Boilersinfo.

com
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WHAT IS BOILER ??
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BOILER

BOILER means any closed vessel exceeding

22.75 litres in capacity and is used expressively for
generating steam under pressure and includes any
mounting or other fitting attached to such vessel
which is wholly or partly under pressure when the
steam is shut off.

- IBR
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STEAM

Steam is the technical term for water vapor,

the gaseous phase of water, which is formed when
water boils
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STEAM PIPE

STEAM PIPE means any pipe through which steam

passes from a boiler to a prime mover or other user or
both if pressure at which steam passes through such
pipes exceeds 3.5 kg/cm2 above atmospheric pressure
or such pipe exceeds 254 mm in internal diameter and
includes in either case any connected fitting of a steam
pipe.

- IBR
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BOILER CODES
Boiler Codes have been written by various nations in the
past century to ensure safety of personnel and to avoid loss
of property. Boiler codes cover the whole gamut of
activities including Design, Fabrication, Testing,
Construction and Operation. The various aspects of IBR
Regulations are called out and consolidated against major
items like drum, headers, lines & links, etc. The following
codes have been used widely.

1. IBR 1950
2. ASME Section-I
3. BS 1113
4. DIN TRD 300.
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THERMODYNAMICS OF
POWER PLANT
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SENSIBLE HEAT
The Heat required to bring the water from 00c to
boiling point is the enthalpy or heat content of the
liquid measured in Kcal/Kg.
OR
The sensible heat of a thermodynamic process may be
calculated as the product of the body's mass (m) with
its specific heat capacity (c) and the change in
temperature ( T):
Q=mc T
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LATENT HEAT
Latent heat is the amount of energy in the form of heat
released or absorbed by a substance during a change of
phase (i.e. solid, liquid, or gas), also called a phase
transition
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SUPERHEAT
When the steam is heated out of contact with water ,
the steam temperature increases above saturation
temperature .Such a heating is known as super
Heating
OR
In physics, superheating (sometimes referred to
as boiling retardation, or boiling delay) is the
phenomenon in which a liquid is heated to
a temperature higher than its boiling point, without
boiling
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CRITICAL POINT With the increase in pressure for

steam generation , the sensible heat
required increases with decrease in
latent heat. At every pressure
between saturated water and
saturated steam a phase called wet
steam exists. However at one point
the water turns into steam on
addition of sensible heat alone
without going through the phase of
wet steam . This occurs at
temperature of 374oC and
224.6kg/cm2 absolute pressure.
This is called critical point.
 Boilersinfo.com

THE RANKINE CYCLE

Basic Rankine Cycle
OUTPUT INCREASE D
Temperature ( 0

B C
C)

24 deg C E
F
A
-273
0 Entropy KJ / Kg K
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DIFFRENCE BETWEEN
POWER AND ENERGY ??
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Energy is an amount of work generated or used, and

has units such as Joules, BTU, calories, or or watt-
hours or kW-hours.

Power is the RATE of generating or using energy, and

has units of watts, which are Joules per second. Or
kW or MW (standard SI prefixes apply)
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MEANING OF 1 MW POWER
If 10 bulbs of 100 Watt glows at a time in one home.
It will consumes 1 kilo-watt of power.
Let us assume, load of one home is 1 kilo watt
1 MW = 1000 kW
= 1000 X 1000 W
= 1000 X (load of one home)
= load of 1,000 homes
Hence, 500 mw plant will benefit 5,00,000 homes (provided each home uses 1kw
power at a time)
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MEANING OF 1 UNIT OF
ELECTRICITY
if 10 bulbs of 100 watt glows at a time in one home for one hour. it will consumes 1
kilo watt hour (1kwhr) of power. this is called as 1 unit in our electricity bills.
If 500 MW plant, when run for one full day, it will produces
500 mw = 500 mw x 24 hr = 12,000 mw hr
= 12,000 x 1,000 kW- hr
= 1,20,00,000 units of electricity
(12 million units per day)
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EFFICIENCY

Efficiency of any plant or equipment is the ratio of output to its input.

Output of power plant is energy sent out to the grid
Input is the heat energy of the fuels fired in boiler

Mathematically,

(Energy sent out in KW) X 860 Kcal / KW

Efficiency =
(CV of fuel in Kcal / Kg) X (Fuel burnt in Kg)
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HEAT RATE

Heat rate is the ratio of heat added to steam in boiler (in Kcal) to the Electrical
energy sent out (in kWh)

Efficiency and Heat Rate are related terms. Lower the heat rate more efficient is
the plant.

Heat rate for thermal project is in the range of 2200 to 1950 Kcal / kW-hr
 Boilersinfo.com

EFFICIENCY OF VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF

THERMAL POWER PLANT

TYPE EFFICIENCY
BOILER (1) 84-92 %

TURBINE (2) 84-92 %

GENERATOR (3) 96-98 %

THERMAL CYCLE (4) 50-55 %

OVERALL PLANT 34-40 %

EFFICIENCY (5)
= (1)X(2)X(3)X(4)
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CRITICAL POINT

Increasing the pressure of steam will increase saturation

temperature of steam at which evaporation takes place.

A point on T-S graph, where saturated liquid line &

saturated vapour line meets, so that associated latent
heat for phase conversion is zero, that point is called
Critical Point.

The critical pressure & temperature for water are

Pressure = 224.56 Kg / cm2
Temperature = 374.15 deg C
 Boilersinfo.com

SUB CRITICAL
&
SUPERCRITICAL BOILERS
Boiler operating below the critical point range and
have some amount of latent heat addition in steam
during phase conversion from liquid to Gaseous
state are termed as Sub Critical Boilers.

Boilers operating above the critical point range are

termed as Super Critical Boilers
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BOILER CLASSIFICATION
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TYPES OF BOILERS
(A) BASED ON APPLICATION :

1. Utility Boilers are large capacity steam generators

used purely for electrical power generation.

2. Industrial Boilers are small capacity boilers intended

for use in the process industries.
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Types Of Boilers.contd
(B) BASED ON CONSTRUCTION:
1. Vertical Recovery-V2R
2. Vertical Unit 40-VU40
3. Vertical Unit 60-VU60
4. Modular Unit-MU
5. 2 Pass Single Arch
6. 2 Pass Double Arch
7. Close couple
8. Box Type
9. Tower Type
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Types Of Boilers.contd

Single Pass (Tower type) :

If boiler configuration is such that flue gases from
furnace continue to rise upward and all subsequent
heat absorbing coils are kept in this vertical passage,
boiler is referred as tower type boiler.

Double Pass or Two Pass:

However, if configuration is designed such that after
furnace flue gases take a horizontal turn followed by
downward path in a separate chamber, where heat
absorbing coils like Super heaters and Economizers
are kept, it is referred as Two pass boiler.
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Types Of Boilers.contd
Top Suspended Boiler:

When all heat absorbing surfaces are suspended

from top structure and are free to expand downward,
the boiler is referred as top suspended.

Some boilers are bottom supported also. (like CFBC

Boilers)

But invariably large capacity boilers are top

suspended for distinctive advantage of smooth down
ward expansion of pressure parts.
 Boilersinfo.com

Types Of Boilers.contd

(C) BASED ON FUEL FIRING:

1. Oil Fired Only

2. Coal ( Sub-Bituminous) Fired
3. Lignite Fired (CFBC Boiler)
4. Black Liquor (For Paper Mills)
5. Baggase (Stoker Fired)
 Boilersinfo.com

Types Of Boilers.contd

(D) BASED ON TYPE OF FIRING:

1. WALL FIRING ( Only in CFBC Boilers)

2. CORNER TANGENTIAL FIRING
3. STOKER
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Types Of Boilers.contd
Corner Tangential Fired Boiler

When burners are located in corners of furnace wall

such that the protruded flames from them form a
tangent to an imaginary circle in the center of the
furnace, the furnace (boiler) is called tangential fired
boiler.

210/250/270/500MW boiler is invariably of this

design. (All Conventional Pulverized fuel fired
Boiler)
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Types Of Boilers.contd

(E) BASED ON NO. OF DRUMS:

1. SINGLE DRUM
2. BI- DRUM
3. NO DRUM (Vertical Separator)
 Boilersinfo.com

Types Of Boilers.contd

(F) BASED ON CIRCULATION:

1. NATURAL
2. CONTROLLED
2.1 FORCED Circulation (Pump)
2.2 CONTROLLED Circulation (+Orifice)
2.3 CC+ (Pump + Orifice + Rifled Tubing)
3. ONCE THROUGH
 Boilersinfo.com

Boiling Mechanism
Circulation refers to flow of steam and water mixture
generated in water walls to drum.
Steam generated forms bubbles which in any case
should immediately flow and should not stick to water
wall surface, which is termed as Nucleate Boiling.

In case, the bubbles formed are not able to flow and

sticks to water wall, thus making a film that disrupts
contact with flowing water for heat transfer is termed as
Film Boiling which is not desirable.
Thus Deviation from Nucleate Boiling (DNB) leads
to tube failures due to higher metal temperatures.

Rifled tubing (Inside surface has Helical profile) avoids

the deviation from Nucleate Boiling
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Controlled Circulation Boiler

Normal Conditions
FURNACE WALL OUTLET Smooth Tubing Rifled Tubing
uality

y
lit
Generated Q

ua
Q

ty
30%

le

uali
ab
w

ed Q
lo
Al

erat
Gen
10%
Elevation

Elevation
DNB

y
Qualit
DNB Region
Region

able
Allow
Quality Quality
Minimum Safety Margin Minimum Safety Margin
~10% ~30%
 Boilersinfo.com

Circulation in Boiler
The ratio of the weight of water to the weight of steam in
the mixture leaving the heat absorption surfaces is called
Circulation Ratio.

Controlled circulation system

use of controlled circulation pump

used for pressure up to 194kg/cm2
(sub critical pr.)
circulation ratio > 1
 Boilersinfo.com

Natural Circulation
At lower drum operating pressure (below 175 kg/cm2),
there is a considerable difference in densities of water
and steam.
Drum and down comers are full of relatively cold water
whereas upper portion of water walls and risers tubes
are full of wet steam. The circulation in furnace, in this
case, takes place due to Thermo-Siphon principle.
The density difference is the driving force and this
balances the frictional losses, establishes a rate of
circulation. The furnace is called Natural Circulated.
Thus Natural circulation is the ability of water to circulate
continuously, with gravity and changes in temperature
being the only driving force known as "thermal head.
 Boilersinfo.com

Forced Circulation

Beyond 175 kg/cm2 operating pressure, the driving

force due to density difference reduces considerably
and unable to establish such circulation.

Now circulation is assisted by providing pumps in

down comer path to over come frictional losses. The
amount of water, flowing in water wall tubes, is
controlled by providing orifice in each tube.

The boiler (furnace) is referred as Controlled

Circulated.

500MW boilers need controlled circulation. Less than

500MW units are generally natural circulation type.
 Boilersinfo.com

Why controlled circulation is required?

Diff in Density
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Types Of Boilers.contd

(F) BASED ON DRAFT:

1. Forced draft
2. Induced Draft
3. Balanced Draft
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Types Of Boilers.contd

Balanced Draft Furnace

When the secondary air being supplied to furnace by

Forced Draft (FD) fans to facilitate combustion and flue
gases of combustion from furnace are suck out by the
Induced Draft (ID) fans are adjusted in such a way that
the interior pressure of furnace is maintained at slightly
negative pressure (minus 10 mm of water column as
compared to atmospheric pressure), the boiler is
categorized as Balanced Draft furnace.

210/250/270/500 MW boiler is invariably a balanced

draft boiler
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Boiler Pressure Parts

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PRESSURE PARTS

(A) BASED ON CONFIGURATION :

1. HEADERS
2. PANELS
3. COILS
4. CONNECTING LINKS
5. SUPPORTS & SUSPENSIONS
(B) BASED ON SYSTEM :
1. ECONOMISER SYSTEM
2. CIRCULATION SYSTEM
3. SUPERHEATER SYSTEM
4. REHEATER SYSTEM
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WATER WALLS
LOOKING FROM
OUTSIDE
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WATER WALLS LOOKING FROM INSIDE OF THE BOILER

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Downcomers
There are down comers in boiler ( 6 no. in 270 MW) which
carry water from boiler drum to the bottom ring header.

They are installed from outside the furnace to keep density

difference for circulation of water & steam.
 Boilersinfo.com

WATER
WALLS
HEATING AND EVAPORATING THE FEED WATER SUPPLIED TO
THE BOILER FROM THE ECONOMISERS.

THESE ARE VERTICAL TUBES CONNECTED AT THE TOP AND

BOTTOM TO THE HEADERS.

THESE TUBES RECEIVE WATER FROM THE BOILER DRUM BY

MEANS OF DOWNCOMERS CONNECTED BETWEEN DRUM AND
WATER WALLS LOWER HEADER.

APPROXIMATELY 50% OF THE HEAT RELEASED BY THE

COMBUSTION OF THE FUEL IN THE FURNACE IS ABSORBED BY
THE WATER WALLS.
 Boilersinfo.com

Water Walls Tubes Construction

Membrane Panel Furnace

walls:

When tubes are welded

together using either welded
metal between tubes
(membrane walls) or a filler
plate welded to both adjacent
tubes (fin welded), the wall is
called Welded Wall.
 Boilersinfo.com

Construction of Water Walls

Tangent tube The
construction consists of
water wall placed side by
side nearly touching each
other. An envelope of thin
sheet of steel called "SKIN
CASING" is placed in
contact with the tubes,
which provides a seal
against furnace leakage.
 Boilersinfo.com
Pressure Parts ..contd
(C)BASED ON FLOW
1. ECONOMISER
2.1 Eco inlet Link
2.2 Eco inlet Header
2.3 Eco Coils
2.4 Eco Intermediate Headers
2.5 Eco Hanger Tubes
2.6 Eco Outlet Header
2.7 Eco Connecting Links to Drum
2. DRUM With Internals
3. DOWN COMERS
 Boilersinfo.com
(C) Based on Flow contd
4. WATER WALL INLET HEADERS

5. WATER WALL PANELS

5.1 Front
5.2 Rear
5.3 Side
5.4 Extended Side
6. WATER WALL Loose tubes

(Arch, Extended Side, Hanger and screen)

7. Water wall outlet headers

8. Risers

9. Drum
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Water Path in Boiler (270MW)

Collected in outlet Inside drum -
Economizer water wall headers water separated
(From BFP & discharged to from steam-water
discharge lines) steam drum through mixture through
riser tubes turbo separators &
screen driers
Rises through
Steam Drum furnace wall tubes
(Via economizer - front/rear,left Dry saturated
links to drum) ,right side(absorbs steam exits the
latent heat) drum & enters into
1st stage of
superheating

bottom ring
Via Downcomers
headers
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 Boilersinfo.com SH STEAM OUTLET

CRH IN HRH OUT

DRUM

FRONT ROOF REAR ROOF

LTSH
EXTENDED
WW

Economiser

WATER INLET

WATER WALL BOTTOM RING HEADER

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Steam Path in Boiler

SH SCW Backpass
side outlet SCW front SH steam
Steam Drum
hdrs(4) (F/R; wall inlet cooled rear
left/right) header wall tubes
upper
SH SH steam SCW front
connecting cooled Back & screen
tubes Pass side SH rear roof
tubes
walled tubes junction
header
SH Radiant SH Steam Backpass
Roof Inlet cooled rear roof LTSH &
Header (Backpass) tubes economiser
sidewall support
inlet header tubes
SH Radiant Backpass
Roof tubes SH Radiant LTSH & LTSH &
Roof outlet economiser economiser
(Ist Pass) supports
Header support
lower headers
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Steam Path in Boiler (contd.)

SH steam
cooled rear SH PLATEN SH Platen
wall inlet inlet header Coil Assembly
header

SH steam
LTSH TO SH SH outlet
cooled rear Platen HDR
wall tubes headers

LTSH steam
cooled rear LTSH outlet Main Steam
wall tubes inlet headers (MS) line
header

LTSH
LTSH coil
horizontal
terminals
spaced coils
 Boilersinfo.com

Transfer of Energy in SH
Super heater heats the high-pressure steam from its
saturation temperature to a higher specified temperature.

Hot Flue Thermal Structure SH Steam

Gas SH

Convection & Convection HT

Radiation HT
Drop in Enthalpy Rise in Enthalpy of
of Flue Gas Steam
Mechanism of Heat Transfer
 Boilersinfo.com

Mechanism of Heat Transfer :

Rate of heat transfer from hot gas to cold steam is

proportional to:
Mean Temperature difference between Hot Gas and Cold
Steam.
Surface area of heat transfer
Thot gas,in Tcold gas,out

TSH steam,out Tcold steam,in

 Boilersinfo.com

SUPERHEATER (For 270 MW Units)

SH heating surfaces are in the form of coils which are
made by bending the tubes in cold or hot condition. The
superheater is composed of four basic sections.

The platen section is located directly above the furnace

in front of the furnace arch. It absorbs heat mainly by
radiation.

The pendant spaced section (Final Superheater) is

located in back of the screen wall tubes. The mode of
heat transfer is convection.

The horizontal section of the superheater (LTSH) is

located in the rear gas pass above economiser.
The steam cooled wall sections form the side, front and
rear walls and roof of the vertical gas pass.
 Boilersinfo.com

SUPERHEATER HEADER & TUBES

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Platen Superheater
Flat panels of tubes located in the
upper part of the furnace, where
the gas temperature is high.
The tubes of the platen SH
receive very high radiation as well
as a heavy dust burden.
Mechanism of HT : High
Radiation & Low convection
Thermal Structure:
No. of platens
No. of tubes in a platen
Dia of a tube
Length of a tube
 Boilersinfo.com

Geometry of Thermal Structure : Platen SH

The outer diameter of platen SH is in the range of 32 42

mm.

The platens are usually widely spaced,

S1 = 500 900 mm.

The tubes within a platen are closely spaced, S2/d = 1.1.

The number of parallel tubes in a platen is in the range of 15

35.
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Convective Superheater (Pendant)

Convective super heaters are vertical

type (Pendant ) or horizontal types.
The Pendant SH is always arranged in
the horizontal crossover duct.
Pendant SH tubes are widely spaced
due to high temperature of flue gas
and ash is soft.
Transverse pitch : S1/d > 4.5
Longitudinal pitch : S2/d > 3.5
S1 The outside tube diameter : 32 51
S2 mm
Tube thickness : 3 7 mm
 Boilersinfo.com
Convective Superheater (Horizontal)
The horizontal SH are located in the back pass.
The tubes are arranged in the in-line configuration.
The outer diameter of the tube is 32 51 mm.
The tube thickness of the tube is 3 7 mm.
The transverse pitch : S1/d = 2 3.
The longitudinal pitch :S2/d = 1.6 2.5.
The tubes are arranged in multiple parallel sets.
The desired velocity depends on the type of SH and operating steam
pressures.
The outside tube diameter : 32 51mm
Tube thickness : 3 7mm

S1
S2
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76
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Reheater ( 270 MW)

Purpose
RE-HEAT the steam (at 350 deg C) from HP TURBINE
to 540 deg C for I.P Turbine.

The Reheater - Single stage 2 Sections.

Front & rear pendant vertical spaced.

The front section is located between the superheater

platen section and the rear water wall hanger tubes.

The rear section is located between rear wall hanger

tubes and water wall screen.
 Boilersinfo.com

Reheater

The pressure drop inside re-heater tubes has an

important adverse effect on the efficiency of turbine.

Pressure drop through the re-heater should be kept as

low as possible.

The tube diameter : 42 60mm.

The design is similar to Final (Pendant) super-heater.

 Boilersinfo.com

CRH to HRH

HRH line
CRH line

Reheater
vertically
placed rear
DeSH
outlet header

Reheater Reheater
Vertical platen vertical spaced
inlet header coil
 Boilersinfo.com

FRONT REHEATER PANEL

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Supports & Suspensions For

Super Heater &
Re Heater
 Boilersinfo.com

SUPPORTS & SUSPENSIONS FOR SH & RH

1. Vertical Assemblies are suspended from the ceiling.

2. In Pendant assemblies, the Tie Lugs are welded in

between tubes at the top row to transfer the load from
centre to end terminals.

3. The horizontal Super heaters are supported by

Economiser hanger tubes through strap supports.
 Boilersinfo.com
SUPPORTS & SUSPENSIONS FOR SH & RH
Contd

4. The pendant coils are suspended by high crown

supports. The high crown plates are welded on either
side of seal band and the load is transferred through
end bar.

5. The headers will be independently supported from the

ceiling through tie rod assemblies with or without
variable spring hangers as the case may be.
Boilersinfo.com
 Boilersinfo.com
SPACERS FOR SH & RH:

Spacer are used to maintain pitches along and across

coil assemblies. The type of spacers generally used
are transverse spacers and alignment ties.

Fluid Cooled Spacers or Mechanical Spacer Bar are

used as transverse spacers.

Alignment Ties are used to maintain pitch between

tubes in the same assembly.

Flexible Connector and Alignment Band are used as

alignment ties. Flexible connectors in combination
with fluid cooled spacers are used. Mechanical spacer
bars in combination with alignment band are used.
The spacers are all made of stainless steel.
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In pendant SH or RH assemblies the tie lugs are

welded in between tubes at the top row to transfer
the load from centre to end terminals
 Boilersinfo.com

Economizer
Economiser are feed-water heaters in which the heat from
waste gases is recovered to raise the temperature of feed-
water supplied to the boiler.
 Boilersinfo.com

Economizer
The economizer preheats the feed water by utilizing the residual heat of the
flue gas.
It reduces the exhaust gas temperature and saves the fuel.
Modern power plants use steel-tube-type economizers.
Design Configuration: divided into several sections : 0.6 0.8 m gap

16 April 2013 PMI Revision 00 92

 Boilersinfo.com

Advantages of Economizer

6oC raise in feed water temperature in economizer

corresponds to a 1% saving in fuel consumption.

220 C reduction in flue gas temperature, increases

boiler efficiency by 1%.
 Boilersinfo.com

Location and Arrangement

Placed ahead of air-pre heaters in back pass.
Placed below the Low Temp Super-heater.
Heat Transfer in counter-flow arrangement
Horizontal in-line arrangement of tubes (facilitate
complete draining)
Recirculation valve and Non-return valve incorporated to
ensure recirculation in case of no feed-flow
Ash hopper placed below, as flue gas takes a turn.
 Boilersinfo.com
ECONOMIZER TUBES
( Horizontal Inline Arrangement)
 Boilersinfo.com
ECONOMIZER & LTSH HANGER TUBES
 Boilersinfo.com

Type of Construction
Plain Tube : Several banks of tubes with either-in-line or
staggered type formation. Staggered arrangement induces
more turbulence than the in-line arrangement. This gives a
higher rate of heat transfer and requires less surface but at
the expense of higher draught loss.
Welded Fin-tube : Fin welded design is used for
improving the heat transfer.
 Boilersinfo.com

Finned Economizers
 Boilersinfo.com

Materials Specifications for

Boiler Pressure Parts
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Economizer System
S. Design
Description Material
No. Temp.
Coils SA 210 GrA1 326
1. Economiser
Headers SA 106 Gr C 398

Circulating System
S. Design
Description Material
No. Temp.
1. Drum SA 299 368
Tubes SA210 Gr C 398
Water
2. SA 299, SA106
Walls Headers 370
Gr C
 Boilersinfo.com

Roof & Steam Cooled walls

Sl.
Description Material Design Temp.
No.

Tubes SA 213 T11 413

1. Roof
Headers SA106 Gr C 368
Tubes SA210 Gr C 405
2. SC walls
Headers SA106 Gr C 368 -394
 Boilersinfo.com
Superheater System
Sl.
Description Material Temp. Range
No.
Coils T11 404 - 477
LTSH
1. Headers SA106 Gr. C
394 -452
SA335 P12
T11, T22,
Div. Coils 409 - 535
2. T91
Panel
Headers SA335 P12 420 - 496
T22, T91,
Coils 478 - 600
Platen TP347H,
3.
(Final) Headers SA335 P12
489 - 572
SA335 P22
 Boilersinfo.com
Reheater System

S.
Description Material Temp. Range
No.
T11, T22,
Coils 351 - 589
T91, TP347H,
1. RH
Headers SA106 Gr C
361 - 590
SA335 P22
Boilersinfo.com

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