TEACHING MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS Volume 20, No.

3, 2001 109

Investigations into students learning

of applications in computer-based
learning environments
Rudolf vom Hofe
Submitted December, 2000 accepted June, 2001

Abstract
Based on a paradigmatic case study of a classroom situation in which
students deal with functions within a computer-aided learning environment,
problems of modelling and application are investigated. In this connection
two characteristic aspects of dealing with functions on object level are distin-
guished, namely a manipulative and a reective approach, which have a pro-
vable impact on the students ability of working with functions. The analysis
of the case study shows that computer supported operating with functions
as objects does not automatically lead to a better understanding of the func-
tion concept; if the manipulative approach dominates the reective one, the
features on the computer contain the danger that the users deal with func-
tions as objects without knowing what they are actually doing. On the whole,
the combination of manipulative and reective aspects and the connected
change in standpoint between the conception of process and object turn out
to be the basis of eective dealing with functions in mathematical application
contexts.

Introduction
Within the last decade qualitative research methods have become increasingly
established even in the eld of mathematics education, and are today accepted to a
great extent in addition to conventional quantitative methods. Their operational eld
lies where research interest is directed to an area that cannot be described by directly
readable metric data. This is particularly the case if the task is to reconstruct, in as
much detail as possible, the learners individual strategies and individual ideas
(Mayrink 1985), or to document, to grasp and to explain individual processes of
mathematical thinking and acting. These are important points for teaching and
learning at all school stages, especially for modelling and application in calculus
lessons.
In presenting a paradigmatic case study I would like to plead both for an increasing
use of qualitative working methods in research of modelling and application and for

 The Institute of Mathematics and its Applications 2002

110 TEACHING MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS Volume 20, No. 3, 2001

the use of interactive software in calculus lessons. For this purpose, I chose a
classroom scene in which the students deal with modelling real-world situations in
computer-based learning environments by means of functions. The case study is based
on video documentation of a teaching project which was carried out over several
months in a regular calculus beginners course. In this classroom project a consider-
able part of the time was spent on application-orientated working phases that were
carried out in small groups in a computer-based learning environment. Throughout
this situation the students used the interactive computer algebra-system (CAS) called
MathView.
One main purpose of the investigations was to analyse whether there are identi-
able characteristics that distinguish students who are successful in modelling from
those who are not. This is attempted by comparing the individual learning strate-
gieswhich are received in a descriptive waywith prescriptive conceptual models
and concept images (vom Hofe 1998), concerning the function concept (Slavit, 1997;
Dubinsky & Harel, 1992; Sierpinska, 1992) which students activate in the process of
modelling and in the interplay between mathematics and real situations. I want to
give an example of this in the following case study.
Learning situation. Two students are attempting to describe data which represent
the global development of the world population in rough periods from the year 0 AD
to the present day, by means of an exponential function (Table 1).
On the basis of this data, they have produced a discrete grapha so called scatter
plotand on the same diagram window they have plotted a graph of an exponential
function of the general form y aekx. In order to achieve this, they took the starting
value to be a 300the rst value from the Tableand chose k 1 to be the
provisional gradient parameter. Finally they attempt to obtain a approximation of
the graph with the data points by varying k. This method, however, does not lead to
a satisfactory solution. The reason for this will become clear when the data is looked
at in more detail.
Whilst parts can in fact be described as roughly exponential, for instance the last
century, in other periods, for instance in the Middle Ages, the world population seems
almost constant. No matter how the gradient parameter is changed, the graphs
obtained do not go through the starting value, nor do they even roughly describe the
course of the nal segment of scatter points, but instead a graph like the one in
Figure 1 is produced.
This learning situation thwarts the students usual expectations of the principle
solvability of a given task. In contrast, in this case a useful result requires
recognizing the inadequacies of the initial formula and according changes by the
students.
How do students deal with a problem like this? Can typical strategies, or rather
ways of looking at something, be identied as to whether they support or hinder a
constructive solution?
What eect does working with functionswhich is dependent on softwarehave
in this context?
Transcripts of two working groups. So let us now look at the transcripts from two
dierent working groups. The rst group, Klaus and Florian, has produced a graph
like the one in Figure 1.
 TEACHING MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS Volume 20, No. 3, 2001 111

Table 1. World Population in Millions, 01994

Fig 1. Approximation; a 300, k 0,002

First episode: Klaus and Florian

First scene
140 Klaus: . . . we need to compress this thing somehow.
141 Florian: How did we do that? How was that one done?
112 TEACHING MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS Volume 20, No. 3, 2001

142 Klaus: Hhm, how was it done?

143 Florian:
By a it is actually...
144 Klaus: But a is the starting value!
145 Florian:
We cant do that, we cant compress that, because you need to
compress
146 that in the middle!
147 points with his hand to the middle of the graph
148 Klaus: No...
150 Florian: For parabolas it works, there, you move it either this way apart or this
151 way together
152 indicates with his hands a parabola which opens and closes
153 But you cant compress it somewhere here...
154 points to the middle of the screen again
155 it doesnt work

Second scene
165 Florian: Yeah, and something else: If you combine something
166 with a . . . then it will be calculated at once
167 anyway.
168 Klaus: What do you mean?
169 Florian: If you even put something else in front of a
170 now . . .
171 Klaus: And you really want to put a new parameter here?
172 points with his nger at the screen
173 Where then? In front of a?
174 Florian: . . . or even behind it . . . or something like that . . .
175 Klaus: But that doesnt matter anyway! You know, that
176 doesnt matter if you put a here or if you put something else
177 behind it!

Third scene
208 Klaus: We need something here, that presses this thing together...
209 indicates a turning/squashing motion of the graph with his hands
210 Do you know what I mean?
211 Florian: But I dont see how thatll work!
212 I think, we can put in a b
213 Klaus: Take for k..., no..., wait!
214 Florian: We could put in a b.
215 Klaus: Go on then, but Ive no idea where it should go!
216 Florian: I think, for example, . . . lets try
217 putting b at the end?!
218 enters: y1 = aekx (b)

Here we see the example of a strategy which leads to a dead end. The graph should be
stretched out, that usually workse.g. for a parabola with parameter a. But in this
case a has a xed meaning, a is the starting value and indicates how many people
 TEACHING MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS Volume 20, No. 3, 2001 113

lived on earth in the year 0 AD. Thereforeso the students thinkanother

parameter is required, e.g. b, but where should it be positioned? A further multi-
plicative parameter would not lead to anything new andmoreoverwould change
the starting value, which the students are well aware of. Surprisingly enough a b is
nevertheless added, at the end of the term to be on the safe side and is separated by
brackets.
Typical for this attempt to nd a solution is the limitation of both students
outlook. The facts which are to be modelled are taken into account at the beginning
but later hardly enter their thoughts. Their actions, however, are increasingly more
focussed on an algebraicgeometric approximation problem, in which aspects of
applicationsuch as the meaning of the given data for instanceincreasingly go out
of mind.
Let us now turn our attention to another group of students at the same starting
point (see Figure 1).

Second episode: Markus and Kai

First scene
132 Markus: Somehow, practically nothing changed in the
133 Middle Ages...
134 Kai: I suppose not . . .
135 Markus: Isnt it possible to do it so that the rst
136 starts here, somehow? Points to the incline.
137 Kai: How are you going to do that then?
138 Markus: Thats a good question.
139 Kai: That would of course be good! Looks at the
140 gradient of the function on the computer screen.
141 Markus: Then wed have to add something here . . .
142 Kai: Yeah!
143 Markus: But not any value, it
144 wont work...
145 they call the teacher over some minutes later

Second scene
214 Teacher: . . . do you know how it works with a parabola?
215 Markus: Yes, I think so . . .
216 Kai: The minus value, ah, to the right, there you
217 simply need the negative value . . .
218 Markus: x minus something else!
219 Kai: Yes, exactly!
220 Markus: Brackets!
221 Teacher: Correct!

This leads to a clearly better approximation (see Figure 2):

But some minutes later a new problem concerning the rst part of the graph
appears. It doesnt go through the rst scatter point any longer. At rst, they suppose
a technical problem:
114 TEACHING MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS Volume 20, No. 3, 2001

Fig 2. Approximation; a 700, k 0:011, c 1800

Third scene
349 Markus: Its already 700, it should be up there,
350 somehow above that,...thats the grid after all,
351 it should be above that at any case, shouldnt it?
352 Let the computer calculate it more precisely.
353 points to the area of the initial values
355 Kai: With the ne grids?
356 clicks the button to rene graphical grids
357 - no change to the graph
358 Markus: Try again!
359 Kai: ... this is only graphical rening, that doesnt get us any further!

Fourth scene
487 Markus: Were not getting anywhere!
488 This cant be for real.
489 Kai: Yeah, it doesnt go through any point,
490 thats completely unrealistic.
491 Markus: If we take a again to be . . .
492 Kai: Hang on, maybe, hang on, maybe
493 put the,...lets try, lets try for, oh, lets
494 put 0 in here, for c, I want to try
495 something...
496 Kai is quite excited . . . just quickly
497 Markus: Thats pointless.
498 Kai: No, I just want to see
499 Alteration to c=0
500 You see, there it is . . .
501 points to the place of the rst scatter point,
502 at 1800, perhaps it might, now it might, then, . . .
504 look, now it goes through the point!
505 now the new graph for c=0 appears, it goes through (1/300)
506 Yeah, . . . it is totally on it here!
 TEACHING MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS Volume 20, No. 3, 2001 115

507 Markus: o.k., perhaps youre right

508 Kai: See, thats what I mean

Now the students see how the new parameter c inuences the graph:

Fig 3. Approximation; a 300, k 0:011, c 0

Some minutes later they get the following approximation:

Fig 4. Result at the end of the students work

What distinguishes these students method from that of the rst group? In
comparison with the rst group, Markuss and Kais strategy is characterized by a
clearly higher intellectual exibility and by the ability to change their perspective. This
exibility leads the students to question the modelability of the problem as such
which brings new ideas and better solutions. This is particularly apparent in two
ocassions.

a. Scene 1: Due to the observation that the population in the Middle Ages is almost
constant the students question the workability of the function equation. As a result
of this the old term structure is constructively changed in several stages.
b. Scene 4: The students cannot explain the course of the new graph because it no
longer goes through the starting value. Geometric and arithmetical reections lead
to the idea to use the computer system in order to make the inuence of the new
additive parameter c visible on the computer screen. This results in a new insight:
the students understand, how the modication with c eects the starting position
116 TEACHING MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS Volume 20, No. 3, 2001

Fig 5. Functions as objects

of the graph: at position 0 the function value of 300 is no longer obtained but
instead the value, which results from the translation parallel to the y-axis. This
insight leads to a new and better approximation (see Figures 3 and 4).
On the whole it becomes clear that both students aim is to provide the best possible
description of the development of world population and not simply to solve an
approximation problem of a graph at set points.
These two examples are typical of many similar ones observed and documented in
the teaching project in which modelling real processes by means of functions are
concerned. Let us now look at the students learning strategies within a general
framework from the standpoint of the function concept.
The impact of the function concept. Owing to the software concept, the interactive
connection of terms, tables and graphs were characteristic for working in the learning
situations. In this way for example the alteration of a function term has an eect on
the corresponding graph almost immediately. By means of this feature, graphs which
in traditional mathematics lessons are static drawings are transformed into manipul-
able objects. This is particularly evident when concerning variation of parameters, in
which by each alteration of a parameter a new function graph is produced which then
appears on the computer screen as a global object (see Figure 5). However, in this
process the connection between dependent and independent function variables is
pushed into the background.
What does this imply for the eective application of the function concept? Does
increasing dealing with functions as objects lead to a deeper insight into the function
concept and to an improved ability for modelling real world situations? Similar claims
are often made in literature.
In this way Dubinsky and Harel (1992), for example, when referring to the function
concept distinguishin accord with many others (see, for example Slavit, 1997;
Goldenberg, Lewis & OKeefe, 1992; Sfard, 1991, 1992; Vollrath, 1989; Malle, 1988;
Dorer, 1988; Thompson, 1985)between action concept, process concept and object
concept. In this context the stage of object concept is understood to be the advanced
level of a consecutive successive sequence which builds on or presupposes the previous
phases of action concept and process concept. The decisive stage of development which
is necessary for the level of object concept, according to Dubinsky, is encapsulation:
local features, special features and exceptional qualities of a function are elevated to
 TEACHING MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS Volume 20, No. 3, 2001 117

the level of a concept; in other words, these features are encapsulated, the function is
then seen and processed as a whole. Can it therefore be said that for learners the
ability to deal with functions at the object level leads to a deeper understanding of the
function concept and of its applications on real world contexts?
Judging by the knowledge drawn from our teaching project this is not automati-
cally the case. If we look at how male and female students deal with tables, gradients
and graphs, two aspects of these object-like dealings with functions can be distin-
guished, a manipulative and a reective approach to functions:
Manipulative approach. From this point of view the functionin an encapsulated
formis at the centre of interest. A pattern of action in which this approach becomes
clear is the alteration of parameter specications which is connected to the manip-
ulation the movable object function graph. This action, to a certain extent, has quite
a concrete character which is expressed by means of phraseology such as stick a
decent value in or we need to compress this thing (rst episode, line 140155).
Reective approach. In this case connections are established between the object-like
representation of the functioni.e. table, equation or graphand corresponding
local properties and real, live contexts. The encapsulated object is therefore disen-
capsulated in ones mind, the encapsulation is reversed. For this case there are also a
lot of examples in the scenes, for instance at the point where a connection is made
between the test data and their graphical representation or where a relation between
the level of a real process and of the mathematical description of this process is
established (second episode, line 132145).
Owing to the system features of MathView manipulate dealings with functions are
particularly easy to realize. The manipulative aspect neither presupposes a reective
understanding nor does it promote or develop one. Interactive opportunities to
manipulate data enable the learner to move graphs via parameter variation, even
without knowing which functional connection this object represents. The manipula-
tion at object level is therefore not connected with the degree of understanding of the
object concept.
The observations of the case study indicate a corresponding image: the manip-
ulative aspect is accompanied by reective relations to a widely varying extend. An
example of a learning situation in which working with functions displays a highly
manipulative character and in which reective considerations are hardly recognizable
is our rst example, where Klauss and Florians action outlook increasingly narrows
down on a geometric-algebraic approximation problem which nally leads to an
intellectual dead end.
A typical example of the successful establishment of reective connections between
real processes and their mathematical description is the second working group, with
the students Markus and Kai. In this case, and in lots of other examples analysed, it is
demonstrated that the extent of the reective aspect is decisive in determining the
workability of the respective method to solve the problem. It even shows that the
degree of reection levels determines to a large extent the ability, with which the
translation process between mathematics and reality can be developed.
In this sense the combination of manipulative and reective aspects and the
connected change in standpoint between the conception of process and object prove
to be the basis of eective dealings with functions in mathematical application
contexts. In this respect the third stage of development, the object concept of
118 TEACHING MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS Volume 20, No. 3, 2001

functions, only indicates progress if it includes the other stages and does not become
isolated from them.
Computer-supported operating with functions as objects does not automatically
lead to a better understanding of the function concept; the features on the computer
contain the danger that the users manipulate objects without knowing what they are
actually doing. Furthermore, the danger exists that by working at object level the
connection between independent and dependent variables may be pushed too far into
the background and that confusion between function variable and parameter may set
in.
However, the observations of this teaching project also show that computer-based
work with functions can promote reective dealings and contribute to the under-
standing of the function concept (vom Hofe 2001). On the whole, the interactive
means were used intensively and successfully by both male and female students. If we
pursue the discussed topics over the period of time of the teaching project, the
development to increasingly reective dealings with functions in application contexts
can be proved.

References
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Address for correspondence: Prof. Dr Rudolf vom Hofe, University of Regensburg,

Department of Mathematics, D-93040 Regensburg, Germany.