Institute Of Science
Std-XI Biology paper II - Zoology
Chapter no - 14. HUMAN SKELETON AND LOCOMOTION
Skeleton :- The external or internal framework of the
body which supports and protects the soft tissues of the
body is called skeleton
There are two types of skeleton i.e.
exoskeleton and endoskeleton
Exoskeleton :- The skeleton present on outer surface of
the body is called exoskeleton
Example Scales in fishes, Scutes in reptiles, Feathers
in birds, Fur, Hair, Nails in mammals
Endoskeleton :- The skeleton which remains inside the
body forming internal hard framework is called
endoskeleton
Example Cartilage and Bones in mammals
Functions of skeleton ( Endoskeleton )
1] It provides support to the whole body
2] It gives definite shape to the body
3] It prevents the internal organs like heart, lungs,
brain, etc
4] It helps in locomotion
5] It provides the surface for attachment of muscles
6] It forms the blood cells so also called as
haemopoietic organ
7] It helps in breathing
8] The long bones are store house of minerals i.e.
calcium and phosphorus
9] The marrow cavity of long bones secrete fat due to
presence of adipose tissue
The adult human skeleton is mainly
bony with some cartilage which is formed of 206
bones and makes upto 20% of body weight. About
35% of bones are rich in organic matter (protein and
collagen) which provides flexibility to the bones and
65% of bones are rich in calcium and phosphorus
which provides rigidity to the bones.
Human endoskeleton is divided into two
parts i.e. Axial skeleton and Appendicular skeleton.
A] Axial skeleton It runs along the median axis of the
body. It consists of skull, hyoid bone, vertebral
column and thoracic cage. It is formed of 80 bones.
Skull
1] It is formed of 28 bones
2] It is dicondylar (presence of two occipital condyles
at the base of skull)
2] It shows main parts like cranium, face and ear
ossicles
3] It protects the brain and provides sockets for ear,
nasal chamber and eyes
5] It gives a proper shape to head and face
6] All the bones of skull are immovable except
mandible (Lower jaw)
7] The mandible helps in opening and closing of mouth
Ear ossicles The bones of middle ear are called as
ear ossicles. Each middle ear consist of three ear
ossicles, they are malleus, incus and stapes. The
stapes is also the smallest bone of the body. The ear
ossicles help to carry the sound waves from the
surrounding to the internal ear.
Hyoid bone (Tongue bone) It is a horse shoe
shaped or U-shaped bone situated just above the
larynx and below the tongue. It is the only bone of
the body which is not articulated with any other
bone of the body.
Vertebral column
1] It is also known as backbone which forms the central
axis of the body
2] It consist of 33 small ring like bones called vertebrae
3] It is about 70cms in length in an average adult
4] It is divided into five regions i.e. cervical (7),
thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (5), coccygeal (4)
5] The 5 sacral vertebrae fuse to form sacrum and 4
coccygeal vertebrae fuse to form coccyx
5] It shows four curvatures i.e. two outward and two
inward
6] The cervical and lumbar region shows outward
curvature and thoracic and sacral region shows
inward curvature
7] The curvatures primarily help to balance the erect
posture of the body
Thoracic cage A bony protective cage present
around the thorax is called thoracic cage or chest
cage.
It is formed by 12 thoracic vertebrae
dorsally, 12 pairs of ribs laterally and the sternum
and coastal cartilages ventrally
1] Thoracic vertebrae There are 12 thoracic
vertebrae present on the dorsal side. Each thoracic
vertebra is articulated with the pair of rib.
2] Sternum It is located in the chest region hence
also called as chest bone. It is long, flat bone about
15cms in length. It consist of three regions i.e.
manubrium, body and xiphoid process.
a] Manubrium It is the anterior triangular part of
sternum which appears like a knot of tie. It
articulates with the clavicles laterally and 1 st two
pair of ribs.
b] Body It is long, flat middle part of sternum. It
provides surface for the attachment of 3-7 pairs of
ribs
c] Xiphoid process It is the inferior end of sternum.
It is cartilaginous in youth but usually ossified in
adults. It provides surface for attachment for
diaphragm and anterior abdominal muscles.
3] Ribs
1] Ribs are curved, slightly elastic rods which forms
the greater part of the skeleton of thorax
2] There are 12 pairs of ribs present laterally
3] Ribs consist of head, neck, tubercule and coastal
cartilage
4] The first 7 pairs of ribs are directly attached to the
sternum through coastal cartilage hence called as
true ribs
5] 8th to 10th pair of ribs are attached to the sternum
indirectly through the 7th pair of rib hence called as
false ribs
6] Last two pairs of ribs (11 th and 12th) are short, free
in front hence called as floating ribs
7] In some person an extra rib is present like gorilla
and chimpanzee hence such rib is called as gorilla
rib
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 Functions of thoracic cage
1] It forms a protective cage around vital organs such
as heart, lungs and important blood vessels of
thoracic cavity
2] It provides surface for attachment of back, chest and
shoulder muscles
3] It provides articulation to clavicle or collar bone
4] Sternum and ribs help in breathing
B] Appendicular skeleton
It is formed of 126 bones which mainly
consist of girdles and bones of limbs
Pectoral girdle The girdle which consist of bones
of forelimbs is known as pectoral girdle. It is also
called as shoulder girdle. It consist of two bones, the
anterior clavicle and the posterior scapula
Bones of forelimbs Each forelimb consist of three
parts upper arm, forearm and hand which consist
of 30 bones
A] Humerus Upper arm
B] Radius-ulna Fore arm
C] Bones of hand Carpals Wrist, Metacarpals
Palm and Phalanges - Digits
Pelvic girdle It consists of two large hip bones
which are articulated anteriorly in mid line by
cartilaginous joint called pubic symphysis. Each hip
bone is formed by ossification of ilium, pubis and
ischium
Bones of hind limbs Each hind limb is formed of
30 bones. The hind limb is divisible into three parts
thigh, shank and foot
A] Femur Thigh
B] Tibia-fibula Shank
C] Bones of the foot Tarsal Ankle, Metatarsal
Sole and Phalanges Toes (digits)
Locomotion
All living organisms exhibit
movements. These movements take place with the
help of some internal force. In human beings, there
are two kinds of movements i.e. internal movements
and locomotion
1] Internal movements It includes the movements
which may be voluntary or involuntary, these
movements are brought about by three different
types of muscles
a] Peristaltic movements in the alimentary canal,
constriction and dilation of blood vessels, etc are
controlled by smooth muscles
b] Contraction and relaxation of heart is controlled by
cardiac muscles
c] Movements of limbs, head, trunk, eyeballs, etc are
controlled by striated muscles
Significance of movements
1] The body movements help to maintain equilibrium
against gravity
2] It helps in food intake, speech, etc
3] Movements of diaphragm and rib cage help in the
breathing process
4] Rhythmic movement of the heart helps in the
circulation of blood
2] Locomotion - A willful act of displacing the whole
body from one place to another is called locomotion
There are four basic types of
locomotions found throughout the animal kingdom,
such as
1] Amoeboid movement It is performed by
pseudopodia e.g. Leucocytes, Amoeba, etc
2] Ciliary movements It is performed by cilia e.g.
Ciliated epithelium, Paramecium, etc
3] Whorling movements It is performed by flagella
e.g. Sperms, Bacteria, etc
4] Muscular movements It is performed by muscles
e.g. Limb movements
Importance/Significance of locomotion
1] It helps the organisms to search food, water and
shelter
2] It helps the organisms to escape from enemy or
predators
3] It prevents the organism from danger
4] It helps the organism to find mate for reproduction
5] It helps the organism to move from one place to
another
Joints The place where two or more bones
articulate is called joint
Types of joints The joints are of three different
types -
a] Fibrous / immovable / synarthrosis joints
b] Cartilaginous / slightly movable / amphiarthrosis
joints
c] Synovial / freely movable / diarthrosis / perfect
joints
a] Fibrous / immovable / synarthrosis joints
1] This joint does not provides any movement
2] The articulating bones are held together by tough
fibrous connective tissue
Ex Sutures or skull joint, peg and socket joint,
syndesmoses, etc
1] Sutures or skull joint
Skull joint
1] It is present in skull bones
2] The bones of skull are flat with little gap in-between
them
3] The margins of bones are serrate and interlocked
with each other
4] The joints are held together by tough fibrous
connective tissue
5] They are completely immobile and protective in
function
2] Peg and Socket joint (Gomphosis)
Peg and socket joint
1] It is an immobile joint
2] It is present between the jaw bones and teeth
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3] The jaw bones consist of a cavity called socket
4] The peg like root of teeth is fixed in the socket of
jaw and held together by tough fibrous connective
tissue
3] Syndesmoses
4] The movement is brought by relaxin hormone
secreted by placenta
c] Synovial / freely movable / diarthrosis / perfect
joints
The joints which provide maximum
mobility to the articulating bones are called synovial
or freely movable joints.

Characteristic of synovial joint

Syndesmoses
1] It is an immobile joint
2] It is present at the distal end of tibia-fibula
3] It is present along the length of radius-ulna
4] The articulating material is dense fibrous connective
tissue A typical synovial joint
b] Cartilaginous / slightly movable / amphiarthrosis 1] Presence of hyaline cartilage on the surface of
joints articulating bones
1] This joint provides slight movement 2] Presence of synovial cavity between articulating
2] The articulating material is in the form of disc of bones
fibro cartilage 3] Presence of yellow viscous fluid in synovial cavity
Ex Intervertebral joint, synchondroses, 4] The articulating bones are held together by ligament
symphysis (pubic joint), etc 5] The synovial fluid prevents the joint from friction

1] Intervertebral joint
Types of synovial joints
On the basis of degree of mobility the
synovial joints are of following types

1] Ball and socket joint

Intervertebral joint
1] It is present between vertebra of vertebral column
2] The vertebra are articulated with intervertebral
cartilaginous disc
3] Any mechanical injury causes slipped disc which
leads to severe pain

2] Synchondroses Ball and socket joint

1] It is a maximum mobile synovial joint
2] The ball like head of one bone fixes into the cavity
of other bone
3] This joint shows the movement of flexion,
extension, abduction and adduction
Synchondroses Example
1] The joint between head of humerus and glenoid
1] It is found in chest bone cavity of pectoral girdle
2] It is present between I-rib and manubrium of 2] The joint between head of femur and acetabulum of
sternum pelvic girdle
3] It is found in epiphyseal plates in long bones of
children 2] Hinge joint (Elbow joint)
4] It is later on ossified called as synostosis

3] Symphysis (Pubic joint)

Pubic joint
1] It is present between the pubic bones of pelvic girdle
1] This joint shows movement only in one direction
2] The gap present between the pubic bones is filled
2] It shows the movement of flexion and extension
with fibro-cartilage
3] The head of one bone fixes in the cavity or notch of
3] It provides a slight movement during parturition
other bone
(child birth) in females
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 Example convex part of one bone fits into the concave part of
1] The joint between lower head of humerus and the other bone and vice-versa
olecranon process of ulna bone of forearm Example Thumb joint
2] The joint between lower head of femur and proximal
end of tibia-fibula 6] Gliding or plane joint
In this joint, articular ends of two bones
3] Pivot joint are either flat or slightly curved to allow sliding or
gliding movements
Example Intercarpal and Intertarsal joints
Muscular movements
The muscular tissue is characterized by
its property of contractility. It also shows the
properties of extensibility, elasticity, flexibility,
conductivity, etc. The muscular tissue consist of
highly elongated modified cells called muscle fibers.
Pivot joint There are three different types of muscular tissue in
the body of vertebrates i.e. striated, unstriated and
In this type of joint the peg like cardiac muscles. The striated muscles perform
projection of one bone fixes into the cavity of other voluntary movements while the unstriated and
bone cardiac muscles perform involuntary movements
Example
1] The joint between atlas and axis vertebra 1] Voluntary movements -
2] The joint between radius and ulna at proximal end The movements of body parts
carried under the control of our will are called
4] Condyloid joint voluntary movements. All types of voluntary
movements are performed by striated muscles e.g.
movements of limbs, head, etc
The striated muscles are found
attached to the skeleton by means of tendons.
Tendons are inelastic thick bands of white fibrous
connective tissue which give firm attachment to
muscle with bone

Location and structure of striated muscle

The muscle which moves a body part
usually do not lie in that part but located in the upper
part e.g. biceps and triceps that move forearm are
located in the upper are. At any joint two types of
bones are present i.e. stationary and movable. The
Condyloid joint end of muscle attached to stationary bone is called
origin while the opposite end attached to movable
In this joint, one articular end of the
bone is called insertion. The part of muscle between
bone is oval and convex while the other end is
origin and insertion is called belly
elliptical and concave allowing biaxial or biplanar
movement
Types of striated muscles
Example
On the basis of movements striated
1] Wrist or radio-carpal joint
muscles are of three types
2] Palm and finger joint
1] Prime movers (agonist) Bring initial movement
3] Toes and sole joint
of part e.g. Biceps
2] Antagonists Brin g the action opposite to that of
5] Saddle joint
prime movers e.g. Triceps
3] Synergists Assist prime movers e.g. Brachialis
assists Bicpes

Working of striated muscles

Generally the muscles work in pair and
produce opposite action e.g. biceps bring flexion and
triceps bring extension of the elbow joint. The
muscles which bring opposite action are called
antagonistic
In antagonistic pair of muscles one
member is much stronger than the other e.g. the
biceps which flex the arm are stronger than the
triceps which extend the arm. The fundamental
characteristic of muscle is contraction therefore,
muscle can only pull and not push the bone

Some important antagonistic muscles

Saddle joint
In this joint, the bone ends are saddle
shaped with both the concave and convex parts. The
1] Flexor On contraction results in bending or flexion
of a joint e.g. Bicpes
Extensor On contraction results in straightening or
extension of a joint e.g. Triceps
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2] Abductor It moves body part away from the body
axis e.g. deltoid muscle of shoulder moves the arm
away from the body
Adductor It moves body part towards the body
axis e.g. latissimus dorsi of shoulder moves the arm
near to the body
3] Pronator To turn the palm downward backward
Supinator To turn the palm upward forward
4] Levator Raises a body part
Depressor Lowers the body part
5] Protractor To move forward
Retractor To move backward
6] Sphincters Circular muscles present at the inner
side wall of anus, stomach, etc for closure and
opening
Flexor
Extensor
2] Involuntary movements -
These movements are not under the
control of our will but they are under the control of
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
A] Movement of visceral muscles
The visceral muscles are present in the
walls of visceral organs such as alimentary canal,
urinary bladder, blood vessels, etc. These muscles
are neurogenic and on receiving motor impulse from
ANS they show alternate contraction and relaxation.
The visceral muscles do not undergo fatigue because
their contractions are slow and for longer duration so
they are able to do continuous work
E.g. Contraction of urinary bladder, Constriction
and dilation of blood vessels, Peristaltic movement
of alimentary canal, Gastric movements of stomach,
etc
B] Movements of cardiac muscles
These are present in the wall of the
heart. They are involuntary in nature and bring about
beating of heart (working). These muscles are short,
striated, branched, uninucleate. They show
intercalated discs. The cardiac muscles form the
thick part of the heart wall
Skeletal disorders -
1] Muscular dystrophy It is inherited muscle
destroying disease characterized by degeneration of
individual muscle fibre which leads to progressive
atrophy of the skeletal muscle. Usually the voluntary
skeletal muscles are weakened equally on both sides
of the body. The most common type of muscular
dystrophy is Duchenne type
2] Osteoporosis It is an age dependent disease
caused by deficiency of vitamin-D, sex hormones
and thyrocalcitonin. In women, after menopause the
estrogen secretion becomes less causing loss of
calcium and the bones become porous due to low
bone mass and the skeleton fails to withstand the
stress of the body
3] Arthritis It is characterized by inflammation of
joints. Inflammation, pain and stiffness may also be
present in adjacent parts of the body such as the
muscles near the joint
The arthritis is of three different types
A] Gouty arthritis (Gout) It is caused due to
excessive accumulation of uric acid in the body due
to its excessive production or inability to excrete
which gets deposited in the joints and leads to severe
pain
B] Osteoarthritis It is characterized by degeneration
of cartilage pad. Joints of knees, hands and spine are
usually affected by this disease
C] Rheumatoid arthritis It is characterized by the
inflammation of synovial membrane. The membrane
thickens and synovial fluid increases exerting
pressure that causes severe pain. The membrane than
starts secreting abnormal granules called pannus
which cause erosion of cartilage
By - Prof. Santosh M Pandey
M.Sc, B.Ed
Mobile no 9970706070 / 9967717896
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