Structural Design- CENG 5405

CHAPTER ONE

LOAD AND LOAD EFFECTS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The aim of structural design is to ensure that, with an acceptably high probability, a structure
will remain fully functional during its intended life. During its design life, a structure must be
capable of safety sustaining all applied loads and other stress-inducing actions that might
reasonably be expected to occur. Thus, it is necessary to identify and, more importantly,
quantify the various types of load which act on its members.

Owing to the variable nature of most loads and the strength and deflection characteristics of
materials, structural design philosophy relies heavily on the use of statistical principles.

Two other terms which are applied to the classification of loads are static and dynamic.
Direct actions are known as dynamic actions if the cause significant acceleration or
vibration of the structure to which they are applied and as static actions if they cause no
such significant acceleration.

1.2 Wind Load on Structures

Wind forces are variable loads which act directly on internal and external surface of
structures. The intensity of wind load on the structure is related to the square of the wind
velocity and the dimension of the members that are resisting the wind (frontal area). Wind
velocity is dependent on geographical location, the height of the structure, the topography of
the area and the roughness of the surrounding terrain.

The response of a structure to the variable action of wind can be separated in to two
components, a back ground component and resonant component. The back ground
component involves static deflection of the structure under the wind pressure. The resonant
component, on the other hand, involves dynamic vibration of the structure in response to the
changes in wind pressure. In most structures, the resonant component is relatively small and
structure response to wind force is treated using static methods of analysis alone. However,
for all or otherwise flexible structures, the resonant component of wind should be calculated
using dynamic methods of analysis.

1.2.1 Static effects of wind load on buildings

Reference Wind Velocity:- the reference wind velocity for the locality is defined as the
mean wind velocity at 10 m above farmland averaged over a period of 10 minutes with a
return period of 50 years. It is calculated using

V ref = C DIR CTEM C ALT Vref , 0

Where

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V ref , 0 = the basic reference wind velocity 10 m above sea level

C DIR, CTEM , C ALT are factors relating to direction, seasonal variations in temporary structures
and altitude respectively.

Typical values of V ref , 0 = 22 m/s (EBCS1, pp55)

The factors CDIR, CTEM and CALT will be specified for local conditions by individual countries.
For each of these factors, a value of unity may be assumed unless otherwise specified for a
particular region.

The direction factor, CDIR, allows for the orientation of the structure in relation to the
direction of the prevailing wind.
The seasonal variation, CTEM, may be applied to the structures of a temporary nature
which are exposed to wind for only part of a given year. (It reflects the fact storm
winds are less likely in the summer months in most European countries for example)
The altitude factor, CALT, allows for the altitude of the site on which the structure is
located. Wind speeds tend to be greater in sites located at high altitudes.

Exposure Coefficient

Wind velocity tends decrease near ground level owing to frictional forces b/n the wind and
the ground. If the train is rugged, the decrease in the velocity can be substantial. The
exposure coefficient takes account of the variation from the reference wind velocity due to
the ground roughness around the structure above the ground level. EC1 defines the exposure
coefficients at the height Z meters, using the relationship:

7KT
Ce (Z ) = Cr ( Z )Ct ( Z ) 1
2 2

Cr ( Z )Ct (Z )

Where

Cr and Ct are roughness and topography coefficients respectively, and KT is terrain factor

Terrain categories as per EBCS 1 are as shown in the table below.

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Terrain Categories and Related Parameters

The terrain factor is a function of the terrain

Topography Coefficient

The topography, Ct, accounts for the increase in mean wind speed over isolated hills and
escarpments.

Ct = 1 for < 0.05

Ct = 1 + 2 s for 0.05 < < 0.3 (3.12)
Ct = 1 + 0.6 s for > 0.3

Figure Factor s: Cliffs, and Escarpments

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Structural Design- CENG 5405

Figure Factor s: Hills and Ridges

Roughness Coefficient

The roughness coefficient, Cr(z), accounts for the variation of mean wind velocity due to the
height of the structure above the ground level and roughness of the terrain. It is defined by the
logarithmic relationship:

Cr(z) = krIn(zlz0) for Zmin <Z < 200m

Cr(z) = Cr(zmin) for z < Zmin
Where
Zo is the roughness length
Zmin is the minimum height

Table Roughness coefficient Cr

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Structural Design- CENG 5405

1.2.1.1 External Wind Pressure

The wind pressure (acting on the external surface of the structure) is a function of the
reference wind velocity which is given by:

1
q ref = Vref 2 [N/mm2]
2

Where = air density [kg/m3]

Table Values of Air density

Vref = reference wind velocity [m/s]

In order to determine the contact pressure on the outside of a structure or part of a structure,
the reference pressure, qref, of the wind must be multiplied by an external pressure coefficient.
Thus, the external pressure is:

We = C e ( z e )C pe q ref

Where Ce(ze) is the exposure coefficient evaluated at reference height, ze.

Reference height for the calculation of external pressure coefficients depend on the breadth to
height ratio of the structure.

Figure Reference Height Ze Depending on hand b.

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Structural Design- CENG 5405

i) Buildings, whose height h < b (width) the reference height equals the actual
height
ii) Buildings, whose h exceeds b but less than 2b the building is considered in
two parts
iii) Buildings, whose h > 2b the building is considered in multiple parts. A lower
part extends upwards from the ground a distance b. An upper part extends down
wards a distance b. The rest of the building can be divided in to any number of
parts, with the reference height in each case calculated as the distance from the
ground to the top of the part.

The external pressure coefficient, Cpe, accounts for the variation in dynamic pressure on
different zones of the structure due to its geometry, area and proximity to other structures.
For instance, the wind acting on the structure in Fig.(1) is slowed down by the windward
face and generates a pressure on the face. The wind is then forced around the sides and
over the top of the structure, causing suction on the sides and on all leeward faces.
Suction can also be generated on the leeward slope of pitch roof if the pitch is sufficiently
small.

(a) Plan (b) End elevation

Fig. () Wind flow past a rectangular building

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Structural Design- CENG 5405

Figure Key for Vertical Walls

With reference to the above figure, the external pressure coefficients for various zones of
the walls of rectangular buildings are different.

External pressure coefficients for the roof zones in a flat-roofed building are given in
EBCS 1 (pp71-72)

Pressure coefficients are considered positive when the pressure is acting on the surface of
the structure and negative when the pressure is acting away from that surface.

1.2.1.2 Internal Wind Pressure

Internal pressure arises due to openings, such as windows, doors and vents, in the
cladding. In general if the wind panel has a great proportion than the leeward panel, then
the interior of the structure is subjected to positive (outward) pressure as illustrated in Fig
(a).below. Conversely if the leeward has more openings, then the interior is subjected to
a negative (inward) pressure as illustrated in Fig (b) below.

Fig. pressure on surfaces

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Structural Design- CENG 5405

Internal pressure on a building:

wi C e Z i C pi q ref

Where Zi =the reference height for internal pressure equal to the mean height of the
openings

Cpi = the internal pressure coefficient. The magnitude of Cpi depends on the
distribution of openings around the building.

1.2.1.3 Wind forces on the structure

The total wind forces acting on individual zones of clad structures are proportional to the
difference in pressure between the external and internal forces. That is:

Fw we wi Aref

Where Fw = the total inward force

Aref = the reference area, generally equal to the projected area of the zone

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1.3 Seismic Design

An earthquake is a sudden and transient motion of the earths surface. According to
geologists, the earth has suffered earthquakes for hundreds of millions of years, even before
humans came into existence. Because of the randomness, the lack of visible causes, and their
power of destructiveness, ancient civilizations believed earthquakes to be supernatural
phenomena the curse of God. In terms of the geological time scale, it is only recently (the
middle of seventeenth century) that an earthquake has been viewed as a natural phenomenon
driven by the processes of the earth as a planet.
Earth quakes:- Caused by distinct mechanism such as

-Volcanic eruption and

-Tectonic movement of the earths crust major

portion of observed EQ activity

Epicentre Epicentre
distance

Soil

Focal depth
Rock

Hypocenter or focus

Nature of EQ motion

EQ associated damages are related to the dynamic (inertia) effects caused by the ground
motion (Shaking). The motion is a result of the passage of waves of distortion through the
affected area.

1.3.1 Seismic wave

The large strain energy released during an earthquake causes radial propagation of waves
within the earth (as it is an elastic mass) in all directions. These elastic waves, called seismic
waves, transmit energy from one point of earth to another through different layers and finally
carry the energy to the surface, which causes the destruction. Within the earth, the elastic
waves propagate through an almost unbounded, isotropic, and homogeneous media, and form
what are known as body waves. On the surface, these waves propagate as surface waves.
Reflection and refraction of waves take place near the earths surface and at every layer

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Structural Design- CENG 5405

within the earth. The body waves are of two types, namely, P waves and S waves. P waves
are longitudinal waves in which the direction of particle motion is in the same or opposite
direction to that of wave propagation. S waves, are transverse waves in which the direction of
particle motion is at right angles to the direction of wave propagation.

1. Surface Waves

Surface waves propagate on the earths surface. They are better detected in shallow
earthquakes. They are classified as Lwaves (Love waves) and Rwaves (Rayleighwaves). In
Lwaves, particle motion takes place in the horizontal plane only and it is transverse to the
direction of propagation, as shown in Figure 1.8. The wave velocity depends on the
wavelength, the thickness of the upper layer, and the elastic properties of the two mediums of
the stratified layers. L waves travel faster than R waves and are the first to appear among the
surface wave group. In R waves, the particle motion is always in a vertical plane and traces
an elliptical path, which is retrograde to the direction of wave propagation.

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Structural Design- CENG 5405

1.3.2 Measurement of EQs

Magnitude and intensity are the two terms used to define the measurements of EQs.

Magnitude: refers to a measure of its size in term of energy released and radiated in the form
of seismic waves.

Gutenberg-Richter scale defined in terms of the amplitude of the trace in standard type
seismograph located 100 kms from the epicentre is the best known for this purpose.

Intensity: Is the term intended to define the potential destruction of an EQ at a particular

location. It depends on focal depth, epicentre distance, local geology and structures
characteristics in addition to the magnitude of EQ.

Performance criteria for EQ Resistance Design

The following implicit performance criteria are available in most EQ code:

A structure should be able to

- Resist EQs of minor intensity without damages

- Resist moderate EQs with minor structural and non-structural damages
- Resist major catastrophic EQs without collapse.

The criteria listed above do not include effects of slides, active faulting in the immediate
vicinity of the structure.

1.3.3 Seismic Load resistive structural systems

The various elements of structural systems of building which serve as seismic load resistive
system consists of:

- Horizontal Diaphragms:- it consists of elements such as roofs, floor framing

and/or the deck system having sufficient strength and stiffness with rigid and
useful planes.

They collect the lateral load at a particular level of the building and then
distribute them to the vertical elements of the lateral resistive system.

- Open rigid frames:- Consists of beam and column framed together to produce
moment resisting system and are the most flexible types of lateral load
resistive sytem.
- Braced frames:- refers to the use of trussing or triangulation of the frame to
achieve its lateral stability
The truss system causes the lateral loads to induces only axial forces in the
member of frame as compared to the behaviour of rigid frame.
- Vertical Diaphragms:- Shear walls are wall of building, essentially function as
lateral load resistive systems, but may serve as bearing walls for gravity
frames of studs RC shear wall.

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Structural Design- CENG 5405

1.3.4 Guides to planning and detailing of EQ resistance structural systems

- A simple symmetrical building in both plan and elevation is generally preferred to irregular
shaped structure.

- All lateral resisting elements must participate in carrying the EQ induced forces in
proportion to their stiffness.

- The need to adequately tie together all the structural elements making up a building or
portion of it which is intended to act as unity.

- The different portion of a building should either be tied together adequately or separated
from each other by sufficient distance to prevent their hammering against each other.

- The use of very stiff walls to fill the spaces b/n relatively more flexible frame elements
should be considered carefully.

- Firm stratum for foundation

1.3.5 Principal EQ design provisions

Three accepted methods of estimating magnitudes and distribution of EQ induced lateral

forces on structure:

- Equivalent static ( Codal procedure) method

- The response spectrum method, and
- Time history method

Design process/ steps

a) Determination of design EQ which involves

- calculation of base shear corresponding to the computed or estimated
fundamental period of vibration of the structure
- Distribution of the base shear over the height of the building
b) Analysis of the structure under the lateral forces in combination with gravity loadings
or any other to obtain the governing design forces.
c) Designing members and joints for the most unfavourable combination of gravity and
lateral loads, with emphasis placed on the design and detailing of members and their
connections to ensure ductility of the member.

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Structural Design- CENG 5405

1.3.5.1 Design Base Shear ( as per EBCS 8, 1995)

Static method is employed in EBCS 8, for regular frame system, whose response is not
significantly affected by contribution from higher modes of vibration.

The base shear is assumed to act parallel to the axis of the structure and is given as

Fb S d (Ti)W

Where S d (Ti ) = , in which the parameter is the ratio of the design bed rock
acceleration to g, and is obtained from

o I

Where

o is the bed rock acceleration ratio for the site and depends on seismic zone given in
EBCS 8

Table: Bed rock acceleration ratio

Zone 4 3 2 1
o 0.10 0.07 0.05 0.03
I = is importance factor of the building

= 1.4 for important buildings such as hospital

= 1.0 for ordinary structures

is the design response factor for the size and is given by

1.2 S
2.5
T 2/3

S = is the site coefficient for soil characteristic given as

Subclass A- includes rock, stiff deposits, gravel or over consolidated soil

Subclass B- deep deposit, medium dense sand, gravel or medium stiff clay
Subclass C- includes loose cohesion less soil deposit of soft to medium stiff
cohesive soil
Table: Site coefficient S

Subsoil class A B C
S 1.0 1.2 1.5
T = is fundamental period of vibration of the structure to translational motion in the direction
of motion and for building up to 80 m it can be approximated using

T CH 3 / 4

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Structural Design- CENG 5405

Where

H = height of building above the base in meter

0.075
C = 0.05 for RC moment resisting frame, other and for concrete/masonry shear wall

0.075
A
c

respectively

Where Ac = combined effective area of SWs in first storey of the building in m2

l min 2
= A i
(0.2 (
H
)

= is structural system type factor (it ranges b/n 0.3 to 1.0, for moment resisting space frame
to towers respectively)

1.3.5.2 Distribution of Base Shear

The base shear force shall be distributed over the height of the structure, calculated at each
floor levels Fi, which can be obtained by

( Fb Ft )Wi hi
Fi n

W h
j 1
i i

Where

Fi = is the concentrated lateral force acting at floor i,

Ft = is a concentrated extra force at the top of the building accounting slender building and
given by

Ft 0.07TFb

= 0, for buildings with time periods < 0.7 se

Ft 0.25Fb

The effect of the seismic action shall be evaluated using a seismic dead load W with no
allowance for LL. However, for buildings of storage and ware houses w Gk 0.25Qk may
be considered.

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1.3.6 Drift provisions

Under strong EQ motion, the major consideration is the stability of the structure under the
action of gravity loads when undergoing significant lateral displacements.

The lateral deflection or drift of a storey relative to its adjacent stories shall not exceed 0.005
times the storey height. The displacement obtained by an elastic analysis using the loads
given for EQ shall be multiplied by 3 to give realistic value of anticipated deflection or drift.

1.3.7 Lateral forces on parts or portions of building

The design forces for parts of buildings and other members in terms of the distribution of

mass of the element under consideration is given by

Fa S aWa

Where

Fa = Seismic force applied at the centre of gravity of component of a building

Sa = Seismic coefficient

S a o a a I a

W a = Weight of the element, and

o = bed rock acceleration ratio of site

a = response coefficient

a = behaviour factor of the element

I a = Importance factor of the element

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