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HPI Soup


By Ethan S. Sanders and Julie Ruggles


Toomanycookshaventspoiledthebroth

WheredidHPIcomefrom?Aswebegantracingtheoriginsofhumanperformanceimprovementforthe
ATDHPICertificateProgram,wecouldnothelpfeelinglikeSisyphus,thelegendaryGreekkingofCorinthwho
declaredthathewasgreaterthanthegods.Hispunishmentforsuchblasphemywastospendeternityrollinga
largeboulderupasteephillinHades,onlytohaveitrollbackdowneachtimejustbeforereachingthetop.

SotoohasbeenourjourneyintothehistoryofHPI.Eachtimewedeclaredthatwehaduncoveredthe
trueroots,anotherfactwouldturnupandundotheprogresswedmade.ItaddstothestrugglethatHPIhasso
manytermshumanperformancetechnologyandperformanceconsulting,tonameacouple.

ContributorstothefieldofHPIsuchasThomasGilbert,JoeHarless,GearyRummler,andRobertMager
arewellestablishedasthefounders.Yet,othercontributorswhoareequallywellknownandhavealsospent
theirliveslearningtodiagnoseandsolvetheperformanceproblemsoforganizationsappeartohaveno
associationwithHPI(ifyoubelievethemainstreamliterature).Howisitpossiblethatsuchintellectualgiantsas
PeterDrucker,W.EdwardsDeming,andKurtLewinarentconsideredpartoftheHPIcrowd?Withoutthe
theoreticalfoundationstheylaidformanagementsciencesanddiagnostics,certainHPIconceptswouldntexist.

Aftermanyagonizingmonthstryingtoputtogetherallofthepieces,wereconvincedthatthe
conventionalviewoftheoriginsofHPIismissingthenamesofimportantincidentalcontributorsaswellasa
recordofhowtheirtheorieschangedthenatureofHPI.TheresnowaytoprovethatTheoristXhadadirect
influenceonTheoristY,butwebelievethatcommonsenseisonourside.Asyouwillseeinourtimeline,this
fieldisrelativelyyoung.Bymostaccounts,HPIisanoutgrowthofinstructionalsystemsdesignandprogrammed
instruction,whichdidntreallycomeontothesceneuntilafterWorldWarII.Inaddition,nearlyallofthe
contributorswedugupareAmericanbybirth.Eventhosewhoarent,suchasLewin,spentmuchoftheir
professionallivesintheUnitedStates,withthenotableexceptionofDeming.

Commonsensetellsusthatifallofthesecontributorslivedandworkedataboutthesametimeinthe
samepartoftheworldandwereallwellpublishedinthesamelanguage,theoriginsofHPIshouldbecreditedto
allofthem.

WhycareabouttheoriginsofHPI?WhileteachingtheHPIprogramforATD,wevenoticedapervasive
problemamongHPIstudents.BecausemosthaveasolidbackgroundinoneoftheHRDdisciplines(training,OD,
orcareercounseling),theystrugglewhentryingtoreconcilethemainstreamHPItheoriestheyrebeinggiven
withthetheoriestheyveknownforyears.

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Forinstance,talkingaboutsystemstheoryisboundtoevokeimagesofPeterSengeorMarvinWeisbord,
eventhoughwereattributingthoseconceptstotheseminalworksofRummlerorMager.Itisntlongbefore
studentsstarttowonder:IsntthisthesamestuffIlearnedinODbutwithallnewlabels?
Theanswerisyesandno.IfweviewHPIfromthestandpointoftheinterventionsthatareoffered,
theresatremendousoverlapwithotherdisciplinessuchasHR,OD,andtraining.However,ifweviewHPIfrom
thestandpointofthemethodologyforselectingthoseinterventions,cleardifferencesbegintoemerge.Finding
awaytogetstudentstoseethedifferencesisachallenge.Wevelearnedthathelpingthemviewtheprofession
fromahistoricalperspectiveisthefirststepintheirjourneytowardanHPImindset.

Whatssoupgottodowithit?Theingredientsforchickensoupcanvarytremendously.Everyonewho
makesitwillswearthattheirsoupisthemosttraditional,tastesthebest,orhasthegreatestmedicinalvalue.If
youarentasoupconnoisseur,suchdistinctionsareoftendifficulttosee.Thatmakesitdifficulttodecidethe
bestwaytocookchickensoup,thoughitsanimportantstaple.

Asyoureadthroughthecategorydescriptions,theoreticalcontributions,listofpublishedworks,and
associationsthatexistamongHPIcontributors,thinkofsoup.Theingredientsincludebehaviorism,diagnostic
andanalyticalsystems,organizationallearningandinstructionalsystemsdesign,organizationdevelopmentand
changemanagement,systemstheory,evaluation,andmanagementsciences.But,todate,noonereallyknows
howmuchorinwhatcombinationthoseingredientsareusedbythetypicalperformanceconsultant(ifthereis
suchathing).Someoftheingredientsareprobablypartofthesoupstock;otherstendtobesprinkledinas
needed.

Forexample,itsimpossibletoimagineaperformanceconsultantwhodoesntregardsystemsthinking
andanalyticaldiagnostics(whetheraccordingtoHarless,Rummler,PeterPipe,RonZemke,orMarvinWeisbord)
asacornerstoneofhisorherpractice.Likewise,behavioristtheoryissopervasiveintheAmericanculture
(thankstoB.F.Skinner)thatanyperformanceconsultantpracticingintheUnitedStatesmustlookatstrategies
formotivatingemployeestoacceptrequiredinterventions,eveniftheinitialperformanceproblemisntclosely
relatedtohowemployeesarebehaving.Ontheotherhand,howmuchaperformanceconsultantreliesonOD
theory,ISDtheory,orevaluationtheoryprobablyvariesgreatly.

Wheredoesthefieldgofromhere?HPIsoupcanbeaPandorasBoxforHPIstudents,practitioners,and
clients.IfHPIdoesntdrawfromacohesivebodyofknowledge,isitreallyadiscipline,aprofession,orevena
field?AlthoughthatsapotentialstumblingblockforHPI,allisnotlost.

One,wemustrememberthatHPI(orHPTorperformanceconsulting)doesuseafairlystandardmodel
forarticulatingbusinessgoals,determiningthegapbetweenactualanddesiredperformance,findingtheroot
causesforthatgap,recommendingtargetedsolutions,andevaluatingtheresults.

Two,wemustkeepinmindthatmostofthecontributorswementionarehighlysuccessful
practitioners.Thatis,theirvariedapproachestoperformanceanalysis,causeanalysis,interventionselection,
andevaluationhaveyieldedimpressiveorganizationalresults.Therefore,wecanassumethatalthoughtheir
theoriesvary(andinsomecasescontradicteachother),itdoesntmeanthattheyarentvaluable.

Therealproblemariseswhenwetrytohelpotherpeoplebecomeperformanceconsultants.Howare

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newpractitionerssupposedtoembraceHPIwhenitincludesalmostallofthetheorieseverpostulatedabout
thebestwaytoimproveorganizationalperformance?StudentsofHPImusthaveastartingpointortheir
chancesofsuccessaregreatlydiminished.Thisstartingpointrequiresacohesivebodyofknowledgethats
replicable,scalable,andteachable.

So,whyhasntanyoneeverassembledthisbodyofknowledge?Tobeginwith,alotofmystiquestill
surroundstheworkofmostsuccessfulperformanceconsultants.Littleinformationexistsonexactlyhow
particularperformanceconsultantsmanagetogettheorganizationalresultstheyrefamousfor.Withoutthat
information,itsdifficulttorecommendthebesttheoriesandpracticesthatanewperformanceconsultant
shoulduse.Afterall,whatworksforRummlerorDanaGainesRobinsonmaynotworkforthetypicaltrainer
turnedperformanceconsultant.

Inaddition,wehavenoindustrystandardsforhowfrequentlyHPIprojectsshouldbesuccessfuland
howmuchROItheyshouldproduce.Howcananewperformanceconsultanthopetogaincredibilitywithout
beingabletoadvertisethepercentageofHPIinterventionsthatproduceintendedresults?

WhattheHPIsoupboilsdowntoisthatwemustbegintounderstandwhichofthetheorieshasthe
greatestchanceofsuccess.ThesetheorieswillbecometheessentialingredientsofHPIsoup,whichinturnwill
increasestheacceptanceandvalueofperformanceconsultingwork.

ThisisthepointinhistorythatHPIhasreached:ItstimetobegininnovatingHPIpracticesthatpeople
canusesuccessfullyintheirorganizations.Whenthathappens,wewilltrulyhavearevolutionandsomevery
goodsoup.

Contributingdisciplines
Behaviorism.Thisbranchofpsychology,definedasthescienceofbehaviorwithoutreferencetoconsciousness
ormentalconstructs(Watson,1925),hasheavilyinfluencedinstructionalandeducationalstrategieswithits
assertionthatonecanpredictbehaviorbasedonthestimulipresented.Trainersincorporatedtheideaofoperant
conditioning(thatorganismslearntomanipulateandcontroltheirenvironmentbytheirresponsestoit)intotheir
models,believingthatimmediatereinforcementcontributessignificantlytoacquiringnewskillsorknowledge.

Pioneersofhumanperformanceimprovementrootedtheirmodelsinbehavioristconcepts,althoughin
somecasesthesametheoristsrebelledagainstbehaviorismatalaterpointintheircareers.Earlyattemptsat
programmedinstructionwereespeciallyinfluencedbySkinnerssmallstepinstructionandfeedbackconcepts.

Diagnosticandanalyticalsystems.HPIdifferentiatesitselffromotherdisciplinesbytheextenttowhich
interventionchoicesaredatadrivenbytheanalysisprocess.Inordertodiagnosethecausesofperformance
gaps,practitionersneedcomprehensiveanalyticaltoolstoilluminateallpossibleconsiderations.Correctly
diagnosingthegapbetweenactualanddesiredlevelsofperformancehasbeenaprimaryemphasisofHPIsince
itsbeginning.Accordingly,manytheoristsmadediagnosticstheirprimaryareaofconcern.Analyticalmodelstend
tofocusoneithertheprocessofdiagnosingorganizationalproblemsorwaysofviewingthecompositionof
organizationsfrommanydifferentperspectives.

Organizationallearningandinstructionalsystemsdesign.Thetheoriesandapproachesofinstructional

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systemsdesignweretheforerunnersofmodernHPItheory.Astrainingprofessionalsfocusedonanalyzingthe
exactdeficienciesinperformerknowledgeandonprovidingtargetedtrainingtosatisfyknowledgegaps,they
becamefrustratedbytheirinabilitytoinfluenceperformanceoutcomes.Althoughtheycoulddemonstratelarge
increasesinperformerknowledge,itwasdifficulttodemonstratetheimpactthatithadintheworkplace.That
frustrationdrovethesearchfornonlearningfactorsthatpreventperformersfromattainingtheirperformance
goals.
ThefieldofISDdevelopedinthe1950sinresponsetotheneedtotrainthousandsofmilitarypersonnel
duringWorldWarII.TheISDmodelwasbornandhelpedguideinstructionaldesignersthroughtheseprimary
phasesofISD:analyze,design,develop,implement,andevaluate(theADDIEmodel).Audiovisualmethodsof
training,suchasfilm,wereputtouseandfoundtobeaseffectiveasstanduptrainers.Standardized
instructionalmethodswerecreated(suchaslecture,roleplay,andcasestudies),andinstructionaldesigners
beganbuildingtheircoursesaroundlearningobjectivesthatspecifiedtheexactlearnerbehaviorsdesired.

ODandchangemanagement.Becausehumanperformanceimprovementconcentratesonchanging
performanceatboththeindividualandorganizationallevels,thefieldsofODandchangemanagementhavehad
considerableinfluenceonHPI.Inparticular,ODinterventionshavefocusedonimprovingtheculture,group
dynamics,andstructureoforganizations.Changemanagementhasconcentratedonhelpingindividualsand
groupsadapttochangesbyprovidingtimelyinformation,appropriateresources,andstrategiesformanaging
theturmoilthataccompaniesmostchangeefforts.

TheoristswhohavefocusedonODandchangemanagementprovidedHPIwiththetheoreticalbasisfor
understandingsystemsdynamics,humanmotivation,groupandteamdynamics,competencymodeling,
organizationallearningsystems,andfeedbacksystems.

Systemstheory.Thisdisciplinestudiestheinterrelationshipsbetweenseeminglyunassociatedpartsof
anorganizationbyexaminingthepatternsoftheinterrelationships.Systemstheorytakestheholisticapproach
ofexamininghowactionsinonepartofanorganizationcanhavenegativeorpositiveconsequencesinanother
part.

Systemsthinkingisaconceptualframework,abodyofknowledge,andasetoftoolsthathasbeen
developedoverthepast50yearstomakethefullpatternsclearerandtohelpusseehowtochangethem
effectively,wroteSengeinhisclassicTheFifthDiscipline.

Itwouldbeimpossibletoimproveindividualperformanceintheworkplacewithoutathorough
understandingofthesystematicframeworkoforganizations.Performanceproblemsdontexistinavacuum:
Theyregreatlyinfluencedbytheinterdependentnatureofthesystemsinwhichtheyoccur.Thetheoriesand
toolsthathavederivedfromsystemsthinkingareintricatelywoventhroughoutHPIandthemanyother
disciplinesthatcontributetoHPI,suchasOD.Theoristswhohavefocusedonsystemsthinkinghavemadeit
possibleforperformanceconsultantstounravelthemysteriesofpervasiveorganizationalproblems,andthey
offersolutionsthataddresstherootcausesofthoseproblems.

Evaluation.EvaluationisacriticalphaseintheISDandHPIprocesses,becauseitproducesthecredibility
thatpractitionersneedinordertocontinueofferingtheirservices.Thepurposeofevaluationistodetermine

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thevalueandimpactofinterventions.Quantificationofthevalueoftrainingledsometheoriststoconsiderways
ofcalculatingthevalueofalltypesofinterventions.Inaddition,therehasbeenconsiderableinterestin
expandingthelifecycleofevaluationtoincludeformativeandsummativecomponents.

Thefieldoftrainingevaluationrepresentsoneoftheearliestattemptstoestablishthevalueofinvesting
organizationalresourcesinhumandevelopmentinordertobolsterorganizationaleffectiveness.Initially,that
calculationwasdonebyshowingthecostperstudentfortraining,butevaluationforHPIhasevolvedintoa
morecomplexsetofcalculations.HPIevaluationconsidersthecostoftheinterventionsagainsttherealsavings
attainedbyfixingtheperformanceproblem.Thatcalculationisoftenexpressedasreturnoninvestment
(benefitdividedbycost).

Theoristswhohavefocusedonevaluationhavemadeitpossibleforperformanceconsultantsto
demonstratetheirvaluetotheirorganizations.

Managementsciences.Thedisciplineofmanagementsciencesevolvedoutoftheindustrialrevolution
andwasforeverchangedbytherevolutionaryandcontroversialmethodsFrederickTayloroutlinedinhis1911
book,ThePrinciplesofScientificManagement.Hisideawastodividelaboraccordingtothinkersanddoers
andtocreateastandardizedproductionprocess.HenryFordsassemblylineforthe1913ModelTwasthe
embodimentofTaylorsphilosophy.

Eventually,managementconcernsinthefactoriesshiftedtothephysicalandpsychologicalsafetyof
workers.Withtheriseofhumanisticpsychologyandbehaviorism,thefocuschangedtothesocialneedsof
employees.Asthelaborforcebecamemoreeducatedandsophisticated,managementtheoryrespondedby
developingmodelstoaddresshigher.

Thecontributors
ChrisArgyris:TheActionScienceGuy.Bestknownfordevelopingthepracticeofactionscience(a
methodforreflectionandinquiryonthereasoningthatunderliespeoplesactions),Argyrisisalsoknownfor
helpingdeveloptheconceptsofthelearningorganization,doublelooplearning,andfeedbacksystems.Argyris
coinedthetermskilledincompetencetoexplainhowdefensivebehaviorandthefearofcollectiveinquiryby
managementmayprotectusfromthreatorembarrassmentbutalsomayblocklearning.Hisprimaryinterestis
inunderstandingconflictsbetweenindividualsandorganizations.

AwellrespectedprofessorwhohastaughtatYaleandHarvard,Argyrispioneeredtheuseofteam
buildingwithuppermanagementparticipation.His1970book,InterventionTheoryandMethod,hasbecomean
ODclassic.

MostHPIcontributorsandpractitionersareconnectedwitheachotherinsomeway.Argyrisisa
colleagueofPeterSenges,withwhomhedevelopedtheconceptofthelearningorganization.

BenjaminBloom:TheTaxonomyGuy.Apioneerineducationaltechnology,Bloomproposedasystem
thatvariesinstructionaltimeandmaterialssothatallstudentshavetheopportunitytomastertasks.Hewasthe
firstinstructionaltheoristtoorganizeobjectivesrelatedtowhatlearnersweresupposedtodo.

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Bloomcreatedataxonomyofintellectualbehaviorsthathasguidedinstructionaldesigncontentsince
1956.Thatresourcevariesinstructionandtimeaccordingtolearnerrequirements,andisarrangedina
hierarchyrangingfromsimplefactualrecallthroughthesynthesisandevaluationofinformation.Healso
developedamodelofsixcognitivedomainsoflearning.

W.EdwardsDeming:TheTQMGuy.Bestknownasadistinguishedstatisticianandforhistotalquality
managementworkinJapaninpostWorldWarII,DemingwasdiscoveredintheUnitedStatesin1980,after
spending30yearsturningaroundtheJapaneseeconomy.HisclientsincludedFordMotor,GeneralMotors,Dow
Chemical,andHughesAircraft.

Demingwrotea14pointsmodelofqualitymanagementinthe1950s,andtheorizedthatemphasizing
qualityinsteadofsettingproductiontargetsleadstohigheroutput.HewrotehisseminalworkQuality,
Productivity,andCompetitivePositionsin1982.

PeterDrucker:TheManagementSciencesGuy.Druckersmostprofoundcontributionshavebeento
showthatbusinessesarehumanaswellaseconomiccentersandthatworkmusthavesocialmeaning.He
proposedthatmanagerialmanagerialresponsibilitiesshouldbeundertakenbyindividualemployeesandwork
teamsoversuchareasasjobstructureandbenefits.Hecalledthattheselfgoverningplantcommunity.

Druckerdevelopedtheconceptsofdecentralizedlargeorganizations,managementbyobjectives,and
theroleofknowledgeworkers.HepublishedhisseminalworkThePracticeofManagementin1954.More
recentpublicationsincludeTheExecutiveinAction:ThreeClassicWorksonManagement(1996)andPeter
DruckerontheProfessionofManagement(1998).HereceivedATDsLifetimeAchievementAwardin1998.

RobertGagn:TheISDGuy.Gagnisastrongproponentoftaskanalysis,whichrelatesdirectlyto
Skinnersideaofsequencedlearningevents.Gagnproposesthatlearnersneedtoreceivefeedbackon
individualizedtasksinordertocorrectisolatedproblems.

GagncreatedtheInformalInformationProcessingModel,whichoutlinesnineeventsofinstruction,in
hisbookTheConditionsofLearning:TrainingApplications(1996).Hesuggestedthattherearefivetypesof
learning:1)psychomotorskills,2)verbalinformation,3)intellectualskills,4)cognitivestrategies,and5)
attitudes.Gagnebelievesthathumanperformanceneedstodealwithmultiple,ratherthanserial,learning
objectivesthatshouldbelinkedtoinstructionalgoals.

Gagnsconnectiontoothercontributors:GagnhasaddedtoB.F.Skinnerstheoriesoflearningevent
sequencingandimmediatefeedback.HehasworkedwithJoeHarlessandGearyRummler.

ThomasF.Gilbert:TheEngineeringGuy.Gilbertsprimarycontributionsincludefoundingthefieldof
humanperformanceimprovementandhis1978seminalworkHumanCompetence,inwhichhepubliclybroke
awayfrombehaviorism.Inthatwriting,hewasthefirsttheoristtoclaimthattheabsenceofperformance
support(notskillsorknowledge)isthegreatestblocktoexemplaryworkperformance.

Gilbertdevelopedabehavioralengineeringmodel,atoolthatfocusesonchangingsuchwork
environmentaspectsasinformation,resources,incentives,knowledge,capacity,andmotivestoraiseindividual

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performancebasedonhis20yearsofworkusingperformanceengineeringinorganizations.Gilbertalso
helpedfoundtheInternationalSocietyforPerformanceImprovementinthe1960sandpromptedthepublishing
ofPerformanceImprovementQuarterly.

Connectiontoothercontributors:HestudiedunderSkinnerasagraduatestudentandworkedwithhim
atHarvardsbehaviorlearninglabfor12years.GilbertsoughtinspirationinthewritingsofFrederickTaylorand
KurtLewin.WitGearyRummler,GilbertfoundedthePraxisCorporationin1967.Hehadalifelongassociation
withJoeHarlessandRobertMager.

JoeHarless:TheFrontEndAnalysisGuy.Harlesscoinedthetermfrontendanalysisin1969,todescribe
therigorousdiagnosticframeworkthatneedstobedonebeforeaddressingasolutiontoaproblem.Hebelieved
thatidentificationofaperformanceproblemcametoolateintheprocessandthatthecauseoftheproblem
oftendictatesthesolution.

HarlesswasthefirsttofocusonhowHPItoolscanreducetrainingexpensesconsiderably.Hebrought
awarenesstothefinancialramificationsofusingtrainingsolutionswhenothermeanscouldbemoreeffective.
Harlesscreatedthefrontendanalysismodel,whichdepartedfrompreviousmodelsinthatitsintendedforuse
byemployeeteams.HefoundedtheHarlessPerformanceGuildinWashington,D.C.,andservedaspresidentof
ISPIin1976.

Connectiontoothertheorists:HarlesswasintroducedtothefieldofHPIbyaccidentwhenhewalked
intothewrongclassbeingtaughtbyThomasGilbertattheUniversityofAlabama.HelaterworkedforGilbertat
TOR(TheoryforReinforcement).

RogerKaufman:TheMega,Macro,andMicroStrategicPlanningGuy.Kaufmanisbestknownforhis
strategicplanningmodel,whichaddressesthemega(society),macro(organizational),andmicro(individual)
levels.HeenhancedandexpandedDonaldKirkpatricksfourlevelevaluationframeworktoencompass
interventionstrategies.

KaufmanwrotehisseminalworkIdentifyingandSolvingProblems:ASystemsApproachin1982.Hehas
alsowritten31booksandmorethan160articlesonneedsassessment,qualitymanagement,andstrategic
planning.

KaufmanisaprofessoranddirectoroftheCenterforNeedsAssessmentandPlanningattheLearning
SystemsInstitute,FloridaStateUniversity.HesalsoapastpresidentoftheNationalSocietyforPerformance
andInstruction,beforeitbecameISPI.

Connectiontoothertheorists:KaufmancowroteTheGuidebookforPerformancePerformance
ImprovementwithSivasailamThiagarajanandPaulaMcGillis.HealsocoauthoredarticleswithHaroldStolovich
andH.Mayer.

DonaldKirkpatrick:TheFourLevelEvaluationGuy.Bestknownforhisfourlevelframeworkof
evaluationcriteria(reaction,learning,behavior,andresults),Kirkpatrickclarifiedthemeaningofevaluationasit
pertainstothetrainingprocess.HisManagementInventoriesareguidestosuchtopicsashowtoconductmore

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productivemeetings,howtogetmorestaffsupportfororganizationalchange,andhowtoplanandevaluate
managementandsupervisorytraining.

MalcolmKnowles:TheAndragogyGuy.ConsideredtobetheApostleofAndragogyandfatherof
adultlearningtheory,Knowlestheorizedthatadultsneedtoselfdirecttheirlearning,needtoknowthe
purposeofwhattheyretolearn,needtoapplytheirrelevantexperiencestotheirlearning,andrequirea
problemcenteredapproachtolearning.Knowlesappliedessentialadultlearningconceptstoimprovethefield
oftraininganddevelopment,andintroducedtheconceptofthelearningcontractandthelifelonglearner.
KnowleswroteTheAdultLearner:ANeglectedSpecies(1990)andTheModernPracticeofAdultEducation:
AndragogyVersusPedagogy(1970).

KurtLewin:TheForceFieldAnalysisGuy.Lewinwasanexperimentalsocialscientistwhowedded
FrederickTaylorsscientificthinkingtodemocraticvaluesandcreatedparticipativemanagement.Heassessed
humanbehaviorintermsofaforcefield,inwhichopposingforces(drivingandrestraining)motivateaction.

Lewinpostulatedthatperformanceimprovementhappensmostdramaticallywhenrestrainingforces
arereduced.Hismotivationaltheoryemphasizestheneedtobalancepsychictensionabeliefthatdiffers
radicallyfromthetheorythatbehaviorisdeterminedbypastinfluences(Freud)orfuturegoals(Skinner).

LewinlaidthefoundationforSengeslearningorganizationconcept,andhedevelopedathreestage
organizationalchangeprocessthatconsistsof1)unfreezingoldbehavior,2)movingtoanewlevelofbehavior,
and3)refreezingthenewbehavior.

Connectiontoothertheorists:LewinwasinspiredbyFrederickTaylorsscientificmanagementworkand
echoedhissameapproachofanattitudeofquestioning,research,andcarefulanalysis.Lewininspiredthe
careersofEricTrist(withwhomhefoundedthejournalHumanRelations)andRonaldLippitt(withwhomhe
coinedthetermgroupdynamics).LewinfoundedtheResearchCenterforGroupDynamicsatMITwithDouglas
McGregorin1946.

RobertMager:TheInstructionalObjectivesGuy.Mageriscreditedasthecatalystfortransformingthe
fieldofinstructionthroughafocusoninstructionalobjectivesforimprovedperformance.Hecreatedthe
performanceanalysisflowchartwithPeterPipe.Magersbestknownforhisbook,PreparingInstructional
Objectives(1984).HealsowroteMakingInstructionWork(1988),AnalyzingPerformanceProblems(1984),
MeasuringInstructionalResults(1973),GoalAnalysis(1972),andDevelopingAttitudesTowardsLearning(1968).
Together,thosebookshavebeencalledtheMagersixpack.

MagerisapastpresidentandlifememberofISPI.HewasawardedtheISPIDistinguishedProfessional
AchievementAwardin1994.Connectiontoothertheorists:MagerworkedwithGilbertandHarless,andco
wroteAnalyzingPerformanceProblemsin1984withPipe.

DouglasMcGregor:TheTheoryX&YGuy.McGregordevelopedthetheoriesofXandYmanagement
styles,whicharemetaphorsforthemasterandservantpolarity.TheoryXdefinesarepressive,authoritarian,
fearfultypeofmanagement.TheoryYdefinesanoptimistic,creative,andindependentstyle.

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McGregorpublicizedA.H.Maslowshierarchyofneedsmodelofmotivationbyclaimingthatmanagers
mustpayattentiontoemployeeshigherneedsinordertounleashtheirinherentpotential.Hecoinedtheterm
organizationdevelopmentwithRichardBeckhardinthe1950s.McGregorsseminalwork,TheHumanSideof
Enterprise(1960),hasbecomeamanagementclassic.HestudiedandthentaughtatHarvardandMIT,wherehe
foundedtheIndustrialRelationsSection.Connectiontoothertheorists:McGregorbroughtLewintoMITin
1946,andbuiltonhisworkthroughouthiscareer.HecollaboratedwithWarrenBennisatMITandwasclose
friendswithEricTrist.

SusanMarkle:TheProgrammedInstructionGal.Markledevelopedandpopularizedtheconceptof
programmedinstruction,basedonherresearchofandworkexperiencewithSkinnersteachingmachines.In
1970,sheconcludedthatbehaviorismaloneisinsufficienttoexplainhumanbehaviorandlearning,and
suggestedthatasubjectspositiveresponsesintheSkinnerBoxdidntequatetothatsubjectsunderstanding.
WithPhilipTiemann,shedevelopedamodelthatcombinesoperantconditioningwithcognitivelearningand
informationgathering.

Marklesuggestedthatthreetypesoflearningarecentraltoprogrammedinstruction:discriminations,
generalizations,andchains(aseriesofsimpleresponsesthatformasequence).WhileaprofessoratUCLAin
1964,shewroteherseminalworkGoodFramesandBad:AGrammarofFrameWriting,whichhasbecomea
classiconprogrammedinstruction.

Connectiontoothertheorists:MarklewroteherdoctoraldissertationonSkinnersteachingmachine
project,thenworkedwithSkinneratHarvardfrom1956to1960.HerworkwasheavilyinfluencedbyGilberts
matheticssystemandNormanCrowdersintrinsicprogrammingwork.

GearyRummler:TheThreeLevelsGuy.Rummlersbestknownforhistheoryonthethreelevelsof
organizationalperformance:organizational,process,andindividualjoborperformer.Hedeterminedthateach
levelinfluencestheother,and,therefore,eachmustbeaddressedsystematically.

WithGilbert,Rummlerrebelledagainstbehaviorismduetothegrowingfrustrationthatitwasnt
comprehensiveenoughtosolvealltypesofperformanceproblems.InhisseminalworkwithAlanBrache,
ImprovingPerformance:ManagingtheWhiteSpaceontheOrganizationChart(1990),Rummleremphasizedthe
importanceoflookingatorganizationalprocesses,whichhecalledthewhitespaces.Hehasledperformance
improvementeffortsatsuchcorporationsasFord,GM,HewlettPackard,ShellOil,andCitibank.

Rummler,aformerpresidentofISPI,wasawardedATDsLifetimeAchievementAwardandinducted
intotheHumanResourceDevelopmentHallofFamein1986.

Connectiontoothertheorists:RummlercofoundedtheCenterforProgrammedLearningin1962,and
publishedTraining:HandbookforProfessionalsin1988,withGeorgeOdiorne.HealsocofoundedPraxis
CorporationwithGilbertin1969.

PeterSenge:TheLearningOrganizationGuy.Sengeisprobablybestknownforpopularizingtheconcept
ofthelearningorganization,asdescribedinhis1990bestsellingbookTheFifthDiscipline.Heidentifiedfive
criticalpracticesforcreatingalearningorganization:1)personalmastery,2)mentalmodels,3)sharedvision,4)

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teamlearning,and5)systemsthinking.Healsoillustratedasystemsorientedapproachtoachievinghigh
performance.

SengeisfounderanddirectorofMITsSloanSchoolofManagement,andhasintroducedthousandsof
managersatFord,Digital,ProctorandGamble,AT&T,andothermajorcorporationstohisconceptsasapartner
ofInnovationAssociates.Connectiontoothertheorists:Inhisbook,TheFifthDiscipline,Sengebuiltonthework
ofArgyris.

B.F.Skinner:TheBehavioristGuy.Consideredtobethebasisofbehaviorism,Skinnerstheoriesalso
serveasthefoundationofHPI.Hesconsideredtobetheoriginatorofcontemporaryinstructionaldesign.He
demonstratedthatsmallstepinstruction,coupledwithextensivefeedback,enhanceslearning.Skinner
publishedhisseminalworkScienceandHumanBehaviorin1953,introducingtheideaofbehaviormodification.
Heprovidedtheoriginalbasisforstimulusresponse,feedback,andreinforcementinTheScienceofLearning
andtheArtofTeaching(1954).

Skinnersconnectiontoothertheorists:WhileaprofessoratHarvardsgraduateschool,hetaught
ThomasGilbertandlaterworkedwithhimfor12yearsthere.SkinneralsoworkedwithHarlessandRummler.

FrederickTaylor:TheScientificManagementGuy.Taylorsbestknownforhisrevolutionaryscientific
managementprinciplesthetenetsofwhichincludeauthoritybasedonknowledgeinsteadofposition,thefirst
wageincentivesystem,breakingdowntasksintosmallercomponents,andthecreationofaproductivityexpert.

Taylorlaidthefoundationformoderndayassemblylineworkandpioneeredconceptsoforganization
andmanagementespeciallytheintegrationofmethods,policies,planning,andpeople.Hewasthefirst
theoristtosuggestthatworkersproductivityincreaseswhentheyreinvolvedindesigningtheirownwork.

Connectiontoothertheorists:Inadditiontoinspiringandinfluencingmostcurrentmanagement
theorists,TaylorsideasmostdirectlyaffectedtheworkofMcGregor,whobroadenedTaylorsviewstoinclude
applicationswithgroupdynamics.

Sivasailam(Thiagi)Thiagarajan:TheGamesGuy.OneofThiagisgreatestcontributionshasbeento
elevateseriousplay,games,andfunasperformanceinterventions.Hismajorareasofexpertiseandformal
educationincludesocialpsychology,cognitivescience,andcomplexitytheory.Heintegratedplayfulness,
persontopersoninteraction,andexperientiallearningintowhatusedtobeasolelyindividual,isolated,theory
basedapproachtoimprovinghumanperformance.

ThiagihasalsobeenapioneerandleaderofISPI,whereheservedaspresidentandvicepresident.For
hiscontributionstothefieldofHPI,hewasawardedISPIshighestLifeMemberAward,aswellasotherawards
andmorethan20presidentialcitations.HehasbeenmakingpresentationsatISPIannualconferencessince
1968.

Connectiontoothertheorists:MarklewasoneofThiagisearlydiscoverersandmentors.Shewas
presidentofNSPIwhentheymetataprogrammedinstructionworkshopinNewDelhiin1966,sponsoredby
USAID.ImpressedbywhatThiagiwasdoingasahighschoolteacher,Markleexcusedhimfromtheworkshop

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andencouragedhiscreativefreedom.BackintheUnitedStates,ThiagimetwithMarklesmentor,Skinner,who
enlightenedandinspiredhim.

DonaldTosti:TheFeedbackGuy.Tostiassertsthatthecriticalcharacteristicsoffeedbackaretiedtowho
givesit,thecontent,whereitisgiven,andwhenitisgiven.Tostispecializesintheapplicationofhuman
performancetechnologytoorganizationalchangeculture.HewastheeditorandcoauthorofPerformanceBased
Management,aseriesofHPItrainingprograms.HealsointroducedtheuseoftheOrganizationalScanModel,
whichidentifiesactionstoimproveperformanceoutcomes.

MarvinWeisbord:TheSixBoxesGuy.In1976,Weisborddevelopedthewidelyusedorganizational
diagnosticframework,TheSixBoxModel,inwhichheidentifiedthecriticalareasofanorganizationas
purposes,structure,leadership,relationships,rewards,andhelpfulmechanisms.

Hisseminalwork,OrganizationalDiagnosis:AWorkbookofTheoryandPractice(1978),hasbecomea
textformanyODpractitioners.WeisbordservedasassociateeditoroftheJournalofAppliedBehavioralScience
from1972to1978.Connectiontoothertheorists:WeisbordwasfriendswithEricTrist,PeterVaill,andRonald
Lippitt.HecofoundedtheconsultingfirmBlockPetrellaWeisbordwithPeterBlockandTonyPetrellain1970.

So,isitsoupyet?MuchremainstobeseenandproveninthefieldofHPIaspractitionersapplyitand
demonstratetheresultsoftheirefforts.Thereareasmanydifferentrecipesastherearecooks,butthe
outcomesareboundtobesatisfying.

EthanS.SandersisSeniorFellowinICFsOrganizationalResearch,Learning,andPerformanceDivision.

JulieL.RugglesisanoncallConsultantforICFInternational.

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SignificantDatesRelatedtoHPI

Date Event
1906 TheNationalSociety for the promotion of industrial Education is formed
1911 FrederickW.Taylorpublisher The Principles of Scientific Management
Unionssetuptheirfirst training programs for employees. Bell LabsintroducesTQM
1920s
andstatisticalqualitycontrol.
MaryParkerFollettdevelops The Law of the Situation emphasizinghumanfactors in
1925
managementandrecommending joint business planning betweenleadersandstaff
TheHawthorneExperiments at the Western Electric Plant in Cicero,Illinois,
1927
demonstratetheinfluenceofphysicalandpsychologicalfactorsonproductivity.
ProfessorErwinH.Schell initiates M.I.T.s executive developmentprogramthefirst
1931
awayfromcompanyprogramforexecutives.
1936 DaleCarnegiepublishes How to Win Friends and Influence People
U.S.presidentFranklin D. Roosevelt signs an executive order statingthatthe
1938
government,asanemployer,shouldprovidetrainingforemployees
1939 PeterDruckerpublishes his first book, The End of Economic Man
TheAmericanSociety for Training Directors (ATD) is formed on April2,1942,ata
1942 meetingoftheAmericanPetroleumInstitute,inNewOrleans,Louisiana.Fifteen
trainingdirectorsholdtheirfirstmeetingonJanuary12,1943,inBatonRouge
1942 DruckerpublishesThe Future of Industrial Man: A Conservative Approach.
1943 AbrahamMaslowpublishes A Theory of Human Motivation.
TheG.I.BillofRights is signed, making grants and loans for collegeavailabletoU.S.
1944
militarypersonnel.
ATD publishesthefirst issue of Industrial Training News, aquarterlypublicationthat
1945
eventuallybecomes Training &Development magazine.
Americanqualityexperts Joseph M. Juran and W. Edwards DeminggotoJapanas
1950
advisorsonthereconstructionofJapaneseindustry.
1951 TotalQualityControl by A.V. Feigenbaum is published
B.F.SkinnersScience and Human Behavior is published, introducingtheideaof
1953
behaviormodification.
1954 DruckersThePractice of Management is published.
SkinnersTheScience of Learning and The Art of Teaching is published,introducing the
1954
basisforstimulusresponse,feedback,andreinforcement.
1956 BenjaminBloompublishes hisTaxonomy of Intellectual Behaviors.
RespondingtotheU.S.S.R.s launch of Sputnik, the U.S. governmentsignstheNational
1958
DefenseEducationAct.
DouglasM.McGregors The Human Side of Enterprise is published,describingTheory X
1960
andTheoryYasopposingviewpointsofpeoplesfundamentalperceptionsofwork.
TheInstituteforBehavioral Research and Programmed InstructionatUniversityof
1961
Michiganopens.
1962 Congressvotesinto law the Manpower Development and TrainingAct(MDTA).
1962 TheNaturalSociety for Performance and Instruction is Formed
Thetermhumanresource development is coined by Leonard Nadlerduringhisclass at
1968
GeorgeWashingtonUniversityinWashington,D.C.
ThenewU.S.Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)mandatessafety
1970
educationandtrainingforworkers.
1970 ChrisArgyrissIntervention Theory and Method is published.
TheNTLInstitutefor Behavioral Science announces itwill build theworldsfirst
1970
universitydevotedentirely to applied behavioral science.

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Date Event
TheComprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) is enacted.CETAprovided
1973 publicserviceemploymentandsubsidizedonthejobtrainingfordisadvantaged
people.
TheInternationalFederation of Training and Development is formed,withATDs
1973
assistance,throughagrantfromtheAgencyforInternationalDevelopment.
MalcolmKnowlessThe Adult Learner: A Neglected Species is published,outlining his
1973
theoriesonadultlearning.
Section127oftheRevenue Act of 1978 enacted. The law excludesfromtaxable
1978
incomeemployersponsorededucationalassistanceforanytypeofcourse.
InternationalSociety for Performance Improvement publishes ThomasGilbertsbook
1978
HumanCompetence, in which he breaks away from his behavioristbeginnings
MarvinWeisbordpublishes Organizational Diagnosis: A WorkbookofTheoryand
1978
Practice.
1981 KennethBlanchardand Spencer Johnson publish The OneMinuteManager.
RogerKaufmansseminal work Identifying and Solving Problems: ASystemsApproach
1982
ispublished.
1982 W.EdwardsDemings Quality, Productivity, and Competitive Positionsispublished
1982 TomPetersandRobert Waterman publish In Search of Excellence.
JobTrainingPartnership Act is enacted, passed by U.S.Congress toprovidetraining
1983
andemploymentassistancetodisadvantagedanddislocatedworkers.
1984 RobertMagerandPeter Pipes Analyzing Performance Problems ispublished.
1986 CongressapprovesNational Job Skills Week.
1987 TheMalcolmBaldrige National Quality Award is established.
PeterM.SengesThe Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the LearningOrganization
1990
ispublished.
1990 HRDQuarterlyispublished jointly by ATD, JosseyBass, and UniversityofMinnesota.
GearyRummlerpublishes Improving Performance: Managing theWhiteSpaceson the
1990
OrganizationalChart.
1996 RobertGagnsThe Conditions of Learning: Training Applicationsispublished.

AssociationforTalentDevelopment

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