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3
Exercises ............................................................................... 41
2.7. One sided limits .............................................................. 42
2.8. Existence of limits .......................................................... 44
2.9. Continuity ....................................................................... 45
Exercises .............................................................................. .46
2.10. The limit of trigonometric functions. The first
remarkable limit ............................................................. 49
Exercises ............................................................................... 51
2.11. The number e. Second remarkable limit......................... 52
Exercises ............................................................................... 55
Chapter 3. Derivatives
3.1. Definition of derivatives.................................................. 56
3.2. Geometric interpretation of derivatives ............................ 56
3.3. Derivative notation.......................................................... 58
3.4. Existence of derivatives .................................................. 59
Exercises ............................................................................... 60
3.5. Techniques of differentiation........................................... 62
3.6. Higher order derivatives .................................................. 66
Exercises ............................................................................... 67
3.7. The derivatives of the trigonometric functions ................. 69
Exercises ............................................................................... 72
3.8. The derivative of composite function. The
Chain rule ...................................................................... 74
Exercises ............................................................................... 79
3.9. Implicit differentiation .................................................... 81
Exercises ............................................................................... 86
3.10. The linearization ........................................................... 88
3.11. The differential ............................................................. 89
3.12. Using the differential..................................................... 91
Exercises ............................................................................... 94
Chapter 4. Applications of derivatives
4.1. Relative maxima and minima. The first and second
derivative tests ................................................................ 96
Exercises ............................................................................. 100
4.2. Maximum and minimum values of a function on a
closed interval ..................................................................... 102
4.3. Concavity ..................................................................... 104
4
4.4. Inflection points ............................................................ 105
Exercises ............................................................................. 106
4.5. Asymptotes ................................................................... 107
Exercises ............................................................................. 109
4.6. The derivative and sketching the graph.......................... 110
Exercises ............................................................................. 113
4.7. Rolles theorem; Mean-value theorem ........................... 114
Exercises ............................................................................. 116
4.8. Indeterminate forms and LHopitals rule ...................... 117
Exercises ............................................................................. 121
Chapter 5. Integration
5.1. Antiderivatives. The indefinite integral. Properties and
some integration formulas ............................................ 123
Exercises ............................................................................. 127
5.2. Integration by substitution ............................................. 128
Exercises ............................................................................. 130
5.3. Sigma notation .............................................................. 132
Exercises ............................................................................. 133
5. 4. The definite integral and its properties .......................... 135
Exercises ............................................................................. 139
5. 5. The first fundamental theorem of Calculus ................... 141
Exercises ............................................................................. 143
5. 6. The second fundamental theorem of Calculus ............... 144
Exercises ............................................................................. 147
5. 7. Substitution in a definite integral .................................. 148
Exercises ............................................................................. 151
Chapter 6.Logarithmic and exponential functions
6.1. Logarithms (an overview) ............................................. 153
Exercises ............................................................................. 154
6.2. The derivatives y ln x and y log a x ....................... 156
Exercises ............................................................................. 160
6.3. Logarithmic differentiation ........................................... 161
Exercises ............................................................................. 163
6.4. Integrals involving ln x and log a x .............................. 164
Exercises ............................................................................. 166
6.5. Exponents (an overview) ............................................... 167
5
6.6. Derivatives of the functions a x and e x ......................... 168
Exercises ............................................................................. 169
6.7. Integrals of the functions a x and e x ............................. 171
Exercises ............................................................................. 173
6.8. Limits involving functions a x , e x and ln x .LHopitals
rule and the forms 1 , 0 0 and 0 ............................... 175
Exercises ............................................................................. 180
6.9. The hyperbolic functions ............................................... 181
Exercises ............................................................................. 185
Chapter 7. Inverse trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
7.1. Inverse trigonometric functions ..................................... 187
Exercises ............................................................................. 191
7.2. The inverse hyperbolic functions ................................... 193
Exercises ............................................................................. 194
Chapter 8.Techniques of integration.
8.1. Basic integration formulas ............................................. 195
8.2. The substitution method ................................................ 197
Exercises ............................................................................. 200
8.3. Integration by parts ....................................................... 202
Exercises ............................................................................. 205
8.4. Trigonometric integrals ................................................. 207
8.4.1. Integrating powers of sine and cosine functions .......... 207
Exercises ............................................................................. 210
8.4.2. Trigonometric substitutions ........................................ 212
Exercises ............................................................................. 214
8.5. Integrals involving ax 2 bx c, a 0 ....................... 215
Exercises ............................................................................. 219
8.6.1. Integration of rational functions by partial fractions .... 221
8.6.2. Integrating improper rational functions ....................... 227
Exercises ............................................................................. 228
8.7. Special techniques of integration ................................... 230
Exercises ............................................................................. 234
Chapter 9. Improper integrals
9.1. Definition of improper integrals .................................... 236
9.2. Tests for convergence and divergence ........................... 241
Exercises ............................................................................. 243
6
To the students
There are a few lucky students who seem to learn even the
hardest math almost effortlessly. The rest of us can only envy them and
try to pick their brains. You are like the majority of us who cannot learn
math without working hard at it. Do not fool yourself into thinking that
you can get by without working at it. You will only get yourself into
more trouble than you climb out of by mid-semester.
7
work when its not so densely packed onto the page. Paper is cheap. Do
not be afraid to use lots of it.
Tip 4: Your greatest assets are in the class with you. Your
classmates are in the same boat as you. Organize a study group. Try to
coax at least one of the top students in the class into your group. I
recommend that the group size be three to five. Try to meet at least
once per week. You will be working together on homework and
comparing your lecture notes.
Tip5: You will be tested as an individual. Despite the
helpfulness of your group activities, in the end your grade will be based
upon your individual performance at solving problems. Following your
group get-togethers, be sure to go solo on a few exercises.
Tip 6: Try to see more than just procedures. Again I urge you,
learn the concepts, and the procedures will seem obvious. And try to
have some fun with it. Humanity invented math largely because it is
fascinating.
As for this book, it was written with the aim to help students to
understand how to solve problems. The chapters are divided into
sections. Each section contains necessary theoretical background and
solved problems. This book also contains a lot of exercises, which
would be useful to strength your understanding of sections. Answers
are right after exercises.
In the end, any suggestions from readers would be greatly
appreciated.
8
Chapter 1
Coordinates, lines, functions, graphs
9
1.2. Increments
Increments are net changes. When a particle moves from
(x1, y1) to (x2, y2) the increments in its coordinates are x x2 x1
and y y 2 y1 (Fig.1.3.).
Example:
From A(2,5) to B(7,2) the increments are x 7 2 5
and y 2 5 3 .
Example:
A particle starts at A(-5,6) and its coordinates change by increments
x 7 and y 4 . Find its new position.
Solution:
From x x2 x1 and y y 2 y1 using x1 5 and y1=6 we get
x2 (5) 7 and
y2 6 4 . So particles new position is x2 2 and y 2 2 .
Example:
Find the slope of the line through the points (6,2) and (9,8).
10
Solution:
82 6
m 2
96 3
m is sometimes called the rate of change of y with respect to x along the
line.
1.4. Lines that are parallel or perpendicular
11
(1) y y1 m( x x1 )
This is called the point- slope equation for the line.
Example:
Find the point slope equation of the line through (4,-3) with slope 5.
Solution:
Substituting the values x1 4 , y1 3 and m=5 in (1) yields
the point- slope equation:
y 3 5( x 4) or y=5x-23.
Example:
Write an equation for the line that passes through (-2, 1) and (2, 2).
Solution:
First of all we calculate the slope and then use equation (1).
m= (2-1)/ (2-(-2)) =1/4
The (x1, y1) in equation (1) can be either (-2, 1) or (2, 2).
Let (x1, y1) be (-2, 1).
Then
1
y 1 ( x (2))
4
x 3
y
4 2
Check for yourself that with ( x1 , y1 ) (2,2) the equation is the same.
12
b) From the given conditions m 1 and the line passes through
(0,0) , so b=0.
Thus, it follows from (2) that y=x.
c) The given line y 3x 4 has a slope m=3, so the line to be
determined will have slope (1)/3. Substituting this slope and given
point in the point slope form (2):
1
y 1 ( x 5)
3
and simplifying yields
x 2
y .
3 3
Example:
Find equations for the lines through P (-2, 2) that are
a) parallel and
b) perpendicular to the line 2x+y=4.
Solution:
a) We shall first write equation 2 x y 4 in the form
y 2 x 4 .
This line has slope m 2 . Parallel line will have same slope. So using
m 2 and P(2,2) from point-slope form we will have
y 2 2( x 2) or y 2 x 2 .
b) Two lines are perpendicular if m1 m2 1 . So if m1 2
then m2=1/2. Again using point-slope form we will get
1 x
y 2 ( x 2) or y 3 .
2 2
Exercises
13
4. The coordinates of a particular change by x=3, y=-5 as it moves
from A (x, y) to B (-6, 4). Find x and y.
5. Find the slope of the line through
a) (-1, 2) and (3, 4)
b) (5, 3) and (7, 1)
c) (4, 2 ) and (-3, 2 )
d) (-2,-6) and (-2, 12)
6. Let points A (8, 1), B (2, 10), C (-4, 6), D (2, -3) be given. Determine
whether the line through AB is perpendicular or parallel to the line
through CD.
In exercises 7-8 find an equation for a) the vertical line and
b) the horizontal line through the given point.
7. (-2, 3/2) 8. (-3, 5)
In exercises 9-10, write an equation for the line through P
with slope m.
9. P (-2, 3), m=2 10. P (, 0), m=-3
In exercises 11-12, write an equation for the line through the
two points.
11. (2, 4), (1, -7) 12. (-3, 6), (-2, 1)
In exercises 13-14 write an equation for the line with slope m
and y-intercept b.
13. m=-2/3, b= 3
14. m=2, b=3.5
15. Find equations for the lines through P (1, 2) that are a) parallel and
b) perpendicular to the line x+2y=3.
16. Find equation for the line which is parallel to y=4x-2 and its
y-intercept is 7.
17. Find equation for the line which is perpendicular to y=5x+9 and has
y-intercept 6.
18. For what value of k the line 3x k y 4 will
a) have slope 2
b) have y-intercept 5
c) pass through the point (2,4)
d) be parallel to the line 2x-5y=1
e) be perpendicular to the line 4x+3y=2?
14
Answers
1. x=8, y= -5; 2. x=- 6 , y=-4; 3. (3, -3); 4. (-9, 9); 5. a) 1/2; b)-1;
c) 0; d) not defined; 7. a) x=-2 b) y=3/2; 8. a) x=-3; b) y 5 ;
9. y 2 x 7 ; 10. y=-3x+3; 11. y=11x-18; 12. y=-5x-9;
13. y=-2x/3+ 3 ; 14. y=2x+3.5; 15. a) y=-x/2+5/2; b) y=2x;
16. y=4x+7; 17. y=-x/5+6; 18. a)-3/2; b) 4/5; c) 5/2; d) 15/2; e) 4.
15
1.8. Properties of absolute value
If a and b are real numbers, then
1. -a=a
2. ab=ab
3. a/b=a/b ; b0
4. a+ba+b
5. a-ba-b
To solve an equation or inequality that contains absolute
values, we write equivalent equation or inequality and then solve as
usual.
Example:
Solve: x-3 4
Solution:
This inequality can be rewritten as
4 x 3 4 or, on adding 3 throughout, 1 x 7 .
This can be written in interval notation as (-1, 7).
Example:
Solve: 5(x-1) 3
Solution:
5(x-1) 3 given.
5(x-1) 3 absolute value of product
(x-1) 3/5 dividing by 5
-3/5(x-1) 3/5 (x-1) has absolute value less than 3/5
-3/5+1x 3/5+1 adding 1 to an inequality
2/5x 8/5 arithmetic.
In short, x is in open interval (2/5, 8/5).
Example:
1
Solve: 5
2x 3
Solution:
First of all, we see that x=3/2 is not a solution because this
value of x results in a division by zero. Lets keep it in mind.
1
5 given
2x 3
2x 3 1 / 5 taking reciprocals
16
2(x-3/2) 1/5 factor out the coefficients of x
2||x-3/2 1/5 absolute value of product
|x-3/2 1/10 dividing by 2
-1/10x-3/2 1/10 (x-3/2) has abs. value less than 1/10
7/5x 8/5 we added 3/2 throughout.
If, as noted above, we eliminate the value x=3/2 to avoid the
division by zero, we see that the solution consists of all x that satisfy
7/5 x 3/2 or 3/2 x 8/5
The solution set consists of all x in the set (7/5, 3/2)(3/2, 8/5).
Example:
Solve the equation x-3= 4
Solution:
Depending on whether (x-3) is positive or negative, the
equation x-3= 4 can be written as:
x 34 or x 3 4
We obtain that equation has two roots x 7 and x 1 .
Example:
Solve the equation x-1+x-2= 1
Solution:
Let us consider these cases:
1) x 1; 2) 1 x 2; 3) x 2
1) In this case x-1=-(x-1) and x-2=-(x-2).
So given equation is equivalent to
( x 1) ( x 2) 1 or 2 x 2 0 and x 1 .
Since in this case x 1, and x=1 can not be a root of equation.
2) In this case x-1=(x-1) and x-2=-(x-2).
Given equation is equivalent to
x 1 ( x 2) 1
It leads us to the identity, so any x from 1, 2 satisfies the given
equation.
3) In this case x-1=(x-1) and x-2=(x-2).
Given equation is equivalent to
x 1 x 2 1
2 x 4 and x 2 .
It contradicts to the condition that x 2 .
So as a result, the root of the equation is any x from 1, 2.
17
Exercises
In exercises 1-11 solve the inequalities.
1. x-3 4 2.x+2 5
3. x-4 7 4.x2 25
5.x2 16 6. x 6 3
7. 2 x 3 6 8. x 2 1
1
9. 5 2 x 4 10. 2
x 1
3
11. 4
2x 1
In exercises 12-19 solve the equations.
12. x-5= 4 13. 2x+5= 1
14. x+1-x-4= 6 15. s/2-2= 3
16. 6 x 2 7 17. 6 x 7 3 2 x
x5
18. 9 x 11 x 19. 6
2x
Answers
18
1.9. Distance formula for points in the plane
The distance between two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) in a
coordinate plane is given by:
(1) d= ( x2 x1 ) 2 ( y 2 y1 ) 2
Example:
Find the distance between the points (-2, 3) and (1, 7)
Solution:
If we let (x1, y1) be (-2, 3) and let (x2, y2) be (1, 7) then
(1) yields
d= (1 (2))2 (7 3) 2 32 4 2 5 .
Remark: When using (1) it does not matter which point is labeled
(x1, y1) and which is labeled (x2, y2). Thus, in example above, if we had
let (x1, y1) be (1, 7) and (x2, y2) be (-2, 3) we would obtained
d= (2 1) 2 (3 7) 2 (3) 2 (4) 2 5
which is the same result we obtained with the opposite labeling.
19
3 3
4 2 2 (8)
2 2; 2 28
x y
3 5 3 5
1 1
2 2
2 28
Hence C ( x, y ) ; .
5 5
20
1
S (2 (3))(4 (1)) (1 (3))(5 (1))
2
1 1 13
5 5 2 6 13 (unit square)
2 2 2
Example:
Find the length of the medians (A median of a triangle is a line that
passes through a vertex and the midpoint of the opposite edge) of a
triangle PQR with vertices P(3, 2) , Q(5, 4) , R(7, 2) .
Solution: Let L, M , N be midpoints of the sides PQ, QR, and PR ,
respectively. Coordinates of the point L can be found using (2). In this
case x1 3 , y1 2 , x 2 5 , y 2 4 . If we will denote coordinates of
the point L by ( x L , y L ) we would get
35 24
xL 1, yL 3, L(1, 3)
2 2
Similarly
57 4 (2)
xM 6, yM 1, M (6, 1)
2 2
37 2 (2)
xN 2, yN 0, N (2, 0)
2 2
Now let us find the length of median LR . Using distance formula
with x1 1 , y1 3 , x 2 7 , y 2 2 we obtain
LR (7 1) 2 (2 3) 2 61
Similarly
MP (6 (3) 2 (1 2) 2 82
NQ (5 2) 2 (4 0) 2 5 .
Exercises
21
5. The point C divides the line segment AB with A(2, 5) and
B(4, 8) into the ratio 2 3 . Find the coordinates of the point C .
6. The point C (2, 3) divides AB into the ratio 1 2 . Find the coordinates
of the point B if the coordinates of the point A are
x 1, y 2 .
7. Find area of the triangle ABC with vertices A(0,2) , B(4, 5) ,
and C (6,4) .
8. Let A(2, 1) , B(2, - 2) , and C (8, 6) be vertices of the triangle
ABC . Find the height of the triangle through the vertex B .
9. Prove that the triangle with vertices (5, -2), (6, 5), (2, 2) is isosceles.
10. Prove that for all values of t the point (t, 2t-6) is equidistant from
(0, 4) and (8, 0).
11. Prove that points (0, -2), (-4, 8) and (3, 1) lie on a circle with
center (-2, 3).
Answers
4 1
1. 5; 2. 10; 3. 61 ; 4. 29 ; 5. C (2 ,6 ) ; 6. B(4, 5) ;
5 5
7. 25 unit sq. ; 8. 2 5 .
1.13. Functions
22
must make sense; thus, the domain consists of all numbers x such that
x 1 0 or x 1 . That is, the domain is the interval [1,) .
As x varies from 1 to larger numbers, f (x) increases from
f (1) 3 1 1 3 to arbitrary large values.
Thus, the range of f is [3,) .
Example:
x 1
Find the domain and range of the function f ( x) .
x 1
Solution:
The domain of f consists of all x , except x 1 . In interval
notation the domain is (,1) (1,) .
To find range of the function, let us introduce a dependent variable
x 1
y
x 1
Solving this equation for x in terms of y yields
y 1
( x 1) y x 1 x
y 1
It is now evident from the right side of this equation that y 1 is not in
the range. So the range of the function f is ( , 1) (1 ,) .
23
Solution:
( f g )(x) f ( x) g ( x) (2 x 3 ) ( x 2) x x 3
( f g )(x) f ( x) g ( x) (2 x 3 ) ( x 2)
x3 x 4
( f g )(x) f ( x) g ( x) (2 x 3 ) ( x 2)
x x 3 2 x 3 2x 4
2 x3
( f / g )(x) f ( x) / g ( x)
x2
Definition: Given functions f and g ,the composition of f with g ,
denoted by f g , is the function defined by
( f g ) f ( g ( x))
( f g is read as f circle g or as f composed with g ).
Example:
Let f ( x) x 2 and g ( x) x 3 . Find a) f (g (5)) and g ( f (5)) .
Solution:
f ( g ( x)) f ( x 3) ( x 3) 2
g ( f ( x)) g ( x 2 ) x 2 3 ,
So
f ( g (5)) f (8) 64 and g ( f (5)) g (25) 28
Exercises
24
1 x 1
3. f ( x) 4. h( x)
x3 x2
x
5. f ( x) 6. F ( x) 3 x x 2 4
x 1
7. G( x) x 2 2 x 5 8. g ( x) sin x
In exercises 9-16 find the domain and the range of the given
function.
9. f ( x) 3 x 10. g ( x) 4 x 2
11. h( x) 3 x 12. F ( x) x 2 3
13. H ( x) 3 sin x 14. g ( x) 2 cos x
1 1
15. f ( x) 16. g ( x)
x 1 1 x2
17. Given that f (1) 4, f (2) 5, g (1) 3, and g (2) 1 . Find
a) ( f g )(1) b) ( f g )(1)
c) ( f / g )(2) d) ( f g )(2)
In exercises 18-19 find formulas for
a) ( f g )(x) b) ( f g )(x) c) ( f g )(x)
d) ( f / g )(x) e) ( f g )(x) f) ( g f )(x)
18. f ( x) x 1 , g ( x) x 2
19. f ( x) 1 x 2 , g ( x) sin 3x
4
20. Let f ( x) 2 and g ( x) x . Find ( f g )(x) and ( g f )(x) .
x 5
f ( x h) f ( x )
In exercises 21-22 find and simplify as much
h
as possible.
1
21. f ( x) 3x 2 5 22. f ( x)
x
25
Answers
1. a) 14; b) 50; c) 2; d) 11; e) 3a 2 6a 5 ; 2. a) -8; b) 1/4; c) 0;
1
d) 6; e) ; 3. (,3) (3,) ; 4. (,2) [1,) ;
t 5
2
Definition:
A function f such that f ( x) f ( x) is called an even function.
x4
Example: f ( x) is an even function, since
(1 x 2 )
( x) 4 x4
f ( x) f ( x)
(1 ( x) 2 ) (1 x 2 )
The graph of even function is symmetric with respect to the y -axis.
26
Definition:
A function f such that f ( x) f ( x) is called an odd function.
Example: The function f ( x) x 3 is odd function, since
f ( x) ( x) 3 f ( x)
The graph of odd function is symmetric with respect to the origin.
Most functions are neither even nor odd. For instance x 3 x 6 is neither
even nor odd, since ( x) 3 ( x) 6 x 3 x 6 , which is neither x 3 x 6
nor ( x 3 x 6 ) .
Example:
Sketch the graph of f ( x) x
y
Solution:
x , x 0
y f ( x) y= x
x , x 0
The graph coincides with the line
y x for x 0 and with the line 0 x
y x for x 0 . (Fig.1.5)
Fig. 1.5
27
Example:
1 ,x2
Sketch y f ( x)
x 2 ,x2
Solution:
For x 2 , we y
have y 1 , for x 2 we
4
have y x 2 . The graph of
y 1 is a horizontal line, and the 1
graph of y x 2 is a straight
line. (Fig.1.6).In that figure we 0 2 x
used the heavy dot and open
circle above x 2 to emphasize Fig. 1.6
that the value f (2) 1 lies on
the horizontal line and not on
the inclined line.
y
1) If a positive constant is added to f (x) , y x2 3
( y f ( x) C ), the geometric effect is to
translate the graph of the function 3 y x2
f parallel to the vertical axis in the positive
direction. (Fig.1.7).
0 x
Fig.1.7
y
y x2 2) If a positive constant is subtracted from
x
f (x) , ( y f ( x) C ), translate the graph of
0
the graph of the function f parallel to the
y x2 3 vertical axis in the negative direction.
-3
(Fig.1.8).
Fig.1.8
28
3) Similarly, if a positive constant is y
added to the independent variable of a
function f (x) , ( y f ( x C ) ), the
y x2
geometric effect is to translate the graph y ( x 3) 2
of the function parallel to the horizontal x
axis in the negative direction.(Fig.1.9). -3 0
Fig.1.9
y
4) If a positive constant is subtracted
from the independent variable of a
y x2 y ( x 3) 2 function f (x) , ( y f ( x C ) ),
translate the graph of the graph of the
0 3 x function f parallel to the horizontal
Fig.1.10 axis in the positive direction.
(Fig.1.10).
Exercises
x
20. f ( x)
x
x 2, x 3
21. f ( x)
x 4, x 3
1, 0 x 1
3, 1 x 2
22. h( x)
1, 2 x 3
0 , elsewhere
x 2 ,x 1
23. f ( x)
2 , x 1
Answers.
30
Chapter 2
The limit of a function
31
then the limit of this function as x approaches the value of 4 cannot be
computed by simply substituting for x. This function does not have a
value for x=4 since we get a division of zero by zero by substituting
4 for x. This is defined as an indeterminent result since there is no real
result defined for this type of division.
There are two possibilities here:
1. Factor the equation. In example above, the equation can be factored
into:
( x 4)(x 4)
f ( x) x4
x4
Now we can substitute the value 4 for x to get the limit:
lim( f ( x)) lim( x 4) 8 .
x 4 x 4
This works most of the times but not always.
2. Approach the value of the limit from both directions and calculate
the value of the function. If you take values for x that approach the
value 4, you will get answers other than divided by zero. And by taking
values for x approaching 4 from both directions, you start to narrow
down the value of limit. It becomes apparent that as x approaches the
value 4 from either direction, the limit of the function approaches the
value of 8.
A limit can also result in a value of infinity. For example, if the
function is
3
f ( x)
x
then the limit of f (x) when x approaches zero would be:
3
lim f ( x) lim ,
x 0 x 0 x
32
Definition of limit: Let f (x) be defined for all x in some open interval
containing the number a, with the possible exception that f (x) may not
be defined at a. We will write
lim f ( x) L
x a
If given any number 0 we can find a number 0 such that
f (x)-L if x satisfies 0 x-a .
Example: Prove that lim(3x 5) 1
x 2
Solution: We must show that given any positive number , we can find
a positive number such that
(3x 5) 1 if x satisfies 0 x 2
L a
f ( x)
33
x a
6. lim f ( x)g ( x ) lim f ( x)
x a
lim g ( x )
x a if lim f ( x) 0
x a
x 6x 9 2
Example: Find lim
x3
x 3
Solution: The numerator and denominator both have a limit of zero as
x approaches 3, so there is a common factor of (x-3). We proceed as
follows:
x 2 6x 9 ( x 3) 2
lim = lim = lim ( x 3) =0.
x 3 x3 x 3 x 3 x 3
2x 8
Example: Find lim 2
x 4 x x 12
3x 2 4 x 7
Example: Find lim
x 1 2 x 2 5 x 6
Solution:
3x 2 4 x 7 lim (3x 2 4 x 7)
x 1
lim 2 = =
x 1 2 x 5 x 6 lim(2 x 2 5 x 6)
x 1
3 1 4 1 7
2
= =6/3=2.
2 12 5 1 6
34
Example:
x 2 6x 8
Find lim
x 4 x4
Solution: The numerator and denominator both have a limit of zero as
x approaches 4. Let us rewrite x2-6x+8 using x2+px+q=(x-x1)(x-x2)
where x1 and x2 are roots of equation x2+px+q=0. An equation
x2-6x+8=0 has roots x1=2 and x2=4, so x2-6x+8=(x-2)(x-4).
After substituting we get
x 2 6x 8 ( x 2)(x 4)
lim = lim = lim( x 2) =4-2=2.
x 4 x4 x 4 x4 x 4
Example:
3x 2 x 2
Find lim 2
x 1 4 x 5 x 1
3(1 2 / 3)
= =5/3.
4(1 1 / 4)
35
Remark: Notations x and x are equivalent to each other,
and we will use both of these notations.
Remark: All properties of limits stated above hold when x a is
replaced by
x or by x .
lim x n , n=1,2,3,..;
x
, if n 2,4,6,........
lim x n ;
x
- , if n 1,3,5,........
n
1 1
lim lim 0 ;
x x n
x x
n
1 1
lim lim 0 .
x x
x x n
36
2.4. Limits of rational functions as x or x
5x 2 x
Example: Find lim
x 3 x 3 4
lim (5 / x 1 / x 2 ) 0 0
x
= 0.
lim (3 4 / x 3 ) 30
x
7 x 3 4x 2 1
Example: Find lim
x 2x 5
Solution: Divide the numerator and denominator by x to obtain
7 x 3 4x 2 1 7 x 2 4x 1/ x
lim = lim ,
x 2x 5 x 2 5/ x
5 5
since 7x2-4x + , 0 , and 2 2 as x .
x x
37
2.5. A quick method for finding limits of
rational functions as x or x
Let f (x) be a polynomial and let axn be its term of highest degree. Let
g(x) be another polynomial and let bxm be its term of highest degree.
Then
f ( x) ax n f ( x) ax n
lim lim m and lim lim m
x g ( x) x bx x g ( x) x bx
x 16x
3
x 3
1
b) lim = lim = lim 0;
x 15x x 5 x
4 3 x 15x 4 x 15x
x4 x x
c) lim = lim .
x 6 x x
3 2 x 6
Exercises
4 x 5x 2
2
x 2 5x 4
8. lim 9. lim
x 2 3 x 2 6 x 4 x 4 x 2 7 x 6
38
x 2 8 x 12 3x 2 7 x 2
10. lim 11. lim
x 6 x 2 7 x 6 x 2 4 x 2 5 x 6
y6 x 2 6x 5
12. lim 2 13. lim 2
y 6 y 36 x 1 x 3 x 4
t 3 t 2 5t 3 5x 2 7
14. lim 15. lim
t 1 t 3 3t 2 x 3 x 2 x
x 7 8x 6 5x 4
16. lim 17. lim (4 x 2 x 3)
x 10x 6 7 x 5 4 x 17 x
6x 3 x
18. lim (6 x 5 12x 3 ) 19. lim
x x 2 x 10 5 x 8
5x 3 2 x
20. lim
x x 2 x 7
Answers
6. 3; 7. 157; 8. 2; 9. 0; 10. 4/5; 11. 5/11; 12. Does not exist; 13. 4/5;
14. 4/3; 15. 5/3; 16. ; 17. ; 18. - ; 19. 0; 20. - .
3x 5
Example: Find lim 3
x 8x 3
Solution:
Using the property of limit
3x 5 3 3x 5 3 3x 3 3 3 3
lim 3 = lim = lim = .
x 8 x 3 x 8 x 3 x 8 x 8 2
Example: Find:
3x 2 2 x 3x 2 2 x
a) lim ; and b) lim .
x x x x
Solution:
Before beginning the solution, note that if x is positive, x 2 x , but if
x is negative, x 2 x .
39
3x 2 2 x x 2 (3 1 / x) x 3 1/ x
a) lim = lim = lim =
x x x x x x
= lim 3 1 / x = 3 .
x
3x 2 2 x x 2 (3 1 / x) x 3 1/ x
b) lim = lim = lim =
x x x x x x
= lim 3 1 / x 3 .
x
3
1 x 1
Example: Find lim
1 x 1
x 0
Solution:
Let us substitute z6=1+x. We choose z6 in order to take roots easily.
From substitution it is easy to see that if x0 then z1. Using
substitution, we get
3
1 x 1 3
z6 1 z 2 1
lim = lim = lim =
x 0 1 x 1 z 1 z 6 1 z 1 z 3 1
( z 1)(z 1) z 1
= lim = lim 2 =2/3.
z 1 ( z 1)( z 2 z 1) z 1 z z 1
( x 2 6 x 5 x) ( x 2 6 x 5 x)
= lim =
x
x 2 6x 5 x
( x 2 6 x 5) x 2 6x 5
= lim = lim =
x x
x 6x 5 x
2
x 6x 5 x
2
6 5/ x 6
= lim = =3.
x
1 6 / x 5/ x 1 11
2
40
x2 2
Example: Find lim .
x 3x 6
Solution:
As x , the values of x are eventually positive, so we can replace
x by x where desirable. We obtain
x2 2 x2 2 / x x2 2 / x2
lim = lim lim =
x 3x 6 x (3x 6) / x x (3x 6) / x
1 2 / x 2 xlim 1 2 / x2
= lim = =1/3.
x 3 6/ x lim (3 6 / x)
x
Exercises
In exercises 1-21 find the limits.
x4 2 5x 9 3
1. lim 2. lim
x 0 x x 0 x
x2 4 2 1 x 2
3. lim 4. lim
x 0 x x 3 x3
5. lim x 2 3 x 6. lim 2 x 2 5 x
x x
7. lim x 5 x x
2
8. lim x 3x x
2
x x
x 2 25
9. lim x 2 ax x 10. lim
x x 5 2 x 1
4n 32
1 tan x 1 tan x
11. lim 12. lim
n 2n 1 x sin 2 x
x2 5x 2 2
13. lim 14. lim
x x 2 2 x 1 x x3
2 y 3x 4 x
15. lim 16. lim
y
7 6y2 x x2 8
41
x x9
17. lim 18. lim
x 3 x 3 x 9 x 3
12n 5 6x 5
19. lim 20. lim
n 3 x
27n 3 6n 2 8 1 x2 3
x 1
4
21. lim 3 Hint : Let x t 12
x 1 x 1
Answers
1. 1/4; 2. 5/6; 3. 0; 4. 1/2; 5. 0; 6. ; 7. 5/2; 8. 3/2; 9. a/2; 10. 40;
11. 1; 12. 1/2; 13. 0; 14. - 5 ; 15. 1 / 6 ; 16. 3 ; 17. does not exist;
18. 6; 19. 4; 20. 6; 21. 3/4.
42
1 1
lim ; lim .
x a xa x a xa
2 x 2 x
Example: Find: a) lim ; b) lim
x 4( x 4)( x 2) x 4 ( x 4)( x 2)
Solution: In both examples the limit of the numerator is 2 and
denominator is 0, so the limit of the ratio does not exist. We need to
analyze the sign of the ratio. As x approaches 4 from the right, the ratio
is always negative, and as x approaches 4 from the left the sign of the
ratio is eventually positive (after x exceeds 2), so
2 x 2 x
lim and lim
x 4 ( x 4)( x 2) x 4 ( x 4)( x 2)
1
Example: Find lim
x 1 ( x 1) 2
43
1
b) When x approaches 0 from the right, then is large and positive.
x
1
The value 3 x will be large and positive.
1 1
lim 3 .
x
lim 3x
x 0 x 0
44
b) Inspection of the graph shows that
lim f ( x) 3 and lim f ( x) 3
x 2 x 2
Thus, lim f ( x) exists and is 3. The solid dot at (2,2) shows that
x2
f (2)=2. This information, however, plays no role in our examination of
the limit of f (x) as x 2 .
c) Inspection of the graph shows that lim f ( x) 2 and lim f ( x) 2
x 3 x 3
Thus, lim f ( x) exists and is 2. Incidentally, the fact that f (3) is equal
x3
to 2 is irrelevant in determining lim f ( x) .
2.9. Continuity
45
Solution: We can write f (x) as
x if x 0
f ( x) x 0 if x 0
x if x 0
f ( x) x is continuous if x>0 or x<0. x is identical to the polynomial
and all polynomials are continuous functions. Thus, x=0 is the only
point that remains to be considered. At this point f (0) 0 0 , so it
remains to show that lim f ( x) lim x 0
x0 x0
Because the formula for f changes at 0, it will be helpful to consider the
one-sided limits at 0 rather than the two- sided limit. We obtain:
lim x lim x 0 and lim x lim ( x) 0
x 0 x0 x 0 x 0
Exercises
In exercises 1-13 find the limits.
x x
1. lim 2. lim 2
x 3 x 3 x 2 x 4
46
x 7
3. lim 4. lim
x 2 x 42 x 0 3 x
2t 2t
5. lim 6. lim
t 5 t 5 t 5 t 5
6 6
7. lim 8. lim
x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3
1
4
9. lim 10. lim 2 x 2
x 2 ( x 2) 2 x 2
1
11. lim x
2 2
x 2
x2 1
12. lim as a) x 2 and b) x 2
2x 4
1
13. lim 2
x 4
as a) x 2 b) x 2
c) x 2 d ) x 2
In each of exercises 14 and 15 there is a graph of functions.
14. (See Fig.2.2). Decide which of given y
limits exist, and evaluate those which do.
a) lim f ( x) ; b) lim f ( x) ;
x 0 x1
c) lim f ( x) ; d ) lim f ( x) ; y 3
x 2 x 2
2
15. (See Fig.2.3) 1
a) lim f ( x) ; b) lim f ( x) ;
x1 x2 x
3
c) lim f ( x) ; d ) lim f ( x) 1 2 3 4 5
2
x3 x 4 Fig.2.2
1
x
1 2 3 4 5
x , 3
x 1
16. Graph f ( x) Fig.2.3
0 , x 1
a) Find lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) .
x 1 x 1
47
b) Does lim f ( x) exist? If so, what is that? If not, why not?
x1
In exercises 17-22 find points of discontinuity, if any.
x
17. f ( x) x 3 2 x 3 18. f ( x) 2
x 1
x4 x
19. f ( x) 2 20. f ( x)
x 16 x 3
2 x 3 , x 4
21. f ( x) x 2 x
3 2
22. f ( x) 16
7 x , x 4
23. Find a value for the constant k, if possible, that will make the
function continuous.
7 x 2 , x 1 kx 2 , x2
a) f ( x) 2 ; b) f ( x)
kx , x 1 2 x k , x 2
24. Let f (x) equal the least integer that is greater than or equal to x. For
instance, f (3) =3, f (3.4) =4, f (3.9) =4. This function is sometimes
denoted x and called the ceiling of x. Graph the function and
answer the questions.
a) Does lim f ( x) exist? If so, what is it?
x 4
48
2.10. The limit of trigonometric functions.
The first remarkable limit
sin ax
So, lim a.
x 0 x
sin 2 x
In particular, if a=2, then lim 2.
x 0 x
sin 5 x
Example: Find lim
x 0 5 x
49
sin ax
Example: Find lim
x 0 sin bx
Solution: Let us divide numerator and denominator by x
sin ax sin ax
lim
sin ax x =a .
= lim x
x 0
lim
x 0 sin bx x 0 sin bx sin bx b
lim
x x 0 x
tan x
Example: Find lim
x 0 x
tan x sin x 1 1 sin x
Solution: lim = lim( ) = lim( )=
x 0 x x 0 cos x x x 0 cos x x
1 sin x
= lim lim =11=1.
x 0 cos x x 0 x
sin 2 ( x / 3)
Example: Find lim
x0 x2
2 2
x x x
sin 2 sin sin 2
3 3 3 1 1
Solution: lim = lim = lim = .
x0 x 2 x 0 x x 0 x 3 9
sin x
Example: Find lim
x 0 x9 3
Solution: As x0 then numerator and denominator approaches zero.
Let us multiply numerator and denominator by the conjugate of
denominator:
sin x sin x( x 9 3)
lim = lim =
x 0 x 9 3 x0 ( x 9 3)( x 9 3)
sin x
= lim lim( x 9 3) =1(3+3)=6.
x 0 x x 0
x
Example: Find lim(2 x) tan
x 2 4
Solution: Observe that as x2, we shall have (0 ) .
Let x 2 . We obtain
50
x
lim(2 x) tan = lim tan (2 ) = lim tan( ) =
x 2 4 0 4 0 2 4
cos
4 =
= lim cot = lim
0 4 0
sin
4
4 1 4
= lim lim cos = 1 .
0 0 4
sin
4 4 4
Exercises
In exercises 1-18 find the limits.
sin 3 sin x
1. lim 2. lim
0 x 0 5 x
tan 7 x h
3. lim 4. lim
x 0 sin 3 x h 0 tan h
2
1 cos 5h
5. lim 6. lim
0 1 cos h0 cos 7 h 1
2 x sin x 1 1
7. lim 8. lim x sin let t
x 0 x x x x
x
sin 3
sin ax 2
9. lim 10. lim 3
x 0 tan bx x0 x
sin( x 1) sin x
11. lim 3 12. lim
x 1 x 1 x 0 x4 2
1 cos x tan2 x x
13. lim 14. lim x cot
x 0 x sin x x 0 3
x9 3 1 x 2
cos x
15. lim 16. lim
x0 sin 6 x x 0 sin 2 x
17. lim ( x ) tan x let x
x 2 2
2
51
cos
18. lim x let t
x 2 x 2 2 x
19. Find a nonzero value for the constant k so that
tan kx
if x 0
f ( x) x will be continuous at x=0.
3x 2k 2 if x 0
Answers
1. 3; 2. 0; 3. 7/3; 4. 1; 5. 2; 6. 25/49; 7. 3; 8. 1; 9. a/b; 10. 1/8;
11. 1/3; 12. 4; 13. 1/2; 14. 3; 15. 1/36 ; 16. 3/2; 17. 1; 18. /4;
19. 1/2.
lim 1 e
(2)
0
Limits (1) and (2) are equivalent and called the second remarkable
limits.
To evaluate lim ( x)
( x)
C there are following possible cases.
x a
0 if 0 C 1
lim C x
x
if C 1
or
if 0 C 1
lim C x
x
0 if C 1
52
c) If lim ( x) 1 and lim ( x) then we assume
x a x a
( x) 1 ( x) , where ( x) 0 as x a and
( x ) ( x )
lim ( x ) ( x ) lim ( x ) 1 ( x )
C lim 1 ( x) ( x )
1
= e x a = e x a .
x a
x
k
Example: Find lim 1
x x
k
Solution: As x , expression 1 1 and we get indeterminate
x
k k
form 1 . Let us introduce by x .
x
If x then 0 . Thus,
x k
k
lim 1 = lim 1 = lim 1
k 1
x x 0 0
Using (2) we obtain
k k
lim 1 = lim 1 = e k
1 1
0 0
x
k
(3) lim 1 =e ;
k
x x
x
3
In particular, if k=3, then lim 1 = e 3
x x
ln(1 x)
Example: Find lim
x 0 x
1
ln(1 x) 1
Solution: Since ln(1 x) ln(1 x) x
x x
Using (2) we obtain
ln(1 x) 1
1
lim = lim ln(1 x) ln lim(1 x) x = ln e =1.
x
x 0
x 0 x x0
53
x
x 2
Example: Find lim
x x 3
Solution:
Let us divide numerator and denominator by x, and then use (3)
x
2
x 1 2
x 2 x = e e5 .
lim = lim
x x 3 x 3 e 3
1
x
1 4 x
2
Example: Find lim 1
x 3x 1
Solution:
1 4 x 1 4 x
2 2
lim 1 = lim 1
x 3x 1 x 3x 1
2 1 2 1
Let . Then x y .
3x 1 y 3 3
As x , then y .
We obtain
8 1
1 4 x y
2 1 3 3
lim 1 = lim 1 =
x 3x 1 y
y
8
1
1
y 3
1
3
8
= lim 1 1 =e 3 .
y y
y
x 3
2x 4
Example: Find lim
x 2 x 4
x 3 x 3
2x 4 8
Solution: lim = lim 1
x 2 x 4 x 2x 4
8 1
Let . Then
2x 4 y
54
x 3 4 y 1
8 1
lim 1 = lim 1 =
x 2x 4 y
y
4
1
y
1
1
= lim 1 1 = e 4 .
y y
y
Exercises
ln(1 4 x)
3. lim 4. lim x ln(x 1) ln x
x 0 x x
x x
x 1 xn
5. lim 6. lim
x x 3 x x m
y2 5 2 x
4 2x 3
7. lim 1 8. lim
x 2 x 1
y
3y 1
2 x4
3x 1
x
2x 3
9. lim 10. lim ln
x 3 x 2 x 2 x 1
x 4
5x 3
12. lim3x 2 ( x 2 1)
x
11. lim ln
x 5 x 1 x 1
Answers
1. e 2 ; 2. e 3 ; 3. 4; 4. 1; 5. e 4 ; 6. e n m ; 7. e 4 / 3 ; 8. e 4 ; 9. e 2 ;
10. 2; 11. 4/5; 12. e 3 / 2 .
55
Chapter 3
Derivatives
3.1. Definition of derivatives
56
Geometric interpretation of the derivative:
'
f is the function whose value at x is the slope of the tangent
line to the graph of f at x.
Example: Find the slope and an equation of the tangent line to the
graph of f ( x) x 2 at the point P(3,9).
Solution: We have x0 3 and y 0 9 , so from (1)
f (3 h) f (3) (3 h) 2 (3) 2
mtan lim = lim =
h0 h h0 h
9 6h h 2 9 6h h 2
= lim = lim = lim(6 h) =6
h0 h h0 h h0
Thus, from (2) the point-slope form of the tangent line is
y 9 6( x 3) and the slope-intercept form is y 6 x 9.
Example: Let f ( x) x 2 1
a) Find f ' ( x)
b) Use the result in part (a) to find the slope of the tangent line
to y x 2 1 at x 2, x 0, and x 2
Solution:
a) From (1) of (3.1)
f ' ( x) lim
f ( x h) f ( x )
= lim
( x h) 2 1 [ x 2 1]
=
h0 h h0 h
x 2 2 xh h 2 1 x 2 1 2 xh h 2
= lim = lim =
h0 h h 0 h
= lim(2 x h) =2x
h0
b) From part (a) the slope of the tangent line at any point x is
f ' ( x) 2 x .
Thus, at x 2, x 0, and x 2 the slopes are
f ' (2) 4 ; f ' (0) 0 and f ' (2) 4 .
Example: Find
a) the derivative with respect to x of f ( x) x
b) the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y x at x=9.
57
Solution: a) From definition
f ( x h) f ( x ) xh x
f ' ( x) lim = lim =
h0 h h0 h
( x h x )( x h x )
= lim =
h0 h( x h x )
xhx 1 1
= lim = lim = .
h0 h( x h x ) h 0 xh x 2 x
b) The slope of the tangent line at x=9 is f ' (9) ,and from part (a)
1 1
we have f ' (9) .
2 9 6
x
Example: Find the derivative of f ( x)
x 9
Solution:
f ( x h) f ( x )
f ' ( x) lim =
h0 h
1 xh x 1 ( x h)(x 9) x( x h 9)
= lim = lim
h0 h x h 9 x 9 h 0 h ( x h 9)(x 9)
1 x 2 9 x x h 9h x 2 x h 9 x
= lim
h0 h
( x h 9)(x 9)
1 9h 9 9
= lim
h0 h ( x h 9)( x 9)
lim
h0 ( x h 9)( x 9)
.
( x 9) 2
58
d
[ f ( x)] = f ' ( x)
dx
dy
Remark: should not be regarded as a ratio, it should be considered
dx
as a single symbol denoting the derivative.
If the independent variable is not x, then appropriate adjustments in the
notation have to be made. For example, if y f (u) then
d
[ f (u )] = f ' (u ) .
du
In particular, adjusting the notation in last two examples above yields
d 1 d u 9
[ u]= and = .
du 2 u du u 9 (u 9) 2
59
h0 h
= lim = lim
h 0 h h 0 h
h 1 if h0 h
But ,so that lim 1
h - 1 if h0 h 0 h
h h
and lim 1 . Thus f ' (0) limdoes not exist because the one
h 0 h h0 h
Exercises
In exercises 1-8 use definition of derivative to find f ' ( x)
1. f ( x) 3x 2 2. f ( x) x 2 x
3. f ( x) x 3 4. f ( x) 2 x 3 1
5. f ( x) x 1 6. f ( x) 1 / x
1
7. f ( x) ax2 b (a , b constants) 8. f ( x)
x
In exercises 9-12 use definition of derivative (with the
appropriate change in notation) to obtain the derivative requested.
9. Find f ' (t ) if f (t ) 4t 2 t
10.Find g ' (u ) if g (u) 5u 3
dA
11.Find if A 32
d
60
dV 4
12. Find if V r 3 .
dr 3
In exercises 13-17 find f ' (a) and the equation of the tangent
line to the graph of f at the point where x= a.
13. f is the function in Exercise 1.; a=3
14. f is the function in Exercise 2.; a=2
15. f is the function in Exercise 3.; a=0
16. f is the function in Exercise 4.; a=-1
17. f is the function in Exercise 5.; a=8
18. Given that f (3)=-1and f ' (3) 5 , find an equation for the tangent
line to the graph of y f (x) at the point where x=3.
x 2 1 , x 1
19. Show that f ( x) is continuous and
2 x , x 1
differentiable at x=1. Sketch the graph of f.
x 2 1 , x 1
20. Show that f ( x) is continuous but not
x 1 , x 1
differentiable at x=1. Sketch the graph of f.
3x 2 , x 1
21. Let f ( x)
ax b , x 1
Find the values of a and b so that f will be differentiable at x=1.
Answers
1 1
1. 6x ; 2. 2x-1; 3. 3x 2 ; 4. 6x 2 ; 5. ; 6. ; 7. 2ax ;
2 x 1 x2
1 1
8. 3
; 9. 8t 1 ; 10. 5 ; 11. 6 1 ; 12. 4 r 2 . 13. 18;
2 ( x)
y 18x 27 ; 14. 3; y 3x 4 ; 15. 0; y 0 ; 16. 6; y 6 x 5 ;
1 x 5
17. ; y ; 18. y 5x 16 ; 21. a=6, b=-3.
6 6 3
61
3.5. Techniques of differentiation
Rule 1: If f is a constant function, say f (x)= c for all x, then f ' ( x) =0;
that is,
d
c 0
dx
Example: If f (x)=5 for all x, then f (x) =0 for all x; that is
d
5 0 .
dx
Rule 2: (The power rule) For any fixed exponent n
d n
dx
x n x n1
dx
d 12
x 12 x11 .
Rule 3: Let c be a constant. If f is differentiable at x, then so is cf, and
d
c f ( x) c d f ( x)
dx dx
Remark: In words, a constant factor can be moved through a derivative
sign. In function notation, rule 3 states (c f ) ' c f '
Example:
d
dx
4x8 4
d 8
dx
x 4 (8 x 7 ) 32x 7 ;
d
dx
x12 (1)
dx
d 12
x 12x11
Rule 4: If f and g are differentiable at x, then so is f + g , and
d
f ( x) g ( x) d f ( x) d g ( x)
dx dx dx
Rule 4 can be written in function notation as ( f g ) ' f ' g '
Example:
d 4
dx
x x7
dx
d 4
x
d 7
dx
x 4x3 7 x 6 .
By writing f g f (1) g and applying rule 4 it follows that
62
d
f ( x) g ( x) d f ( x) d g ( x)
dx dx dx
or in function notation as ( f g ) f g ' .
' '
63
= (4 x 2 7)(21x 2 1) (7 x 3 x)(8x) =
= 84x 4 4 x 2 147x 2 7 56x 4 8x 2 = 140x 4 135x 2 7 .
Method 2. (Multiplying first)
y (4 x 2 7)(7 x 3 x) =
= 28x 5 4 x 3 49x 3 7 x 28x 5 45x 3 7 x .
Thus,
dy d
= [28x 5 45x 3 7 x] = 140x 4 135x 2 7 ,
dx dx
which agrees with the result obtained using the product rule.
The product rule can be extended to any finite number of
differentiable functions :
( f1 f 2 ..... f n ) ' = f1 f 2 ... f n + f 2 f1 ... f n +
' '
+ f n f1 f 2 ... f n1
'
64
Remark: Since it is needed often, it is worth memorizing that
if f (x)= c then
' '
f c c g'
2 .
g g g
'
1
Example: Find 3 .
2x x 5
'
1
Solution: By the formula for ,
g
'
1 1(2 x 3 x 5) ' 6x 2 1
3 = = .
2x x 5 (2 x 3 x 5) 2 (2 x 3 x 5) 2
d 9
Example: [ x ] 9 x 91 9 x 10 ;
dx
d 1 d 1 1
[ x ] (1) x 11 2 .
dx x dx x
1 2
Example: Find y ' if y x 5 x 3 x
5 3
Solution: Applying rule 2, rule 3, and rule 4 where it is necessary,
we obtain
1 2 1 2
y ' = ( x 5 ) ' ( x 3 ) ' ( x) ' ( x 5 ) ' ( x 3 ) ' ( x) '
5 3 5 3
1 2
= 5 x 4 3x 2 1 x 4 2 x 2 1 ( x 2 1) 2 .
5 3
x2 2
Example: Find f ' ( x) if f ( x) 2
x 2
Solution: Using rule 6 we get
'
x 2 2 ( x 2 2) ' ( x 2 2) ( x 2 2)(x 2 2) '
f ( x) = 2
'
=
x 2 ( x 2 2) 2
2 x( x 2 2) 2 x( x 2 2) 2 x( x 2 2 x 2 2) 8x
= 2 .
( x 2)
2 2
( x 2)
2 2
( x 2) 2
65
x 1
Example: Find y ' if y (2 x 7 x 2 )
x 1
Solution:
'
x 1 2 ' x 1
y ' = ( 2 x 7 x 2 ) = (2 x x ) x 1 +
7
x 1
'
x 1 x 1 2
+ (2 x x ) = (14x 2 x) (2 x 7 x 2 ) .
7 2 6
+
x 1 x 1 ( x 1) 2
Example: Find y ' if y ( x 5 2 x) 2
Solution: y ( x 5 2 x) 2 x10 4 x 6 4 x 2
y ' ( x10 4 x 6 4 x 2 ) ' 10x 9 24x 5 8x .
0 6
Example: Find y ' if y ( 0 is constant)
2 0
'
0 6 1 1
Solution: y =
'
2 ( 0 ) = 2 (0 6 ) .
6 ' 5
2 0 0
66
d2y
-read as d squared y dx squared
dx 2
y (n ) -read as y super n.
Example: If y 3x 4 2 x 3 x 2 4 x 2 , then
dy
y ' = 12 x 3 6 x 2 2 x 4 ;
dx
d2y
y '' = 2 = 36 x 2 12 x 2
dx
d3y
y ' ' ' = 3 = 72 x 12 ;
dx
d4y
y ( 4) 4 72
dx
y 0.
( 5)
Exercises
In exercises 1-15 use the techniques of differentiation to find dy/dx.
1. y 4x 7 2. y 3x 8 2 x 1
1
3. y 3 4. y ( x 7 2 x 9)
3
5. y 2x 1 6. y ax 3 bx 2 cx d
2
1 2 1 1
7. y x x c 8. y x 3
a b x7
1
9. y (3x 2 6)(2 x ) 10. y ( x 3 7 x 2 8)(2 x 3 x 4 )
4
1
11. y (3x 2 1) 2 12. y
5x 3
3x 2x 1
13. y 14. y
2x 1 x3
1 1/ x
15. y
1 1/ x
16. If 3) 2 and f ' (3) 4 , find g ' (3)
f (
67
2x 1
a) g ( x) 3x 2 5 f ( x) b) g ( x)
f ( x)
17. If f (2) 3 and f ' (2) 4 , g (2)=1 and g ' (2) 5 then
find F ' (2)
a) F ( x) 5 f ( x) 2 g ( x) b) F ( x) f ( x) 3 g ( x)
f ( x)
c) F ( x) f ( x) g ( x) d) F ( x)
g ( x)
18. Find y ''
a) y 4 x 7 5x 3 2 x b) y 3x 2
3x 2
c) y d) y ( x 3 5)(2 x 3)
5x
19. Find y ' ' '
1
a) y x 5 x 5 b) y
x
c) y ax3 bx c (a, b, c constant)
20. Find
a) f ' ' ' (2) , where f ( x) 3x 2 2
d2y
b) , where y 6 x 5 4 x 2
dx 2 x 1
4
d
c) 4
x 3
dx x 1
2
d y
21. Find
dx 2
a) y 7 x 3 5x 2 x b) y 12x 2 2 x 3
x 1
c) y d) y (5x 2 3)(7 x 3 x)
x
In each of exercises 22-25 find an equation of the tangent to the
given curve at the given point.
22. y x 3 x 2 2 x at (1, 2)
68
1
23. y at (2, 1/5)
2x 1
24. y x ( x 2 2) at (4, 36)
x 1
25. y at (-1, 0)
x2
Answers
7 6 2
1. 28x 6 ; 2. 24x 7 2 ; 3. 0 ; 4. x ; 5. 2 ;
3 3
2x 1 7 3
6. 3ax 2 2bx c ; 7. ; 8. 3x 4 8 ; 9. 18x 2 x 12 ;
a b x 2
2 3 4 5
10. 15x 14x 48x 32x ;11. 12x(3x 1) ; 2
5 3 7 2
12. ; 13. ; 14. ; 15. ;
(5 x 3) 2
(2 x 1) 2
( x 3) 2
( x 1) 2
16. a) -2; b) 8; 17. a) 10; b) 19; c) 19; d) -11; 18. a) 168x 5 30x ;
4
b) 0; c) ; d) 6 x(4 x 3) ; 19. a) 210x 8 60x 2 ; b) 6 x 4 ;
5x 3
c) 6a; 20. a) 0; b) 112; c) 360 ; 21. a) 42x 10 ; b) 24; c) 2 ;
x3
2x 9
d) 700x 3 96x ; 22. y 3x 1 ; 23. y ;
25 25
24. y 20.5x 46 ; 25. y x 1 .
69
sin( x h) sin x
d
sin x = lim
h 0
dx h
sin x cos h cos x sin h sin x
= lim
h0 h
cos h 1 sin h
= lim sin x cos x =
h0
h h
sin h 1 cos h
= lim cos x sin x
h0
h h
Since sinx and cosx do not involve h, they remain constant as h0;
thus
lim(sin x) sin x and lim(cos x) cos x .
h0 h0
Consequently,
sin h 1 cos h
d
sin x = cos x lim
h0 h
sin x lim
h0
=
dx h
= cos x (1) sin x 0 =cosx.
Thus, we have shown that
(1)
d
sin x cos x ;
dx
or in function notation (sin x) ' cos x
The derivative of cosx can be obtained similarly, resulting in the
formula
(2)
d
cos x sin x ;
dx
or in function notation (cos x) ' sin x
The derivatives of remaining trigonometric functions can be obtained
using the relationships
sin x cos x 1 1
tan x ; cot x ; sec x ; csc x .
cos x sin x cos x sin x
For example,
cos x sin x sin x cos x
d d
d
tan x = d sin x = dx dx =
dx dx cos x 2
cos x
70
cos x cos x sin x ( sin x) cos2 x sin 2 x
= 2
= 2
= sec 2 x .
cos x cos x
(3)
d
tan x sec 2 x ;
dx
or in function notation (tan x) ' sec 2 x
The remaining formulas are
(4)
d
cot x csc 2 x ;
dx
or in function notation (cot x) ' csc 2 x
(5)
d
sec x sec x tan x ;
dx
or in function notation (sec x) ' sec x tan x
(6)
d
csc x csc x cot x ;
dx
or in function notation (csc x) ' csc x cot x
Example: Find f ' ( x) if f ( x) x 2 tan x
Solution: Using the product rule and formula (3), we obtain
f ' ( x) x 2 tan x tan x
d
dx
d 2
dx
x =
= x 2 sec 2 x 2 x tan x .
Example: Find dy / dx if y sin 2 x
Solution:
sin 2 x 2 sin x cos x trigonometric identity
Thus
(sin 2 x) ' (2 sin x cos x) ' 2(sin x cos x) '
= 2 sin x(cos x) ' cos x(sin x) ' =
= 2 [sin x( sin x) cos x(cos x)] 2(cos2 x sin 2 x) 2 cos 2 x .
Example: Find ( x 3 sec x) '
Solution: ( x 3 sec x) ' =
= x 3 (sec x) ' sec x ( x 3 ) ' x 3 sec x tan x sec x (3x 2 )
71
Example:
sin x
Find dy / dx if y
1 cos x
Solution: Using the quotient rule together with formulas (1) and (2)
we obtain
d d
(1 cos x) [sin x] sin x [1 cos x]
dy dx dx
=
dx (1 cos x) 2
(1 cos x)(cos x) (sin x)( sin x) cos x cos2 x sin 2 x
= = =
(1 cos x) 2 (1 cos x) 2
1 cos x 1
= .
(1 cos x) 2
1 cos x
Example: Find y ' ' if y( x) sec x
4
Solution:
y ' sec x tan x ;
d d
y ' ' sec x [tan x] tan x [sec x] =
dx dx
= sec x sec 2 x tan x sec x tan x = sec 3 x sec x tan2 x .
Thus,
y ' ' = sec 3 sec tan2 =
4 4 4 4
= ( 2 ) ( 2 ) (1) 3 2 .
3 2
Exercises
72
cot x
7. f ( x) csc x cot x 8. f ( x)
1 csc x
9. f ( x) sin 2 x cos 2 x
sin x sec x
10. f ( x)
1 x tan x
1 3 sec x
11. f ( x)
tan x
cot x
12. f ( x)
1 x2
d2y
In exercises 13-17 find
dx 2
13. y x cos x 14. y csc x
15. y x sin x 3 cos x 16. y x 2 cos x 4 sin x
17. y sin x cos x
Answers
x cos x sin x
1. 2sinx-3cosx; 2. 2
; 3. x 3 cos x (3x 2 5) sin x ;
x
4. sec x tan x 2 sec x ; 5. sec 3 x sec x tan 2 x ;
2
1 cos2 x 1
6. 1 4 csc x cot x 2 csc 2 x ; 7. ; 8. ; 9. 0 ;
3
sin x 1 sin x
1 1 3 cos x (1 x 2 ) csc 2 x 2 x cot x
10. 11. ; 12. ;
(1 x tan x) 2 sin 2 x (1 x 2 ) 2
1 cos 2 x
13. x cos x 2 sin x ; 14. ; 15. x sin x 5 cos x ;
sin 3 x
16. 2 cos x 4 x sin x x 2 cos x 4 sin x ; 17. 4 sin x cos x .
73
3.8. The derivative of composite function.
The Chain rule
74
Example: Find dy/dx if y 4 cos(x 3 )
Solution: Let u x 3 so that y 4 cos u
By the Chain rule,
dy dy du d d
= [4 cos u ] [ x 3 ] = (4 sin u) (3x 2 ) =
dx du dx du dx
= (4 sin( x 3 )) (3x 2 ) = 12x 2 sin( x 3 ) .
The Chain rule extends to a function built up as the composition of
three or more functions. For instance, if
y f (u), u g (v), and v h(x) then y is a
function of x and it can be shown that
dy dy du dv
(2)
dx du dv dx
Example:
Differentiate (1 x 2 ) 5
Solution: y (1 x 2 ) 5 can be expressed as y u , u v 5 ,
and v 1 x 2 .
Then
dy dy du dv
or
dx du dv dx
d
(1 x 2 ) 5 = [ u ] [v 5 ] [1 x 2 ]
d d d
dx
du dv dx
1 5v x 5(1 x ) x
4 2 4 3
= 5 v 4 2x = 5 x(1 x 2 ) 2 .
2 u u (1 x 2 ) 5
Although formulas (1) and (2) are useful it is sometimes unwieldy
because they involves so many dependent variables. A simpler version
of the Chain rule can be obtained by noting that y f (u) in (1), so
f (u ) and
dy d dy
f ' (u )
dx dx du
Substituting these expressions in (1) yields the following alternative
form of the Chain rule.
(3)
d
f (u) f ' (u) du
dx dx
75
Example:
Find f ' if f ( x) ( x 2 x 1) 23
Solution: Let u x 2 x 1 , so f (u) u 23 , then apply (3) to obtain
d
dx
d
( x 2 x 1) 23 = [u 23 ] 23u 22
dx
du
dx
=
d
= 23( x 2 x 1) 22 [ x 2 x 1] =
dx
= 23( x x 1) (2 x 1) .
2 22
d
= 23cos22 x [cos x] = 23sin x cos22 x .
dx
d du
[sin u ] cos u
dx dx
d du
[cosu ] sin u
dx dx
d du
[tanu ] sec 2 u
dx dx
d du
[cot u ] csc 2 u
dx dx
d du
[sec u ] sec u tan u
dx dx
d du
[csc u ] csc u cot u .
dx dx
76
d
Example: Find [sin(2 x)]
dx
Solution: Taking u 2 x in the generalized derivative formula
for sin u yields
d d du
[sin(2 x)] = [sin u ] = cos u =
dx dx dx
d
= cos(2 x) [2 x] = cos(2 x) 2 =2cos(2x).
dx
Example:
d
Find [tan(x 2 1)]
dx
Solution: Taking u x 2 1 in the generalized derivative formula for
tan u yields
d d du
[tan(x 2 1)] = [tanu ] = sec 2 u =
dx dx dx
d
= sec 2 ( x 2 1) [ x 2 1] = 2 x sec 2 ( x 2 1) .
dx
Example: Find
d
dx
(1 x 5 cot x) 8
77
d
dx
d
cos2 ( x) [u 2 ] = 2u
dx
du
dx
d
= 2 cos( x) [cos( x)]
dx
Taking u x in the generalized derivative formula for cos u yields
d
2 cos( x) [cos( x)] = 2 cos( x) ( sin( x))
dx
= 2 sin( x) cos( x) = sin(2 x) .
Example:
Find
d
dx
sin 1 cos x
Solution:
d
dx
sin 1 cos x = cos 1 cos x
d
dx
1 cos x =
sin x sin x cos 1 cos x
= cos 1 cos x = .
2 1 cos x 2 1 cos x
As you become more comfortable with using the Chain rule,
you may want to dispense with actually writing out the expression for u
in your computations. To accomplish this, it is helpful to express
formula (3) in words. If we call u the inside function and f the
outside function in the composition f (u), then (3) states:
To find dy/dx , differentiate the outside function f and leave the
inside function u alone; then multiply by the derivative of inside
function .
Example: Find
d
dx
cos(x 2 9) = sin( x 2 9)
2x
derivativeof the
derivativeof the
outsidefunction insidefunction
Example: Find
d
dx
tan2 x = tan x = 2tan
d
dx
2
x sec
x
2
d
Example: Find if t 2 sec t
dt
Solution: Because the independent variable is t rather than x,
appropriate adjustments in notation have to be made.
d d 2
= t sec t =
dt dt
78
= 2t sec t t 2 sec t tan t
d
dt
t =
= 2t sec t t 2 sec t tan t .
2 t
Exercises
In exercises 1-20 find f ' ( x)
2
7
1. f ( x) ( x 2 x)
3 37
2. f ( x) x 3
x
4
3. f ( x) 4. f ( x) 4 3 x
(3x 2 x 1) 3
2
5. f ( x) sin( x 3 ) 6. f ( x) tan(4 x 2 )
1
7. f ( x) 4 cos 5 x 8. f ( x) sin 2
x
9. f ( x) 2 sec 2 ( x 7 ) 10. f ( x) cos(5x)
11. f ( x) x csc( x 3 3)
3
12. f ( x) x 2 5 x 2
1
13. f ( x) x 3 sin 2 (5x) 14. f ( x) x 5 sec
x
15. f ( x) cos(cos x) 16. f ( x) cos (sin 2 x)
3
3
x5
17. f ( x) 5x 813 x 3 7 x
12
18. f ( x)
2x 1
19. f ( x)
2 x 33
4 x 12 8
f ( x) x sin(2 x) tan ( x )4 7 5
20.
d2y
21. Find 2
if y x cos(5x) sin 2 x
dx
In exercises 22-23 find an equation for the tangent line to the
graph at the specified point.
22. y x cos(3x) ; x
79
23. y sec 3 x ; x
2 2
In exercises 24-25, find the indicated derivative
dy
24. y cot3 ( ) ; find
d
25.
d
dw
a cos2 ( w) b sin 2 ( w) ;
(a, b constants)
26. Given that f ' (0) 2 , g (0) 0 , and g ' (0) 3 , find ( f g ) ' (0)
27. Given that f ' ( x) 3x 4 and g ( x) x 2 1 , find F ' ( x)
if F ( x) f ( g ( x))
x
28. Given that f ' ( x) 2 and g ( x) 3x 1 , find F ' ( x)
x 1
if F ( x) f ( g ( x))
In exercises 29-30 find the value of ( f g ) ' at the given value of x
u
29. f (u ) cot ; u g ( x) 5 x ; x 1.
10
2u
30. f (u ) ; u g ( x) 10x 2 x 1 ; x 0 .
u2 1
Answers
3
7 7
1. 37 ( x 3 2 x) 36 (3x 2 2) ; 2. 2 x 3 3x 2 2 ;
x x
24 (1 3x) 3
3. ; 4. ; 5. 3x 2 cos(x 3 ) ;
(3x 2 x 1)
2 4
4 x 43 x
2 1
6. 8x sec 2 (4 x 2 ) ; 7. 20 cos4 x sin x ; 8. 3
cos( 2 ) ;
x x
5 sin(5 x)
9. 28x 6 sec 2 ( x 7 ) tan(x 7 ) ; 10. ;
2 cos(5 x)
11. 3 x csc( x 3 3) 1 3x
4 2
csc( x 3 3) cot(x 3 3) ;
x (10 3x ) 2
12. ; 13. 10x 3 sin(5x) cos(5x) 3x 2 sin 2 (5x) ;
5 x 2
80
1 1 1
14. x 3 sec tan 5 x 4 sec ; 15. sin x sin(cos x) ;
x x x
16. 6 cos (sin 2 x) sin(sin 2 x) cos 2 x ;
2
81
dy dy y
x y0
dx dx x
If we now substitute (2) into the last expression, we obtain
dy 1
2
dx x
which agrees with the previous computation.
The equation xy 1 is said to describe the function y f (x)
1
implicitly. The equation y describes the function y f (x)
x
explicitly.
The second method of obtaining derivatives is called implicit
differentiation. It is especially useful when it is inconvenient or
impossible to solve explicitly for y in terms of x.
Example: By implicit differentiation find dy / dx if 5 y 2 sin y x 2
Solution: Differentiating both sides with respect to x and treating y as a
differentiable function of x, we obtain
d d
[5 y 2 sin y] [ x 2 ]
dx dx
d d
5 [ y 2 ] [sin y] 2 x
dx dx
dy dy
5 (2 y ) (cos y) 2x
dx dx
dy dy
10 y (cos y) 2x
dx dx
dy
Solving for , we obtain
dx
dy 2x
dx 10 y cos y
Note that this formula for dy/dx involves both the variables x
and y. In order to obtain a formula involving x alone we would have to
solve the original equation for y in terms of x and substitute it in dy/dx.
However, it is impossible to do this, so the formula for dy/dx must be
left in terms of x and y.
82
dy
Example: Find if 3x y 3 y 2 4
dx
d d
Solution: [3x y 3 ] [ y 2 4]
dx dx
2 dy dy
3 3y 2y
dx dx
dy dy
3y 2 2y 3
dx dx
dy 3
dx 2 y 3 y 2
One important thing to remember when doing implicit differentiation:
The derivative of y is y ' . The derivative of x is taken in the
normal way of a variable, so that the derivative of x is 1, as an example.
The reason for this is that y is a function of x, and does not exist without
being dependant on the equation on the other side. The derivative of,
for example, y 2 is 2 y y ' . The reason is that we actually use Chain
rule to solve it. So the outside function has a derivative 2 y , and the
inside function has derivative y ' , we multiply them together and
obtain 2 y y ' . So the derivative of 3y 2 is 6 y y ' .
Example: Assume that equation 2 xy sin y 2 defines y f (x) .
dy
Find when x 1 and y
dx 2
Solution: Implicit differentiation yields
d d
[2 xy sin y] [2 ]
dx dx
dy dy
2 x 2 y (cos y ) 0
dx dx
Solving for the derivative, dy/dx , we get
dy 2y
dx 2 x cos y
83
In particular, when x 1 and y ,
2
2
dy 2
dx 2
2 1 cos
2
Implicit differentiation takes four steps:
Step 1. Differentiate both sides of the equation.
Step 2. Send all terms with y ' to one side of the equation, and all terms
without to the other side.
Step 3. On the side with y ' terms, factor out the y ' .
Step 4. Solve for y ' by dividing.
Example:
Find the slope of the tangent line at the point (4,0) on the graph
of 7 y x 3 y x 4
4
84
d 2 d
[ y x 1] [0]
dx dx
dy
2y 1 0
dx
dy 1
dx 2 y
We then evaluate the derivative at x =2, y =-1, to obtain
dy 1
mtan
dx x 2 2
y 1
The tangent to the curve at (2, -1) is
1
y (1) ( x 2)
2
x x
y 1 1 and in the end y
2 2
The slope of normal line can be found from the condition m1 m2 1
mnor 2
The normal to the curve at (2, -1) is
y (1) 2( x 2)
y 2x 3
Example: Find slope of the curve x 2 y 3 2 x y at (2, 1).
Solution:
d 2 d
[ x y 3 ] [2 x y ]
dx dx
dy dy
2x 3y 2 2
dx dx
dy 2 2 x
dx 3 y 2 1
dy
Substitute (2, 1) into to find the slope at that point
dx
dy 2 22
1 is the slope of the curve.
dx x 2 3 12 1
y 1
85
d2y
Example: Use implicit differentiation to find 2
if 4 x 2 2 y 2 9 .
dx
Solution: Differentiating both sides of equation implicitly yields
dy
8x 4 y 0
dx
dy 2 x
dx y
We now apply the quotient rule to find y ' '
dy
2 y 2x
d 2 x dx
y ' ' =
dx y y2
2x
Finally we substitute y ' into y ' ' to express y ' ' in terms
y
of x and y
2x
2 y 2x
2
d y y 2 y 2 4x 2 1 2 y 2 4x 2
y'' = 2 = .
dx y2 y y2 y3
Exercises
In exercises 1-12 find dy / dx by implicit differentiation.
1. x 2 y 2 25 2. x 2 y 3xy 3 x 7
1 1
3. 2 4. x y 9
x y
3
5. ( x 2 3 y 2 ) 35 x 6. 3xy ( x 3 y 2 ) 2
7. sin( x 2 y 2 ) x 8. tan3 ( xy 2 y) x
9. 1 sin 3 ( xy 2 ) y 10. xy sin y 0
2 2 2 2 2
x y
11. 2
2 1 (a, b constants) 12. x 3 y 3 a 3
a b
In exercises 13-17 use the differentiation to find the slope of
the tangent line to the given curve at the given point.
13.
2 xy
sin y 2
at 1, 2
86
14. 2 y 3 4 xy x 2 7 at (1, 1)
15. x y x yx y 4
5 3 2 5
at (1, 1)
16. x tan xy 2
at 1,
4
17. x 3 y y 3 x 10 at (1, 2)
d2y
In exercises 18-21 find by implicit differentiation.
dx 2
18. 3x 2 4 y 2 6 19. x 3 y 3 27
20. x 3 y 3 6 0 21. 2 xy y 2 13
In exercises 22-23 find the lines that are a) tangent and b)
normal to the curve at the given point.
22. x 2 xy 2 2 y 2 0 at (1, 1)
23. x 2 y 2 9 at (-1, 3)
24. At what point(s) is the tangent line to the curve y 2 2x 3
perpendicular to the line 4 x 3 y 1 0 ?
25. Find the values of a and b for the curve x 2 y ay 2 b if the point
(1, 1) is on its graph and the tangent line at (1, 1) has the equation
4x 3 y 7 .
Answers
x 1 2 xy 3 y 3
y2 y
1. ; 2. ; 3. ; 4. ;
y x 9 xy
2 2
x 2
x
3 2 3 1
x (x y 2 ) 2 y
1 70x( x 2 3 y 2 ) 34
5. ; 6. 2 ;
210y ( x 3 y )
2 2 34 1
x y( x 3 y 2 ) 2
1 2 xy 2 cos(x 2 y 2 ) 1 3 y 2 tan2 ( xy 2 y) sec 2 ( xy 2 y)
7. ; 8. ;
2 x 2 y cos(x 2 y 2 ) 3(2 xy 1) tan2 ( xy 2 y) sec 2 ( xy 2 y)
3 y 2 sin 2 ( xy 2 ) cos( xy 2 ) y
9. ; 10. ;
2 1 sin 3 ( xy 2 ) 6 xy sin 2 ( xy 2 ) cos( xy 2 ) x cos y
87
1
b2 x y 3 3 8 2
11. 2 ; 12. ; 13. ; 14. ; 15. ;16. ;
a y x 2 5 9 4
14 12 y 2 9 x 2 2 xy 3 2 x 4 2y
17. ; 18. 3
; 19. 5
; 20. 2 ;
13 16 y y x
y 2 2 xy 3x 1 2x 5
21. ;22. y tan ; y nor ; 23. y tan 3x 6 ;
( y x) 3
2 2 3 3
1 8
y nor x ; 24. for all (x, y) which satisfies y 4 x 2 0 ;
3 3
1 5
25. a ; b .
4 4
88
Example: Find the linearization of f ( x) tan x at / 4 .
Solution: In this case f ' ( x) sec 2 x . We compute
f tan 1
4 4
f ' sec 2 ( 2 ) 2 2
4 4
Thus the linearization of tan x at is L( x) 1 2( x )
4 4
1
Example: Find the linearization of f ( x) at a 2.
x2
1
Solution: We evaluate (1) for f ( x)
x2
2
f ' ( x) ( x 2 ) ' 2 x 3 3
x
1 1
For a 2 we obtain f (2) ; and f ' (2)
4 4
1 1 1 3
Equation (1) gives L( x) ( x 2) L( x) x .
4 4 4 4
89
(1) dy f ' ( x0 ) dx
If dx 0 , then we can divide both sides of (1) by dx to obtain
dy dy
f ' ( x0 ) . Since f ' ( x0 ) m tan , where mtan is the slope of the
dx dx
tangent to y f (x) at x0 , the differentials dy and dx can be viewed as
a corresponding rise and run of this
tangent line (Fig. 3.5). y
It is important to understand the
distinction between the increment y=f(x)
y and differential dy.
To see the difference, let us represent
the change in y that occurs when we
start at x0 and travel along the curve
dy y
y f (x) until we moved x (=dx)
units in the x-direction, while dy x = dx
represents the change in y that occurs
if we started at x0 and travel along the 0
x0 x0+x
tangent line until we have moved dx x
(x0+dx)
(= x ) units in the x-direction (Fig. Fig.3.6
3.6)
90
Example:
Let y x . Find dy and y if x0 = 4 and x 3 .
Solution: From y f ( x0 x) f ( x0 ) with f ( x) x ,
y x0 x x0 7 4 0.65
dy 1 1 1 3
Since y x , then , dy dx 3 0.75 .
dx 2 x 2 x 2 4 4
Notice that dy is very close to y , as was to be expected.
Example: Find dy and y for y x 2 2 x when x0 = 2
and dx x 1 .
Solution: y f ( x0 x) f ( x0 ) = f (3) f (2) =
= (32 2 3) (2 2 2 2) 3 .
y x 2 2x ;
dy
2 x 2 ; and dy (2 x 2)dx (2 2 2) 1 2 .
dx
3.12. Using the differential
91
3
Example: Use approximation formula to estimate 29
3
Solution: Because we wish to estimate 29 , we introduce the cube
root function f ( x) x . We know the exact value of 3 x when
3
Thus we have
1
3
29 3 2 or
3 3 27 2
2
3
29 3 3 0.0741 3.0741.
27
To estimate f (b) take the following steps:
1. Find a number x0 near b at which f ( x0 ) and f ' ( x0 ) are easy to
calculate
2. Find x b x0 . ( x may be positive or negative)
3. Compute f ( x0 ) f ' ( x0 ) x . This is an estimate of f (b).
In short, f (b) f ( x0 ) f ' ( x0 ) (b x0 )
Example: Use a differential to estimate 61
Solution: Let us take the point x0 64 , since f (64) is known. We have
f (64) 64 8 .
1 1
f ' (64)
2 64 16
Since 61=64-3, x 3 . Therefore
1
61 =f (64-3) f (64) f ' (64) (3) 8 (3) 7.81.
16
Example: Use (2) to approximate cos 62
Solution: We shall take advantage of the fact that 62 is close to 60
at which point the trigonometric functions are easy to estimate
92
31
62 and 60 .
90 3
31
x0 x and x0
90 3
It follows that x , so (2) yields
90
31 '
f f f ;
90 3 3 90
31 1 3
cos cos sin 0.4698 .
90 3 3 90 2 2 90
d [ ] denotes the differential of the expression in the brackets.
For example:
d[ x 2 ] 2 xdx
d[ f ( x)] f ' ( x)dx
The basic rules of differentiation can be expressed in terms of
differentials.
Differential formulas:
d [c] =0
d[cf ] c df
d[ f g ] df dg
d[ f g ] f dg g df
f g df f dg
d
g g2
93
Exercises
94
Answers
x 1 x 4
1. L( x) ; 2. L( x) ; 3. L( x) 11x 16 ;
2 12 3
x 1 1
4. L( x) ; 5. dy 0.6; y 0.69 ; 6. dy ; y 7 3 ;
4 4 3
1 2 1
7. dy ; y 1 ; 8. dy ; y ; 9. 10.91 ; 10. 2.9259;
9 3 5 3
11. 0.98; 12. 0.856;13. 0.13; 14. 0.5302; 15. dy (12x 2 14x 2)dx ;
3 x x
16. dy sin 2 cos dx ; 17. 3 tan 2 x sec 2 xdx ;
2 2 2
2x 3 6x 2 1
18. [3x 2 sec 2 5x 10x 3 sec 2 5x tan 5x]dx ; 19. dx ;
(2 x) 2
3x 2
20. dx .
( x 3 1) 2
95
Chapter 4
Applications of derivatives
relative
relative
minimum
maximum
c
c
a critical point a critical point
Fig.4.3
Fig.4.4
b) If f ' (c) 0 on an open interval extending left from c and f ' (c) 0
on an open interval extending right from c, then f has a
relative minimum at c.(Fig.4.4).
c) If f has the same sign [either f ' (c) 0 or f ' (c) 0 ] on an open
interval extending left from c and on an open interval extending right
from c, then f does not have a relative extremum at c.
97
Briefly, the relative extrema, on an open interval where f is
continuous occur at those critical points where f ' changes the sign.
Example: Locate the relative extrema of f ( x) x 2 2 x 1 .
Solution:
f ' ( x) 2 x 2
Solving f ' ( x) 0 we obtain x =1. To see whether the critical point is a
relative maximum, relative minimum or neither, check the sign of
f ' ( x) 2 x 2 .
If x 1 then (2 x 2) 0 , and
If x 1 then (2 x 2) 0 , so the first derivative test tells us
that the critical point x =1 is a relative minimum.
Example: Locate the relative extrema of f ( x) x 3 3x 2 3x 1 .
Solution:
f ' ( x) 3 x 2 6 x 3
f ' ( x) 0 3( x 1) 2 0 and x =1 is only critical point.
Since ( x 1) 2 0 for all x and f ' ( x) does not change sign at x =1, we
make conclusion:
In spite the fact that x =1 is a critical point but f does not have a relative
extrema at x =1. Thus f has no extrema.
Example: Locate the relative extrema of f ( x) 3 x 1 .
Solution:
1
f ' ( x) .
3 ( x 1) 2
3
Since f ' ( x) does not exist when x 1 , so this point is a critical point.
But, as we see, f ' does not change the sign. We make conclusion that f
does not have a relative extrema at x =1.
Example: Locate the relative extrema using first derivative test of
f ( x) 2 x 3 9 x 2 12x .
Solution: f ' ( x) 6 x 2 18x 12
f ' ( x) 0 6 x 2 18x 12 0 yields x1 1; x2 2
98
The sign of f ' changes from + to + + + - - - - + + +
- at x =1 and from - to + at 1 2
the point x =2. Thus there is a ' 2
relative maximum at x =1 and Sign of f =6x -18x+12
relative minimum at x =2.
Relative maximum equals 5 at x =1 and relative minimum is 4 at x =2.
Second derivative test:
Suppose that f is twice differentiable at a stationary point c.
a) If f ' ' (c) 0 then f has a relative minimum at c.
b) If f ' ' (c) 0 then f has a relative maximum c.
Example: Locate the relative extrema of f ( x) x 4 2 x 2 .
Solution: f ' ( x) 4 x 3 4 x
f ' ' ( x) 12x 2 4
Solving f ' ( x) 0 yields the stationary points x 0 , x 1 , x 1 .
Since
f ' ' (0) 4 0
f ' ' (1) 8 0
f ' ' (1) 8 0
there is a relative maximum at x =0, relative minimum at x =1; x =-1.
Example: Find all relative extrema of the function f ( x) x 4 2 x 3 .
Solution: f ' ( x) 4 x 3 6 x 2
f ' ' ( x) 12x 2 12x - - - - + + + + + +
f ' ( x) 0
-3 0
2 x 2 ( x 3) 0 ;
x1 0; x2 3 . Sign of f ' ( x) =4x3+6x2
99
1
Example: Find relative extrema of f ( x) x sin x , 0 x 2
2
using second derivative test.
1
Solution: f ' ( x) cos x
2
f ( x) sin x
''
1
From f ' ( x) 0 we obtain cos x ; x .
2 3
3
f '' 0 , so f (x) has a relative minimum at x and its
3 2 3
value is
3 3 3
f .
3 6 2 6
Exercises
1
6. f ( x) x 3 ( x 4)
In exercises 7-16 use any method to find the relative extrema.
7. f ( x) x 5 8. f ( x) x 3 5x 2
9. f ( x) x( x 1) 2 10. f ( x) 2 x 2 x 4
4
11. f ( x) x 5 12. f ( x) tan(x 2 1)
x 2 3x 2
13. f ( x) 2 x x 2 14. f ( x)
x 2 2x 1
4
15. f ( x) ( x 1) 3 16. f ( x) 1 ( x 2) 5
100
In exercises 17-18 f ' ( x) is given. Find all critical points and
determine whether a relative maximum, relative minimum or neither
occurs there.
9 4x 2
17. f ' ( x) x 3 ( x 2 5) 18. f ' ( x)
3
x 1
k
19. Find a value of k so that x 2 will have a relative extremum
x
at x 3 .
x
20. Find a value of k so that 2 will have a relative extremum
x k
at x 2.5
Answers
101
4.2. Maximum and minimum values of a function on a
closed interval
102
There are two critical points x1 1 and x2 2 . But only x2 2 lies
on [0, 3]. So x1 1 is not a point of interest.
Step 2:
f (0) 0 ;
f (2) 2 23 3 2 2 12 2 20 ;
f (3) 2 33 3 32 12 3 9
Step 3:
Thus, the minimum value of f on [0, 3] is 20, which occurs at x =2,
and the maximum value of f on [0, 3] is 0, which occurs at x =0.
Example:
2
Find the maximum and minimum value of f ( x) x3 (20 x)
on [-1, 20]
Solution:
Differentiating, we obtain
1 2 1
2 2 40 5 x
f ( x) x 3 (20 x) x 3 = x 3 (20 x) x = 3
'
3 3 3 x
Thus, f ' ( x) 0 at x =8 and f ' ( x) does not exist at x =0. It follows that
both of critical points lie on the [-1, 20]. Let us evaluate f at these and at
endpoints:
f ( x) 3 x 2 (20 x)
f (1) 3 (1) 2 (20 (1)) 21
f (0) 0
f (8) 3 82 (20 8) 4 12 48
f (20) 3 202 (20 20) 0 .
Thus, the maximum value of f on [-1, 20] is 48, which occurs at x =8
and the minimum value is 0, which occurs at two points
x 0 and x 20 .
103
4.3. Concavity
104
c) f ' ( x) ( x 1) 2 (4 x 1)
1
f ' ' ( x) 12( x )(x 1) .
2
1
f ' ' 0 if x1 and x 2 1 .
2
f ( x) 0 if x (;1 / 2) and x (1;) ,
''
105
numbers are inflection numbers. The graph of f (x) has two inflection
points namely (1, f (1))=(1, 7) and (2, f (2))=(2, 16).
Example:
Find the inflection point of f ( x) 3 x 1
2
1
Solution: f ( x) ( x 1) 3 ;
'
3
5
2 2
f ( x) ( x 1) 3
''
9 9 3 ( x 1) 5
f ' ' ( x) is never zero. f ' ' ( x) is not defined at x =1. Let us check if
f ' ' ( x) changes the sign at x =1.
If x <1 then f ' ' ( x) 0 and if x >1 then f ' ' ( x) 0 so point
(1, f (1))=(1, 0) is an inflection point.
Exercises
106
Answers
1. max f ( x) f 2 1 ; min f ( x) f (0) f (1) 0 ;
2 4
2. max f ( x) f (1) 3 ; min f ( x) f (0) 0 ;
3. max f ( x) f (3) 24 ; min f ( x) f (1) 8 ;
4. max f ( x) f (4) 27 ; min f ( x) f (0) 1 ;
5. max f ( x) f (1) 3 / 5 ; min f ( x) f (1) 3 / 5 ;
6. max f ( x) f (3) 3 144 ; min f ( x) f (1) f (0) 0 ;
7. max f ( x) f 1 ; min f ( x) f 1 ;
4 4 4 4
8. concave up: x >1, concave down x <1, inflection point: x =1;
9. concave up for all x ; 10. concave up for x <0 and x >2; concave
down for 0< x <2; inflection points: x = 0, 2; 11. concave up for
x 1 / 3 , concave down for x 1 / 3 ; inflection points:
x 1 / 3 ; 12. concave up for x < 0 and x >2/3, concave down for
0 < x < 2/3 ; inflection points: x =0; 2/3 ; 13. concave up for
( / 2 x 3 / 2 ; concave down for (0 x / 2) and
(3 / 2 x 2 ) ; inflection points: / 2 ; 3 / 2 ; 14. concave up for
x >1/2; concave down for x < 1/2 ; inflection point: 1/2.
4.5. Asymptotes
107
f ( x)
If lim k and lim [ f ( x) kx] b exists then the line
x x x
1
To search for horizontal asymptote we examine lim 0 and
x ( x 1) 2
1
lim 0 . The line y 0 is a horizontal asymptote.(Fig. 4.7).
x ( x 1) 2
Example:
x
Find vertical and horizontal asymptote of f ( x) .
x2
Solution: Vertical asymptotes occurs at x 2 ;
x x
lim ; and lim .
x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2
The line x = 2 is a vertical asymptote.
The horizontal asymptote:
x x
lim 1 and lim 1,
x x 2 x x 2
108
Example:
x3
Find asymptotes of f ( x) .
x2 1
Solution: As we see the graph of function has neither a vertical
x3
( x 2 1 0 for all x) , nor a horizontal ( lim 2 ) asymptote.
x x 1
x3
b lim [ f ( x) 1 x] = lim 2 x =0.
x x x 1
So, an oblique asymptote is the line y x.
Exercises
109
Answers
1. y 2; x 3 ; 2. y 1; x 1; x 1 ; 3. y 0 ; 4. x = -2/5; y =-4/5;
5. y = -1; 6. y =-1, x =1; x =-1; 7. y =3x; 8. y =0, x =2; x =0; x =1;
9. y =0, x =-2; x =2; 10. y =1, x =0; 11. y =3, ;x =0; 12. y = x-6 ; x =0;
13. y = x+1 ; x =0.
so x 1 is a vertical asymptote.
1 x2 1 x2
lim and lim ,
x 1 1 x 2 x 1 1 x 2
so x 1 is a vertical asymptote.
110
1 x2 1 x2
4) lim 1 and lim 1 ,
x 1 x 2 x 1 x 2
so y 1 is a horizontal asymptote.
5) Let us find the critical points:
2 x(1 x 2 ) 2 x(1 x 2 ) 4x
y'
(1 x ) 2 2
(1 x 2 ) 2
There is only one critical point x 0 ; since x 1 are not from domain
of function, we omit them. If x 0 , then f ' ( x) 0 , if x 0 , then
f ' ( x) 0 .So point x 0 is a point of relative minimum.
f min f (0) 1 ____ ___
+++ ++
On (,1) and (-1,0) function -1 0 1
is decreasing and on (0,1) and (1, ) Sign of f
it is increasing.
6) Concavity: y
4(1 3x ) 2
y''
(1 x 2 ) 3
Since y ' ' 0 on (-1,1), the -1
1 1 x
graph is concave up on this interval. 0
y 0 on (,1) and (1,) ,
''
-1
on these intervals graph of function
is concave down. y ' ' 0 so there is
no inflection point.
7) y intercept is 1, since f (0)=1.
The graph does not cross Ox- axis, Fig. 4.8
1 x2
because 0 does not have a solution. The final graph is shown
1 x2
in Fig.4.8.
x2 1
Example: Sketch the graph of y .
x3
Solution:
1) Domain of function is (,0) (0,) .
111
2) Symmetries: Replacing x by x and y by y yields an equation that
simplifies back to the original equation, so the graph is symmetric
about the origin.
x2 1 x2 1
3) lim and lim yield the vertical
x 0 x3 x 0 x3
asymptote x 0 .
x2 1 x2 1
4) lim 0 and lim 0 yield the horizontal
x x 3 x x 3
asymptote y 0 .
dy 2 x x 3 3x 2 ( x 2 1) 3 x 2
5) =
dx x6 x4
x 3 are stationary points.
Function is decreasing on ___ 0 0
+++ +++ ++
(, 3 ) and ( 3,) . _
++ 0
3 3
And function is increasing on Sign of y
( 3,0) and (0, 3 )
2 3
At x 3 there is a relative minimum f ( 3 ) ;
9
2 3
at x 3 there is a relative maximum f ( 3 ) ;
9
2( x 2 6)
6) Concavity: y ' ' ___ 0 0
x5 +++ --- ++
_
This analysis show that a change ++ 0
6 6
in concavity occurs at the vertical ''
asymptote x 0 and at the points Sign of y
x 6 and x 6 .
112
y
3 3
-1 1 x
Fig.4.9
Exercises
113
4.7. Rolles theorem; Mean-value theorem
114
theorem, namely the function f is not differentiable at every point of the
interval (-1, 1).
The Mean- value theorem:
Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b] and have a
derivative at every x in the interval (a, b). Then there is at least one
number c in the interval (a, b) such that
f (b) f (a)
f ' (c )
ba
Example:
Verify the Mean-value theorem for f ( x) 2 x 2 x 1 ; a =-2; b =3
Solution:
Because f is a polynomial, it is differentiable and continuous
everywhere, hence it is continuous on [-2,3] and differentiable
on (-2, 3). The hypothesis of Mean-value theorem are satisfied.
f (a) f (2) 2(2) 2 (2) 1 7
f (b) f (3) 2(3) 2 (3) 1 22
f ' ( x) 4 x 1
f ' (c) 4c 1 , so the equation
f (b) f (a)
f ' (c ) becomes
ba
22 7 15 1
4c 1 3, c .
3 (2) 5 2
As we see c (2,3) and it is only number whose existence is
guarantied by the Mean-value theorem.
Example:
1
Verify the Mean-value theorem for f ( x) on [2, 5] and find all
x 1
values of c that satisfy the conclusion of the theorem.
Solution:
1
f ( x) is continuous on [2, 5] and differentiable on (2, 5). The
x 1
hypothesis of the theorem are satisfied.
115
1
f (a) f (2) 1 ; f (b) f (5)
4
1 1
f ' ( x) ; f ' (c ) ,
( x 1) 2 (c 1) 2
1
1
1 4
according to the theorem ;
(c 1) 2 5 2
(c 1) 2 4 and we find c1 3 and c2 1 .
Only the c1 is in the interval (2, 5), so c =3 is the only number in (2, 5)
that satisfies the conclusion of the Mean- value theorem.
Exercises
116
c) Is there any number c in (-1, 1) such that f ' (c) 0 ?
d) Why does this function not contradict Rolles theorem?
Answers
13
1. 1; 2. 0; 1; -1; 3. 3; 4. 1; 5. 2.5; 6. ; 7. 13/4 ; 8. 3 2 .
3
f ( x)
If lim f ( x) 0 and lim g ( x) 0 then finding lim
x a x a g ( x)
x a
117
In this case, a 1 , f ( x) x 3 1 , g ( x) x 2 1 . All assumptions of
LHopitals rule are satisfied. In particular,
lim( x 3 1) 0 and lim( x 2 1) 0 .
x 1 x 1
According to LHopitals rule,
x3 1 0 ( x 3 1) ' 3x 2
lim 2 = = lim 2 = lim =3/2.
x 1 x 1 0 x 1 ( x 1) ' x 1 2 x
sin 3x
Example: Use LHopitals rule to evaluate lim
x 0 x
Solution: Since lim sin 3x 0 and lim x 0 the given limit is an
x 0 x 0
0
indeterminate form of type . Thus, we can apply LHopitals rule:
0
sin 3x 0 (sin 3x) ' 3 cos 3x
lim = = lim = lim 3.
x 0 '
x 0 x 0 ( x) x 0 1
sin x x
Example: Find lim
x 0 x3
Solution: As x 0 , both numerator and denominator approach zero.
According to LHopitals rule
sin x x 0 (sin x x) ' cos x 1 0
lim = = lim = lim
0 0
3 3 '
x 0 x x 0 (x ) x 0 3x 2
Let us use LHopitals rule for the second time:
cos x 1 0 (cos x 1) ' sin x 0
lim = lim lim
0 0
x 0 2 2 '
3x x 0 (3x ) x 0 6x
Using LHopitals rule again we obtain
sin x 0 ( sin x) ' cos x 1
lim = lim lim .
0 x 0 (6 x )
x 0 ' x 0
6x 6 6
f ( x)
Warning: When applying LHopitas rule to lim , the derivative
x a g ( x )
f ' ( x)
of f (x) and g (x) are taken separately. lim . Do not make the
x a g ' ( x)
118
f ( x)
mistake of differentiating according to quotient rule.
g ( x)
Theorem: ( LHopitals rule for case )
Let f and g be defined and differentiable functions of x. If f (x) and
g (x) both approaches infinity as x approaches a , then
f ( x) f ' ( x)
lim = = lim '
x a g ( x ) xa g ( x)
A similar result holds for x a , x a , x or x .
Moreover, lim f ( x) and lim g ( x) could both be , or one could be
xa xa
and the other .
4 x 2 3x
Example: Find lim
x 5 x 2 7
(8 x 3) ' 8 4
= lim '
= lim .
x (10x) x 10 5
tan x
Example: Find lim
x / 2 tan 3 x
Solution:
tan x
lim = ; Let us apply LHopitals rule
x / 2 tan 3 x
1
tan x (tan x) '
cos 2 x =
lim = = lim = lim
x / 2 tan 3 x x / 2 (tan3 x) ' x / 2 3
cos 2 3x
cos2 3x 0 6 cos 3x sin 3x sin 6 x
= lim = = lim = lim =
x / 2 3 cos 2 x 0 x / 2 6 cos x sin x x / 2 sin 2 x
119
0 6 cos 6 x 6
= = lim 3.
0 x / 2 2 cos 2 x 2
Indeterminate form of type (0 ) or ( ) .
If lim f ( x) 0 and lim g ( x) then lim[ f ( x) g ( x)] is called an
x a x a x a
indeterminate form of type (0 ) .
Similarly if lim f ( x) and lim g ( x) then lim[ f ( x) g ( x)]
x a x a x a
produces an indeterminate form of ( ) . The limits of these types
0
can be converted to the form of or and then can be evaluated
0
by LHopitals rule.
1 1
Example: Find lim
x 0 x sin x
Solution:
1 1
Since lim and lim the given problem is an
x 0 x x 0 sin x
0
indeterminate form of type ( ) . Let us convert it to form and
0
apply LHopitals rule
1 1 sin x x 0 (sin x x) '
lim = lim = = lim =
x 0 x sin x x0 x sin x 0 x0 ( x sin x) '
cos x 1 0 (cos x 1) '
= lim = = lim =
x 0 sin x x cos x 0 x0 (sin x x cos x)
'
sin x
= lim =0.
x 0 cos x cos x x sin x
120
1 tan x 0 (1 tan x) '
lim (1 tan x) sec 2 x = lim = = lim =
x / 4 x / 4 cos 2 x 0 x / 4 (cos 2 x)
'
sec 2 x 2
= lim 1.
x / 4 2 sin 2 x 2
Although the LHopitals rule is very useful and widely used method,
there are some limits for which LHopitals rule does not help.
4x 1
Example: Evaluate lim
x x3
Solution:
lim 4 x 1 and lim x 1 , so the given limit is an
x x
indeterminate form of . Thus,
4x 1 ( 4 x 1) ' 4 x3
lim = = lim = lim =
x x 3 x ( x 3 ) ' x 4x 1
Repeated application of LHopitals rule simply will produce another
indeterminate form of . We must try something else.
The given limit can be rewritten as
4x 1 4x 1 4 1/ x
lim = lim = lim = lim 4 2.
x x 3 x x 3 x 1 3 / x x
Exercises
121
x 1 5
5. lim(1 x) tan 6. lim 2
x 1 2 x 3 x 3 x x 6
x cos x sin x 4x 3 2x 2 2
7. lim 8. lim
x 0 x3 x 1 4 x 2 5 x 1
1 2 sin x
9. lim 10. lim( x cot x)
x x 0
6 cos 3 x
1 1
11. lim 2 cot 2 x 12. lim cot x
x 0 x x 0 x
sin x 2 x 8
3
13. lim 14. lim 2
x0 (sin x ) 2 x 2 x 5
4 x 2 3 cos 3x x sin x
15. lim 16. lim
x 2 x 2 2 sin 2 x x 0 tan x sin x
Answers
2
2 1 1 8 3
1. 3; 2. ; 3. 5; 4. 0; 5. ; 6. ; 7. ; 8. ; 9. ;
2 5 3 3 3
1
10. ;11. 2/3; 12. 0; 13. 1; 14. 16/9; 15. 2; 16. 1/3; 17. 1;
18. does not exist; 19. 2 2 ; 20. 2/3.
122
Chapter 5
Integration
123
[ f ( x) g ( x)]dx f ( x)dx g ( x)dx
3) An antiderivative of a difference is the difference of the
antiderivatives
[ f ( x) g ( x)]dx f ( x)dx g ( x)dx .
(1) 0 dx C
(2) dx x C
x n 1
(3) x n dx
n 1
C; (n 1)
124
Example: Evaluate
dx dx
a)
x5
; b) 3
x
c) 4
x dx
Solution:
x n 1
For all integrals we will apply (3) x n dx
n 1
C for different n:
dx x 51 1
5
a) = x dx = C= 4 C;
x 5
5 1 4x
1
1 1
dx x 3 33 2
b) 3
x
= x 3 dx =
1
C=
2
x C;
1
3
1
1 1
4 x4
c) 4
x dx =
1
C = 4 x5 C
x 4 dx =
5
1
4
Second and third properties of indefinite integrals can be extended to
more than two functions:
[ f ( x) g ( x) h( x)]dx f ( x)dx g ( x)dx h( x)dx
Example: Evaluate (6 x 2 x 7 x 4)dx 3 2
Solution:
(6x 2x 7 x 4)dx = 6 x dx -
3 2 3
2 x dx 7 xdx 4dx 6 x dx 2 x
2 3 2
dx 7 xdx
x4 x3
4 dx 6
4
C1 2
3
C 2 +
x2 3 2 7
7 C3 4( x C 4 ) x 4 x 3 x 2 4 x
2 2 3 2
3 2 7
+ (6C1 2C2 7C3 4C4 ) x 4 x 3 x 2 4 x C
2 3 2
125
Sometimes it is useful to rewrite an integrand (simplify) in a different
form before performing integration.
Example: Evaluate
sin x t 4 3t 6
a)
cos 2 x
dx ; b) t6
dt
Solution:
sin x sin x 1
a)
cos x2
dx =
cos x cos x
dx = tan x sec xdx = sec x
t 4 3t 6 1
b)
t 6 t
dt = 2 3 dt = t 2 dt 3dt =
1
t 1
= 3t C 3t C .
1 t
2
x x
Example: Find sin cos dx
2 2
Solution:
2
x x 2 x x x x
sin cos dx = sin
2 2 2
2 sin cos cos2 dx =
2 2 2
= (1 sin x)dx = x cos x C
1
Example: Evaluate 1 sin x dx
Solution:
Let us multiply numerator and denominator by (1-sinx).
We obtain
1 1 sin x 1 sin x
1 sin x
dx =
(1 sin x)(1 sin x)
dx =
cos 2 x
dx =
1
=
cos2 x
dx tan x sec xdx tan x sec x C
x
Example: Evaluate sin 2 dx 2
Solution:
1 cos 2 x
Let us use identity sin 2 x
2
126
x 1 cos x 1 cos x x sin x
sin dx
dx
C .
2
dx = dx =
2 2 2 2 2 2
Exercises
x 5 2x 2 1
7. x4
dx
8. [4 sin x 2 cos x]dx
sin 2 x cos3 5
11.
cos x
dx 12.
cos2
d
1
13. 3 x 2
3
dx
x
14. (ax b) 3 dx
x
15. sin 2 dx
2
16. Find the antiderivative F (x) of f ( x) 3 x that satisfies F (1) 2 .
17. Find a function f such that f ' ( x) cos x 0 and f 2 .
2
Answers
4 9
5 3 x x6 4 4
1. x C ; 2. x 2
C ; 3. 8 t C ; 4. x C ;
3 4 6 9
5
6 40 5 3 x 4 1 2
5. x 3 x 2 x C ;6. x 4 x 3 C ; 7. x 2
5 3 5 3 2 x
1
3 C ; 8. 4 cos x 2 sin x C ; 9. tan x sec x C ;
3x
127
2
10. cot C ; 11. 2cosx +C ; 12. sin 5 tan C ;
3
3 3 a3 4 3
13. x3 x 2 3 x 2 C ; 14. x a 2bx3 ab2 x 2
5 2 4 2
1 3 4 5
b 3 x C ; 15. ( x sin x) C ; 16. F ( x) x 3 ;
2 4 4
17. f ( x) 3 sin x .
128
Solution:
u 5x
du 1 1
sin 5xdx =
du 5dx = sin u
5
= cos u C cos 5 x C .
5 5
du
dx
5
Remark: There are no hard and fast rules for choosing u making an
appropriate choice will come with experience.
Example: Evaluate sin 3 x cos x dx
Solution:
u sin x u4 sin 4 x
sin 3 x cos xdx =
du cos xdx
= u 3 du 4
C=
4
C
sin x
Example: Evaluate x
dx
Solution:
du 1
If we let u x , then , so
dx 2 x
dx dx
du and 2du . Then
2 x x
sin x
x
dx = sin u 2du = 2 cos u C 2 cos x C .
x2
Example: Evaluate 1 x3
dx
Solution:
u 1 x3 1
1
2
x du / 3 1 u 2
1 x
dx = du 3 x 2 dx =
3 u
=
3 1
C
du 1
x 2 dx 2
3
129
1 2
= 2 u C 1 x3 C .
3 3
7t 3 4 7t 4 dt
3
Example: Evaluate
Solution:
7t 3 4 7t 4 dt =
3
u 4 7t 4 1
1
du 1 u3
4
= du 28t 3 dt = 3 u ( ) =
41
C =
du 1
7t 3 dt 3
4
1 3 3
= 3 u 4 C 3 (4 7t 4 ) 4 C .
4 4 16
Example: Evaluate x 2 x 1 dx
Solution:
u x 1
x x 1 dx = du dx = (u 1) 2 u du =
2
x u 1
5 3 1
= (u 2u 1) u du = u 2u u 2 du =
2 2 2
7 5 3
2 4 2
= u2 u2 u2 C =
7 5 3
7 5 3
2 4 2
= ( x 1) 2 ( x 1) 2 ( x 1) 2 C .
7 5 3
Exercises
(1 x ) x dx (1 x ) xdx
2 6 3 2
1. 2.
3. cos 7 d 4. ( x 3) dx 5
130
2x 7
x sin x 6 dx (x
5
5. 6. dx
2
7 x 6) 4
t 8t 14 dt x 4 dx
2
7. 8.
x dx
9. cos dx 10. sin 2
4 3x
cos x
11. x x 2 dx 12. 1 4 sin x
dx
x x2
13. 1 x2
dx 14. x3 1
dx
sin(5 / x)
x sec ( x ) dx
2 2 3
15. dx 16.
x2
17. sin 5 3t cos 3t dt 18. cos 4 2 sin 4 d
19. sec 3
2 x tan 2 x dx 20. [sec (cos3 )] sin 3 d
2
Answers
1 3 4 sin 7 ( x 3) 6
1. (1 x 2 ) 7 C ; 2. (1 x 2 ) 3 C ;3. C ;4. C;
14 8 7 6
1 1 1 1
5. cos x 6 C ;6. 2 C ;7. (8t 2 14) 3 C ;
6 3 ( x 7 x 6) 3
24
2 x 1
8. ( x 4) 3 C ; 9. 4 sin C ; 10. cot 3x C ;
3 4 3
2 5 4 3 1
11. ( x 2) 2 ( x 2) 2 C ; 12. 1 4 sin x C ;
5 3 2
2 3 1
13. 1 x 2 C ; 14. x 1 C ;15. cos(5 / x) C ;
3 5
1 1 1 3
16. tan(x 3 ) C ; 17. sin 6 3t C ; 18. (2 sin 4 ) 2 C ;
3 18 6
1 1
19. sec 2 x C ; 20. tan(cos3 ) C .
3
6 3
131
5.3. Sigma notation
from 1 to n.
Example: Write 13 2 3 33 4 3 in the sigma notation.
Solution:
4
13 2 3 33 4 3 k
k 1
3
5
Example: Compute 2
k 1
k
5
Solution: 2
k 1
k
= 21 2 2 23 2 4 25 =2+4+8+16+32=62.
n n n
b)
k 1
(a k bk )
k 1
ak b
k 1
k
n n n
c) (a
k 1
k bk ) a b
k 1
k
k 1
k
132
10
Example: Evaluate k (k 3)
k 1
Solution:
10 10 10 10 10
k 1
k (k 3)
k 1
k2
k 1
3k
k 1
k2 3k
k 1
10 11 21 10 11
3 385 165 550 .
6 2
Some sums are formed by adding up differences. When each term of a
sum cancels part of the next term, leaving only portions of the first and
last terms at the end of the sum is said to telescope.
1 1
50
Example: Evaluate
k 1 k
k 1
Solution:
1 1
50
1 1 1 1 1
(1 ) ( ) ( ) .....
k 1 k k 1 2 2 3 3 4
1 1 1 50
.... ( ) 1 .
50 51 51 51
n
Example: Evaluate (a
k 1
k a k 1 )
Solution:
n
(a
k 1
k a k 1 ) = (a1 a2 ) (a2 a3 ) ..... (an an1 ) a1 a n1
Exercises
In exercises 1-3 evaluate the sums.
3 4 3
1. a) k ;
k 1
b) 2k ;
k 1
c) n
n 1
2
4 6 150
2. a) 1
i 1
i
; b) (1)
k 2
k
; c) 3 j 1
6 10 5
3. a)
j 2
(3 j 1) ; b)
n 0
1; c) 2
m 3
m 1
133
In exercises 4-10 write is sigma notation, but do not evaluate.
4. x x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7
3
1 1 1
5. ........
3 4 102
6. 1 2 2 3 3 4 ...... 49 50
7. 1-3+5-7+9-11
1 1 1 1
8. 1
2 3 4 5
9. b0 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5
10. a 5 a 4 b a 3b 2 a 2 b 3 ab4 b 5
In exercises 11-13 evaluate sum using useful sums formulas.
20 6 30
11.
k 1
k2 ; 12.
k 1
(4k 3 2k 1) ; 13. k (k 2)(k 2)
k 1
In exercises 14-16 evaluate telescoping sums.
100 50
1
1
14. (2 i 2 i 1 ) ; 15.
i 1 i 1 2i 1 2(i 1) 1
20
1
k
1
16.
2
(k 1) 2
k 2
17. Evaluate
100 n n
a) i ;
i 1
b) n ;
k 1
c) kx
k 1
Answers
1. a) 6; b) 20; c)14; 2. a) 4;b) 1; c) 450; 3. a) 55; b) 11; c) 112;
7 102 49 6 5
1 1
4. x i ;5. ;6. n(n 1) ;7. (1) k 1 (2k 1) ;8. (1) k ;
i 3 k 3 k n 1 k 1 k 1 k
5 5
9.
k 0
(1) k 1 bk ; 10. a
k 0
5 k
b k ; 11. 2870; 12. 1728;
100 399
13. 214365; 14. 2100 1 ;15. ; 16. ; 17. a) 5050; b) n 2 ;
101 400
1
c) n(n 1) x .
2
134
5. 4. The definite integral and its properties
We write
b n
f ( x)dx lim
max xk 0
f (x
k 1
k ) x k .
a
Briefly, the definite integral f over [a, b] is the area under the curve
y f (x) over [a, b].
b
135
area under b
A y f ( x) over = f ( x)dx .
[a, b] a
5
Example: Evaluate x dx
3
y
Solution: The integral represents the area
y=x
under the graph of y = x over [3, 5]. (Fig.5.2).
This region is a trapezoid whose parallel
sides are have length 3 and 5, and whose
height is 2. 0
Thus 3 5 x
5 Fig. 5.2
35
x dx =
3
2
28
6
Example: Evaluate (2 x) dx
2
y
Solution: y=2-x
The integrand is negative over [2, 6],
so the integral is the negative of the 0 2 6 x
area of the triangle (Fig. 5.3). The area
of triangle is 8, so
6 Fig. 5.3
(2 x) dx 8 .
2
Properties of definite integrals
b a
1. f ( x)dx = f ( x)dx
a b
a
2. f ( x)dx 0
a
b b
3.
a
c f ( x)dx = c f ( x)dx
a
136
b b b
4. [ f ( x) g ( x)]dx = f ( x)dx + g ( x)dx
a a
a
b b b
5. [ f ( x) g ( x)]dx = f ( x)dx - g ( x)dx
a a
a
b b b b
6. [ f ( x) g ( x) h( x)]dx = f ( x)dx + g ( x)dx h( x)dx
a a a
a
7. If a, b, and c are numbers then
b c b
f ( x)dx 0
a
9. If f and g are integrable functions on [a, b], where a b and
f ( x) g ( x) for all x in [a, b], then
b b
a
f ( x)dx g ( x)dx
a
10. If m and M are numbers and m f ( x) M for all x in [a, b], then
b
m(b a) f ( x)dx M (b a) if a < b
a
and
b
m(b a) f ( x)dx M (b a) if a > b
a
Example: Suppose that
6 6 6
1
f ( x)dx 1 ;
3
f ( x)dx 3 and g ( x)dx 4 .
3
6 3
Find
a) [3 f ( x) g ( x)]dx ;
3
b) f ( x)dx
1
137
Solution:
a) From properties of definite integral
6 6 6
3
[3 f ( x) g ( x)]dx = 3 3
f ( x) dx g ( x)dx = 3 3 4 5 .
3
b) From 7 th property of definite integral with a=1, b=6, c=3
6 3 6
3
f ( x)dx = f ( x)dx
2
th
From 7 property we obtain
3 1 3
2
f ( x)dx
2
f ( x)dx f ( x)dx 2 (6) 4
1
and
f ( x)dx = (4) 4
3
It can be shown that
b
c dx c(b a) (c-const);
a
b
b2 a2
a
x dx
2
2
; and
b
b3
0
x 2 dx
3
.
138
Using these integrals we can evaluate other integrals.
3
x
2
Example: Evaluate dx
0
3
33
Solution:
0
x 2 dx =
3
9
(3x 4 x 5)dx
2
Example: Evaluate
0
4 4 4 4
(3x
4 x 5)dx = 3 x dx 4 xdx 5 dx =
2 2
Solution:
0 0 0 0
3 2 2
4 4 0
= 3( ) 4( ) 5(4 0) 64 4 8 20 52 .
3 2 2
3
x
2
Example: Evaluate dx
2
3 3 2
33 2 3 1
Solution:
2
x 2 dx = x 2 dx x 2 dx =
0
0
3
3
6 .
3
Exercises
n
3. lim
max xk 0
(cos
k 1
2
x k )x k ; a
2 3
; b
139
2 1
1 1
4.
0
(1
2
x) dx 5. (1 2 x) dx
1
9 5
6. 6 dx
7
7. (3 4 x) dx
0
3 3
8. 0
9 x 2 dx 9. 3x 3 dx
2
10. cos x dx
0
2 2 2
11. Find
1
[ f ( x) 3g ( x)] dx if
1
f ( x) dx 7 and g ( x) dx 5 .
1
5 1 5
12. Find
1
f ( x) dx if
0
f ( x) dx 2 and f ( x) dx 1 .
0
b b b
x
2
In exercises 13-16 use formulas for c dx ; x dx and dx
a a 0
to evaluate the given integrals:
5 2 5
x x x
2 2 2
13. a) dx ; b) dx ; c) dx
2 5 5
2 1 3
14. a) x dx ;
1
b) x dx ;
2
c) x dx
3
2 0 2
( x 2) 2 dx (2 x 2 - 3x)dx (x 2 x 7) dx
2
15. 16. 17.
0 3 1
Answers
4 2 3
(4 x - 3x 3) dx ; 3. cos
3 2 2
1. x dx ; 2. x dx ;4. 1; 5. 2; 6. 12;
1 1
2
140
9
7. -35; 8. ; 9. 39/2; 10. 0; 11. 22; 12. 3;13. a) 39; b) 39; c) 0;
4
94 3 1
14. a) 3/2; b) 3/2; c) 0; 15. 56/3; 16. ; 17. 6 .
2 3
141
d 3
x
Example: Find
t dt
dx 1
d 3
x
t dt x
3
Solution:
dx 1
10
Example: Differentiate y
x
1 t 2 dt
Solution:
The lower limit of integration is x, we change the limit of integration
first:
x
y
10
1 t 2 dt then apply the first fundamental theorem
dy d
x
1 t dt 1 x .
2 2
dx dx 10
x4
Example: Differentiate y
0
t t 2 dt
Solution:
The first fundamental theorem does not apply directly since the upper
limit of integration is x 4 , not x. In this case let u x 4 .Then
u
y
0
t t 2 dt , where u x 4
dy
By the first fundamental theorem u u2
du
The Chain rule tells us that
dy dy du
u u 2 4x 3 = x 4 x 8 4x 3 4 x 5 1 x 4 .
dx du dx
sin 2 x
Example: Differentiate y 0
t 1 dt
142
Solution: Let u sin 2 x , then
dy d
u
t 1 dt u 1
du du 0
By the Chain rule
dy dy du
u 1 2 sin x cos x = sin 2 x 1 sin 2 x .
dx du dx
d 1
x
Example: Find
dt
dx x 1 t
Solution:
Let us first rewrite it as
x 0 x
1 1 1
x
1 t
dt
x
1 t
dt
0
1 t
dt .
Then
d 1 d x 1 u x
0
1
dt dt = =
dx x 1 t dx 0 1 t du dx 1 x
d 1
x
1
dt
dx 0 1 t 1 x
d 1
x
1 1 2
dt =
dx x 1 t 1 x 1 x 1 x 2
.
Exercises
t dt t
4 4
1. 2. dt
1 2
x2 x
4
t
3. 3
1 sin t dt 4. dt
7 1
143
x3 sin x
1 1
5. 1 t dt 6.
4
1 t2
dt
x
cos t
7. Let F ( x) t
0
2
4
dt . Find
x4
dy d
10. Find
dx
if y
dx x3
sin 2 t dt
3x
dy d
11. Find
dx
if y
dx 2 x
t tan t dt
Answers
cos x
1. x 4 ; 2. x 4 ; 3. 2 x 3 1 sin( x 2 ) ;4. 4 x ; 5. 3/x; 6. ; 7. a) 0;
1 sin 2 x
b)1/4; c) 0; 8. a) 0; b) 5 ; c) 0; 10. 4 x 3 sin 2 ( x 4 ) 3x 2 sin 2 ( x 3 ) ; 11.
9 x tan 3x 4 x tan 2 x .
144
(1) can be written as
b
f ( x)dx F ( x)
b
a
= F (b) F (a)
a
3
x
2
Example: Evaluate dx
1
Solution:
x3
Since F ( x) by 2 nd fundamental theorem we obtain
3
3 3
x3 1 1 1 26
= (3) 3 (1) 3 9
2
x dx =
1
3 1 3 3 3 3
0
Example: Evaluate x dx
1
Solution:
0 0
x2 0 1 1
1
x dx =
2 1
2 2 2
2
(x 4 x 5)dx
4
Example: Evaluate
0
Solution:
2
2
x5 x2 32 42
( x 4 x 5)dx = 4 5 x 8 10 0
4
.
0 5 2 0 5 5
2
Example: Evaluate x dx
3
Solution:
Since x x if x 0 and x x if x 0 , then
2 0 2 0 2
x2 x2 9 4 13
x dx = ( x)dx
3 3 0
xdx
2 3
= .
2 0 2 2 2
145
Theorem: (The Mean Value theorem for integrals)
If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] then there is a number c
between a and b such that
b
f ( x)dx f (c)(b a) .
a
Definition: The average or mean value of an integrable function f (x)
on a closed interval [a, b] is
b
1
f ave
f ( x)dx .
ba a
Example:
Verify the Mean Value theorem for f ( x) x 2 and [a,b]=[0,3]
Solution:
3 3
x3
x dx
2
=9
0
3 0
Since f ( x) x 2 , we are looking for c in closed interval [0, 3], such that
3
3
1 x4
10 .
1 81 1
=
2 4 1 2 4 4
146
Exercises
5x dx ( x 5x
3 2
1. 2. )dx
1 1
/3 /2
3. 5 cos x dx
/6
4. sin 2 x dx
0
9 8
5
3
5. x dx 6. x 2 dx
4 1
2 9
(t 2t 8) dt
2
7. 8. x dx
1 1
9
3 4
3
5 x x 2 dx
9. 2y
4
y dy 10.
x
1
/4
d
4
11. ( x 3 x) dx
2
12. 0
cos 2
1
9
13. 3
4
x dx
x
14. Find the area of the region under the curve 3x 2 and above [1, 4].
Make a sketch of the region.
15. Find the area of the region under the curve 6x 4 and above [-1, 1].
Make a sketch of the region.
16. Find the total area between the curve x 2 3x 10 and the
interval [-3, 8]. Make a sketch of the region.
In exercises 17-21 find the average value of the given function
over the given interval.
17. x 2 ; [3, 5]
18. 3x ; [1, 3]
19. x ; [0, 9]
147
2
20. ; [4, 9]
x
21. sec 2 x ; ,
6 4
Answers.
1 5
1. 75/4; 2. 112 ; 3. ( 3 1) ; 4. 1; 5. 190/3; 6. 93/5; 7. 22/3; 8. 52/3;
2 2
9. 844/5; 10. -55/3; 11. 66; 12. 1; 13. 40;14. 63; 15. 12/5; 16. 203/2;
12( 3 1)
17. 49/3; 18. 6; 19. 2; 20. 4/5; 21. .
3
Method 1:
The substitution technique extends to definite integrals,
b
21 x x dx
3
2 5
Example: Evaluate
2
Solution:
If we let u 1 x 2 , then du 2 xdx .
As x goes from 2 to 3, u 1 x 2 goes from 1 2 2 5 to 1 32 10 .
Then
10
3 10
u6 106 5 6
2 5
21 x x dx = u du
5
2 5
6 5
6
Remark: Once you make the substitution, you work only with
expression involving u . There is no need to bring back x again.
148
4
Example: Evaluate cos( x) dx
0
Solution:
Let u x so that du dx and dx du .
With this substitution
when x 0 then u
3
when x then u , [ this is the last you see of x], so
4 4
3
4 4
3
0
cos( x) dx = cos u du = sin u
4 =
3
= sin
4
sin 1 / 2 0 2 / 2 .
5
Example: Evaluate x
0
x 4 dx
Solution:
Let u x 4 . Now let us express x and dx by u and du.
By taking square of u x 4 we obtain
u 2 x 4 , x u 2 4 and dx 2u du
When x runs from 0 to 5, u x 4 runs from 2 to 3. Thus
2u
5 3 3
x x 4 dx = (u 2 4)u 2u du = 8u 2 du =
4
0 2 2
5 3 3 3
u u 2 8
=2 8 = (35 2 5 ) (33 2 3 )
5 2
3 2
5 3
2 8 506 11
= 211 19 = 33 .
5 3 15 15
149
/8
sin 2 x cos 2 x dx
5
Example: Evaluate
0
Solution:
du
Let u sin 2 x so that du 2 cos 2 x or cos 2 xdx .
2
With the substitution u sin 2 x we obtain
u sin 0 0 if x 0
2
u sin 2 if x . Thus
8 2 8
/8 2/2 6
1 2
2/2
du 1 u 6 1
sin 2 x cos 2 x dx = =
5 5
u = .
2 2 6
12 2 96
0 0 0
1
x
Example: Evaluate 0 4 5x
dx
Solution:
Let u 4 5x . To express x and dx we have to take the square of u
u2 4 2
u 2 4 5x ; x and dx u du
5 5
if x 0 then u 4 5 0 2
if x 1 then u 4 5 1 3 , so
1 3 3
x 1 u2 4 2 2
0 4 5x
dx =
52 u 5 u du =
25 2
(u 2 4)du =
3
2 u3 2 8 14
= 4u = [(9 12) ( 8)] .
25 3 2 25 3 75
Method 2:
b
There is another method for evaluating a definite integral f ( x) dx .
a
150
The idea of the method is that first we evaluate the indefinite integral
f ( x)dx by substitution as it discussed in 5.2., and then change back
to x , and use the original x- limits.
2
x( x 1) 3 dx
2
Example: Evaluate
0
Solution:
u x2 1
Substitute du 2 xdx then we obtain
du
xdx
2
2
1 3 u4 ( x 2 1) 4
0
x( x 2 1) 3 dx =
2u du
4
C=
8
C
Thus
2 2
( x 2 1) 4 625 1
x( x 1) dx = 78 .
2 3
=
0
8 0
8 8
The choice of methods for evaluating a definite integral by substitution
is a matter of taste, but it is best to know both methods.
Exercises
151
1 3
x x2
7.
2
( x 2) 3
2
dx 8.
1 x 2 4x 7
dx
Answers
152
Chapter 6.
Logarithmic and exponential functions
153
1
Solution: a) log9 37 = 7 log9 3 7 7/2
2
2
2
b) log5 3 252 = log5 (25) 3 log5 25 4 / 3
3
1
c) log 2 log10 100 = log 2 2 4 log10 102 4 2 2
16
Example:
x2 y4
Express ln 3
in terms of sums, differences and multiplies
z
Solution:
x2 y4 1
ln 3
= ln x 2 ln y 4 ln 3 z = 2 ln x 4 ln y ln z
z 3
Example: Write expression 5 ln 3 2 ln 4 ln 7 as a single logarithm
Solution:
5 ln 3 2 ln 4 ln 7 = ln 35 ln 4 2 ln 7 = ln 3 4
5 2
7
Example: Solve for x if ln 2 x 3
Solution:
ln 2 x 3
e3
2x e3 x
2
Exercises
1. Evaluate
a) log3 3 ;
b) log3 35 ;
1
c) log 3
27
2. If log 4 A 2.1 , then evaluate
1
a) log 4 A 2 ; b) log 4 ; c) log 4 16A
A
3. Evaluate
154
1
a) log 2 16 ; b) log 2 ; c) log9 3
32
4. Evaluate
a) 2 log2 16 ; b) 2 log2 (1 / 2) ; c) 2 log2 7
155
6.2. The derivatives y ln x and y log a x
1
The derivative of natural logarithm function y ln x is the function ;
x
d 1
(ln x) , x 0 .
dx x
If u( x) 0 , and if the function u is differentiable at x, then applying the
Chain rule to the function y ln u yields
d 1 du
(1) [ln u ]
dx u dx
or in function notation
ln u ' 1 u '
u
To find the derivative of a base a logarithm, we first convert it to a
natural logarithm.
d
log a x = d ln x = 1 d [ln x] 1
dx dx ln a ln a dx x ln a
In general, if u is a positive differentiable function of x, then
d
log a u = d ln u = 1 1 du
dx dx ln a ln a u dx
(2)
d
log a u = 1 1 du
dx ln a u dx
or, in function notation
log a u ' 1 1 u '
ln a u
Example: Find
d
dx
ln x 3 1
156
'
cos x
Example: Find ln
2x
Solution:
According to (1)
' '
cos x 2 x cos x 2 x sin x 2 x 2 cos x
ln = = =
2 x cos x 2 x cos x 4x 2
x sin x cos x
= .
x cos x
Example: Find
d
dx
log3 (2 x 2 7)
Solution:
From (2) with u 2 x 2 7 we obtain
d
dx
log3 (2 x 2 7) =
1
2
1
ln 3 2 x 7 dx
d
[ 2 x 2 7] =
4x
(2 x 7) ln 3
2
'
x 2
Example: Find log 5
x 1
Solution:
'
2
'
2
log 5 x = 1 x 1 x =
x 1 ln 5 x 2 x 1
1 x 1 (2 x 2 2 x x 2 ) x2
= 2 =
ln 5 x ( x 1) 2
ln 5 x( x 1)
Remark: Before differentiating, if it is possible, the properties of
logarithms should be used to convert products, quotients and exponents
into sums, differences, and constant multiples. Let us apply it to the last
example.
'
x2
' ln
2
log 5 x
x 1 = x 1 =
1
ln 5 ln 5
ln x 2 ln(x 1) ' =
157
1 1 2 1 x2
= [2 ln x ln(x 1)]' = = .
ln 5 ln 5 x x 1 ln 5 x( x 1)
d x 3 cos x
Example: Find ln
dx 1 x 2
Solution:
First of all, let us use properties of natural logarithm function to convert
given expression into sums, differences and constant multiples:
d x 3 cos x d
ln = ln x ln cos x ln 1 x =
3 2
dx 1 x dx
2
d 1 1 1 sin x 1 2 x
= 3 ln x ln cos x ln(1 x 2 ) = =
dx 3 x cos x 2 1 x
2
2
1 x
= tan x 2
3x x 1
d x 3 x 1
Example: Find log5
dx sin x sec x
Solution:
d x 3 x 1 d 1
ln x x 1
3
log5 =
dx sin x sec x dx ln 5 sin x sec x
1
Since is a constant, we can move it outside the derivative symbol.
ln 5
Then
1 d
[ln x ln 3 x 1 ln sin x ln sec x] =
ln 5 dx
1 1
ln x ln(x 1) ln sin x ln sec x =
1
=
ln 5 2 3
1 1 1
= cot x tan x
ln 5 2 x 3( x 1)
dy
Example: Use implicit differentiation to find if y 2 ln(x y) 3
dx
158
Solution: Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields
d 2 d
[ y ln(x y )] [3]
dx dx
Since y is the function of x we get
1
2 yy ' (y x y' ) 0
xy
By solving for y '
1 y'
2 yy ' 0
x y
y
y'
x(2 y 2 1)
Example: Find tangent to y ln x 2 y 2 at (1, 1).
Solution: The tangent line is
dy
y y0 ( x x0 ) x0 1; y0 1
dx ( x0 , y0 )
dy
And all we need to write equation of tangent line is .
dx ( x0 , y0 )
Differentiating both sides of equation we obtain
1
y ' 2 (2 xy x 2 y ' ) 0
x y
2 y'
y' 0
x y
dy 2y
y'
dx x( y 1)
dy 2 1
1
dx (1,1) 1 (1 1)
Equation of tangent line is y 1 1( x 1) or y x 2
159
Exercises
18. y ln ( x 2 1) 3 ( x 5 1) 4
19. y ln
2 x 1 3 3x 2
( x 2 1) 5
sin x cos 3x
20. y log 7 21. y log6 (log4 7 x 2 )
3 2
x
x 2 sin 5 x
22. y log3
cos x x 1
Answers
1 1 1 x2 3x 2 8 x 1 1
1. ; 2. 3(ln x) 2 ; 3. ; 4. ;5. ;
x x x(1 x )
2
x 4x 5
3 2
2 ln x x
3 sin(3 / ln x) 2x 3 x(1 2 ln x)
6. ; 7. 3x 2 ln(3 2 x) ; 8. ;
x(ln x) 2
3 2x (1 ln x) 2
160
3 sin(log4 x)
9. sec x ;10. ln 3 x ;11. ; 12. cos(log4 x) ;
x ln 4 ln 4
x 1 ln x y
13. 2 x ln(log5 (3x) ; 14. ;15. ;
ln 3x ln 6 x(2 y 2 1)
1 1 6x 20x 4 1 1
16. ; 17. ;18. ;19.
x(3x 5) 25 x 2
x 1 x 1
2 5
2 x 1 3x 2
10x 1 2 2 1
2 ; 20. (cot x 3 tan 3x ) ; 21.
x 1 ln 7 3x x ln 6 ln 7 x 2
1 2 1
22. [ 5 cot 5 x tan x ].
ln 3 x 2( x 1)
161
dy x 1
Example: Find if y 5
dx x 1
Solution:
x 1 1 1
ln y ln 5 = ln(x 1) ln(x 1)
x 1 5 5
1 dy 1 1 1 1
y dx 5 x 1 5 x 1
dy 2 x 1
5
dx 5( x 1) x 1
2
2ln x 1 x 2 x
dy
dx
Example: Differentiate y (sin x) cos x
Solution:
ln y ln(sin x) cos x cos x ln(sin x)
1 dy cos x
sin x ln(sin x) cos x
y dx sin x
dy
[cos x cot x sin x ln(sin x)] (sin x) cos x
dx
162
Exercises
dy
In exercises 1-12 obtain by logarithmic differentiation.
dx
5
(sec 4 x) 4 sin 3 2 x
1. y (1 3x) (sin 3x)
5 6
2. y
x
x 1 ( x 8) x 2 1
2 4
3. y 3 4. y
x 1 sin x
x( x 1)( x 2 1)
5. y x 5 4 x 3 1 6. y 3
( x 3 2)(3x 2)
7. y x 6 x 8. y (sin x) tan x
9. y x x 2 10. y (2 x) log3 x
11. y (cos x) ln x 12. y (2 t ) t 1
Answers
5
15 (sec 4 x) 4 sin 3 2 x
1. (1 3x) (sin 3x)
5 6
18 cot 3x ; 2.
1 3x x
1 x 1 2
5 tan 4 x 6 cot 2 x ; 3. 3 ;
2x x 1 3( x 2 1)
( x 2 8) 4 x 2 1 8x x
4. 2 2 cot x ;5. y x 5 4 x 3 1
sin x x 8 x 1
5 3x 2 x( x 1)( x 2 1) 1 1 1 2x
;6. 3
[ 2
x 4( x 1)
3
( x 2)(3x 2) 3 x x 1 x 1
3
3x 2 3
3 ] ;7. 6 x 6 x (ln x 1) ;8. (sin x) tan x (1 sec 2 x ln(sin x)) ;
x 2 3x 2
1
9. x x 2 (ln x 1 2 x) ;10. (2 x) log3 x log3 2 x 2 ;11. y (cos x) ln x
x
1 t 1
[ ln(cos x) ln x tan x] ; 12. (2 t ) t 1 ln(2 t ) .
x t 2
163
6.4. Integrals involving ln x and log a x
1
x dx ln x C for any x 0 .
If u is nonzero differentiable function, then
1
u
du ln u C
4x 3
Example: Evaluate
x4 3
dx
Solution:
The numerator is exactly the derivative of the denominator. If we let
u x 3 3 , then du 4 x 3 dx so that
4x 3 1
x 3
4
dx =
u
du ln u C = ln x 4 3 C
Solution:
dx dx
Let u 1 x , so that du 2du .
and
2 x x
It is necessary to change limits of integration x 1, x 4 to the u-limits
if x 1 , then u 1 1 2
if x 4 , then u 1 4 3
164
4 3
1 2du
3
dx = 2 ln u 2(ln 3 ln 2) 2 ln(3 / 2) .
1 x (1 x ) 2
u 2
Solution:
ln x
u ln x
log 5 x 1 ln x
dx = ln 5 dx dx = =
1
x x ln 5 x du dx
x
1 1 u2 ln 2 x
ln 5
=
u du =
ln 5 2
C
2 ln 5
C.
log3 ( x 2)
1
Example: Evaluate
0
x 2 dx
Solution:
u ln(x 2)
log3 ( x 2)
1 1
1 ln(x 2)
x2
dx =
ln 3 0 x 2 dx =
du
dx =
0
x2
if x 0 , then u ln 2
if x 1 , then u ln 3 , we get
1 ln 3 ln 3
1 ln(x 2) 1 1 u2
ln 3 0 x 2
dx
ln 3 ln 2
u du
ln 3 2 ln 2
=
1
2 ln 3
ln 2 3 ln 2 2 1
2 ln 3
3
ln 6 ln .
2
165
Exercises
dx x sin 5 d
5. sin x
[Hint: let u ]
2
6.
1 cos 5
3
x
7. x 1
2
dx 8. cot x dx
log 6 x ln 7 log 7 x
9. 3x
dx 10.
2x dx
3 log10 (2 x 1)
1
1
11. 2x 1
dx 12.
0
3 x 2dx
0 4
x 3
13.
1
x 5
2
dx 14. 1 2 x dx
1
e2
dx dx
15. x ln x
e
16. x ln x ln(ln x)
2 log3 (2 x 1)
9 2
dx
17. x
4 x
18.
1
2x 1
dx
5
1 csc x
19. x log
3 3 x
dx 20. ln(csc x cot x)
dx
Answers
1 (ln y ) 5
1. ln 5x 1 C ; 2.ln 3x 2 C ;3. cos(ln x) C ;4. C;
3 5
x 1 1 1
5. ln tan C ;6. ln 1 cos 5 C ;7. x 2 ln(x 2 1) C ;
2 5 2 2
166
1 ln 2 x
8. ln sin x C ; 9. ln 2 x C ;10. C ;
6 ln 6 4
3 ln 2 (2 x 1) 1 5 1 5 3
11. C ; 12. ln ; 13. ln ; 14. ln 7 ;15. ln 2 ;
4 ln 10 3 2 2 6 2
ln 3 5
ln
16. ln ln(ln x) C ;17. 2 ln 2 ;18. ;19. ln 3 ln ;
2 ln 3
20. 2 ln(csc x cot x) .
Laws of exponents:
The bases are positive, the exponents are any real numbers.
1. a x y a x a y
ax
2. a x y y
a
3. (a ) a x y
x y
4. (a b) x a x b x
x
a ax
5. x
b b
6. a 1
0
7. a loga x x (for x 0)
All laws above are true for the base e as well.
Example: ln e 3 3
Example: e ln(x 3) x 2 3
2
Example: 2 log2 7 7
2
Example: 4 log2 x 2 2 log2 x 2 log2 x x 2
Example: e xln 5 e x e ln 5 5e x
Example: Find y if ln(2 y) 4 x 3
Solution: Exponentiate both sides:
e ln(2 y ) e 4 x 3
167
e 4 x 3
2 y e 4 x 3 y
2
Example: Find x if e 2 x 25
Solution:
Take the natural logarithm of both sides
ln e 2 x ln 25
2 x ln 25 x ln 5
Example: Find y if 3 4 y 17
Solution:
Let us take the logarithm to the base 3 of both sides:
log3 34 y log3 17
1
4 y log3 17 y log3 17 .
4
168
d u du
[e ] e u
(4)
dx dx
d cos x d
Example: [3 ] 3cos x ln 3 [cos x] 3cos x ln 3 sin x
dx dx
d 3 x 1 d
Example: [e ] e 3 x 1 [3x 1] 3e 3 x 1
dx dx
d x5 5 d 5
Example: [e ] e x [ x 5 ] 5 x 4 e x
dx dx
Example: Find 2 3 x e 4 x x 2
2
'
Solution:
2 3x2
' 2
e 4 x x 2 = 2 3 x ln 2 (3x 2 ) ' e 4 x (4 x) ' x 2 + e 4 x (x 2 ) ' =
2
= 2 x(3 ln 2 2 3 x 2 xe 4 x e 4 x )
Example: Find the extrema of y x e x
Solution:
dy
Let us examine :
dx
dy d x e x xe x 1 x
x
dx dx e x e 2x e
There is a critical point when x 1 .
dy dy
When x 1, 0 and when x 1, 0 . Hence there is a global
dx dx
1
maximum occurs when x 1 and f (max) f (1) .
e
Exercises
1. Simplify
a) e ln 8 b) e ln 3ln 5 c) log9 3sin x
2. Solve for k
a) e 3k 9 b) 2 k 2 7 c) e k / 100 t
169
3. Solve for y
a) ln(2 y) k b) log3 ( y 3) 4 c) e y x 4
In exercises 4-15 differentiate and simplify where it is
necessary.
1
4. y e 7 x
3
5. y e x
6. y cos(e x ) 7. y x 3 e x
e x ex
8. y 9. y e x tan x
e x e x
10. y e ( x e 11. y ln(1 xe x )
3x
)
e ax (a x 1)
12. y (a is a constant) 13. y 2 sec x
a2
14. y 3e 2 x
x
15. y 7 x
e 4x
16. Find the minimum value of y x 2 ln x
(ln x) 2
17. Find the relative extrema of .
x
In exercises 18-19 find a) relative maxima or minima,
b) inflection points of the given functions.
18. f ( x) (1 x) e x
19. f ( x) x 3 e x
20. Let f ( x) e kx and g ( x) e kx . Find
a) f ( n ) ( x) b) g ( n ) ( x)
2
1 x
1
2
21. Find f ( x) if f ( x)
'
e where and are
2
constants and 0 .
170
Answers
x 1
9. ( x sec 2 x tan x) e xtan x ;10. (1 3e 3 x ) e x e ;11.
3x
; 12. x e ax ;
ex x
13. sec x tan x ln 2 2 sec x ; 14. 3e ln 3 e x 2 ln 2 x ;
x
ln 7 1
15. 7 x e 4 x 4 ;16. (1 ln 2) ;17. Relative minimum (1,0),
2 x 2
Relative maximum (e 2 ,4e 2 ) ;18. a) global maximum (0, 1); b) x 1 ;
27
19. a) global maximum (3, 3 ) ; b) x 0; x 3 3 ;20. a) k n e kx ;
e
2
1 x
1
2
b) (1) n k n e kx ; 21. (x ) e .
2 3
e dx e x C
x
e du e u C
u
ax
a x dx
ln a
C
au
a u du
ln a
C.
Example: Evaluate e 7 x dx
du
Solution: Let u 7 x so that du 7dx or dx , which yields
7
171
1 u 1 1
e
e du = e u C = e 7 x C .
7x
dx =
7 7 7
sin x
Example: Evaluate e cos x dx
Solution:
u sin x
e
sin x
cos x dx = du cos xdx = e u du e u C e sin x C .
cos x dx du
ln 4
e (1 e x ) 2 dx
x
Example: Evaluate
ln 2
Solution:
Make the u-substitution
u 1 e x du e x dx
and change the x- limits of integration ( x ln 2 , x ln 4) to the
u-limits (u 1 e ln 2 3 , u 1 e ln 4 5) . We obtain
ln 4 5 5
u3 5 3 33 98
e (1 e ) dx = u du
x x 2 2
= .
ln 2 3
3 3
3 3
2
7x
Example: Evaluate dx
Solution:
u 7x
1 u 1 2u 27x
2 dx = du 7 dx = 2 du C= C.
7x
7 7 ln 2 7 ln 2
du
dx
7
2
x4
x2
Example: Evaluate dx
1
Solution:
du
Let u x 2 so that du 2 x dx or x dx
2
if x 1 then u 1
172
if x 2 then u 2 and we obtain
2 2 2
1 1 4u 1 1 1 3
x 4 x dx =
2
4 u du = ( ) .
1
2 1 2 ln 4 1
2 ln 4 16 4 64 ln 2
3
3
( x 1)
Example: Evaluate dx
2
Solution:
4
3
u x 1 4 u 3u
3
( x 1)
dx = = 3 du =
2
du dx 1 ln 3 1
1 1 242
(3 4 ) =
= .
ln 3 3 3 ln 3
dx
Example: Evaluate
sin x cos x
Solution:
Let us divide numerator and denominator by cos2 x .
1
1 2
We obtain cos x .
sin x cos x tan x
1
Let u tan x then du dx .
cos2 x
1
dx 2 du
Then
sin x cos x
= cos x dx
tan x u
= ln u C = ln tan x C .
Exercises
5. sin x e cos x
dx 6. e x
sec 2 (2 e x ) dx
173
7. sin x cos x dx ( x ln 3 4 e cos x) dx
2
8.
y
e
9. (ln(e x ) ln(e x )) dx 10. y
dy
ln 5 3
e x (3 4e x ) dx (3 e
x
11. 12. ) dx
0 1
ln 3 2 x 1
ex e
13.
ln 3
e x
4
dx 14. 2x 1
dx
x dx dx
15. 3 2x 2
16. 1 e x
2 1
8
2 x
17. 3x 3 x (ln x 1) dx 18. ln 2 dx
1 2
Answers
1 1 1
1 e 5 x C ; 2. e 2 x C ; 3. ln(1 e x ) C ;4. (1 e 2t ) 3 / 2 C ;
3
5 6 3
sin x
1
5. e cos x C ; 6. tan(2 e x ) C ;7. C ;8. x 2 ln 3
ln 2
4 e 2 sin x C ; 9. C ;10. 2e y C ;11.-36; 12. 6 e e 3 ;
21 1
13. ln ; 14. e 2 x 1 C ;15. ln 3 2 x 2 C ;
13 4
1
16. x ln(1 e x ) C ;17. 63;18. (8 4 64) ; 19. 2 ln 2 1 ;
6
2x
e
20. 3e x 9 ln(e x 3) C .
2
174
6.8. Limits involving functions a x , e x and ln x .
LHopitals rule and the forms 1 , 0 0 and 0
We are familiar with the LHopitals rule, which is a technique for
dealing with limits of the form zero-over-zero and infinity-over-
infinity. In both of these cases it asserts that
f ( x) f ' ( x)
lim lim '
x a g ( x) x a g ( x)
Solution:
First note that ln x and x 2 as x . We may use
LHopitals rule in the form. We have
ln x (ln x) ' 1/ x 1
lim 2 = = lim 2 ' = lim = lim 2 0 .
x x
x (x ) x 2 x x 2x
x
Example: Evaluate lim x
x e
Solution:
lim x lim e x , so given limit is an indeterminate form of type
x x
x ( x) ' 1
lim x = = lim x ' = lim x 0
x e x (e ) x e
175
2x 1
Example: Evaluate lim
x 0 x
Solution: Both (2 1) and x approach zero as x 0 . The given limit
x
0
is an indeterminate form of type . Thus, by LHopitals rule
0
2 1 0
x
(2 1)
x '
2 x ln 2
lim = = lim = lim ln 2
0 x 0 ( x )
x 0 ' x 0
x 1
Example: Evaluate lim x ln x
x 0
Solution:
Since lim x 0 and lim ln x , the given limit is an indeterminate
x 0 x 0
1/ x
= lim = lim ( x) 0
x 0 1 / x 2 x 0
0
Remark: We could convert the problem to the form by writing
0
x ln x
x ln x = . But it is less desirable than because of the
1 / ln x 1/ x
1
relatively complicated derivative of .
ln x
cos( x / 2)
Example: Evaluate lim
x 1 ln x
Solution:
sin( x / 2)
lim
cos( x / 2) 0
= = lim
cos( x / 2) = lim
'
2 =
.
x 1 ln x 0 x1 ln x ' x 1 1/ x 2
176
x e x cos2 6 x
Example: Evaluate lim
x 0 e2x 1
Solution:
x e x cos2 6 x 0 ( x e x cos2 6 x) '
lim = = lim =
x 0 e2x 1 0 x 0 (e 2 x 1) '
e x cos2 6 x x e x cos2 6 x 2 cos 6 x sin 6 x 6 x e x 1
= lim = .
x 0 2e 2 x 2
x a x a
lim ln y lim ln( f ( x)) g ( x ) lim g ( x) ln( f ( x))
x a
and lim y e 0 1 .
x 0
177
Example: Find lim (e 2 x 1)1 / ln x
x 0
Solution:
The limit leads us to the form 0 0 . We let y (e 2 x 1)1 / ln x and
find lim ln y . Since
x 0
ln(e 2 x 1)
ln y ln(e 2 x 1)1 / ln x
ln x
ln(e 1)
2x
(ln(e 2 x 1)) '
lim ln y lim = = lim
x 0 x 0 ln x x 0 (ln x) '
2e 2 x
x 2e 2 x 0 2e 2 x 4 xe 2 x
= lim e 1 = lim 2 x
2x
= lim 1
x 0 1/ x x 0 e 1 0 x 0 2e 2 x
Therefore lim y e1 e (With L 1 )
x 0
x
1
Example: Show that lim 1 e
x x
Solution:
The limit has indeterminate form of type 1 .
1
ln y x ln (1 )
x
'
1 1
ln (1 ) ln (1 )
lim ln y lim x 0 = lim x
x x 1/ x 0 x 1 / x '
x 1
( 2 )
= lim x 1 x lim 1 1 .
x 1 x 1
( 2 ) 1
x x
Therefore lim y e1 e . (With L 1 )
x
178
x
1
Example: Evaluate lim 1 2
x x
Solution: The limit has indeterminate form of type 1 .
1
y (1 2 ) x
x
1
ln(1 2 )
1 x x
ln y ln(1 2 )
x 1 / x
'
1 1
ln(1 2 ) ln(1 2 )
lim ln y lim x = 0 = lim x
=
x x 1/ x 0 x 1 / x '
x2 2 2x 4
= lim ( x 2
) = lim 0 , so
x x2 1 x3 x 3 x 5 3 x 3
lim y e 0 1 .
x
ln(3 x 5 x )
ln y ln(3 x 5 x )1 / x =
x
ln(3 5 )
x x
(ln(3 x 5 x )) '
lim ln y lim = = lim
x x x x ( x) '
3 x ln 3 5 x ln 5
= lim
x 3x 5x
Repeated use of LHopitals rule does not help here. Let us divide
numerator and denominator by 5 x :
(3 / 5) x ln 3 ln 5
lim ln 5 (since (3 / 5) x 0 as x )
x (3 / 5) x 1
Therefore lim y e ln 5 5 .
x
179
Exercises
x 101
7. lim x 8. lim x e x
x e x
9. lim x sin 10. lim x(e sin(2 / x ) 1)
x x x
x
3
11. lim 1 12. lim(e x x)1 / x
x x x 0
x2 x
1 tan( )
13. lim 1 14. lim(2 x) 2
x x x 1
3
15. lim x sin x 16. lim (sin x) ln x
x 0 x 0
1 1
17. lim x 18. lim [ x ln(x 2 1)]
x 0 x e 1 x
1
19. lim ( x 2 x x) 20. lim(cos x) x
x x 0
1
xe (1 x)
x 3
21. lim 22. lim(1 sin 2 x) x
x 0 ex 1 x 0
bx
a
23. lim 1
x x
180
Answers
ln 3
1 0; 2. 0; 3.0;4. ;5. ; 6. ;7. 0;8. 0; 9. ;10. 2;11. e 3 ;
ln 2
12. e 2 ;13. ; 14. e 2 / ;15. 1;16. e 3 ;17. 1/2;18. ; 19. 1/2; 20. 1 ;
21. 1; 22. e 2 ; 23. e ab .
coth2 x 1 csc h 2 x .
181
Example: Simplify cosh 5x sinh 5x
Solution:
e 5 x e 5 x e 5 x e 5 x
cosh 5x sinh 5x = - e 5 x .
2 2
Example: Let sinh x 2 . Find other five hyperbolic functions.
Solution:
From cosh 2 x sinh 2 x 1 we obtain
cosh 2 x 1 sinh 2 x 1 (2) 2 5 cosh x 5 . Since
cosh x 0 for all x then the answer will be cosh x 5 .
sinh x 2
From tanh x we obtain tanh x
cosh x 5
cosh x 5
From coth x we obtain coth x
sinh x 2
1 1
From sec h x we get sec h x and
cosh x 5
1 1
From csc h x we get csc h x .
sinh x 2
Example: Simplify cosh(3 ln x)
e 3 ln x e 3 ln x x 3 x 3 x 6 1
Solution: cosh(3 ln x) .
2 2 2x 3
d du d du
[sinh u ] cosh u [cosh u ] sinh u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
[tanhu ] sec h 2 u [cothu ] csc h 2 u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
[sec h u ] sec hu tanhu [csc h u ] csc hu coth u
dx dx dx dx
182
d
Example: Differentiate [cosh(x 4 )]
dx
Solution:
d d
[cosh(x 4 )] = sinh(x 4 ) [ x 4 ] 4 x 3 sinh(x 4 )
dx dx
d
Example: Find [ln(cothx)]
dx
Solution:
d 1 d csc h 2 x
[ln(cothx)] = [coth x]
dx coth x dx coth x
d
Example: Find [sinh 3 (2 x)]
dx
Solution:
d d
[sinh 3 (2 x)] = 3 sinh 2 (2 x) [sinh(2 x)]
dx dx
d
3 sinh (2 x) cosh(2 x) [2 x] 6 sinh 2 (2 x) cosh(2 x) .
2
dx
dy
Example: Find if y sec h(e 2 x ) sinh(cos3x)
dx
Solution:
dy
= sec h(e 2 x ) tanh(e 2 x ) (e 2 x ) ' cosh(cos3x) (cos3x) ' =
dx
= 2e 2 x sec h(e 2 x ) tanh(e 2 x ) 3 sin 3x cosh(cos3x) .
183
sinh
6
Example: Evaluate x cosh x dx
Solution:
Let u sin x then du cosh xdx .
We obtain
u7 sinh 7 x
sinh 6 x cosh x dx = u 6 du 7
C
7
C
2e cosh x dx
x
Example: Evaluate
0
Solution:
e x ex
1 1 1
2e cosh x dx = 2e dx = (e 2 x 1) dx =
x x
0 0
2 0
1
e 2x e2 1 e2 1
= x 1 .
2 0 2 2 2
4
sinh x
Example: Evaluate
1 2 x
dx
Solution:
4 u x 2
sinh x
1 2 x
dx =
du
dx = sinh u du =
1
2 x
2 e 2 e 2 e e 1
= cosh u 1 cosh 2 cosh1 = .
2 2
184
Exercises
1. Let coth x 2. Find the values of the other five hyperbolic functions.
20. tanh(5 x) sec h 6 (5 x) dx 21. sinh x dx
2
ln 3
22.
ln 3
cosh 2 x 1 dx
Answers
185
12. [2 5 cosh(5x) sinh(5x)] / 4 x cosh 2 (5x) ;
13. x 5 / 2 tanh x sec h 2 x 3x 2
tanh2 x;
2 3
14. e 3 x (cosh x 3 sinh x) ; 15. x cosh x ; 16. (tanh x) 2 C ;
3
1 sinh 44
17. sec h 3 x C ;18. 2 sinh x C ;19. ;
3 8
sec h 6 5 x
20. C ;21.0; 22. 0.
30
186
Chapter 7
Inverse trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
187
1
csc 1 x = sin 1 for x 1
x
Example: Find cos1 ( 3 / 2)
Solution:
Let y cos1 ( 3 / 2) . This is equivalent to
5
cos y 3 / 2 and y
6
1
Example: Find sin ( 2 / 2)
Solution: Let y sin 1 ( 2 / 2) . Then
sin y 2 / 2 y
4
d 1 du
(1) [sin 1 u ] 1 u 1
dx 1 u dx
2
d 1 du
(2) [cos1 u ] 1 u 1
dx 1 u 2 dx
d 1 du
(3) [tan1 u ]
dx 1 u 2 dx
d 1 du
(4) [cot1 u ]
dx 1 u 2 dx
d 1 du
(5) [sec 1 u ] u 1
dx u u 1 dx
2
d 1 du
(6) [csc 1 u ] u 1
dx u u 1 dx
2
188
dy 3x
Example: Find if y sin 1
dx 4
Solution:
From (1)
dy 1 d 3x 1 3 3
.
dx 1 (3x / 4) 2 dx 4 1 9 x 2 / 16 4 16 9 x 2
dy
Example: Find if y sec 1 (e x )
dx
Solution:
From (5)
dy 1 d x 1
[e ]
dx e e 1 dx
x 2 x
e x 1
2
dy
Example: Find if y (1 x csc 1 x)10
dx
Solution:
dy d
= [(1 x csc 1 x)10 ] =
dx dx
d
= 10 (1 x csc 1 x) 9 [1 x csc 1 x] =
dx
1
= 10 (1 x csc 1 x) 9 csc 1 x x .
x x 2
1
With each derivative of (1)-(6) comes a corresponding antiderivative.
189
Most commonly needed integration formulas are
du
(7)
1 u 2
sin 1 u C for u 2 1
du
(8)
1 u2
tan1 u C for all u
du 1
(9)
u u 1
2
sec 1 u C cos1 C
u
for u 2 1
dx
Example: Evaluate 1 6x 2
Solution:
Substituting u 6 x , du 6 dx yields
dx 1 du 1
1 6x 2
=
6 1 u
2
6
tan1 u C
1
tan1 ( 6 x) C
6
e 2x
Example: Evaluate 1 e 4x
dx
Solution:
Substituting u e 2 x , du 2e 2 x dx yields
e 2x 1 du 1 1
1 e 4x
dx =
2
1 u2 2
= sin 1 u C sin 1 (e 2 x ) C .
2
1
dx
Example: Evaluate x 4x 2 1
1/ 3
Solution:
Substituting u 2 x , du 2 dx yields
1 2 2
dx du / 2 1
1
cos
1/ 3 x 4x 2 1 2/ 3 u / 2 u 1
2 u 2/ 3
cos1 (1 / 2) cos1 ( 3 / 2) = .
3 6 6
190
12 dx
Example: Evaluate e 2x 1
Solution:
let us multiply and divide numerator and denominator by e x .
12 dx 12 e x dx
e2x 1
e x e 2x 1
Let u e x , du e x dx .
Then
12 e x dx du
e x
e 2x
1
u
12
u 1
2
12 sec 1 u C 12 sec 1 (e x ) C .
Exercises
191
In exercises 14-23 evaluate the integrals.
1 2 3
dx dx
14.
1
1 x2
15. x x2 1
2
dx e x dx
16. 1 16x 2
17. 1 e2x
3
dx sec 2 x dx
18.
1 x (x 1)
19. 1 tan2 x
2
dx dy
20. x 1 (ln x) 2
21. 1 ( y 1)
0
2
e x dx
ln(2 / 3 ) 4
dx
22.
ln 2 1 e 2 x
23. 2x
2 x 1
Answers
24
1. a) ; b) ; c) ; d) ;e) ; f ) ; g) ; h) ; i) 4 5 ;
6 6 4 3 4 7 25
5 1 1 x
2. ;3. ; 4. 2 / 3 ;5. e 2 x [
1 25x 2
x 9x 1
2 3x (1 x )
2/3
x 9x 2 1
1 x 6(tan1 2 x) 2
(1 2 x) sec 1 3x] ; 6. ; 7. ; 8. 2 x 2 ;
1 x 1 4x 2
5 1 ex
9. ;10. 2 ;11 e x sec 1 x ;
3x 3x 1
5 x 1 x x 1
2
x 2 x ln x 1
12. ; 13. 1 2
;14. / 2 ; 15. ;
1 x 4 ln 2 x x 12
1
16. tan1 4 x C ;
4
17. tan1 (e x ) C ;18. ;19. sin 1 (tan x) C ;20. sin 1 (ln x) C ;
6
21. ;22. ; 23. .
2 6 12
192
7.2. The inverse hyperbolic functions
y sinh 1 x , y cosh 1 x , y tanh1 x , y coth1 x ,
y sec h 1 x , y csc h 1 x are inverses of y sinh x , y cosh x ,
y tanh x , y coth x , y sec hx and y csc hx respectively.
Some useful identities for inverse hyperbolic functions
1
sec h 1 x cosh 1
x
1 1 1
csc h x sinh
x
1
coth1 x tanh1
x
Derivatives of inverse hyperbolic functions.
d 1 du
(1) [sinh 1 u ]
dx 1 u 2 dx
d 1 du
(2) [cosh 1 u ] ; u 1
dx u 1 dx
2
d 1 du
(3) [tanh1 u ] ; u 1
dx 1 u 2 dx
d 1 du
(4) [coth1 u ] ; u 1
dx 1 u 2 dx
d 1 du
(5) [sec h 1u ] ; 0 u 1
dx u 1 u 2 dx
d 1 du
(6) [csc h 1u ] ; u 0.
dx u 1 u dx
2
dy
Example: Find if y sinh 1 (2 x)
dx
Solution:
dy 1 d 2
From (1) ( 2 x)
dx 1 4 x 2 dx 1 4x 2
dy
Example: Find if y x 3 (cosh 1 x) 4
dx
193
Solution:
dy
dx
'
x 3 (cosh 1 x) 4 3x 2 (cosh 1 x) 4
1 4x
x 3 4 (cosh 1 x) 3 x 2 (cosh 1 x) 3 3 cosh 1 x
x2 1 x 2 1
Example: Find (csc h 1 (tan x))'
Solution:
1 1
(csc h 1 (tan x))' 2
csc x .
tan x 1 tan2 x cos x
Exercises
Answers
1 2 7 1
1. ; 2. ;3. ; 4. ;
9 x2 (2 x 1) 2 1 x 1 x14 1 e 2x
ex 3x 2 (sinh 1 x) 2
5. e x sec h 1 x ; 6. 2 x(sinh 1 x) 3 ;
x 1 x 2
1 x 2
7. 10(1 x csc h 1 x) 9 csc h 1 x) ; 8. csc x ;
x
x 1 x2
1
9. .
2x
194
Chapter 8
Techniques of integration
2. a du a du au C
u r 1
3. u r du
r 1
C, r 1
du
4. u ln u C
5. e du e C
u u
au
6. a u du
ln a
C, a0
7. sin u du cos u C
8. cos u du sin u C
9. sec u du tan u C
2
195
16. cosh u du sinh u C
du
17. 1 u 2
sin 1 u C
du
18. 1 u 2
tan1 u C
du
19. u u 12
sec 1 u C
20. u dv u v v du (Integration by parts)
Example: Find x 3 dx
Solution:
Using (3) with r 3 we obtain
x 31 x4
x 3 dx =
3 1
C
4
C
x 4 2 x 3 3x 2
Example: Find x2
dx
Solution:
We divide the numerator by the denominator
x 2 x 3 3x 2
4
x3
x 2 3x C
2
dx = ( x 2 x 3) dx
x2 3
2
1
Example: Find 1 2 dx
x
Solution:
By expanding the integrand we get
1
2
1 2
2 4
1 2 dx = 1 2 4 dx dx 2 x dx x dx =
x x x
x 21 x 41 2 1
=x2 C=x 3 C
2 1 4 1 x 3x
196
dx
Example: Find sin 2
x cos2 x
Solution:
dx sin 2 x cos2 x
sin x cos2 x
2
sin 2 x cos2 x
dx
dx dx
= cos 2
x
sin 2 x
cot x tan x C .
x
Example: Find sin 2 2
dx
Solution:
x 1 cos x
Since sin 2 , we get
2 2
x 1 cos x 1 1
sin 2 dx
2 2
dx x sin x C
2 2
Example: Find sin x cos 3xdx
Solution:
1
Since sin x cos 3x (sin 4 x sin 2 x), then we obtain
2
1 1 1
sin x cos 3xdx
2
(sin 4 x sin 2 x)dx cos 4 x cos 2 x C
8 4
Example: Find cos(x 3 ) 3x 2 dx
Solution:
Since 3x 2 is the derivative of x 3 , we make substitution
u x 3 . Then du 3x 2 dx and
cos(x
) 3x 2 dx cos u du sin u C sin( x 3 ) C
3
197
6
Example: Find 6e x x 5 dx
Solution:
Introduce u x 6 . Then du 6 x 5 dx and
6e
x6 6
x 5 dx e u du e u C e x C
Example: Find cos3 x sin x dx
Solution:
Note that derivative of cos x is sin x . Let u cos x , then
du sin xdx and sin x dx du .
We obtain
u4 cos4 x
cos3 x sin x dx u 3 du 4
C
4
C.
5
Example: Evaluate 1 x 4 x 3 dx
Solution:
The derivative of (1 x 4 ) is 4x 3 , which differs from x 3 in the
integrand only by constant factor 4.
If we let u 1 x 4 ,
du
then du 4 x 3 dx and x 3 dx .
4
We obtain
5
1 x 4 x 3 dx u 5
du 1 u 6
4 4 6
C
1
24
6
1 x4 C .
d 1
(1 x ) C
4 6
Check:
dx 24
6
1
24
5 d
1 x 4 [1 x 4 ] 1 x 4 x 3
dx
5
2
x
Example: Find
(1 x) 3
dx
Solution:
Try the substitution u 1 x . Then du dx . Solving the
equation u x 1 for x gives x u 1 .
198
Thus
x2 (u 1) 2 u 2 2u 1
(1 x) 3
dx u3
du
u3
du
1 2 1 2 1
2 3 du ln u 2 C
u u u u 2u
2 1
ln 1 x C
1 x 2(1 x) 2
3
e1 / x
Example: Evaluate
2
x2
dx
Solution:
1 1 dx
Let u . Then du 2 dx and 2 du .
x x x
1 1 1
As x goes from 2 to 3, u goes from to
x 2 3
3 1/ 3
e1 / x
1/ 3
dx e u du e u ( e 1 / 3 e 1 / 2 ) e 3 e .
2
x2 1/ 2
1/ 2
1
2dx
Example: Evaluate 1 (4 x 1)
0
2
Solution:
du
The nearest standard form is 1 u 2
tan1 u C ,
du
so let u 4 x 1 , du 4dx and 2dx
2
if x 0 then u 1
if x 1 then u 5 and we obtain
1 5
2dx 1 du 1
5
tan1 u =
0
1 (4 x 1) 2
2 1 1 u 2
2 1
=
1
2
1
tan1 5 tan1 1 tan1 5
2 4
199
e 3x
Example: Evaluate 1 e 3x 3
dx
Solution:
du
Let u 1 e 3x , then du 3e 3 x dx and e 3 x dx .
3
We obtain
e 3x 1 du 1 u 31 1 1
1 e
3x 3
dx
3 u 3
3 3 1
C
6 u2
C
1 1
C
6 (1 e 3 x ) 2
4
2 cot x
Example: Evaluate sin 2 x
dx
Solution:
1
Let u 2 cot x , so that du dx .
sin 2 x
1
1
4
2 cot x u4 44 5
sin 2 x
dx 4
u du
1
C
5
u C
1
4
44
(2 cot x) 5 C .
5
Exercises
200
x x
7. sin 3 cos 3 dx 8. sin x cos 7 x dx
9. cos 4 x cos 6 x dx
In exercises 10-28 evaluate the integrals using appropriate
substitutions.
(1 x 1 x 2 x dx
2 5 3
10. ) x dx 11.
t
e
12. t
dt 13. sin 3 d
x
x sin x 5 dx 1 x
4
14. 15. 4
dx
ln 3x x
16. x
dx 17. x4
dx
1
x
2 x3
18. sin 3 x cos x dx 19. e dx
0
sin 2 x dx
20. cos4 x 1
dx 21. 1 x
2 /4 /4
sin x
tan sec d
2
22. dx 23.
/ 16
2 x /6
2
dx 2 ln 2 x
24. (1 x) x
25.
1
x
dx
1
x 2 dx
26.
0
5 2 d 27. ax b
; a0
e x / 2 dx
28. 1 ex
201
Answers
4 3
x x 3 12 3
1. x C ; 2. C ;3. x cos x C ;
3
4 3 x 5 6 x 5 2x 3 x
1
4. 3 tan x 4 sin x C ;5. e x 2 C ; 6. x tan1 x C ;
2x
x x 1 1
7. 3(sin cos ) C ; 8. cos 8 x cos 6 x C ;
3 3 16 12
1 1 1
9. sin 10x sin 2 x C ; 10. (1 x 2 ) 6 C ;
20 4 12
3 1
11. (1 x 2 ) 4 / 3 C ; 12. 2e t C ; 13. cos 3 C ;
8 3
1 1 1 2 1
14. cos x C ; 15. tan x C ; 16. (ln 3x) 2 C ;
5
5 2 2
2 4
sin x e 1
17. ( x 4) 3 8 x 4 C ; 18. C ; 19. ;
3 4 3
1
20. tan1 (cos2 x) C ;21. 2 x 2 ln(1 x ) C ; 22. 2 ; 23. ;
3
24. 2 tan 1 x C ; 25. 2 2
ln 4
ln 2
; 26.
12
;
ln 2 ln 5
1 1
27. 3 a 2 x abx b 2 ln ax b C ; 28. 2 sin 1 (e x / 2 ) C ;
2
a 2
202
u x ; dv e x dx so that du dx and v e x dx e x .
Thus from (1)
x e
dx e e
dx xe ex C
x x x x
x
u dv uv vdu
Remark: The key to applying integration by parts is the labeling of u
and dv. Usually three conditions should be met:
1. v can be found by integration and should not be too messy.
2. du should not be more complicated than u
3. v du should be easier than the original u dv
Application of integration by parts formula is a matter of experience
that comes with lots of practice.
Example: Find x lnx dx
Solution:
Letting dv ln x dx is not a wise move, since ln xdx is not
immediately apparent. But setting u ln x is promising.
1
u ln x , du dx
x
x2
dv xdx v xdx
2 Thus
x2 x 2 dx x 2 x2
x lnx dx ln x
2
2 x
2
ln x
4
C
You may check the result by differentiation.
Example: Evaluate x 2 e x dx
Solution:
Let u x2 du 2 xdx
dv e dx v e x dx e x
x
so that
x e dx x e 2xe dx x e 2 xe dx
2 x 2 x x 2 x x
problem.
203
We let
u x du dx
so that
dv e dx v ex
x
xe
dx xe e dx xe e .
x x x x x
x e 2( xe e ) ( x 2 2 x 2)e x C
2 x x x
b
(2) u dv u v a v du
a a
Remark: It is important to keep in mind that the variables u and v in
(2) are functions of x, and that the limits of integration in (2) are limits
on the variable x.
e3
ln x
Example: Evaluate
e
x3
dx
Solution:
Let
1
u ln x du dx
x
1 1
dv dx v 2 . Thus
x3 2x
e3 e3 e3
ln x ln x 1
e
x 3
dx 2
2x e
2x
e
3
dx But
e3 e3
1 1 1
e
2x 3
dx 2
4x e
(e 6 e 2 ) , so
4
e3 e3
ln x ln x 1 6
e
x 3
dx 2
2x e
4
(e e 2 ) =
204
1 1 e 2
(3e 6 e 2 ) (e 6 e 2 ) (3 7e 4 )
2 4 4
x
Example: Evaluate e sin xdx
Solution:
Let u ex , du e x dx
dv sin xdx ,
v sin xdx cos x .
Thus
e
sin xdx e x cos x e x cos xdx
x
(3)
e
x
Integral cos xdx is similar to the original integral; it seems that
nothing has been accomplished. Let us integrate new integral by parts;
we let
u ex du e x dx
dv cos xdx
v cos xdx sin x .
Thus
e
cos xdx e x sin x e x sin xdx .
x
Exercises
3. tan 1
xdx 4. x 2
sin xdx
205
ln x
5. x
dx
6. sin(ln x) dx
2 1
7. x 2 e x dx
1
8. sin 1 xdx
0
3 e
ln x
9. (ln x) 2 dx
2
10.
1
x2
dx
ln(1 x 2 )
11.
x2
dx
12. e axsinbx dx
2
2
13. x 3 e x dx 14. ln(x 3)dx
2
/2 1
x3
15.
0
x sin 4 xdx 16.
0 x2 1
dx
/3
x tan
2
17. xdx
0
Answers
1 x 1
1. e 2 x (2 x 1) C ;2. cos 2 x sin 2 x C ;3. x tan1 x
4 2 4
1
ln(1 x 2 ) C ; 4. x 2 cos x 2 x sin x 2 cos x C ;5. 2 x ln x
2
x 5e 10
4 x C ; 6. (sin(ln x) cos(ln x)) C ; 7. 2
;8. 1 ;
2 e 2
e2 ln(1 x 2 )
9. 3(ln 3) 2 6 ln 3 2(ln 2) 2 4 ln 2 2 ; 10. ; 11.
e x
e ax 1
2 tan1 x C ; 12. 2
2
(a sin bx b cos bx) C ; 13. x 2 e x
a b 2
2
1 1
e x C ; 14. 5 ln 5 4 ; 15. / 8 ; 16. (2 2 ) ;
2
2 3
3 2
17. ln 2 ;
3 18
206
8.4. Trigonometric integrals
u cos x
(1 cos2 x) cos x sin xdx
du sin xdx
(1 u 2 )udu
u2 u4 cos4 x cos2 x
C C
2 4 4 2
207
sin
m
Case2. If n is odd then in x cosn x dx we write n as 2k+1 and use
identity cos2 x 1 sin 2 x to obtain
cosn x cos2k 1 x cos2k x cos x (1 sin 2 x) k cos x
Example: Evaluate sin 4 x cos5 xdx
Solution:
sin
x cos5 xdx sin 4 x cos4 x cos xdx
4
u sin x
sin 4 x (1 sin 2 x) 2 cos xdx
u 4 (1 u 2 ) 2 du
du cos xdx
1 2 u9
(u 4 2u 6 u 8 )du u 5 u 7
5 7 9
C
1 2 1
sin 5 x sin 7 x sin 9 x C
5 7 9
Example: Evaluate sin 2 x cos2 xdx
Solution:
1 cos 2 x 1 cos 2 x
sin x cos2 xdx dx
2
2 2
1 cos 2 2 x 1
= 4
dx
4
sin 2 2 xdx
2
For the sin 2 x we again use identity
1 cos 4 x
sin 2 2 x and get
2
1 1 1 cos 4 x 1
4 sin 2 2 xdx
4 2
dx
8
(1 cos 4 x)dx
208
1 sin 4 x
x C
8 4
Example: Evaluate cos3 xdx
Solution:
cos
xdx cos2 x cos xdx (1 sin 2 x) cos xdx
3
u sin x u 3
sin 3 x
du cos xdx
(1 u 2 )du u
3
C sin x
3
C
cos mx cos nxdx can be found using the product to sum formulas
1
sin mx sin nx [cos(m n) x cos(m n) x]
2
1
sin mx cos nx [sin(m n) x sin(m n) x]
2
1
cos mx cos nx [cos(m n) x cos(m n) x]
2
Example: Evaluate sin 5 x cos 6 xdx
Solution:
1 1
Since sin 5 x cos 6 x [sin( x) sin(11x)] [sin 11x sin x]
2 2
209
We can write
1 1 cos11x cos x
sin 5x cos 6 xdx 2 (sin 11x sin x)dx 2 11
2
C.
Example: Evaluate sin 7 x sin 3xdx
Solution:
1
sin 7 x sin 3xdx 2 (cos 4x cos10x)dx
1 1
sin 4 x sin 10x C.
8 20
Exercises
cos5 x
3. sin 2 5 x dx 4.
sin 2 x
dx
5. sin 2
x cos4 x dx
6. sin x cos3 x dx
x
7. cos 4
dx
8. sin 2 2t cos3 2t dt
4
sin x
9. cos4 x sin 3 x dx 10. cos 8
x
dx
/3 /2
x x
sin 4 3x cos3 3x dx sin cos 2 dx
2
11. 12.
0 0
2 2
13. sin x sin 3x dx
14. sin 3x cos 2 x dx
210
/6
15. cos 4 x cos 2 x dx 16. sin 2 x cos 4 x dx
0
2
17. cos5 x sin x dx
18. sin 2 2 x cos3 2 x dx
0
4
sin x sin 3 x
19. cos6 x
dx 20. cos 4 x
dx
Answers
211
8.4.2. Trigonometric substitutions
212
x 1 x2 1
1 x 2 dx ln 1 x 2 x C .
2 2
dx
Example: Compute x 2
4 x2
Solution:
dx
Let x 2 sin 2 cos or dx 2 cos d .
d
This yields
dx 2 cos d 2 cos d
x 2
4x 2
(2 sin )
4 4 sin 2 2
(2 sin )2
(2 cos )
1 d 1 1
4 sin 2 4
csc 2 d cot C
4
x 4 x2
From x 2 sin we obtain sin and cot , ( Draw
2 x
triangle) so that
dx 1 1 4 x2
x 2
4 x2
cot C
4 4 x
C
x 2 25
Example: Evaluate x
dx
Solution:
To eliminate the radical, we make
substitution x 5 sec , x
x 2 25
dx
5 sec tan
d
or dx 5 sec tan d . 5
Thus Fig.8.2
x 2 25 25 sec 2 25
x
dx
5 sec
5sec tan d
5 tan
5 sec
5 sec tan d 5 tan2 d 5 (sec 2 1)d
5 tan 5 C
213
To express the solution in terms of x, from triangle (Fig.8.2) we
x 2 25
obtain tan , so that
5
x 2 25 x
x
dx x 2 25 5 sec 1 C
5
dx
Example: Evaluate x a2 x2
Solution:
Let x a tan t , dx a sec 2 tdt . Then
dx a sec 2 t dt 1 sec 2 t
x a2 x2
a tant a 2 a 2 tan2 t a tan t sec t
dt
1 sec t 1 dt 1
a tan t
dt
a sin t a
ln csc t cot t C
x a a2 x2
Since tan t we get cot t and csc t 1 cot 2 t .
a x x
dx 1 a2 x2 a
Hence x a2 x2
a
ln
x
C
Exercises
dx x2 9
5. 25x 2 16
6. x
dx
dx
x e 1 e 2 x dx
x
7. 8.
2
9 4x 2
214
4 2
dx
9.
0
x 3 16 x 2 dx 10. x 2
x2 1
2
Answers
x2 9 x
1. ln C ;2. 1 (1 x 2 ) 5 / 2 1 (1 x 2 ) 3 / 2 C ;
3 5 3
1 x 1 1
3. a 2 sin 1 x a 2 x 2 C ;4. x a 2 x 2 a 2
2 a 2 2
1
ln( a 2 x 2 x) C ;5. ln 5 x 25x 2 16 C ;6. x 2 9
5
x 9 4x 2 1 1
3 sec 1 C ;7. C ;8. sin 1 (e x ) e x 1 e 2 x C ;
3 9x 2 2
9.
2048
15
; 10.
1
2
3 2 .
8.5. Integrals involving ax 2 bx c, a 0
du 1 ua
(2)
u a
2 2
ln
2a u a
C
215
mx n
If integral is in the form px qx r
2
dx
du
(5) u a
2
ln u u 2 a C
3u x 2
Let and
3du dx
216
dx 3du 1 du 1
( x 2) 2
9
9u 2
9 3 u 1 3
2
tan1 u C
Hence
dx 1 x 2
x 4 x 13 3
2
tan1
3
C
x2
Example: Evaluate
x 2x 5
2
dx
Solution:
mx n
It is the integral of the form
px qx r
2 dx .
x2 x2 ( x 1) 1
x 2x 5
2
dx
( x 2 x 1) 4
2
dx
( x 1) 2 4
dx
u x 1 u 1 u du
du dx
u 2
2 2
du
u 2
2 2
du
u 22
2
1 1 u 1 1 x 1
ln(u 2 2 2 ) tan1 C ln(x 2 2 x 5) tan1 ( )C
2 2 2 2 2 2
dx
Example: Evaluate
5 4x x 2
Solution:
Completing the square and using (4) yields
dx dx
5 4x x 2 ( x 2 4 x 4 4 5)
dx ux2 du
9 ( x 2) 2
du dx
32 u 2
u x2
sin 1
C sin 1 C
3 3
dx
Example: Evaluate
6 4x 2x 2
217
Solution:
dx dx 1 dx
2
6 4x 2x 2 2( x 2 2 x 3) ((x 1) 2 4)
1 dx u x 1 1 du
2 4 ( x 1) 2
du dx
2 22 u 2
1 u 1 x 1
sin 1 C sin 1 C
2 2 2 2
dx
Example: Evaluate 3x 2 6 x 9
Solution:
dx dx 1 dx
3x 6 x 9
2
3( x 2 x 3)
2
3 ( x 1) 2 2
u x 1 1 du
du dx
3 u2 2
Using (5) we obtain
1 du 1
3
ln u u 2 2 C
u 2
2 3
1
ln x 1 x 2 2 x 3 C .
3
Example: Evaluate x 2 8 x 25 dx
Solution:
x 2 8 x 25 dx ( x 2 8 x 16) 16 25 dx
u x4
( x 4) 2 9 dx u 2 9 du using (6) yields
du dx
x4 9
u 2 9 du
2
( x 4) 2 9 ln x 4 ( x 4) 2 9 C
2
x4 2 9
x 8 x 25 ln x 4 x 2 8 x 25 C .
2 2
218
Example: Evaluate 8 2 x x 2 dx
Solution:
Completing the square converts given integral to the integral of
the form (7):
8 2 x x 2 dx = ( x 2 2 x 8) dx
- ( x 2 2 x 1 1 8) dx 9 ( x 1) 2 dx
u x 1 u 9 u
du dx
3 2 u 2 du
2
9 u 2 sin 1 C
2 3
x 1 9 x 1
8 2 x x 2 sin 1 C.
2 2 3
Exercises
dx dx
9. 2 3x 2 x 2
10. x 2 2x
x 4x 13 dx 5 4 x x 2 dx
2
11. 12.
dx dx
13. 14.
x 4 x 13
2
8 2x x 2
dx
15. x 6 x 10
2
16. 3 2 x x 2 dx
219
2x 5 dx
17. x 2
2x 5
dx 18. x 2
2x 3
2x 3x 5
19. x 2x 3
2
dx 20. 3x 2 2 x 1
dx
Answers
1 x 1 2 1 3 x 10
1. tan1 C ;2. tan1 x C ;3. ln C ;
6 6 34 17 2 30 3 x 10
1 2x 3 2 8x 5 1 2x 1 5
4. ln C ;5. tan1 C ; 6. ln C ;
22 2 x 8 7 7 5 2x 1 5
1 1 2x 1 5 1
7. ln x 2 x 1 ln C ;8. ln x 1
2 2 5 2x 1 5 3
1 4x 3
x 2 2 x 4 C ;9. sin 1 C ;10. ln x 1 x 2 2 x
2 5
x2 2 9
C ; 11. x 4 x 13 ln x 2 x 2 4 x 13 C ;
2 2
x2 9 x2 1 x 2
12. 5 4 x x 2 sin 1 C ; 13. tan1 C;
2 2 3 3 3
x 1
14. sin 1 C ; 15. ln x 6 x 10 x 3 C ;
2
3
x 1 1
( x 1) 3 2 x x 2 C ;17. ln x 2 x 5
1
16. 2 sin 2
2 2
3 x 1
tan1 C ; 18.
1
tan1
x 1
C ; 19. ln x 2 2 x 3
2 2 2 2
2 tan1
x 1 1
C ; 20. ln 3x 2 2 x 1 2 2 tan1
2
3x 1
C.
2 2
220
8.6.1. Integration of rational functions by partial fractions
A( x)
A rational function in which the degree of A(x) is less
B ( x)
than the degree of B(x) is called proper rational function. Otherwise
the function is called improper rational function. An improper rational
function can be expressed as the sum of a polynomial and a proper
rational function.
First we will concentrate on the representation of a proper
rational functions, and then improper rational functions.
To represent a proper rational function as a sum of rational functions
we use following steps:
1. Write B(x) as a product of first-degree polynomials and irreducible
second degree polynomials.
2. If (ax b) appears exactly n times in the factorization of B(x) , form
A1 A2 An
(1) ............
ax b (ax b) 2
(ax b) n
where A1 , A2 ,........., An are constants to be determined.
3. If (ax 2 bx c) appears exactly m times in the factorization of
B(x) , then form the sum
A1 x B1 A2 x B2 Am x Bm
(2) .....
(ax bx c) (ax bx c)
2 2 2
(ax 2 bx c) m
where A1 , A2 ,........., Am , B1 , B2 ,......., Bm are constants to be
determined.
' '
4.Find all constants Ai s , Bi s mentioned in steps 2 and 3 so that the
A( x)
sum of all expressions formed in steps 2 and 3 equals .
B ( x)
A( x) x 2 3x 1
Example: Carry out steps 2 and 3 for
B( x) ( x 1) 3 ( x 2 2 x 3) 2
221
Solution:
A( x)
Degree of numerator is 2, degree of denominator is 7. Thus is a
B ( x)
proper fraction. x 2 2 x 3 is irreducible, since
b 2 4ac 4 12 8 0 . Therefore, we have
x 2 3x 1
( x 1) 3 ( x 2 2 x 3) 2
A1 A2 A3 A x A5 A x A7
24 26 .
( x 1) (x 1) 2
(x 1) 3
( x 2 x 3) ( x 2 x 3) 2
Remark: In example above the number of unknown constants is 7-
equals the degree of B(x) . Always number of unknowns equals degree
of polynomial in the denominator and this fact can be used as a check
on your algebra.
2x 1
Example: Express 2 in a partial fractions.
x 3x 2
Solution:
The denominator x 2 3x 2 is reducible, since
b 2 4ac 9 8 1 0 . Its factorization is
x 2 3x 2 ( x 1)(x 2) .
Thus
2x 1 2x 1 A A
1 2
x 3x 2 ( x 1)(x 2) x 1 x 2
2
222
A1 0 A2 1
A1 0 A2 3
from which we obtain that A1 1 , A2 3 . Then
2x 1 1 3
x 3x 2 x 1 x 2
2
223
3x 2 4 x 1 A C
(6) B ( x 1)
( x 2)( x 3) x 2 x 3
replacing x by (-1) in (6) gives
3 1 4 (1) 1 2
B 0. Hence B
(1 2)(1 3) 3
To obtain C , multiply (4) by ( x 3) , obtaining
3x 2 4 x 1 A B
(7) C ( x 3)
( x 2)( x 1) x 2 x 1
replacing x by 3 in (7) gives
39 43 1 16
C 0 . Hence C 4 .
(3 2)(3 1) 4
Therefore
3x 2 4 x 1 5 2
3 3 4 .
( x 2)(x 1)(x 3) x 2 x 1 x 3
x2 x 2
Example: Evaluate ( x 2 1)(x 1)
dx
Solution:
By the (1), factor ( x 1) introduces one term
A
and
x 1
the quadratic factor ( x 2 1) introduces
Bx C
.
x2 1
Thus the partial fraction representation of integrand is
x2 x 2 A Bx C
2
( x 1)( x 1) x 1 x 1
2
224
Equating corresponding coefficients gives
A B 1
B C 1 and we find that A 2 , B 1 , C 0 .
A C 2
Thus integrand becomes
x2 x 2 2 x
2 (Verify)
( x 1)( x 1) x 1 x 1
2
and
x2 x 2 dx xdx 1
( x 1)(x 1)
2
dx 2 x 1
x 1
2
2 ln x 1 ln(x 2 1) C
2
3x 2
Example: Evaluate x 3 2x 2
dx
Solution:
3x 2 3x 2
The integrand can be rewritten as 3 2
x 2x 2
x ( x 2)
Although x 2 is a quadratic factor, it is not irreducible.
By the (1), x 2 introduces two terms of the form
A B
x x2
and factor ( x 2) introduces one term
C
,
x2
so partial representation is
3x 2 A B C
2
x ( x 2) x x
2
x2
multiplying by x 2 ( x 2) yields
3x 2 Ax( x 2) B( x 2) Cx 2
which after multiplying out and collecting like powers of x, becomes
3 x 2 ( A C ) x 2 ( 2 A B) x 2 B
Equating corresponding coefficients gives
225
A C 0
2 A B 3
2 B 2
which is true if B 1 , A 1 , C 1 and
3x 2 1 1 1
2 .
x ( x 2) x x
2
x2
Thus
3x 2 dx dx dx
x 2x
3 2
dx x
x 2
x2
1 x 1
ln x ln x 2 C ln C
x x2 x
x2
Example: Evaluate ( x 2)( x 1) 2 dx
Solution:
The factor ( x 2) introduces one term
A
x2
The factor ( x 1) 2 introduces two factors
B C
x 1 ( x 1) 2
So the partial fraction representation is
x2 A B C
( x 2)( x 1) 2
x 2 x 1 ( x 1) 2
Multiplying by ( x 2)(x 1) 2 yields
x 2 A( x 1) 2 B( x 2)(x 1) C ( x 2)
if x 1 , then 3C 1 and C 1 / 3
if x 2 , then 9 A 4 and A 4 / 9
if x 0 , then 0 A(0 1) 2 B(0 2)(0 1) C (0 2)
Substituting values of A and C into last equation we get B 5 / 9 .
Thus
226
x2 4/9 5/9 1/ 3
and
( x 2)( x 1) 2
x 2 x 1 ( x 1) 2
x2 4 dx 5 dx 1 dx
( x 2)( x 1) 2 dx 9 x 2 9 x 1 3 ( x 1) 2
4 5 1 1
ln x 2 ln x 1 C
9 9 3 ( x 1)
1 1
ln ( x 2) 4 ( x 1) 5 C.
9 3( x 1)
A( x)
If is improper, (degree of numerator greater than degree
B ( x)
A( x)
of denominator) first we use long division to divide and obtain
B ( x)
A( x) R( x)
Q( x)
B ( x) B( x)
R ( x)
where Q(x) is a polynomial and is a proper (may even be zero).
B ( x)
3x 3 2 x 2 x 3
Example: Evaluate x2 1
dx
Solution:
Since integrand is improper rational function, we first carry out
the long division.
_ 3x 2 x x 3 x2-1
3 2
Thus
3x 3 2 x 2 x 2 4x 1 3x 3 3x 3x+2
3x 2 2 2x2
+4x-3
x 1
2
x 1 _
2x2-2
and 4x-1
227
3x 3 2 x 2 x 3 4x 1
x 1
2
dx (3x 2)dx
x2 1
dx
Second integral can be evaluated by a partial-fraction representation:
4x 1 5 dx 3 dx
x 1
2
dx
2 x 1 2 x 1
In the end we obtain
3x 3 2 x 2 x 3 x2 5
x 1
2
dx 3
2
2 x ln x 1
2
5
3 3 1 x 1
ln x 1 C x 2 2 x ln C.
2 2 2 x 13
Exercises
228
In exercises 12-28 perform the integrations.
x2 2 2 xdx
12. x 3 x 2 2 x dx 13. x 2
3x 4
11x 17 dx
14. 2x 2
7x 4
dx 15. ( x 1)(x 2)(x 3)
x2 2 3x 2 10
16. x2
dx 17. x 2 4x 4
dx
x 5 2x 2 1 x 2 x 16
18. x3 x
dx 19. ( x 1)( x 3) 2
dx
x2 2x 2 1
20. ( x 2) 2 dx 21. (4 x 1)(x 2 1)
dx
x 3 3x 2 2 x 3 cos
22. x2 1
dx 23. sin 2
4 sin 5
d
1
dx x 2 2x 1
24. 1 ex
25.
0
( x 2 1) 2
dx
2 2
x 3 dx dx
26. 0
x2 1
27. x 2
(1 x 2 ) 2
x 2 dx
28. ( x 2) 2 ( x 1)
Answers
A B A B C Dx E A B
1. ; 2. 2 3 2 ;3.
x 1 x 3 x x x x 2 x 1 ( x 1) 2
C D A Bx C Dx E
; 4. 2 2 ;
( x 1) 3
( x 1) 4
x 1 x x 1 ( x x 1) 2
2 3 2 1 3 3 5 11
5. ; 6. 2 ; 7. ;
x x2 x x x 1 2 x x 1 2( x 2)
229
2 3x 2 1 1 1 x
8. 2 ; 9. ; 10. 3 2 ;
x 1 x 2x 2 x 1 x 1 x x 1
1 5 ( x 1)( x 2)
11. x 1 ; 12. ln C;
x x 1 x
5
13. ln 5 ( x 1) 2 ( x 4) 8 C ; 14. ln 2 x 1 3 ln x 4 C ;
2
1 1 1 1
15. ln x 1 ln x 2 ln x 3 C ; 16. x 2 2 x
6 15 10 2
2 1
6 ln x 2 C ; 17. 3x 12 ln x 2 C ; 18. x 3 x
x2 3
( x 1)(x 1) 2
( x 3) 2
1
ln C ; 19. ln C ;20. ln x 2
x x 1 x3
4 2 7 6
C ;21. ln 4 x 1 ln(x 2 1)
x 2 ( x 2) 2
34 17
3 1 1
tan1 x C ; 22. x 2 3x ln(x 2 1) C ;
17 2 2
1 sin 1 ex 2
23. ln C ; 24. ln C ; 25. ; 26. 4 ln 3 ;
6 sin 5 1 e x
4
1 1 x 3 4
27. tan1 x C ; 28. ln x 1 C.
x 2 1 x 2
2 x2
There are some integrals that do not fit into any of categories
previously studied.
Example: Find sec x dx
Solution:
sec x tan x
sec x dx sec x sec x tan x dx
sec 2 x sec x tan x u sec x tan x
dx
sec x tan x du (sec 2 x sec x tan x)dx
230
du
ln u C ln sec x tan x C .
u
231
Then
dx 1 2
sin x tan x 2u
2u 1 u 2
du
1 u2 1 u2
(1 u 2 )(1 u 2 ) 2 1 1
= 4u
1 u 2
du u du
2 u
1 u2 1 x 1 x
= ln u C ln tan tan2 C
2 2 2 2 2 2
x 3 x2 6 x
Example: Evaluate x(1 3 x )
dx
Solution:
2 1 1
The integrand involves x 3 , x 6 and x 3 . The least common
multiple of denominator is 6, so we make substitution x u 6 .
Then
dx 6u 5 du , 3
x u2 , 6
x u, 3
x2 u4
We obtain
x 3 x2 6 x u6 u4 u
x(1 3 x )
dx u (1 u )
6 2
6u 5 du
u5 u3 1 du
6
1 u 2
du 6 u 3 du 6
1 u2
3 3
u 4 6 tan1 u C 3 x 2 6 tan1 6 x C
2 2
dx
Example: Evaluate
2 x
Solution:
1
The integrand contains x x 2 , so we make substitution
x u 2 and dx 2udu . This yields
dx 2udu 1
2 x
2 2u
(1
1 u ) du u ln 1 u C
232
x ln 1 x C
1 3 x
Example: Evaluate 3
x2
dx
Solution:
First of all let us rewrite the given integral as
1
1 x 3
1 2
2
3 2
dx 1 x
3
x 3 dx
x
1
and then introduce (1 x 3 ) t 2 . It yields
1 2 2
1 3
x3 t 1,
2
x dx 2tdt , x 3 dx 6tdt
3
After substituting we obtain
3
1 x3
t
1 2 3
2
dx t 6t dt 6 t dt 6 C 2 1 x 3 C .
3
x2 3
2x 1
Example: Evaluate 3
2 x ( 2 x) 2
dx
Solution:
2x 3
Let t . Solving for x yields
2 x
2 2t 3 2 2t 3 4t 3
x , 2 x 2 ;
1 t3 1 t3 1 t3
1 (1 t 3 ) 2 12t 2
and dx dt
(2 x) 2 16t 6 (1 t 3 ) 2
Thus
2x 1 (1 t 3 ) 2 (12t 2 )
3
2 x ( 2 x) 2
dx t
16t 6
(1 t 3 ) 2
dt
2 x
2
3 dt 3 3
4 t 3
2 C 3
8t 8
C .
2 x
233
Exercises
4
1
7. 3
0 x
dx
8. x 5 x 3 1 dx
dx dv
9. x x 3
10. v(1 v 1/ 4
)
dt
11. 1 1
12. sin x dx
t2 t3
dx x 3 dx
13. ex 1
14. 1 x2
dx x 3 x2 6 x
15. 3
x 2 (1 3 x 2 )
16.
x1 3 x dx
Answers
x 4 x
1. ln tan 1 C ; 2. 1;3. tan1 3 tan x C ;
2 3 2
x 1
tan
1
4. ln 2 3 C ;5. 2 ( x 5) 5 10 ( x 5) 3 C ; 6. 4 ;
5 x 5 3
tan 3
2
5 2 3 5 2 3 1 1
7. 4 6 ln ;8. ( x 1) 2 ( x 3 1) 2 C ; 9. 2 x 2 3x 3
3 15 9
234
1
1 1 v 4 1 1
6x 6 6 ln(x 6 1) C ; 10. 4 ln 1
C ;11. 2t 2 3t 3
1 v 4
1 1
6t 6 6 ln t 6 1 C ; 12. 2 x cos x 2 sin x C ;
ex 1 1 1 3 1
13. ln C ; 14. (1 x 2 ) 2 (1 x 2 ) 2 C ;
ex 1 1 3
3
15. 3 tan1 3 x C ; 16. 3 x 2 6 tan1 6 x C .
2
235
Chapter 9
Improper integrals
Solution:
Replacing the infinite upper limit with a finite upper limit b
yields
b b
dx dx 1 1 1 1
1
x 3
lim
b x
1
3
lim 2 lim 2
b 2 x
1
b 2b 2 2
so the given integral converges to 1/2.
236
If f is continuous on the interval (, b] , then we define improper
b
integral f ( x)dx as
b b
(2)
f ( x)dx lim
a f ( x)dx
a
Again, the improper integral is said to converge if limit in (2) exists.
b
Otherwise f ( x)dx diverges.
1
e
x
Example: Evaluate dx
-
Solution:
Replacing the infinite lower limit with a finite lower limit a
yields
1 1 1
-
e x dx lim
a
a
e x dx lim e x
a - a
lim [e1 e a ] e
a
If this limit exists, the improper integral is said to converge, if the limit
does not exist, then the improper integral is said to diverge.
dx
Example: Evaluate 1 x
-
2
Solution:
Replacing infinite limits with a finite limits yields
237
b
dx dx
b
lim lim tan1 x
1 x 2 a 1 x 2 a a 2 2
- b a b
dx
So 1 x
-
2
converges to .
Remark: We may define
f ( x)dx as
c b
f ( x)dx lim
a a
f ( x)dx lim
b f ( x)dx
c
Case 2:
If f is continuous on [a, b) but fails to have limit as x appro-
b
aches b from the left, then we define improper integral f ( x)dx as
a
b l
(4) f ( x)dx lim f ( x)dx
a
l b
a
2
dx
Example: Evaluate
0 2x
Solution:
The integral is improper because the integrand approaches as x
approaches 2 from the left.
From (4)
2 l l
dx dx
0 2x
lim
l 2
0 2x
lim-[2 2 x ]
l 2 0
lim [2 2 l 2 2 0 ] 2 2
l 2
If f is continuous on (a, b] but fails to have limit as x appro-
b
aches a from the right, then we define improper integral f ( x)dx as
a
238
b b
(5)
a
l a
f ( x)dx lim f ( x)dx
l
3
dx
Example: Evaluate 2x
2
Solution:
The integral is improper because the integrand approaches
as x 2 . From (5) we obtain
3 3
dx dx
3
lim lim ln 2 x
2
2x l 2
l
2x l 2 l
lim ln 1 ln 2 l lim ln 2 l
l 2 l 2
3
dx
so 2x
2
diverges.
xe
x2
Example: Evaluate dx
0
Solution:
b b
1 2
xe x dx lim
xe x dx lim e x
2 2
b b 2 0
0 0
1 1 2 1
lim e b
b 2 2 2
dx
Example: Evaluate x
a
p
Solution:
b
dx
b
dx x p 1
a
x p
lim
b x p
a
lim
b p 1
a
1 1
lim b p 1 a1 p
1 p b 1 p
239
dx 1
if p 1, then lim b p 1 0 , and
b x a
p
converges to
1 p
a 1 p
dx
if p 1, then lim b p 1 , and
b x
a
p
diverges.
dx
Example: Evaluate e
1
x
Solution:
a
dx dx 1
a
lim lim e x lim e a e 1 ,
e x a e x a 1 a e
1 1
so
dx 1
e
1
x
converges to
e
.
f ( x)dx F ( x)
b
F (b) F (a)
a
a
directly to an improper integral without taking the appropriate limits.
To illustrate what can go wrong let us suppose that we ignore the fact
3
dx
that integral (x 2)
1
2
is improper and write
3 3
dx 1 1 4
1
(x 2) 2
x21
1
3 3
3
dx
Since ( x 1) is always positive and (x 2)
2
2
can not be negative. To
1
evaluate the given integral correctly we should write
3 2 3
dx dx dx
1
(x 2) 2
1
(x 2) 2
(x 2)
2
2
.
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Then
2 a a
dx dx 1
1
( x 2) 2
lim
a 2
1
( x 2) 2
lim
a 2 x 2
1
1 1
lim ,
a 2 a 2 2
3
dx
so (x 2)
1
2
diverges.
Theorem1: Let f (x) and g (x) be integrable functions over [a, b] and
0 g ( x) f ( x) for all x a , then
a)
a
g ( x) dx converges if
a
f ( x) dx converges
b) f ( x) dx diverges if g ( x) dx diverges.
a a
Example:
dx
Determine whether the integral 1 x
1
10
diverges or converges.
dx
Solution: 1 x
1
10
converges
1 1 dx
because
1 x 10
10 for all x from [1,) and
x x
1
10
converges
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Then
a
f ( x) dx and g ( x) dx both converge or both diverge.
a
Example:
dx
Determine whether the integral 1 e
1
x
converges or diverges.
Solution:
1 1
With f ( x) , g ( x) x we have
1 e x
e
f ( x) ex
lim lim 1 and 1 (0,) .
x g ( x) x 1 e x
dx dx
Therefore
1
1 exconverges, because e
1
x
converges.
Example:
dx
Determine whether the improper integral
1 1 x4
is
convergent or divergent.
Solution:
Let us solve the problem by both of two tests:
1 1 1
1)
1 x4 1 1
1
x 4 4 1 x
2
x x4
1 1
and
1 x2
x2 1
x4
dx dx
Since
1
x2
converges, so does
1 1 x4
.
1 1
2) Let f ( x) and g ( x)
1 x4 x4
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f ( x) x4
lim lim 1 . Limit has a positive finite value and we
x g ( x ) x 1 x 4
Exercises
1 xdx
3. x ln
e
3
x
dx 4. (x
a
2
1) 2
0 1
dx dx
5. (2 x 1)
-
3
6. x
-1
2
1 1
x sin e
2x
7. 2
dx 8. dx
2
x 0
x
e ex
9.
0x
dx
0 1 e
x
dx 10.
In exercises 11-25 determine whether the improper integrals
diverge or converge.
dx dx
11.
1
x 1
4
12.
1
x 5/ 2
1
dx
( x 2) x
0.999
13. 3
14. dx
0 1
ln x xdx
15. 1
x
dx 16. x
0
4
1
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1
dx 2
17.
0
3
x
18. x
2
2
1
dx
6
cos x dx
19. 0 1 2 sin x
dx 20. x
0
2
3
dx dx
21. x2
0
22. 0 x8 1
x 1 x2
23. 1 cos dx
1
2
24.
1
x3
dx
e
2 x
25. sin 3xdx
0
Answers
1 1 1 1
1. 1; 2. ; 3. ; 4. ;5. ; 6. ; 7. 1; 8. ; 9. 2; 10. 2;
2 2 2(a 1)
2
4
11. converges; 12. converges; 13. converges; 14. diverges;15. diverges;
16. converges; 17. converges; 18. converges; 19. converges;
20. diverges;21. diverges; 22. converges; 23. diverges; 24. diverges;
25. converges.
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