants.
Finer grain size large grain boundary area/unit volume. As
grain boundaries hinder dislocation motion, stress required to
move the dislocations increases in the fine grained material
and hence the strength increases.
Mechanical Properties of some commonly used materials
Material E,GPa YS,MPa UTS,MPa %Elong. Poisson's
ratio
Csteel 207 220 250 400 500 23 0.30
Stain lesssteel 193 515 850 10 0.30
Alloy steels 207 860 1280 12 0.30
Al 70 34 90 40 0.33
Alalloys 72 85 250500 300 550 1020 0.34
Ti 103 170 240 30 0.34
Tialloy 114 1100 1170 10 0.34
Mg 45 25 40 50 60 8 10 0.35
Mgalloys 45 220 290 15 0.35
Ni 204 148 460 47 0.31
Nisuperalloy 207 517 930 0.21
Al2O3 380 550 0.16
PET 2.7 4 60 70 30300 0.39
References
dd
TX
q
L Lo
thermal expansion.
T
It can be expressed as l
Where, L is the change in length due to a temperature rise of
T. l is known as linear coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE).
l (C-1) is a material property which depends on the type of
atomic bonding. The extent to which a material expands on
heating will depend on its l .
The atomic mechanism of thermal expansion can be viewed
as an increase in the inter-atomic separation.
Therefore, it will depend on the shape of the energy vs. inter-
atomic distance curve.
Thermal Expansion
The energy and vibrational amplitude (width of the potential
energy trough) increase with increasing temperature and so
does the interatomic separation (indicated by the open circles).
For a material with a broader potential curve, the increase in
the interatomic distance is more (Fig. a) and hence thermal
expansion is more.
The increase in atomic distance and hence, the expansion is
much lower for a deep and narrow potential trough (Ceramics).
(a) (b)
Low/Zero Thermal Expansion
Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) for metals is in the
range of 5 x 10-6 25 x 10-6/C.
For a typical ceramic like Al2O3 CTE = 7.6 x 10-6/C
There is a class of materials which have very low or near-zero
thermal expansion.
Invar (64Fe 36Ni) has CTE of 1.6 x 10-6/C (Up to 230 C,
the temperature can be increased by heat treatment).
Super Invar (63Fe-32Ni-5Co) 0.72 x 10-6/C.
This is believed to be caused by magnetostriction a
phenomena which lead to volume change on magnetization.
Negative Thermal Expansion
Some materials contract on heating (negative CTE).
Zirconium tungstate (ZrW2O8) for example contracts
continuously from 2 to 1050 K.
A composite (mix) of positive and negative expansion
materials may give rise to a zero expansion material.
Thermal Properties of some materials
Material cp (J/kg-K) l (C-1 x 10-6) k (W/m-K)
Metals
Alumnium 900 23.6 247
Copper 386 17.0 398
Silver 235 19.7 428
Steel 502 16 15.9
Super Invar 500 0.72 10
Ceramics
Alumina (Al2O3) 775 7.6 39
Fused Silica (SiO2) 740 0.4 1.4
Pyrex glass 850 3.3 1.4
Polymers
Polyethylene 1850 106 - 198 0.50
Polystyrene 1170 90-150 0.13
Teflon 1050 126-216 0.25
Thermal Stress
Thermal stresses arise due to
Constrained expansion or contraction e.g. heating or
cooling a rod with fixed rigid ends.
Uneven heating/cooling
Thermal expansion mismatch inside the solid.
Thermal stress due to temperature change from To to Tf
= El(To Tf) = ElT
E is the elastic modulus.
Solution:
-180 x 106 Pa (Compressive) = El(To Tf)
l for steel 14 x 10-6 C-1. To = room temperature = 25 C
1 1
8 0
0 9
1 1
0
6
Tf
C
2
5
9
2
o
1
9
0
4
1
0
6
Thermal Shock
Thermal stresses might cause fracture in brittle materials like
ceramics due to rapid heating or cooling if the
expansion/contraction is restrained. This is known as thermal
shock.
The ability of material to withstand such shocks is known as
thermal shock resistance (TSR)k
T
S
R
Ohms law V = IR I
l
Area, A V
Ef
Conduction in Metals
Filled states
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Semiconductors like Si and Ge have relatively narrow band
gap generally below 2 eV.
Therefore, it is possible to excite electrons from the valence to
the conduction band. This is called intrinsic semi conductivity.
Every electron that is excited to the conduction band leaves
behind a hole in the valence band.
An electron can move in to a hole under an electrical potential
and thus holes are also charge carriers.
Conduction band
Band gap
Hole
Valence band
Intrinsic conductivity
Electrical conductivity of a conductor primarily depends on two
parameters charge carrier concentration, n, and carrier
mobility, . Conductivity, = n e
e is absolute charge (1.6 x 10-19 C).
Intrinsic semiconductors have two types charge carriers,
namely electrons and holes
=n e e+p e h
where, n and p are concentration of electron and hole charge
carriers respectively and e and h are their mobility.
Since each electron excited to conduction band leaves behind
a hole in the valence band, n = p = ni and
= n e ( e + h) = p e ( e + h) = ni e ( e + h)
Extrinsic Semiconductors
The conductivity is enhanced by adding impurity atoms
(dopant) in extrinsic semi conductors . All semi conductors for
practical purposes are extrinsic.
A higher valence dopant e.g. P (5+) in Si (4+) creates an extra
electron (n-type) while a lower valence dopant like B (3+) creates
a hole (p-type) as shown in the atomic bonding model below.
This increases the charge carrier concentration and hence the
enhancement in conductivity.
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Free Hole
electron
Si P Si Si Si B Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
n-type p-type
Extrinsic Semiconductors
The band theory model of n-type and p-type extrinsic
semiconductors are shown below.
In n-type, for each impurity atom one energy state (known as
Donor state) is introduced in the band gap just below the
conduction band.
In p-type, for each impurity atom one energy state (known as
acceptor state) is introduced in the band gap just above the
valence band.
Conduction band
Donor
state Band gap Acceptor
state
Valence band
n-type p-type
Extrinsic conductivity
Large number of electrons can be excited from the donor state
by thermal energy in n-type extrinsic semiconductors.
Hence, number of electrons in the conduction band is far
greater than number of holes in the valence band, i.e. n >> p
and
=n e e
In p-type conductors, on the other hand, number of holes is
much greater than electrons (p >> n) due to the presence of the
acceptor states.
=p e h
Effect of Temperature
Metals
Increasing temperature causes greater electron scattering due
to increased thermal vibrations of atoms and hence, resistivity,
, (reciprocal of conductivity) of metals increases (conductivity
decreases) linearly with temperature.
Effect of Temperature
Metals contd
The resistivity of metals depends on two other factors namely,
impurity level and plastic deformation as these generate
scattering centers for electrons.
Increase in impurity level results in more scattering centers
and decreases the conductivity.
Similarly plastic deformation introduces more dislocations
which act as scattering centers and increase the resistivity.
total = t + i + d
Effect of Temperature
Intrinsic Semiconductors
In intrinsic semiconductors the carrier concentration increases
with temperature as more and more electrons are excited due to
the thermal energy.
Effect of Temperature
Extrinsic Semiconductors
Temperature dependence of extrinsic semiconductors, on the
other hand is totally different.
For example, an n-type conductor exhibits three regions in the
temperature vs. carrier concentration curve.
Effect of Temperature
Extrinsic Semiconductors contd..
In the low temperature region known as Freeze-out region,
the charge carriers cannot be excited from the donor level to
conduction band due to insufficient thermal energy.
In the intermediate temperature range ( 150 450 K) almost
all the donor atoms are ionized and electron concentration is
approximately equal to donor content. This region is known as
Extrinsic region.
In the high temperature region sufficient thermal energy is
available for electrons to get excited from the valence to the
conduction band and hence it behaves like an intrinsic semi
conductor.
Electrical properties of some metals at RT
Current
Magnetic field Strength
If a magnetic field, H, is generated by a cylindrical coil
(solenoid) of n turns and length l, H = nI/l (A/m)
Magnetic flux density, B: It is the magnitude of the field
strength within a substance subjected to a field H
B = H (Tesla or Weber/m2)
, called the permeability, is the measure of the degree to
which a material can be magnetized.
In vacuum B = oH. o is the permeability of vacuum and is a
universal constant. o = 4 x 10-7(H/m). r = /o is the relative
permeability.
Magnetic moments
Being a moving charge, electrons produce a small magnetic
field having a magnetic moment along the axis of rotation.
The spin of electrons also produces a magnetic moment
along the spin axis.
Magnetism in a material arises due to alignment of magnetic
moments.
Magnetic Dipole and Monopole
Analogous to electric dipole, a magnetic dipole can be
defined as two monopoles of opposite and equal strength
separated by a certain distance.
A magnetic monopole, however, is not observed in nature.
If there are N monopoles each located at a point given by a
vector , then the magnetic dipole moment can be defined as
a vector, N
u m ia i
i 1
Magnetism
O2-
Mn2+
Ferrimagnetism
Certain ionic solids having a general formula MFe2O4, where
M is any metal, show permanent magnetism, termed
ferrimagnetism, due to partial cancellation of spin moments.
In Fe3O4, Fe ions can exist in both 2+ and 3+ states as
Fe2+O2 (Fe3+)2(O2-)3 in 1:2 ratio. The antiparallel coupling
between Fe3+ (Half in A sites and half in B) moments cancels
each other. Fe2+ moments are aligned in same direction and
result in a net magnetic moment.
Octahedral Tetrahedral
Fe3+
Fe2+
Domains
Ferromagnetic materials exhibit small-volume regions in
which magnetic moments are aligned in the same directions.
These regions are called domains.
Adjacent domains are separated by domain boundaries. The
direction of magnetization changes across the boundaries.
The magnitude of magnetization in the material is vector sum
of magnetization of all the domains.
Domains
Domain
wall
Magnetization and Saturation
When a magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnetic material,
domains tend to align in the direction of the field by domain
boundary movement and hence, the flux density or magnetization
increases.
As the field strength increases domains which are favorably
oriented to field direction grow at the expense of the unfavorably
oriented ones. All the domains are aligned to the field direction at
high field strengths and the material reaches the saturation
magnetization, Ms.
Mo
magnetization
Saturation
Below Tc Above Tc 0
Temperature Tc
Superconductivity
Superconductivity is disappearance of electrical resistance
below a certain temperature.
The temperature below which superconductivity is attained is
known as the critical temperature, TC.
The superconducting behavior is represented in a graphical
form in the figure below.
Bardeen-Cooper-Schreiffer (BCS) Theory
John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and John Schreiffer BCS
theory, Noble prize for Physics in 1972 .
The temperature dependence of metals arises out of
scattering of electrons due to atomic vibrations which increase
with temperature.
Cooper pair Below TC two electrons can pair through the
lattice phonon which causes a slight increase in the positive
charge around an electron and since thermal energy to scatter
is low, this pair can move through the lattice.
Material TC (K)
Aluminum 1.18
Nb-Ti alloy 10.2
Nb3Al 18.9
Nb3Ge 23.0
YBa2Cu3O7 92
Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O10 125
Superconductivity and Magnetism
The Meissner effect
A material in its superconducting state will expell all of an
applied magnetic field (Fig. b). This is Meisnner effect.
A magnet placed over a superconductor will thus float, a
phenomenon known as magnetic levitation.
Materials
Metals
Ferrous Non-Ferrous
Ferrous
Heat
treatment
Bronze bearing
Beryllium copper
Cu-Be alloys are heat treatable. Max solubility of Be in Cu is
2.7% at 866 C. Decreasing solubility at lower temp. imparts
precipitation hardening ability.
Cast alloys - higher Be. Wrought alloys lower Be and some
Co
Cu-Be is ductile, weldable and machinable. Also resistant to
non-oxidizing acids (HCl or H2CO3), abrasive wear and galling.
Thermal conductivity is between steels and aluminum.
Applications
Used in springs, load cells and other parts subjected to
repeated loading. Low-current contacts for batteries and
electrical connectors. Cast alloys are used in injection molds.
Other applications include jet aircraft landing gear bearings and
bushings and percussion instruments.
Compositions, Properties and Application of some Cu Alloys
Name UNS Compos. Condition YS UTS %El Applications
No. (wt.%) (MPa) (MPa)
Eletrolytic C11000 0.04 O Annealed 69 220 45 Electrical wires,
Copper roofing, nails, rivets
Cartridge C26000 30.0 Zn Cold- 435 525 8 Automotive radiator
brass rolled core, lamp fixture,
ammunition.
Phosphor C51000 5.0 Sn, Annealed 130 325 64 Bellows, clutch disk,
bronze 0.25 P diaphragm, fuse clips,
springs
Yellow C85400 29 Zn, As cast 83 234 35 Furniture, radiator
bras 3.0 Pb, fittings, battery clamps,
(Leaded) 1 Sn light fixtures
Al bronze C95400 11 Al, As cast 241 586 18 Bearings, bushings,
4 Fe valve seats and guards
Beryllium C17200 1.9 Be Precipita. 965 1140 10 Electrical, valves,
copper 0.2 Co hardened pumps
Cu - Ni C71500 30 Ni Annealed 125 380 36 Condenser, heat-
exchanger, piping,
valves
Tin bronze C90500 10 Sn, As cast 152 310 25 Bearings, bushing,
2 Zn piston rings, gears
Aluminum
Aluminum is a light metal ( = 2.7 g/cc); is easily machinable;
has wide variety of surface finishes; good electrical and thermal
conductivities; highly reflective to heat and light.
Versatile metal - can be cast, rolled, stamped, drawn, spun,
roll-formed, hammered, extruded and forged into many shapes.
Aluminum can be riveted, welded, brazed, or resin bonded.
Corrosion resistant - no protective coating needed, however it
is often anodized to improve surface finish, appearance.
Al and its alloys - high strength-to-weight ratio (high specific
strength) owing to low density.
Such materials are widely used in aerospace and automotive
applications where weight savings are needed for better fuel
efficiency and performance.
Al-Li alloys are lightest among all Al alloys and find wide
applications in the aerospace industry.
Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum alloys are classified into two categories Cast
and Wrought alloys.
Wrought alloys can be either heat-treatable or non-heat
treatable.
Alloys are designated by a 4 digit number. Wrought the 1st
digit indicates the major alloying element. Cast The last digit
after the decimal indicates product from( casting - 0 or ingot -1)
Wrought As Cast
Alloy Principal Alloying Element Alloy Principal Alloying Element
Series Series
1xxx 1xx.x Aluminum, 99.00% or greater
Minimum99.00% Aluminum
2xxx Copper 2xx.x Copper
3xxx Manganese 3xx.x Silicon with Copper and/or Magnesium
4xxx Silicon 4xx.x Silicon
5xxx Magnesium 5xx.x Magnesium
6xxx Magnesium and Silicon 6xx.x Unused Series
7xxx Zinc 7xx.x Zinc
8xxx Other Elements 8xx.x Tin
9xx.x Other Elements
Temper Designations
F As fabricated - products in which no thermal treatments
or strain-hardening.
H Strain-hardened (wrought products) strain hardened
with or without additional thermal treatment.
H1 Strain-hardened only - strain-hardened without thermal
treatment.
O Annealed, recrystallized
T Thermally treated with or without strain-hardening to
produce stable tempers other than F, O or H.
T3 Solution heat-treated and then cold worked.
Cast Alloys
AZ91D 9.0Al, 0.15 As cast 150 230 3 Die-cast parts for
Mn, 0.7 Zn automobile, luggage and
electronic devices
AM60A 9.0Al, As cast 130 220 6 Automotive wheels
0.13Mn,
AS41A 4.3Al, 1.0 Si, As cast 140 210 6 Die-cast parts requiring
0.35Mn good creep strength
Ceramics Materials
Ceramics
Refractory Advanced
Abrasives Glass
Materials Ceramics
Refractory Materials
Refractory - retains its strength at high temperatures > 500C.
Must be chemically and physically stable at high temperatures.
Need to be resistant to thermal shock, should be chemically
inert, and have specific ranges of thermal conductivity and
thermal expansion.
Are used in linings for furnaces, kilns, incinerators, crucibles
and reactors.
Aluminium oxide (alumina), silicon oxide (silica), calcium oxide
(lime) magnesium oxide (magnesia) and fireclays are used to
manufacture refractory materials.
Zirconia - extremely high temperatures.
SiC and Carbon also used in some very severe temperature
conditions, but cannot be used in oxygen environment, as they
will oxidize and burn.
Composition of some common refractory materials
Composition (wt%)
Al2O3 SiO2 MgO Cr2O3 Fe2O3 CaO TiO2 %Porosity
Refractory
Fireclay 25-45 50-70 0-1 0-1 0-1 1-2 10-25
High-alumina 90-50 10-45 0-1 0-1 0-1 1-4 18-25
fireclay
Silica 0.2 96.3 0.6 2.2 25
Periclase 1.0 3.0 90 0.3 3.0 2.5 22
Periclase - 9.0 5.0 73 8.2 2.0 2.2 21
chrome ore
Advanced Ceramics: Automobile Engine parts
Advantages:
Operate at high temperatures high efficiencies; Low frictional
losses; Operate without a cooling system; Lower weights than
current engines
Disadvantages:
Ceramic materials are brittle; Difficult to remove internal voids
(that weaken structures); Ceramic parts are difficult to form and
machine
Potential materials: Si3N4 (engine valves, ball bearings), SiC
(MESFETS), & ZrO2 (sensors),
Possible engine parts: engine block & piston coatings
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)
MEMS These micron-sized structures such as beams, cantilevers,
diaphragms, valves, plates and switches that can function as tiny
sensors and actuators.
Fabricated by integrated circuit (IC) manufacturing processes: bulk
and surface micromachining.
Thousands of micromachines can be fabricated on a single silicon
wafer with supporting circuits integrated on the chip. Can be mass-
produced in the millions at low prices.
Low-cost, commercial MEMS devices developed for: Corrosion
detectors and monitors; Instrumentation for automotive and aerospace;
Biological and medical devices; Chemical and environmental sensors;
Manufacturing and process control devices ;Virtual reality systems
Abrasive Ceramics
Abrasives are used in cutting and grinding tools.
Diamonds - natural and synthetic, are used as abrasives,
though relatively expensive. Industrial diamonds are hard and
thermally conductive. Diamonds unsuitable as gemstone are
used as industrial diamond
Common abrasives SiC, WC, Al2O3 (corundum) and silica
sand.
Either bonded to a grinding wheel or made into a powder and
used with a cloth or paper.
Silicon carbide
Glass
Glass - inorganic, non-crystalline (amorphous) material.
Range - soda-lime silicate glass for soda bottles to the
extremely high purity silica glass for optical fibers.
Widely used for windows, bottles, glasses for drinking,
transfer piping and receptacles for highly corrosive liquids,
optical glasses, windows for nuclear applications.
The main constituent of glass is silica (SiO2). The most
common form of silica used in glass is sand.
Sand fusion temp to produce glass - 1700 C. Adding other
chemicals to sand can considerably reduce the fusion
temperature.
Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) or soda ash, (75% SiO2 + 25%
Na2O) will reduce the fusion temperature to 800 C.
Other chemicals like Calcia (CaO) and magnesia (MgO) are
used for stability. Limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite (MgCO3)
are used for this purpose as source of CaO and MgO.
Key Properties of Glass