Expert Essay 6

Essay B, Student 6, Expert Marker
Describe the Mechanisms Regulating Blood Flow to the

Diverse Organs of Vertebrates
Blood is an important liquid tissue in vertebrates and it makes up the
cardiovascular system alongside the heart and blood vessels. The main
components of blood are blood cells; both red and white, platelets, hormones and
plasma containing nutrients and ions such as K + and Na+. Blood plays an important
role in the transport of substances to all body organs. The main transport material is
oxygen. Red blood cells contain haemoglobins and each can carry 4 molecules of
oxygen. To make sure that substances reach the desired organ destinations there
are a few mechanisms that regulate the blood flow which involves the pump, blood
vessels and muscles.
Vertebrates have a closed circulatory system. This has several advantages

over open circulations in arthropods and molluscs; closed systems can control the
direction of blood to specific tissues by changing the resistance in the vessels, rapid
transport of nutrients and wastes to and from cells and also molecules and
specialised cells that help in the transport of materials are contained in the vessels
(K.PURVES et al., 2004).
The hearts function is to pump blood. The hearts of vertebrates consist of two
or more chambers. The main chambers are the atria and ventricles, which is further
divided in vertebrates with more than two chambers, to make up the left and right
atria and ventricles. The walls of the heart are made up of cardiac muscles. These
muscles contract spontaneously making up the heartbeat. The ventricles have
thicker muscles as they pump blood out of the heart to the rest of the body. The atria
on the other hand, receive blood from other parts of the body. For instance, the
unusual feature in a reptilian heart, they have the ability to control the amount of
blood going to the lungs and other parts of the body. Reptiles can bypass their blood
flow to the lungs and direct all their blood to the rest of their body when not breathing
(K.PURVES et al., 2004). This is possible with an additional aorta. This is of course
logical since theres no need for blood to go through the pulmonary circuit if theres
no breathing hence saving energy.
Blood vessels also play a part in regulating blood flow. The major vessels are
the arteries, veins and capillaries. The arteries have the thickest walls to withstand
the high pressure of rapid flowing blood pumped out of the heart. The walls contain a
lot of elastic fibres and collagen for that specific function. Arteries and arterioles are
also known as resistance vessels as their resistance can vary (K.PURVES et al.,
2004). Smooth muscles in the arterial walls allows the vessels to be dilated or
constricted which then changes their resistance to blood flow and hence changes the
amount of blood that passes through. They also posses precapillary sphincters
(smooth muscle cuffs) which can block blood supply to the capillary bed. These
changes are controlled by neuronal and hormonal mechanisms.
Most arteries and arterioles are innervated by the autonomic nervous system,
especially the sympathetic division (K.PURVES et al., 2004). Norepinephrine are
released by most sympathetic neurone, which causes smooth muscle cells to
contract, constricting the vessels and hence reducing blood flow. Some specialized
sypathetic neurones in skeletal muscle however releases acetylcholine which does
the exact opposite to what norepinephrine does.Other hormones can also affect the
vessels such as epinephrine which is released during the fight-or-flight response,
angiotensin which is produced when blood pressure in the kidney falls and
vasopressin which is released by the posterior pituitary when blood pressure falls.
Hormone secretions can also be caused by changes in emotions. These hormones
affect the arterioles in the extremities or in tissues that do not need continuous
maintenance. They increase the central blood pressure and blood flow to important
organs , the heart, brain and kidneys.
The blood then goes back to the heart via the veins. Veins have a larger
lumen but a thinner wall compared to arteries. The large lumen allows larger
volumes of blood to flow back towards the heart. Furthermore, veins are the only
blood vessel that possesses valves. These valves are there to prevent the backflow
of blood and make sure that blood flow in one direction. Furthermore, veins have
thinner walls so they do not have adequate muscles, they then depend on
neighbouring muscles which helps to push blood upwards while doing movements
and even by breathing. As observed in the venules of the bat wing, peristaltic
contractions of the smooth muscle of venules (the vessel connecting capillaries and
veins) can also help to promote venous flow towards the heart (RANDAL et al.,
2002).
To sum up, there are a lot of mechanisms at work to keep and control the
blood flow towards all the organs in a vertebrates body. A healthy body system could
sense if there was something in error (autoregulation) and produce a correcting
mechanism such as the negative feedback mechanism or by secreting hormones to
the desired area of the body and keep the blood pressure in check. The
cardiovascular system is an effective transport system for blood to reach every part
of the body. The highly branched vessels played a major role in regulating blood flow
as well. The heart keeps the motion going so without the heart theres no point in
having all these mechanisms as they will not work. The flow of blood toward organs
below the heart is also helped by the gravity force. On the other hand, the blood
flowing upwards is made possible with valves and movements of muscles around the
body. And lastly, these regulations are important to supply enough nutrients and
oxygen and remove waste products to and from cells to keep a vertebrate alive.
Bibliography
K.PURVES, William, David SADAVA, Gordon H. ORIANS, and H. Craig HELLER. 2004.
Circulatory systems. In: Sinauer ASSOCIATES, (ed). Life: The Science of Biology, U.S.A: W.
H. Freeman and Company, pp.940-960.
RANDAL, David, Warren BURGGREN, and Kathleen FRENCH. 2002. Circulation. In: Jason
NOE, Morgan RYAN, and Jane O'NEILL, (eds). Eckert Animal Physiology Mechanisms and
Adaptations, New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, pp.473-522.
The Importance of Donating Blood

Essay
1578 Words 7 Pages
The Importance of Donating Blood
The birth of Chase changed our lives forever.

We were not sure if we were able to have
children and after 5 years of trying with not
avail, Chase was born. He was 5 lbs. and 8 oz.
He was so tiny and fragile, but the love we
had for our son was enormous. When Chase
turned five months old, the doctors told us
that he had leukemia. They said it would take
a miracle for him to see his 1st birthday. We
as parents did not know what to do or who to
turn for to help and guide us in the right
directions. Chase would undergo many
surgeries and need many pints of blood. It is
often that people do not understand why
donating blood is important part of life. What
if Chase was your 5-month-old son?
We need show more content

Blood is a liquid that circulates throughout
the body, carrying oxygen and nutrients to
every cell, and carrying away waste products.
Blood plays an important role in fighting off
unwanted infections that enter the body. The
components of blood are red and white blood
cells, platelets and plasma. Although blood is
made of the same basic elements, not all
blood is alike. In fact, there are eight common
red blood cell types, A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-,
O+, O-. Type O blood is a universal donor and
is always in demand, because of these
different types of blood variations it is of
great importance that everyone who can,
donate. There are four common types of blood
donations, in which you can participate.
(American Association of Blood Banks)
The most common type of donating is whole

blood, which is always in need. This
procedure last for about 45 minutes. There
are trained people collecting your blood, and
are very cautious and safe. The way that they
collected your blood is that they ask you
several questions to determine your eligibility.
You then receive your own collections bags
and needle. At no time do you have to worry
about confused with someone else, or

catching any diseases. You can call your local
area Red Cross Center
(www.bloodct.org/blood.htm) or hospital to
find out when and where donations are given.
Another type is donating skin tissue, which
can potentially benefit as many as 50 people
per each donation. This is the
Essay Contents:
1. Essay on the Blood and Its Composition in Humans
2. Essay on the Blood Plasma
3. Essay on the Blood Cells in Humans
4. Essay on the Coagulation of Blood in Humans
5. Essay on the Functions of Blood in Humans
6. Essay on the Blood Groups
Essay # 1. Blood and Its Composition in Humans:

The blood is a fluid connective tissue which plays an important role
in supplying oxygen to all tissues and cells of the body and
removing carbon dioxide from the body. The total volume of blood
forms about 1/12th of the body weight or about 5 to 6 liters of blood.
Blood is heavier than water with a specific gravity of 1.04 1.07. It
is slightly alkaline in nature.
Composition of Blood:
Blood is composed of two components:
1. Blood Plasma:
A fluid which forms about 55% of the total volume of blood.
2. Blood Cells:
Which are floating freely in the blood plasma. The amount is about
45% of the total volume of blood.
Essay # 2. Blood Plasma in Humans:

Blood plasma or serum is a non-cellular fluid, of yellow colour and
alkaline in nature. It is mainly consisting of water and other solid
substances.
1. Water-90 to 92%
2. Solid substances 8 to 10%
Solid substance of blood plasma include the following
material:
(a) Protein 7.0%:
The important plasma proteins are Albumin (4.7 5.7%), Globulin
(1.3 2.5%), Fibrinogen (0.2 0.4%), Prothrombin (0.1 -1.0)
(b) Inorganic constituents 0-9%:

These are salts of sodium potassium, calcium magnesium,
phosphorous, iron, copper etc.
(c) Organic constituents like protein nitrogenous

substances:
Urea, uric acid, creatinine, ammonia, amino acids, xanthine etc.
(d) Fat:
Phospholipids, natural fat, cholesterol etc.
(e) Carbohydrates, Glucose etc.

(f) Other substances:
Internal secretions or hormones antibodies, enzymes etc.
(g) Colouring matter:

Bilirubin, carotene etc. which gives yellow colour to plasma.
(h) Heparin is present in plasma which is an anticoagulant released

by the liver cells.
3. Plasma carries gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Plasma Proteins:
In normal individuals the total amount of plasma protein varies

from 6.5 7.5 % average is about 7%.
The followings are the plasma protein:

Albumin:
There are normally 4.7 5.7% of albumin in the plasma. They are
the smallest blood proteins formed in liver. It has three functions.
(1) It is responsible for the osmotic pressure which maintains the

blood volume.
(2) Many special substances are carried which combines with the
albumin.
4. It provides protein to the tissues.

Globulin:
The amount of serum globulin is about 1.3 2.5%. It is insoluble in
distilled water but soluble in salt solution. Globulin is much more
variable than albumin in composition. They are carrier proteins and
also maintain osmotic pressure. This comprises a large number of
different proteins. They act as the antibodies and protect the body
against the attack of disease germs.
Fibrinogen:
The amount of fibrinogen in blood plasma is about 0.2 0.4%. It is
essential for clotting of blood during which fibrinogen is converted
to fibrin.
Prothrombin:
0.1% of prothrombin are present in Blood plasma. They act as blood
clotting factor. Vitamin K helps in the formation of prothrombin in
the liver.
Functions of Blood plasma:

1. Plasma acts as the medium for transmission and circulation of
nutrients, salts, fats, glucose, amino-acids, vitamins, oxygen,
hormones etc. to the tissues.
2. It is the medium for removal of waste materials like urea, uric-

acid, carbon dioxide, excess water and other such things.
3. It maintains the PH of blood. (Hydrogen ion concentration)
4. It maintains the acid base balance in the body.
5. Plasma helps in maintaining the immunity power of the body.
6. It takes active part in the clotting of blood.
Essay # 3. Blood Cells in Humans:

There are three types of blood cells which are floating in blood
plasma. The amount is about 45% of the total blood volume.
These cells are:

(1) Erythrocytes or Red Blood Cells
(2) Leukocytes or White Blood Cells

(3) Thrombocytes or Blood Platelets.
1. Erythrocytes:
The erythrocytes are minute circular discs, both sides of which are
concave. The central part of the cell is thinner than the
circumference. Each cubic millimeter of blood contains five millions
of red blood cells. They are so small that if placed flat edge to edge,
about 10 millions of R.B.C. can be kept in one square inch.
The number of R.B.C. varies in human body according to

physiological and pathological conditions. When examined under
the microscope they are individually seen to be pale yellow in
colour, but in masses appear red and give the colour to the blood.
Composition of Erythrocytes:
It is composed of 65% water, 35% solids of which 33% is
haemoglobin bound with 2% of protein, phospholipids, cholesterol,
neutral fat and organic substances.
Structure of Erythrocytes:
The red blood cells resemble a sponge. They consists of an outer
elastic envelop which encloses a red pigment called haemoglobin.
R.B.C is covered by a very thin plasma membrane made up of lipid
and protein complex. Mature erythrocytes do not have any nucleus.
The red cells need protein and iron for their structure. So a
balanced diet containing some iron is necessary for the replacement
of R.B.C.
The Red Blood cells originate in bone marrow. In process of

development in the bone marrow the red cells pass through several
stages. At first, they are large and the edges are uneven. They
contain a nucleus but no haemoglobin. When the R.B.C are
matured, they are charged with haemoglobin and finally lose their
nucleus. These cells are then passed out for circulation in the blood.
The normal life span of R.B.C is about 120 days, then they are
destroyed. These cells are disintegrated in the spleen and liver. The
globin of the haemoglobin is broken down into amino acids to be
used as protein in the tissues.
The iron in the haem is removed for the formation of new R.B.C.
The rest of the haem is converted into bilirubin, an yellow pigment
and biliverdin, a green pigment. During severe bleeding, red-cells
with haemoglobin are lost. In moderate hemorrhage these red cells
are replaced when balanced diet is taken.
Functions of Erythrocytes:
1. Erythrocytes have respiratory function. Haemoglobin of R. B. C.
attracts oxygen from the air sacs and converted into oxy-
haemoglobin in the lungs. So that the blood is purified. Thus Red
cells supply oxygen to the tissues and cells remove the waste
product like carbon dioxide.
2. The Red cells maintain acid-base balance. It is carried out by the

buffering action of haemoglobin.
3. It maintains ion-balance in the blood.
4. Red cells help to maintain the viscosity of blood.
5. Various pigments like bilirubin and biliverdin are produced after

the disintegration of Red cells.
Haemoglobin:
Haemoglobin is the red pigment present in Red blood cells. It is a
complex protein rich in iron. It is consisting of two parts 96% of
globin, a protein substance and 4% of Hoem, an iron containing
pigment. Haemoglobin is synthesized inside the redcells in the bone
marrow. The content of haemoglobin present in normal blood is 15

gms per 100 ml of blood and this amount is usually called hundred
percent. The amount over 90% is considered normal. In the foetus
the concentration is highest. At birth it is 23 gms per 100 ml.
In females, the amount of haemoglobin is slightly lower than in

males. The average is 13.7% in females. At higher altitude
haemoglobin-percentage rises. Exercise, excitement, adrenaline
injections etc. increase the amount of haemoglobin. In Anaemia, the
amount of haemoglobin present in the blood is diminished.
Sometimes in serious cases it may fall below 30% that is 5gms per
100 ml.
Functions of Haemoglobin:
1. It is essential for oxygen carriage.
2. It plays an important part in carbon dioxide removal.
3. It constitutes one of the important buffers of blood and helps to

maintain the acid-base balance.
4. Various pigments of bile, stool urine etc. are formed from it.
Anaemia:
Anaemia is a condition in which there is a reduction in the total
circulating haemoglobin. In some severe forms of Anaemia, the
haemoglobin level may fall below 30% that is 5gms per 100 ml.
Deficiency of R.B.C. in blood causes anaemia.
Causes of Anaemia:
Causes of Anaemia are:
1. Excessive Blood loss due to hemorrhage, delivery, menstruation
etc.
2. Increased destruction of R.B.C. is another cause. In the disease

like sickle cell. Thalassemia, continuous malaria, syphilis, there is
increased destruction of R.B.C. and haemoglobin is reduced.
3. Failure of function of bone marrow is due to enormous exposure

to X-Ray, cancer in bone marrow, poisoning through toxins, kidney
disease etc. This is an important cause of reduction of R.B.C and

thereby causing Anaemia.
4. Anaemia is caused due to the defective for motion of RBC.

Deficiency of Vitamin B12, Folic acid and gastric intrinsic factors help
in defective R.B.C. formation.
Types of Anaemia:
Anaemia may be of different types:
i. Hypochromic Anaemia or iron deficiency Anaemia.
ii. Pernicious Anaemia or Vitamin B12 deficiency Anaemia.

iii. Megaloblastic Anaemia or Folic Acid deficiency Anaemia.
i. Hypochromic Anaemia:
This is also known as iron deficiency anaemia. Iron deficiency
follows a specific sequence. First the iron reserves drop to lower
levels. At the last stage, there is no iron reserves and plasma iron
continue to fall and the cells are pale and reduced in size.
The term nutritional anaemia is sometime applied to iron deficiency

anaemia. Iron deficiency anemias are widely prevalent throughout
the world. Generally, the incidence is high in infants and pregnant
woman of low economic status and higher in black than in white
individuals. In better economic circumstances the incidence is
lower.
The following factors are responsible for iron deficiency

anaemia:
1. Blood loss due to accidental, hemorrhage, chronic disease like
tuberculosis, ulcers, intestinal disorders, excessive menstrual losses,
excessive blood donation, parasites such as hook worm etc.
2. Deficiency of iron in the diet during the period of infancy,

adolescent girls, pregnancy, lactation etc.
3. Inadequate absorption of iron during diarrhea pellagra.
4. Nutritional deficiencies like protein Calory Malnutrition.

The main symptoms are skin pallor, weakness, easy fatigability,

headache, dizziness, sensitivity to cold, loss of appetite, the heart
rate increases, palpitation occurs and there is shortness of breath.
Anaemia can be prevented by consumption of foodstuff like green

leafy vegetables, bread and cereals, daily administration of iron salts
etc. Ascorbic acid rich juices improve the absorption of iron. Dry
milk, egg yolk and other animal foods are essential.
ii. Pernicious Anaemia:

It is caused by a lack of intrinsic factor in the gastric juice and
therefore Vitamin B12 cannot be absorbed. With the absence of
Vitamin B12 the synthesis and maturation of R.B.C. are arrested.
This anaemia occurs chiefly in middle aged to elderly persons and
may be a genetic defect.
National Institute of Nutrition (NIN) Hyderabad showed that
vitamin B12 deficiency, anaemia can be seen even in breast fed
babies, because of the poor vitamin B12 content of mothers milk.
The vitamin content of breast milk can be improved by
supplementation of the mothers diet with vitamins.
Symptoms:
Patients have a pale yellow colour body anorexia, glossitis,
abdominal discomfort, frequent diarrhoea, weightloss, and general
weakness. There is also neurological change like coldness of the
extremities and difficulty in walking.
Vitamin B12 deficiency can be corrected only through intake of foods

of animal origin such as milk, fleshy foods, eggs etc. The Vitamin
becomes ineffective when given orally, because of the absence of
intrinsic factor. The diet must be corrected for adequate calories
and for protein. A soft or even liquid diet is preferable. High
protein, high calorie beverages two or three times daily should be
given.
iii. Megaloblastic Anaemia:
A deficiency of folic acid leads to arrest of the synthesis and
maturation of the red blood cells thus leading to megaloblastic
anaemia. A high incidence of folic acid deficiency has been noted in
elderly patients co-related with a poor intake of milk, fresh fruits
and vegetables. This type of anaemia in babies is more frequent in

those born to mothers who also have a folic acid deficiency.
Anaemia is present in infants who have scurvy because lack of

ascorbic acid reduces conversion of folic acid to its active form.
Women who have used oral contraceptives for a long time may have
this type of anaemia.
Consumption of adequate amount of green leafy vegetables and

pulses which are rich in folic acid corrects folic acid deficiency.
Among the nutritional disorders affecting women in child bearing
age, anaemia is one of the most important disease. The cause for
this in most cases is iron deficiency. Pregnancy aggravates anaemia
in women and anaemia in turn may affect the course of pregnancy.
It has been observed that directly or indirectly, anaemia is a major
cause of much of the maternal mortality in the country.
2. Leucocytes:
Leucocytes are transparent, colourless and irregular is shape.
Nucleus is present in white blood cells. The cells are larger in size
and fewer in number than erythrocytes. The size of W.B.C. varies
from 8 to 15 microns. Each cubic millimeter of blood contains 6000
-10000 of white cells with an average of 8000. The ratio of WBC
and R.B.C. is 1:500 or 600 i.e. for one W.B.C., there are 500 or 600
RBC.
White Blood cells are constantly changing their shape and thus
resemble a minute microscopic animal amoeba found in pond
water. By means of these movements they are capable of moving
from one place to another and even if come out through the thin
walls of the smallest blood vessels. They are able to take up the
foreign particle, disease germs etc. and protect the body.
Types of Leucocytes:
The leucocytes are broadly classified into two categories:
A. Granulocytes or granular leucocytes.
B. Agranulocytes or Agranuller leucocytes.

A. Granulocytes:
These are also known as polymer pronuclear Leucocytes. All types
of granulocytes are formed and stored in the bone marrow until
they are required in the circulatory system. The cytoplasm of these
cells contains specific granules and the nucleus is divided into many
lobes. They form almost 70% of the total white cell count.
These granulocytes are classified into three according to

the stain:
(i) Neutrophil Cells:
The cyloplasm of neutrophil cells are packed with granules. They
have affinity towards neutral dyes. It is a mixture of both acid and
alkaline stain. So it appears purple. The nucleus of this cell has 3 -5
lobes. The amount of these cells is 66% which are phagocytic in
action.
(ii) Eosinophil Cells:

These cells are up to 3%. The granules of these cells stain red with
acidic dyes. The nucleus is bilobed. In allergic conditions the
number of Eosinophil cells increases considerably which is a disease
condition known as Eosinophilia.
(iii) Basophils:
These cells take the basic dyes and stain blue. The number of these
cells is 1% in the blood. The nucleus is lobed and S shaped in these
cells. These Basophils have amoeboid movement. These cells

contain histamine, heparin and serotonin.
B. Agranulocytes or Agranular Leucocytes:

These cells are a clear cytoplasm with a single large nucleus. So it is
called Mononuclear leucocytes.
These cells are of two types:

(i) Monocytes:
About 5% of these cells are present in the blood. These are the
largest cells of the body. The nucleus is like kidney shaped or
horseshoe shape. They are also formed in the bone marrow. These
cells have amoeboid movement and are phagocytic in action. They
can live for months and even year unless destroyed by performing
phagocytic function.
(ii) Lymphocytes:
They form about 25% of the total white cells count. They are smaller
than monocytes but larger than R.B.C. They have a large nucleus.
These cells are developed in the lymph glands, the spleen, liver,
lymphatic tissues and bone marrow. They have no power of
amoeboid movement. They do not ingest bacteria but make valuable
antibodies to protect the body against chronic infection and
maintaining the immunity power.
Functions of Leucocytes:
i. Phagocytosis:
The granulocytes and monocytes play an important role in
protecting the body from microorganisms. They ingest foreign
particles and living bacteria from the blood. This action of W.B.C. is
called phagocytic action (Phago -I eat) or phagocytosis. By their
power of amoeboid movement they can move freely in the blood
vessels take in living organisms and destroy them.
ii. Antibody Formation:

Lymphocytes play an important role in the defensive mechanism of
the body. They make valuable antibodies in the blood for protecting
the body.
iii. Formation of Fibroblasts:

W.B.C. can surround any area which is infected or injured.
Lymphocytes are converted into fibroblasts in the area of
inflammation and helps in the process of repair.
iv. Removal of Foreign Articles:

W.B.C. removes the foreign particles like bits of dirt, splinters of
wood etc.
v. Manufacture of Trephones:
Leucocytes manufacture a substance called trephone from plasma
protein which have great influence on the nutrition, growth and
repair of tissues.
vi. Secretion of Heparin:

The basophil leucocytes secrete heparin which prevents the

clotting of blood inside the blood vessels.
vii. Promoting Healing process:

The granulocytes posses a protein splitting ferment which enables
them to act on living tissue, break it down and remove it. In this
way diseased or injured tissue can be removed and healing process
becomes quicker.
3. Thrombocytes or Blood Platelets:

Blood platelets are small, round or oval and biconvex discs like cells.
The size of these cells is about one third the size of a Red blood cell.
Platelets have no nucleus. There are 300,000 of these platelets in
each cubic millimeter of blood. The average life span of platelets is
about 5-9 days. They are produced in the bone marrow and
destroyed in the spleen. They have the properties like easy clumping
and easy disintegration.
Functions:
i. Blood Clotting:
Clotting or coagulation of blood is the main function of Blood
platelets. At the time of bleeding the platelets disintegrate and
liberate thromboplastin which converts prothrombin into thrombin.
When thrombin is combined with fibrinogen, fibrin results and
there is clotting of blood.
ii. Repair Capillary Endothelium:

When blood platelets are coming in contact with the damaged
endothelial lining of the capillaries, they bring about rapid repair.
iii. Protection against Certain Diseases:

They contain some substances which are like ABO blood antigens.
They increase the immunity power by the production of antibodies.
Blood platelet prevents the disease purpura in which hemorrhage
occurs beneath the skin and mucous membrane.
Essay # 4. Coagulation of Blood in Humans:

At the time of injury, there is shedding of blood from the blood
vessels. It quickly becomes sticky. By losing its fluidity, it turns into
a red jelly like substance. This process is called coagulation or
clotting of blood. After few minutes, this jelly or clot contracts and a
straw coloured fluid called serum.
The formation of a blood clot is called coagulation of blood. It is a

complicated process. If shed blood is microscopically examined,
very fine threads will be seen. These insoluble fibrin threads are
formed form the fibrinogen in the blood plasma by the action of the
ferment thrombin.
These threads entangle the blood cells and form the clot together
with them. Thrombin is not present in normal unshed blood but its
precursor pro-thrombin is present and is converted into the active
ferment thrombin by the action of thrombokinase.
Thrombokinase of thromboplastin is an activating agent liberated

on injury to the blood cells. Calcium salts are present in the blood
which help in the conversion of prothrombin into thrombin.
Prothrombin is made in the liver. Vitamin K is necessary for its
production. The active thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin. The
fibrin threads surround the platelets, blood cells and plasma to form
a clot. This clot covers the injured part of blood vessels. So that
further loss of blood is prevented.
The following factors are necessary for clotting of blood:

1. Calcium salts normally present in blood.
2. Thrombin formed from pro-thrombin in the presence of

thrombokinase.
3. Cell injury which liberates thrombokinase.
4. Fibrin formed from fibrinogen in the presence of thrombin.

Blood does not clot under normal condition inside blood vessels.
When there is a rupture in a blood vessel the blood comes in contact
with the damaged epithelial tissues and collagen fibers. The
procoagulants become active and then the blood clot develops.
Formula of Blood Clotting:

Pro-thrombin + Calcium + Thrombokinase = Thrombin
Thrombin + Fibrinogen = Fibrin
Fibrin + Blood cells = Blood clot
Factors Hastening Coagulation of Blood:

The following factors are responsible for the quickening of
the process of coagulation of blood:
1. Heat, a little higher than the body temperature.
2. Contact with rough surface, such as rough edge of a damaged

blood vessel or a surgical dressing.
3. Addition of foreign bodies into a sample of blood.
4. Addition of thrombin.
5. Addition of thromboplastin.
6. Vitamin K injection or oral administration increases the pro-

thrombin content of blood.
7. Addition of calcium chloride.
8. Adrenaline injection produces contraction of blood vessels and

helps in blood clotting.
Factors Preventing Coagulation:

The following factors are responsible for the retardation
of coagulation of blood:
1. By lowering temperature, coagulation can be prevented.
2. By avoiding contact with rough surface which prevents

thrombokinase action.
3. Contact with oil, grease or paraffin wax, ointment and greasy

materials prevent coagulation.
4. By the addition of potassium citrate or sodium citrate, which

remove the calcium salts normally present.
5. Precipitation of fibrinogen.
Symbols and Name of Blood clotting Factors:

Essay # 5. Functions of Blood in Humans:

1. Transport of Gases:
Blood carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon
dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.
2. Transport of Nutrients:
It carries nutrients to the different tissues and cells which are
required for the nourishment of the body, so that the normal
functions are performed.
3. Transport of Soluble Organic Compounds:

It transports the soluble organic compounds like glucose, amino
acids, fatty acids, glycerol etc. from small intestine to various parts
of the body for their assimilation and utilization.
4. Carriers of Internal Secretions:

The internal secretions, hormones and enzymes are conveyed from
one place to another inside the body through blood.
5. Transport of Other Essential Substances:

It acts as the vehicle through which vitamins, essential chemicals
metabolic byproduct are brought to their places of activity.
6. Drainage of Waste Products:

Blood carries the soluble excretory materials like carbon dioxide,
urea, uric acid, and other waste products to the excretory organs as
lungs, kidneys, skin etc.
7. Regulation of Body Temperature:

Blood regulates the body temperature by evaporation from the skin
and by contraction and dilation of skin. It distributes heat from
deeply seated organs to all parts of the body. The water content of
the blood, possess high specific heat. So it can absorb a large
amount of heat and there by prevent sudden change of body
temperature.
8. Maintenance of Water Balance and Ion Balance:

Blood maintains water balance of the body and ion balance between
the cells and the surrounding fluids.
9. Maintenance of Acid-Base Equilibrium:

Blood helps in the maintenance of Acid base equilibrium with the
help of kidney, skin and lungs. The inorganic salts maintain a
constant blood osmotic pressure and constant PH.
10. Defensive Action:

Blood acts as the defense system of the body. The white blood cells
provide many protective substances and are called as soldiers of the
body. By their amoeboid movement and phagocytic action, they
engulf the bacterias entering into the blood and protect the body
against the disease germs. It also develops the antibodies for
defensive action. The lymphocytes and antibodies provide immunity
to the body.
11. Coagulation of Blood:

The blood protein pro-thrombin and fibrinogen help in clotting or
coagulation of blood by maintaining hemostasis. By this property it
guards against hemorrhage.
12. Distribution of Protein:

The blood plasma distributes proteins needed for tissue formation.
It also acts as the store house of proteins for the tissues.
Essay # 6. Blood Groups in Humans:

Blood transfusion is necessary when there is a loss of blood. In
some cases blood plasma cannot accept this outside blood where the
agglutination is formed in the plasma. The cause of this
agglutination means if blood of an incompatible group is
transfused, it cause clumping and hemolysis (breakdown) of R.B.C.
which prevents normal flow of blood in the blood vessels resulting
in death of the person.
The clumping of RBC inside the blood vessels after blood

transfusion is called transfusion reaction. The cause of this reaction
was discovered by Landsteiner in the year 1900. Blood grouping

and tests of incompatibility are carried out in order to ensure safety
before blood transfusion.
Landsteiner observed two types of antigens on the surface of the red

blood cells. He named them as A-antigen and B-antigen. A person
may possess A-antigen or B-antigen. Some people may have both A
and B antigen. On the basis of this, human beings may be classified
into four Blood Groups. These are also called as ABO Group.
1. A Blood Group:
A antigen on the surface of RBC and B antibody in plasma. Group
A is subdivided into A1 and A2.
2. B Blood Group:
B antigens on the surface of RBC and A antibody in plasma.
3. AB Blood Group:
Both A and B antigen on the surface of RBC and no antibodies in
plasma. Group AB is subdivided into A1B and A2B.
4. O Blood Group:
Both A and B antigens are absent on the surface of RBC but both A
and B antibodies are present in plasma. Besides these groups thirty
different types of blood groups have been reported to be present in
man now-a-days. But this ABO group and RH group of antigens are
responsible for the transfusion reaction in the body.
Donors of Blood:
Group AB may give blood to AB
Group A to A and AB
Group B to B and AB
Group O is a universal donor for all Groups.
Recipients of Blood:
Group AB is a universal Recipient
Group A may receive blood from Group A and O.
Group B may receive blood from Group B and O.
Group O may receive blood from Group O.
The terms universal donors and universal recipients are not always
applicable, as Rh blood group also plays an important role in
transfusion reaction. So it is safe to transfuse blood of the same
group. Group A and B can give blood to their own groups and also
to AB group and can take blood from their own group and from the
Group O. Other combinations are not compatible. Before blood
transfusion, it is necessary to take precautions of testing the serum
of the recipient against the RBC of the donor to confirm that the
mixture is compatible.
Rh Factor:
In the year 1940 Landsteiner and Weiner discovered a type of
antigen on the surface of RBC of Rhesus monkey. They discovered
the same antigen on the red cells of 85% of human being. They
named this antigen as Rhesus factor or Rh factor. This can be
divided into two groups. Persons with Rh factor are known as Rh-
positive (85%) and without this factor are called Rh-negative (15%).
There are six types of Rh antigens such as C, D, E and c, d, e. The

type D antigen is present in most of the human population. So
person with D antigen is said to be Rh positive. Those people who
do not have type D antigen are called to be Rh negative. When a
Rh-negative person is given Rh-positive blood, there is no

immediate transfusion reaction, because the Rh-negative person
have no Rh antibodies in his plasma to cause agglutination of RBC.
But gradually after two to four months he develops Rh antibodies in
his blood and the subsequent transfusion of Rh positive blood to the
same Rh negative person causes severe transfusion reaction.
Rh factor plays an important role in prenetal development. If the

parents are Rh positive, their offspring will be Rh positive. If there
is difference between the blood types of the foetus and its mother
they may be biochemically incompatible. For e.g. the childs RBC
may contain a substance which makes his blood agglutinate or
clump in response to a specially prepared serum, while his mothers
blood may lack this substance.
In this case the child is Rh positive and his mother Rh negative. Rh

negative mother with Rh positive father may have a Rh positive
child. The Rh positive foetus produces certain substances called
antigen which enter into the mothers circulation through the
placentae barrier. The mother develops anti Rh-antibodies which
are passed back into the foetus circulatory system.
They may do a great deal of damage by destroying the RBC and

preventing them from distributing oxygen normally. There may be
miscarriages, still birth or death shortly after birth. Sometimes the
baby may be partially paralyzed or mentally retarded as a result of
brain damage from inadequate oxygen supply during the prenetal
developmental period.
This disease of the foetus and the new born infants is known
as Erythroblastosis Fetalis. These disastrous consequences do
not occur in every case of mother child Rh incompatibility. First
born children are not usually affected because it takes certain time
for the mother to develop anti Rh-antibodies but in subsequent
pregnancies these Rh-antibodies may cause transfusion reaction
like abortion and death also. It is observed that Erythroblastosis
occurs only in about one out of every 200 pregnancies. The
incompatibility between the blood of mother and the child is caused
by the irritancy of the Rh factor.
Blood has three main functions in the human body. These are: Transport of substances (like
respiratory gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide; digested food or nutrients; waste products;
hormones; enzymes and ions) from one part of the body to the other, Protection against disease,
and Regulation of body temperature. We can now say that: The important functions of blood in
our body are as follows:
1. Blood carries oxygen from the lungs to different parts of the body.
2. Blood carries carbon dioxide from the body cells to the lungs for breathing out.
3. Blood carries digested food from the small intestine to all the parts of the body.
4. Blood carries hormones from the endocrine glands to different organs of the body (where they
are needed).
5. Blood carries a waste product called urea from the liver to the kidneys for excretion in urine.
6. Blood protects the body from diseases. This is because white blood cells kill the bacteria and
other germs which cause diseases.
7. Blood regulates the body temperature. This is because the blood capillaries in our skin help to
keep our body temperature constant at about 37C.
Transport in Humans :
The main transport system in human beings (or man) is the 'blood circulatory system' (which is
sometimes called just 'circulatory system' for the sake of convenience). In the human circulatory
system, blood carries oxygen, digested food and other chemicals like hormones and enzymes to
all the parts of the body.
It also takes away the waste products (or excretory products) like carbon dioxide and urea
produced in the body cells. The human blood circulatory system consists of the heart (the organ
which pumps and receives the blood) and the blood vessels (or tubes) through which the blood
flows in the body. In blood circulatory system, the blood flows through three types of blood
vessels:
(i) arteries,
(ii) veins, and
(iii) capillaries.
The blood vessels of the circulatory system are present in each and every part of the human body
due to which the blood reaches all the parts of the body.
In addition to the blood circulatory system for the transport in human beings, there is another
system called lymphatic system which also helps in the transport of materials in the human body.
The liquid which circulates and carries materials in the lymphatic system is called lymph. Thus,
in human beings, the various substances are transported through two liquids called 'blood' and
'lymph'. We will first describe the blood circulatory system which is the main transport system in
humans.
Blood is a fluid substance that circulates in the arteries and veins of the body. Blood is bright
red or scarlet when it has been oxygenated in the lungs and passes into the arteries; it
becomes bluish red when it has given up its oxygen to nourish the tissues of the body and is
returning to the lungs through the veins and the tiny vessels called capillaries. In the lungs,
the blood gives up the carbon dioxide wastes it has taken from the tissues, receives a new
supply of oxygen, and begins a new cycle. This movement of blood is brought about by the
coordinate activity of the heart, lungs, and blood vessels.
Blood performs many functions essential to life and often can reveal much about our
state of health. Blood is a connective tissue that consists of cells and cell fragments
surrounded by a liquid matrix. Cells of the blood are formed elements. Plasma is the
liquid substance in the blood. Plasma accounts for slightly one-half of the total blood
volume. The average adult female has a blood volume of four to five liters. The
average male has five to six liters. Blood makes up about eight percent of the total
body weight.
We can write a custom term paper on Blood for you!
Blood is important in the maintenance of homeostasis. It transports oxygen, nutrients,

enzymes, and hormones to tissues, and transports carbon dioxide and waste products
away from tissues. It maintains body temperature by transporting heat between deep
tissues and the body's surface. It also protects the body from disease causing
microorganisms, foreign substances, and tumors.
Plasma is the pale yellow fluid that consist of about ninety-two percent water and
eight percent substances such as protein, ion nutrients, gases, and waste products.
Plasma accounts for slightly one-half of the blood's volume. Proteins in the plasma are
albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen. Albumin makes up about sixty percent of the
plasma proteins. Globulin is part of the immune system and function to transport
molecules. Fibrinogen makes up four percent of the plasma and is responsible for
blood clotting.
Erythrocytes are disk-shaped cells with edges that are thicker than the center of the
cell. During development, they lose all their nuclei and most of their organelles; so
they are unable to divide. They live for about one hundred and twenty days in males
and one hundred and ten days in females. The main component of an erythrocyte is
the pigmented protein hemoglobin. Hemoglobin accounts for one-third of the cell's
volume and is responsible for its red color. Erythrocytes function to transport oxygen
from the lungs to...
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Introduction
Anticoagulants are medicines that help
prevent blood clots. They're given to people
at a high risk of getting clots, to reduce their
chances of developing serious conditions
such as strokes and heart attacks.
A blood clot is a seal created by the blood to stop
bleeding from wounds. While they're useful in
stopping bleeding, they can block blood vessels
and stop blood flowing to organs such as the
brain, heart or lungs if they form in the wrong
place.
Anticoagulants work by interrupting the process
involved in the formation of blood clots. They're
sometimes called "blood-thinning" medicines,

although they don't actually make the blood
thinner.
Although they're used for similar purposes,
anticoagulants are different to antiplatelet
medicines, such as low-dose
aspirin and clopidogrel.
Types of anticoagulants
The most commonly
prescribed anticoagulant is warfarin.
Newer types of anticoagulants are also available
and are becoming increasingly common. These
include:
rivaroxaban (Xarelto)
dabigatran (Pradaxa)
apixaban (Eliquis)
edoxaban (Lixiana)
Warfarin and the newer alternatives are taken as
tablets or capsules. There's also an anticoagulant
called heparin that can be given by injection.
When anticoagulants are used

If a blood clot blocks the flow of blood through a
blood vessel, the affected part of the body will
become starved of oxygen and will stop working
properly.
Depending on where the clot forms, this can lead
to serious problems such as:
strokes or transient ischaemic attacks ("mini-strokes")

heart attacks
deep vein thrombosis (DVT)
pulmonary embolism
Treatment with anticoagulants may be
recommended if your doctor feels you're at an
increased risk of developing one of these
problems. This may be because you've had blood
clots in the past or you've been diagnosed with a
condition such as atrial fibrillation that can cause
blood clots to form.
You may also be prescribed an anticoagulant if
you've recently had surgery, as the period of rest
and inactivity you need during your recovery can
increase your risk of developing a blood clot.
Read more about when anticoagulants are used.
How to take anticoagulants

Your doctor or nurse should tell you how much of
your anticoagulant medicine to take and when to
take it.
Most people need to take their tablets or
capsules once or twice a day with water or food.
The length of time you need to keep taking your
medicine for depends on why it's been
prescribed. In many cases, treatment will be
lifelong.
If you're unsure how to take your medicine, or are
worried that you missed a dose or have taken too
much, check the patient information leaflet that
comes with it or ask your GP, anticoagulant clinic

or pharmacist what to do. You can also call NHS
111 for advice.
Read more about anticoagulant doses.
Things to consider when taking

anticoagulants
There are several things you need to be aware of
when taking anticoagulant medicines.
If you're going to have surgery or a test such as
an endoscopy, make sure your doctor or surgeon
is aware that you're taking anticoagulants, as you
may have to stop taking them for a short time.
Speak to your GP, anticoagulant clinic or
pharmacist before taking any other medications,
including prescription and over-the-counter
medicines, as some medications can affect how
your anticoagulant works.
If you're taking warfarin, you'll also need to avoid
making significant changes to what you normally
eat and drink, as this can affect your medication.
Most anticoagulant medicines aren't suitable
for pregnant women. Speak to your GP or
anticoagulant clinic if you become pregnant or
are planning to try for a baby while taking
anticoagulants.
Read more about things to consider when taking
anticoagulants.
Side effects of anticoagulants

Like all medicines, there's a risk of experiencing
side effects while taking anticoagulants.
The main side effect is that you can bleed too
easily, which can cause problems such as:
passing blood in your urine
passing blood when you poo or having black poo
severe bruising
prolonged nosebleeds
bleeding gums
vomiting blood or coughing up blood
heavy periods in women
For most people, the benefits of taking
anticoagulants will outweigh the risk of excessive
bleeding.
plant from the green vastness that makes up their.

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Essay B, Student 6, Expert Marker

Describe the Mechanisms Regulating Blood Flow to the

Vertebrates have a closed circulatory system. This has several advantages

The Importance of Donating Blood

The birth of Chase changed our lives forever.

We need show more content

The most common type of donating is whole

about confused with someone else, or

Essay # 1. Blood and Its Composition in Humans:

Essay # 2. Blood Plasma in Humans:

(b) Inorganic constituents 0-9%:

(c) Organic constituents like protein nitrogenous

(e) Carbohydrates, Glucose etc.

(g) Colouring matter:

(h) Heparin is present in plasma which is an anticoagulant released

In normal individuals the total amount of plasma protein varies

The followings are the plasma protein:

(1) It is responsible for the osmotic pressure which maintains the

4. It provides protein to the tissues.

Functions of Blood plasma:

2. It is the medium for removal of waste materials like urea, uric-

3. It maintains the PH of blood. (Hydrogen ion concentration)

4. It maintains the acid base balance in the body.

5. Plasma helps in maintaining the immunity power of the body.

6. It takes active part in the clotting of blood.

Essay # 3. Blood Cells in Humans:

These cells are:

(2) Leukocytes or White Blood Cells

(3) Thrombocytes or Blood Platelets.

The number of R.B.C. varies in human body according to

The Red Blood cells originate in bone marrow. In process of

2. The Red cells maintain acid-base balance. It is carried out by the

3. It maintains ion-balance in the blood.

4. Red cells help to maintain the viscosity of blood.

5. Various pigments like bilirubin and biliverdin are produced after

marrow. The content of haemoglobin present in normal blood is 15

In females, the amount of haemoglobin is slightly lower than in

2. It plays an important part in carbon dioxide removal.

3. It constitutes one of the important buffers of blood and helps to

2. Increased destruction of R.B.C. is another cause. In the disease

3. Failure of function of bone marrow is due to enormous exposure

disease etc. This is an important cause of reduction of R.B.C and

4. Anaemia is caused due to the defective for motion of RBC.

ii. Pernicious Anaemia or Vitamin B12 deficiency Anaemia.

The term nutritional anaemia is sometime applied to iron deficiency

The following factors are responsible for iron deficiency

2. Deficiency of iron in the diet during the period of infancy,

3. Inadequate absorption of iron during diarrhea pellagra.

4. Nutritional deficiencies like protein Calory Malnutrition.

The main symptoms are skin pallor, weakness, easy fatigability,

Anaemia can be prevented by consumption of foodstuff like green

ii. Pernicious Anaemia:

Vitamin B12 deficiency can be corrected only through intake of foods

and vegetables. This type of anaemia in babies is more frequent in

Anaemia is present in infants who have scurvy because lack of

Consumption of adequate amount of green leafy vegetables and

B. Agranulocytes or Agranuller leucocytes.

These granulocytes are classified into three according to

(ii) Eosinophil Cells:

cells. These Basophils have amoeboid movement. These cells

B. Agranulocytes or Agranular Leucocytes:

These cells are of two types:

ii. Antibody Formation:

iii. Formation of Fibroblasts: