Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.

htm#TopOfPage

Produced by: Fisheries and

Aquaculture Department
Title: Inland Aquaculture Engineering...
More details

Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds,

Canals and Dams in Aquaculture
Z. Szilvsszy
Research Centre for Water Resources Development
Budapest, Hungary

1. INTRODUCTION - THE PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

2. SITE EXPLORATIONS
3. LABORATORY TESTS
4. DESIGNING FISH-POND DIKES AND DAMS
5. CONSTRUCTION SUPERVISION

1. INTRODUCTION - THE PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

1.1 Cohesive Soils

Ponds are essential components of most fish and aquaculture farms. Lowlands or
valleys less suited to other agricultural development are usually selected as sites for
these ponds and this is often the decisive consideration in selecting the site for the
entire project. The ponds are normally shallow, cover relatively large areas and are
surrounded or impounded in the majority of cases by low earth dikes or dams. The
ponds are usually filled and drained through open canals; other methods, such as
filling through a pipeline, being exceptional.

Potential seepage losses from the ponds and the canals connecting thereto, in
particular the supply canal, and the long-term stability and performance of the low
dikes surrounding the ponds and flanking the canals are the main problems
encountered by the soils engineer.

In dealing subsequently with methods of exploration, laboratory and field testing, and
with the interpretation of the results obtained and their use in dimensioning and
analysis, familiarity with the conventional soil mechanics practice will be assumed, so
that reference will merely be made thereto, as well as to some excellent handbooks in
which the subject is treated exhaustively. Attention will be concentrated instead on
problems due to the particular conditions to which the earth structures of fish farms
are exposed, on the methods of testing which enable us to recognize any potentially
adverse soil properties under these particular conditions and to indicate the remedial
measures.

Seepage losses are liable to occur mainly by underseepage and infiltration from the
ponds and the supply canal, since the embankments are built normally of cohesive
soils, placed and compacted carefully so that they will be practically watertight. The
soils to be used in the embankments must be checked for their susceptibility to

1 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

long-term changes in permeability caused by atmospheric factors, such as

development of 'stable density', or aggregation of particles. Leakage losses may be
caused by burrowing animals, and after extended times of operation by the decaying
roots of vegetation.

The losses due to underseepage and infiltration into the subsoil can be estimated by
the usual methods, provided that the areal pattern and vertical position (stratification)
of any previous soils, and the permeability coefficient, 'k', thereof are determined with
the accuracy required.

When considering seepage losses over longer time ranges, the sediment content of
the water feeding the ponds should also be determined. This will indicate whether in
the course of time natural sealing (colmatation) can be anticipated. This may result
also from decaying debris, fish feed, wastes, algae, etc.

Embankment stability in the 'as-built' condition can be checked by the conventional

methods of soil mechanics. For appraising the long-term performance of the earth
structures, the particular conditions under which these are expected to function must
be remembered.

As mentioned before, these low embankments are built normally of cohesive soils,
with a uniform, homogeneous cross section. Rising above the terrain, they receive
little or no capillary moisture from the groundwater, and are, owing to their small cross
sectional area and low mass, more exposed than large earth dams to atmospheric
effects, such as repeated drying and wetting, and, in some areas to cycles of freezing
and thawing. Under hot, arid climates, or during the dry season, virtually the entire
embankment body may become desiccated and shrinkage cracks are liable to
develop, which facilitate the entrance of water into the embankment at times of rain,
or upon filling the pond. The soil will swell, but the extent of swelling at any particular
point within the embankment will depend not only on the swelling potential of the soil,
but also on the magnitude of the confining pressure exerted by the surrounding,
mainly overlying soil masses. Repeated cycles of drying and rewetting, thus shrinking
and swelling, will result in the development of a stable density distribution, with higher
densities encountered normally in the interior of the cross section. At any particular
point in the embankment, the actual density will fluctuate about this stable value.

These atmospheric effects trigger, however, other adverse changes as well in the
silty-clayey fraction of cohesive soils. These changes will be evaluated by studying
the cohesive components of the soil, the clay minerals, the clay-water system and the
mechanisms which control their interactions. Because of their fundamental
importance in controlling the properties and response to atmospheric effects of the
earth structures involved in fish and aquaculture farms, the cohesive plastic soils will
be dealt with first.

1.1 Cohesive Soils

The soils displaying a certain degree of plasticity are called cohesive, e.g., the
Hungarian Standard Specifications MSZ 4487-58 define a soil as cohesive if the
index of plasticity surpasses the value 15.

Plasticity in cohesive soils is due to the interaction between water and the cohesive
plastic components present in the soil. These plastic components may be classified
into microscopic and submicroscopic clay minerals, with a definite crystal structure
(kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite, etc.) and into the amorphous components. The latter
are either originally vitreous volcanic ashes, or clay minerals weathered and
decomposed by the lime present in the soil. Over the extremely large specific surface
(up to 800 m2 /g) of the clay minerals, the unbonded interface atoms produce a strong
negative electric field, the role of which surpasses by several orders of magnitude that
of gravity related to the negligible mass of these particles.

2 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

The amorphous components are polisilicate and polialuminate hydrates, which have a
gel structure. In the case of weathered clay minerals the amorphous gel may form a
thin coat on the surface, or may be present as a separate phase, once the mineral is
totally decomposed. In a dry, desiccated condition these policompounds form a hard
xerogel of considerable strength, but are capable of absorbing extraordinary amounts
of water, swelling and becoming spontaneously liquid in the process. The gel coat will
act as a lubricant reducing the shear strength and causing even fairly coarse soils to
flow.

Non-plastic components are invariably present in cohesive soils. These are mostly
mineral particles with a low surface-to-mass ratio (e.g., sands and gravels), which
have an influence on the plastic properties, such as plasticity, shrinkage, etc., but are
not essential elements, in that their presence is not a prerequisite to the development
of clay properties. Still, in desirable proportions they have a beneficial effect.

The other element involved in plastic soil is water. The fundamental feature is the
dipolar nature of the water molecules, with a positive and a negative pole making
them thus behave like minute magnets.

In the liquid phase these dipoles tend to aggregate into loose tetrahedron-like
crystalline clusters, but owing to thermal movement these are unstable, and are
rearranged continually. The state and size of these aggregations depend on
temperature. Water in this state is called a Newtonian fluid.

Under high pressures (about 2000 atmospheres) water turns into a solid phase even
at normal temperatures, but with a structure differing from that of normal ice.
Calculated from the heat of hydration, some clay minerals were found to bond the first
few layers of water molecules with energies corresponding to 20-25 thousand
atmospheres pressure. Such water is necessarily solid even under the hottest climate
and has a specific density of 1.2 to 1.4 g/cm3.

Clay-water interaction is due to the aforementioned negative charges prevailing on

the surface of the clay minerals. These cause forces of attraction, which may be
classified as direct, when the positively charged atoms of the dipolar water molecule
are attracted, and indirect, when a cation is adsorbed and this relays the attractive
force toward the water molecules. The cations control decisively the hydration
properties of the clay minerals, since the magnitude of the attractive force between
the clay particles and water, and the range over which this attraction is effective,
depend on the kind and amount of the cations present. The water molecules are
oriented with their positive pole toward the negative clay surface, their negative poles
point outward and attract the positive poles of further water molecules, although with
a force decreasing exponentially with distance. It has been demonstrated
experimentally that in some clays the attractive force is still 4 atmospheres (around 40
m water column) at a distance of 1-micron (around 3000-4000 water-molecule
'diameters') from the clay surface.

In clay-water systems attractive and repulsive interparticle forces act simultaneously.

The distance between the discrete clay particles, their relative orientation and thus
the permeability and strength, etc., of the clay will depend on the equilibrium between
attraction and repulsion, or the predominance of one or the other.

Repulsion is due to the negative poles of the water molecules oriented outward. This
is termed Coulomb repulsion of the diffuse electric double layer, and varies with the
square of distance.

Attraction between the clay particles is due to the van der Waals-London force of
mass attraction, which varies with the fifth, or sixth power of distance. This becomes
effective whenever the clay particles approach each other closer than 1-2 millimicrons
(roughly 4-8 water molecules) and produces usually irreversible changes in the clay
structure (e.g., burning brick or pottery).

3 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

These conditions may be visualized by the force versus distance diagram in Figure 1,
showing the attraction, repulsion and the resultant potentials. If the resultant curve
displays a pronounced minimum, then the clay is said to be in a stable condition, the
particles are situated at the distance corresponding thereto and any change can be
brought about only by introducing external energy. In the absence of a minimum the
suspension is said to be dispersed, while a weak minimum is the case of thixotropic
gels, where equilibrium is upset already by very low external energies.

Any change in the clay-water systems is due to a disturbance of the equilibrium, thus
to a change in the attraction or repulsive forces prevailing between the particles. In
such cases the distance between the particles is changed, and the clay shrinks or
swells until a new equilibrium is established.

The attractive forces depend exclusively on the mass of the particles and at a given
distance no spontaneous change is possible. The distance may, however, change
under external load, capillary or seepage pressure, and thus the attractive force may
increase suddenly (since it varies with the fifth, or even sixth power of distance),
causing the clay to consolidate, coagulate and shrink.

The magnitude of the repulsive force is, on the other hand, influenced by the ions
absorbed on the particles, and by the concentration of electrolytes in the water. Any
change in these entails necessarily - even under otherwise identical conditions - a
volume change, coagulation or dispersion of the clay.

The interstices between the particles (the pores) are however filled with water, so that
any volume change due to a change in the external forces or electric charges is only
possible if interstitial water is squeezed from or drawn into the pores. Since the pores
are submicroscopic in size and the non-Newtonian water has, because of the surface
forces, a very high viscosity, the transition into the new equilibrium state is a very slow
one, tending asymptotically to the terminal state. The mechanism outlined in the
foregoing is suited to explaining the changes brought about by atmospheric effects in
the condition and properties of cohesive clay soils. Of these changes those due to a
reduction in moisture content (drying) are most important. Using Kelvin's equation uw
= 45 000 log H (uw is the pressure or tension of the pore water in psi, and H the
relative vapour content, in decimals) it will be appreciated that at 30% relative
humidity and 20 C temperature the tension in the pore water may be as high as 130
atmospheres, so that much of the water adsorbed on the particle surfaces will be
removed.

Figure 1. Force versus distance diagram

4 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

Drying has the following consequences in clay soils:

(i) Air-water interfaces develop in the three-phase soil, and surface

tension acts on these. Owing to the small pore sizes and, in turn, to the
short radii of curvature, the resulting capillary pressure is a very high one
and tends to bring the particles together.

(ii) Evaporation removes some of the water enveloping the particles,

which reduces the distance between them.

(iii) Water is evaporated, thus the electrolyte concentration of the

5 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

remaining pore water is increased, which may neutralize the repulsive

forces between the particles.

As a combined result of the foregoing three processes the clay particles may
-depending on the degree of desiccation - be drawn together sufficiently for the van
der Waals attractive forces to become predominant (see the potential versus distance
diagram), resulting in flucculation and aggregation. As a consequence the grain size
distribution becomes coarser (as illustrated in Figure 2), the cohesive soil becomes
more pervious, the specific surface decreases and as a corrolary thereto the plastic
properties are diminished. The resulting reduction of volume or shrinkage leads to
cracking and the increased attractive forces give rise to considerable apparent
strength.

If rewetting by pond filling or rain occurs, the cracks facilitate the entrance of water
into the embankment body. The external parts of the individual blocks formed by the
original slope and the crack faces are saturated, while the moisture penetrates toward
their interior by capillary suction. The saturated parts become virtually impervious to
air, so that the air enclosed in the pores is placed under pressure, the magnitude of
which equals the sum of the highest capillary pressure and, over the underwater
parts, the acting hydrostatic pressure. The pressure is increased also by the heat of
hydration, which is prevented from dissipating and may raise considerably the
pressure of the entrapped air. The pressure of the confined air leads to explosion-like
soil failure and is the direct cause of spalling and subsequent liquefaction of
unprotected slopes. If the cracks convey flowing water, then the suddenly liquefying
soil will be scoured at a faster rate than if the cracks are closed by swelling, leading to
the development of gully or tunnel erosion, which has often been identified as the
cause of failure in small embankments.

The mechanism described in the foregoing applies to soils containing clay minerals
as the cohesive component. The presence of amorphous components tends to
aggravate the situation, since these are capable of absorbing considerable amounts
of water and thus may induce extremely high swelling rates.

The susceptibility of soils to such adverse changes in properties, as well as the need
and extent of control measures can be identified on the basis of simple tests
conducted parallel to those commonly performed at soil mechanics laboratories.

2. SITE EXPLORATIONS
Careful site explorations are essential to the soils engineer in the earliest possible
stage of any fish farm project, because sometimes a proposed site will have to be
abandoned and another one selected if early explorations indicate adverse soil
conditions.

Site explorations enable the soils engineer to provide answers to the main problems
of seepage and dike stability and to furnish information to the designer of the
structures about the foundation conditions.

2.1 Pond Areas and Canal Traces

As mentioned in the introduction, the accuracy of seepage loss estimations will

depend on how well we succeed in determining the areal pattern and stratification of
any pervious soils in the pond area and along the trace of the filling canal, and the
permeability coefficient 'k' of these soils.

Figure 2. Semi-logarithmic grain-size curve of soils

Efforts must therefore be made to check the surface layer in the area of the proposed
pond(s) and along the trace of the canal for uniformity, to detect any singularities such

6 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

as beds of rivulets and abandoned streams, which are always potentially present in
alluvial lowland areas.

The plan of explorations should accordingly be prepared on the basis of a thorough

field inspection including preliminary sampling with a manual sampling kit and
classifying the samples visually.1/ Valuable information can be derived further from a
careful study of detailed maps and aerial photographs, if such are, or can be made
available at reasonable cost. The aim should be to locate any areas in which the soil
consists of granular materials, such as loose silts, sands or even coarser gravels.
1/U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation: 'Earth Manual'.
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington

The points of exploration should be determined according to the results of this survey,
rather than by adopting a fixed grid pattern, since a grid pattern will always involve the
danger of two adjacent boreholes straddling a narrow strip of higher permeability.

The soils along the canal traces should be explored also for their hydraulic properties,
to estimate slope inclinations and the allowable (non-scouring) velocity of flow in the
canal.

The equipment and techniques of these explorations are those commonly used for
shallow work in soil mechanics. It should be noted, however, that care should be
exercised in determining as accurately as possible the sequence of soil strata down
to the first impervious layer. If the first layer of topsoil is impervious and at least 0.6 to
1.0 m thick, no deeper exploration is needed. Disturbed samples taken with a hand
auger are suited to determine the granulometry and index properties of the soil, but
for permeability testing at the laboratory undisturbed samples are required, since any
remoulding may cause drastic changes in the 'k' value and lead thus to false
conclusions.

Since truly undisturbed samples are difficult to take, field permeability tests should be
performed in the vicinity of each exploratory borehole or shaft by the infiltration
method.2/3/
2/
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation: "Earth
Manual". U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 717-26.
3/Szilgyi Gyula, Vgs I.: Field determination of seepage losses from
earth irrigation canals (Hungarian). Vizgyi Kzlemnyek, 1962. No. 1

2.2 Borrow Sites

2.1 Pond Areas and Canal Traces

2.2 Borrow Sites
2.3 Structure Sites

Within economical hauling distance all cohesive soils should be checked for their
suitability as construction material for the dikes. In these potential borrow sites the
explorations should be organized so as to provide information on the extent, depth
and occasional stratification of the deposit.

Where the cohesive material for the dikes can be excavated from the pond area, care
should be taken not to cut into any pervious sublayer, which may cause seepage
losses, or underseepage.

It should be remembered that samples of fairly large volume are needed for
laboratory analyses, since each compaction test should be performed on fresh

7 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

samples. Around 12 kg are needed for classification and compaction (Proctor) testing.
The compaction test can be made also by reprocessing the same sample, and
increasing its water content gradually, but the result will be slightly higher than with
fresh samples.

2.3 Structure Sites

The subsoil in the proposed structure sites should be explored to a depth equal to
twice the larger dimension of the foundation slab in plan. The structures involved in
fish-farm projects are normally small and so are the loads acting on them. For this
reason the bearing capacity of the subsoil and if relevant, the position of the load
bearing layer, can be determined with the accuracy required by a sounding method.
The Swedish Weight Sounding Technique as described by the Swedish Geotechnical
Society (1970), is simple and fast, and yields acceptable results for this purpose.

The Swedish weight penetrometer consists of a screw point, sounding rods, a rotating
handle and weights of 5 kg, 10 kg (2), and 25 kg (3), making a total of 100 kg. During
a test the penetrometer is gradually loaded until the point starts penetrating into the
soil. This load is recorded, just as any further loads, required to continue penetration.

As soon as the rod refuses to penetrate under a load of 100 kg, the penetrometer is
rotated by hand. The penetrometer should not be rotated if the load applied is less
than 100 kg. The penetration resistance is recorded as the number of half-turns
required for 20 cm penetration.

If a firm, or hard layer is situated close to the surface (from fill or a thick dry crust), the
frictional resistance along the sounding rods may affect appreciably the penetration
resistance measured. A small diameter borehole of 5 cm should then be drilled
through this layer.

Penetration testing should be terminated when a certain penetration resistance or a

certain depth has been reached. A firm bottom is reached when the penetrometer
does not sink any more when rotated, or driven by at least 10 blows of a 3.0 kg
sledge hammer. (The two top 25 kg weights can be used instead. These should be
dropped from 20 cm height.). If this criterion has not been satisfied, the penetration
test can be terminated when two adjacent 20 cm thick layers are encountered with
increasing penetration resistance exceeding 40 half-turns per 20 cm, and penetration
is less than 1 cm per blow after 5 blows with the top two 25 kg weights. If the
penetration is larger than 5 cm per 5 blows, or if the penetration resistance
decreases, the sounding rods should be rotated before driving is continued. The
depth of penetration achieved by driving should be recorded on the plot. High
resistance may be caused by a stone, or boulder. The noise and vibrations in the
sounding rods during a test can also be observed to identify the soil penetrated as
clay, sand or stone.

A cohesionless soil is considered to be dense, when the weight sounding resistance

is equal to, or higher than 15 half-turns per 20 cm penetration, and to be loose when it
is less. The average permissible soil pressure r m for gravel, sand and silt is given by
the formula:

where

r m = average permissible soil pressure, MPa

B = width of footing, m
L = length of footing, m

8 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

N = bearing capacity factor, MPa/m

Some examples are shown as follows:

Determination of Permissible Soil Pressure

Type of Soil Half-turns/20 H Factor D=0 m N
cm (m) MPa/m
D=0 1m 2m r m , max (MPa)
m
15 0 0.17 0.25 0.29
Gravel 0.60
1-15 2B 0.27 0.40 0.47
0 0.13 0.19 0.22
15 0.50
2B 0.20 0.30 0.35
Sand 0 0.08 0.11 0.13
1-15 0.30
2B 0.12 0.18 0.21
0 0.10 0.15 0.17
Fine sand and coarse 15 0.40
silt1/
2B 0.16 0.24 0.28
0 0.04 0.06 0.08
1-15 2B 0.07 0.10 0.12 0.20

1/For coarse silt the permissible soil pressure is limited to the values
given for a loose state of compactness

Note:

H is the distance between the footing and the highest ground

water level. When the ground water level is located above
the foundation level, H is equal to zero. For values of H
between 0 and 2B rectilinear interpolation is recommended.

D is the minimum depth of foundation. For values of D

between 0, 1 and 2 m rectilinear interpolation is
recommended.

For determining stratification, auger drilling and the retrieval of disturbed samples are
acceptable and normally no undisturbed cores need be taken.

The samples taken during the foregoing explorations should be preserved, labelled as
in standard practice and taken to the laboratory for testing.

3. LABORATORY TESTS

3.1 Additional Tests for Pike and Dam Materials

3.2 Interpretation of the Results

Permeability tests on the samples collected from the pond area and the canal trace,
index tests on the samples from the structure sites and borrow areas, and compaction
(Proctor) tests on the samples from the borrow areas should be performed following

9 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

standard soil mechanics laboratory practice. The standard Proctor test is preferred,
since this will more closely approximate the conditions in low dams and dikes. The
shear strength of each compacted specimen should be determined by measuring the
penetration resistance of the Proctor needle.

3.1 Additional Tests for Pike and Dam Materials

Natural moisture content should be determined on every sample, since this value will
be needed in the subsequent tests.

Granulometry should be determined by sieve and hydrometer analysis depending on

soil type. With granular soils the conventional procedure should be adopted.
Cohesive soils, which contain coarser particles as well, such as sandy silts and clays,
should be oven dried to constant weight at 60C, since the cohesive fractions may
undergo irreversible changes at higher temperatures. The dried samples should be
crushed carefully and the particles larger than 0.1 mm removed by sieving.

The granulometry of the fine fractions should be determined by 'wet', i.e., hydrometer,
analysis. Two analyses should be run on each sample, one in the water to which the
earth structure will be exposed, the other in water to which the optimal amount of
dispersing agent is added. Sodium carbonate is recommended as the dispersing
agent. Sodium hexa-metaphasphate may produce higher degrees of dispersion, but
sodium carbonate more closely reproduces conditions likely to occur in practice. The
optimal amount should be used, since smaller amounts produce insufficient
dispersion, while overdosage will cause the clay particles to coagulate.

To find the optimal amount, prepare a 5 percent solution of sodium carbonate in

distilled water. Weigh specimens of 1 g dry weight each into 6 test tubes and add 0.2,
0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 ml of the dispersant solutions to the successive test tubes. No
dispersant is added to the sixth test tube. Then add 4-5 ml of distilled water to each
and work the sample to putty using a glass rod. Fill up to 10 ml, using the water to
flush any material from the glass rod.

Boil the test tubes in a water bath for about 20 minutes and allow them to cool in a
stand arranged in the sequence of increasing dispersant concentration. After 24
hours, the test tube showing the largest loose sediment volume will indicate the
highest degree of dispersion attainable.

The amount of dispersing agent to be used for the hydrometer analysis is found from
the following table:

Preliminary test Hydrometer analysis

5% solution of NA2CO3 to 25 g soil dry weight add from 25% sodium carbonate solution
Test tube 1 0.2 ml 1.0 ml
2 0.4 2.0
3 0.6 3.0
4 0.8 4.0
5 1.0 5.0

The hydrometer analyses should thereafter be performed in the conventional way and
the two granulometry curves for each sample should be plotted on the same chart.

By comparing the two curves, conclusions can be reached on the actual condition of
the soil, and on the condition which may result from repeated or extended exposure
to water. The difference between the actual and dispersed granulometries will also
indicate the width of the range within which changes in soil condition and thus in
mechanical properties can be anticipated. If the actual granulometry is close to that in
the dispersed condition, no further disaggregation is likely to occur and the soil is as

10 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

watertight as can be expected. Conversely, a wide difference between the two curves
implies coagulated, aggregated conditions. At a reduced specific surface larger void
sizes predominate and, therefore, the soil will be pervious even if a highly cohesive
soil could be inferred on the basis of the clay content or index of plasticity. Some
coagulated clay soils may disperse spontaneously under prolonged exposure to
water, which would mean a corresponding loss of stability of the soil.

The CaCO3 content will indicate the extent to which the individual particles are liable
to be weathered, i.e., the crystalline structures are decomposed to amorphous,
vitreous gels. This weathering results in the deterioration of the mechanical
properties, such as stability and permeability, so it is one of the main causes of soil
slumping and flowing after extended exposure to water.

The pH values indicate the water adsorption or hydrophyllic properties of the soil, and
the occurrence and extent of the weathering process mentioned in the foregoing.

The specific surface, together with the surface index calculated therefrom, will provide
information on the type of clay minerals predominating in the soil, or on the
crystalline, or weathered surface of the discrete particles. A high specific surface area
may be due to the presence of a high proportion of clay minerals (montmorillonite,
illite), which resemble scales and have thus extremely large surfaces, or to the
weathered condition of the individual particles. The extent of weathering is, however,
known from the foregoing tests, so the high specific surface area can be attributed
positively to one of the two causes mentioned.

Sediment volume is an indication of the volume stability of the soil. Boiling

accelerates the soil-water interaction, so that changes in soil conditions can be
determined in a shorter time.

Based on experiences gained with a number of low dikes, the critical void ratio has
been introduced in Hungary, as an index of volume stability. This is determined by the
following procedure:

First, the sample is air dried to constant weight and crushed for sieving on the 0.1 mm
mesh sieve. From the material passing, a sample of 4 g mass is weighed to 0.1 g
accuracy and filled loosely into a 25 cm3 measuring cylinder, which is then filled up to
20 cm3 with water of a composition similar to that to which the earth structure will be
exposed. The sample is allowed to soak for 48 hours, shaking it vigorously several
times during this period. Thereafter the sample is allowed to settle for approximately
24 hours and the volume of sediment is read on the scale of the cylinder.

The critical void ratio is found as:

where

V is the sediment volume read on the cylinder, in cm3 units

W is the weight of the air-dry sample placed in the cylinder, in gram units

s is the specific gravity of the soil in g/cm3 units. (This may be entered
with the value 2.75 g/cm3 for all practical purposes.)

Some soils will refuse to settle, so that no sediment volume can be determined and
the critical void ratio will be very high.

Secondly, for earth structures, where leaching is liable to occur, the clear fluid is
decanted carefully or syphoned off after the first reading and refilled to the original

11 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

mark. The sample is shaken, allowed to rest and settle as before and the reading on
the sediment volume is repeated. After three to four repetitions the growing or
decreasing trend of the successive critical void ratios will indicate the final value,
which will characterize the soil after leaching, or basic exchange processes, have
taken place.

In terms of the critical void ratio, the soils are classified into the following groups:

Group A: ec =2.5-3.5 (V =5.7-8 cm3)

Slightly cohesive, pervious under low heads, low swelling

potential, high mineral and chemical stability under
environmental exposure. The soil mechanics characteristics
determined on the original sample are likely to remain
constant over the service life of the structure.

Group B: ec = 3.5 - 6 (V = 8 - 13.5 cm3)

Swelling soils, susceptible to weathering. Medium to highly

cohesive, impervious under virtually all conditions, high
swelling and shrinkage potential. Under atmospheric
exposure liable to weathering, making them more cohesive.

Group C: ec > 6 (including soils which refuse to settle)

Highly swelling soils tending to become liquid spontaneously,

flowing even on very flat slopes. Conventional testing by soil
mechanical methods will produce irrelevant results.

Group D: ec < 2.5

Soils usually aggregated as a result of leaching or oxidation,

or formed by weathering from acidic parent rock. Although
cohesive, such soils display sand characteristics, high
volume stability, and also permeability. Owing to aggregation,
the original deposits are loose, and highly compressible. The
surface roughness and strength of the aggregations lends
them a high angle of internal friction, but cohesion is low.
Conventional testing by soil mechanics methods will produce
irrelevant results.

The properties of mixed fractions will be governed by the relative proportion and
properties of the fines of less than 0.1 mm present.

In a sandy-silt soil, where the fraction less than 0.1 mm is over 15 percent by weight
and belongs to Group A or B, the sand will display a rather low angle of internal
friction and a susceptibility to liquefaction, but will be practically impervious. If
however, the fines belong to Group D, then the sand will display higher strength
characteristics, but will remain pervious regardless of the high fines content.

This simple test, together with the normal index tests, will often be found to provide
sufficient information to the designer to enable him to predict the future performance
of low dikes and to decide on the advisability of any protective measure.

The extent of mineral weathering is indicated by the chemical solubility. Of the

crystalline silicate soil components the main SiO2 and Al2O3 compounds dissolve
poorly (a few tenths of a percent) in acids of rather high concentration (e.g. HCl of
10% concentration) or in weak bases (e.g. NaOH of 27, concentration), whereas
these main components of the weathered, vitreous-amorphous phase can be
dissolved in quantities up to several percents, depending on the degree of

12 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

weathering. This test will provide quantitative information on the amorphous content
of the soil.

The surface index mentioned previously is defined as the ratio of the specific surface
area, Fspec, to the percentage by weight of the minus 0.002 mm fraction, G0.002, as
follows: and has the following values:

Soil Component I (m2/g)

Quartz flour, glacial till 0.02
Feldspar 0.30
Aplite 0.56
Kaolinite 0.92
Illite 1.20
Montmorillonite 3.0-3.6

The index thus gives guidance as to the type of clay mineral present in the soil and, in
combination with the result of the solubility analysis, to the extent to which the soil is
weathered.

3.2 Interpretation of the Results

In terms of the foregoing tests and analyses a soil is considered susceptible to

adverse changes under exposure to atmospheric factors and water if the following
criteria are satisfied simultaneously:

(i) The two granulometric curves are situated close to each other and the
minus 0.002 mm fraction is at least 15% by weight.

(ii) The pH in the 1% NaF solution is higher than 10.5.

(iii) The pH in water is higher than 8.3. The susceptibility to loss of

stability by liquefaction increasing with the pH.

(iv) The specific surface area determined by methylene-blue adsorption is

higher than 15 m2/g. In this connection the results of the pH in NaF and
the solubility analysis should also be taken into consideration, since the
polialuminates, as products of weathering, carry a predominantly positive
charge and do not adsorb the methylene blue, which is also positively
charged.

(v) The solubility analysis indicates the presence of polisilicate and

polisilicic acid gels.

The results of the tests described in the foregoing are entered in the granulometric
chart shown in Figure 2.

The conclusions arrived at from these more elaborate tests will coincide in the vast
majority of cases with those derived from the critical void ratio and will indicate
whether and under what conditions a particular soil can be used as the material for
dike construction

4. DESIGNING FISH-POND DIKES AND DAMS

Designing earth structures involves a process of successive approximation requiring

13 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

several trials. The starting data available to the soils engineer are normally the height
of the structure (depth of water plus the safety freeboard), the foundation conditions,
available construction materials and occasionally the minimum crest width, if
movement of some equipment on the crest is required. The problem is to design a
dike cross section which will produce a safe and sufficiently watertight structure, and
which will result in a project of minimum cost. The first step consists of finding the
steepest slope inclinations which will ensure stability over the service life of the
structure, so that the embankment will be the cheapest to construct. The resulting
base width must then be checked for underseepage and for the danger of piping
failure. The foundations of structures must also be checked for settlement behaviour.
In cases where cohesive, impervious materials are available in limited quantities only,
the dike design providing the water tightness required must also be found.

The depth of water is given by the technological designer, the safety freeboard by the
hydrologist and the designer of the spillway. Freeboard may also be governed by the
wave action to which the dike is likely to be exposed. The wave height is found by
taking the direction and force of the prevailing wind, the fetch length and the depth of
water into consideration.

There are a number of formulae in use for estimating wave height. The following two
are in the metric system:

where

hw is the wave height in metres

W is the wind speed in m/sec
B is the pond width in the wind direction (fetch length) in km
H is the water depth in metres

For comparison, a formula used in British units is:

where

hw is the wave height in feet

W is the wind speed in mph
B is the pond width in the wind direction (fetch length) in miles

The results of exploration and the soil properties determined by laboratory tests afford
guidance to the soils engineer in design. It should, however, be emphasized that
earth structures are already exposed to atmospheric influences in the course of
construction, and also later during their whole service life. They must never be
considered as static, but as dynamic structures, taking into account the changes in
conditions and character of the factors to which they are exposed. This kind of
philosophy will alone lead to a technically and economically sound solution, in which
allowance can be made for the mutual interactions between the subsoil, the earth
structure and the atmosphere. It should be remembered, moreover, that the number
and variability of the various factors involved prevents us from predicting and
estimating all possibilities and influences in advance.

Thus, in analysing the slopes for their stability, the shear strength determined by
laboratory tests is used. Great care must, however, be exercised in choosing the
design value. Reliable mean values can only be adopted if the soil and subsoil is
uniform and, therefore, stability analysis will yield useful results in these cases alone.

14 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

If this is not the case, then the results of the stability analyses should be accepted as
rather rough estimates only. An evaluation of local experience gained with similar
structures and a critical examination of the particular pedological and geological
conditions are indispensable under such circumstances.

Another important consideration is that the low dikes and dams normally involved in
aquaculture projects do not warrant expensive tests in a soils laboratory. It should be
realized that design values of soil strength are costly to determine and yield
information which must be accepted with circumspection by the engineer who must
use sound engineering judgement in their application. For the foregoing reasons
practical guidelines have been applied in Hungary for dimensioning dikes, levees and
dams lower than 3.0 m in height and retaining less than 3 million m3 of water.

The dikes are classified into homogeneous (a) and zoned (b) cross sections, the latter
including those with an impervious core, with or without an impervious upstream
blanket (Figure 3). The individual structural elements (zones) of the embankment are
classified again as narrow or wide, depending also on the material used as shown in
Table 1.

The degree of compaction required for the various structural elements of the dike is
indicated in Table 2.

Low earth structures designed and constructed according to these guidelines have
proven satisfactory in Hungary.

In connection with these guidelines it should be noted, however, that no cohesive

soils classified according to the critical void ratio as Group C must be used as
construction material for the dikes. The soils belonging by the same criterion to Group
B can be used as impervious core material, if the core is protected on both upstream
and downstream sides by shells (Figure 3) belonging to the size category wide of
Table 1 and constructed of sand.

Under arid climates, where dry spells of extended duration are liable to occur, no
material classified as Groups B and C by the critical void ratio must be used for dikes
of uniform cross section. Soils belonging to Group B may be used for the core, but
must be protected by shells of coarse to medium sand. A transition layer at least 0.5
m wide should be provided of sand, if gravelly sand or gravel is used for the shells.

Slopes built with the inclinations and of the materials shown in Table 1 and observing
the foregoing limitations will normally be stable. The most important single factor
causing deterioration is erosion on the upstream side by wave action, and on the
downstream side by heavy rains. The slopes must be protected against these
contingencies. A sound grass cover will offer adequate protection on the downstream
side and the crest against rain erosion and normally even on the upstream side above
the line of wave run up. Grass cover should be established as an organic part of the
construction work, as soon as the slopes are finished to grade. The kind of grass to
be seeded and the method of seeding will vary from region to region and the advice
of an agronomist should be sought on this matter.

Over sections exposed to wave attack, the slope must usually be protected. Reed
belts of about 4 m width will attenuate waves effectively and should be planted on
berms with a horizontal, or mildly sloping surface. Where reed belts are unacceptable,
or where reed refuses to grow, other means of slope protection should be envisaged.
The material commonly used for such protection is riprap, which may be dumped in a
thickness of 0.5 m, or hand placed, where labour is cheap, in a thickness of 0.25-0.30
m. Fifty percent of the stone by weight should be of a size about equal to the
thickness of the riprap, the remaining half should be graded uniformly down to the
largest diameter of the underlying filter bed.

Other alternatives of slope protection that may be considered where rock is

15 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

unavailable are blocks of concrete, ceramic blocks, continuous concrete mattress, or

lime stabilization, but brushwork mattresses have also been used on minor projects.
These latter, however, require frequent maintenance and must be replaced at rather
short intervals of time.

The soils classified as unsuited can be improved in their properties by lime treatment,
which results in greatly reduced swelling and shrinking and makes the soils much
easier to compact. The soils stabilized by such treatment will also offer higher
resistance to erosive action. There is ample literature available on the theory and
methods of lime treatment, the economic desirability of which depends on local
conditions and must be evaluated separately for each particular project.

Figure 3. Types of dikes

Table 1 Classification of Component Elements of Dikes according to Size

Table 2 Densities related to Proctor Optimum in Embankments

The dike cross section determined in the foregoing manner must next be checked for
underseepage and piping failure. Whereas underseepage is merely a problem of
water loss from the pond, piping must be prevented since it presents a serious danger
to the stability of the structure. Piping occurs when the force exerted by seeping water
on the soil exceeds the resistive force offered by the soil. The potential energy
represented as the differential head created by the dike is dissipated as frictional loss
as the water flows past the soil particles. The seepage force S acting on the soil is the
product of the unit weight of water g w and the hydraulic gradient i. The latter is found
when the differential head is divided by the distance between the points of seepage
entry and emergence. When upward flow exists in a cohesionless soil and the head
loss per unit length of the flow path exceeds the submerged effective weight of the
material, movement of the soil particles will take place. For example, if the weight of a
cubic metre of saturated cohesionless soil is equal to 2 000 kg, the submerged weight
will be 1 000 kg. Hence, if there is an upward hydraulic gradient of 1, the seepage
force will be equal to 1 000 kg and the material will be in a condition of unstable
equilibrium, termed a 'quick' condition.

Whenever water flows from a less pervious material to a more pervious one, or out
onto the ground surface, the possibility of migration of fines, or piping should be
considered. Even a very minor washing away of fines at the downstream side of the
dike is serious. As soon as some fines are washed away, the resistance to erosion
along the path of seepage is reduced and this results in an increase of flow. Owing to
the increased flow, the rate of washing away is further increased, and so forth, until
failure occurs.

To analyse the subsoil of the dikes for potential piping and to estimate the factor of
safety relative to piping failure, two cases of interest in designing fish pond dikes will
be considered (Figure 4).

1. Case of a single pervious layer under the dike base

No detailed analysis of piping failure is necessary, if the condition

is satisfied.

Here

B is the base width of the dike, in metres,

16 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

H is the differential head, also in metres and

i0 is the 'inherent failure gradient' of the soil material forming the layer,
and has the following values:

gravel to coarse sand io =0.9

fine sand to silt io = 0.6
cohesive soil io = 0.85

The limit failure gradient is found as

where

a is the irregularity index of the soil material, given in terms of the uniformity
coefficient U = D60/D10

U a
5 0.2
5 -15 0.5
>15 0.8

Figure 4. Cross sections of dikes

The limit failure gradient must be smaller than the effective gradient Ieff = H/B and the
factor of safety is Ieff/If

17 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

2. Case of dike built on a single cohesive top layer

The subsoil may be considered impervious, so that no analysis of piping failure is

necessary, if the thickness of the cohesive layer under the dike is

and on a sample taken from 1 m depth the liquid limit wL >45%, the index of plasticity
Ip = 15% and the critical void ratio eM > 3.

If the layer is thinner than 3 m, then it may burst under the gradient

, that is > 0.85, which is the inherent failure gradient of the cohesive top
layer.

Piping failure will occur, if the material of the pervious sublayer is eroded after the
cohesive top cover has burst, thus if

It should be noted that to account for a concentration of flow lines in the vicinity of the
break in the top layer, where the seepage flow emerges, a factor of 3 has been
introduced. In the foregoing formula the inherent failure gradient of the pervious
sublayer must be introduced. The factor of safety is again Ieff/If.

In order to prevent piping, movement of soil particles under the action of seepage
forces must be prevented. Where the soil subject to possible piping is exposed at the
downstream side of the dike, piping can be prevented either by reducing the seepage
gradient at the exit point so that the seepage force is too small to cause movement of
particles, or by stabilizing the soil at the exit area mechanically.

Mechanical stabilization consists of covering the exit area with a filter blanket of
coarser material, so graded that the pores of the coarser material are small enough to
prevent the larger particles of the finer soil from passing through. The two layers must
obey Terzaghi's filter rule which is to be found in all handbooks on soil mechanics.

Further methods of piping control consist of the construction of drainage trenches and
relief wells, or of extending the path of seepage by an upstream blanket. These
methods are, however, normally too expensive to be justified in fish-pond projects. On
the other hand, the possibilities and alternatives of controlling underseepage and thus
seepage losses from the pond must be considered.

The problem of underseepage and the desirability of control measures should be

examined by a dynamic approach, i.e., by examining the potential decrease of
seepage losses over time. At any particular instant the magnitude of the seepage loss
from a given pond area is given by the product of permeability and the hydraulic
gradient, obtained as the ratio of the water head to the thickness of the soil layer
above the ground-water table. However, in this product both the permeability
coefficient and the position of the groundwater table may be variable with time.

The permeability coefficient can be expected to decrease with time, as the sediment
particles carried in suspension by the entering flow are washed into the pervious
bottom layer and fill in the voids of the latter. This process, known as clogging, or
'colmatation' in French papers depends thus on the relative granulometries of the
pervious layer and the silt, and on the sediment content of the feeding water. The
mineralogical composition of the sediment (the presence of clay minerals) is also an

18 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

important factor. Both laboratory experiments and field experience indicate that the
permeability coefficient of a 10 cm thick surface layer may decrease by as much as
two orders of magnitude within 10 to 14 days, and practically complete sealing may
develop within six months. The rate of clogging will become faster if the granulometry
of the sediment is comparable to the fine fraction of the pervious top layer, and for
perfect sealing to develop the presence of clay particles is essential.

Where the flow feeding the ponds carries no sediment in suspension, such as a
supply from a reservoir, the process may be induced artificially. For this purpose a
thin (2-3 cm thick) layer of fine, non-cohesive material, such as fine sand, is spread
underwater. This can be done from a barge evenly on the pond bottom proceeding
from the edges toward the centre. The largest size of this material should equal 0.6 to
0.75 times the effective diameter of the bottom material. The seepage loss should be
observed by readings on a staff gauge during this treatment. The first, or at the most
the second such treatment should already produce a marked decrease in the
seepage losses. As the final step of treatment a clay (bentonite) slurry should be
spread by similar methods on the bottom. The concentration of the slurry depends on
the activity of the bentonite available. Thus if the bentonite displays a viscosity of 26
centipoise in a 6 percent suspension (60 g of bentonite suspended in 1 000 ml of
water), an application rate of 2-3 litres of slurry per square metre of bottom area
should suffice for complete sealing. The application rate should be increased if the
bentonite is less active.

As pointed out in the foregoing, repeated cycles of desiccation and rewetting are most
liable to cause adverse changes in the soil structure. The sealing just described
should be maintained in a wet condition, therefore, and the pond should not be kept
empty for extended periods of time, especially in the dry season.

Seepage losses from the feeder canal can also be controlled by this method, but to
prevent the bentonite slurry from being washed away, it is usually necessary to
impound the canal by reaches for a few days during which the slurry is placed and
allowed to penetrate into the soil pores.

5. CONSTRUCTION SUPERVISION
During construction work on the dikes and canals, soil mechanics supervision is
necessary to check whether the soils envisaged are used for the various parts of the
dikes, whether these are placed at the moisture content specified and whether they
are compacted to the density specified.

The soils from the borrow areas previously explored are classified visually to identify
them with those tested at the laboratory.

The moisture content of the borrow material can be determined by burning if a major
departure from the average is observed.

The conventional method of determining the density and moisture of the material
placed and compacted in the dike consists of taking core samples, which are then
taken to the laboratory for moisture determination by oven drying.

Where the dike material is moved and placed mechanically, even moderate-capacity
equipment will produce fast progress, so that the point of sampling will usually
become buried by the time that the result becomes available, leaving the soils
engineer with no possibility of any remedial measure. To remedy this, devices have
been developed by which the moist unit weight and the volumetric moisture content of
the soil can be found instantly, on the spot, indicating whether the density attained is
acceptable, or not. The unit weight of the compacted layer up to about 30 cm
thickness is found by a gamma probe, based on the attenuation of the intensity of
gamma radiation by the soil between the source and the detector. Moisture is
determined by detecting the slow neutrons reaching the detector through the soil

19 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09
Chapter 5. Soils Engineering for Design of Ponds, Canals and Dams i... http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5744E/x5744e06.htm#TopOfPage

layer from the source of fast neutrons. Devices such as these available on the market
have proven reliable and effective.

20 of 20 26.04.2017 12:09