Constructed wetland

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A constructed wetland (CW) is an artificial wetland created for the purpose of

treating municipal or industrial wastewater, greywater or stormwater runoff. It
may also be created for land reclamation after mining, refineries, or other
ecological disturbances such as required mitigation for natural areas lost to land
development.

Constructed wetlands are engineered systems that use natural functions of

vegetation, soil, and organisms to treat different water streams. Depending on
the type of wastewater that has to be treated the system has to be adjusted
accordingly which means that pre- or post-treatments might be necessary.

Constructed wetlands can be designed to emulate the features of natural

wetlands, such as acting as a biofilter or removing sediments and pollutants such Constructed wetland in an ecological
as heavy metals from the water. Some constructed wetlands may also serve as a settlement in Flintenbreite near Lbeck,
habitat for native and migratory wildlife, although that is usually not their main Germany
purpose.

The two main types of constructed wetlands are subsurface flow and surface flow wetlands. The planted vegetation plays a
role in contaminant removal but the filter bed, consisting usually of a combination of sand and gravel, has an equally
important role to play.[1]

Contents
1 Terminology
2 Overview
3 Types
3.1 Subsurface flow wetland
3.2 Surface flow wetland
3.3 Hybrid systems
4 Contaminants removal
4.1 Nitrogen removal
4.2 Phosphorus removal
4.3 Metals removal
5 Designs
5.1 Design characteristics
5.2 Plants and other organisms
6 Costs
7 History
8 Examples
8.1 USA
8.2 Australia
9 See also
10 References
11 External links

Terminology
Many terms are used to denote constructed wetlands, such as reed beds, soil infiltration beds, constructed treatment
wetlands, treatment wetlands, etc. Beside "engineered" wetlands, the terms of "man-made" or "artificial" wetlands are
often found as well.[1] A biofilter has some similarities with a constructed wetland, but is usually without plants.

However, the term of constructed wetlands can also be used to describe restored and recultivated land that was destroyed
in the past through draining and converting into farmland, or mining.

Ponds for wastewater treatment or water purification are not considered as constructed wetlands. They are referred to as
stabilization ponds or treatment ponds, respectively.

Overview
A constructed wetland is an engineered sequence of water bodies designed to
filter and treat waterborne pollutants found in sewage, industrial effluent or
storm water runoff. Constructed wetlands are used for wastewater treatment or
for greywater treatment, and can be incorporated into an ecological sanitation
approach. They can be used after a septic tank for primary treatment, in order to
separate the solids from the liquid effluent. Some CW designs however do not
use upfront primary treatment.

Vegetation in a wetland provides a substrate (roots, stems, and leaves) upon

which microorganisms can grow as they break down organic materials. This
community of microorganisms is known as the periphyton. The periphyton and
natural chemical processes are responsible for approximately 90 percent of
pollutant removal and waste breakdown. The plants remove about seven to ten
percent of pollutants, and act as a carbon source for the microbes when they
decay. Different species of aquatic plants have different rates of heavy metal
uptake, a consideration for plant selection in a constructed wetland used for
water treatment. Constructed wetlands are of two basic types: subsurface flow
and surface flow wetlands.

Many regulatory agencies list treatment wetlands as one of their recommended

Effluent from a constructed wetland for
"best management practices" for controlling urban runoff.[2]
greywater treatment at an ecological
housing estate in Hamburg-Allermoehe,
Types Germany

The main three constructed wetlands types are:

Subsurface flow constructed wetland - this wetland can be either with

vertical flow (the effluent moves vertically, from the planted layer down
through the substrate and out) or with horizontal flow (the effluent moves
horizontally, parallel to the surface)
Surface flow constructed wetland
Floating treatment wetland

The former types are placed in a basin with a substrate to provide a surface area
upon which large amounts of waste degrading biofilms form, while the latter Constructed wetland for domestic
relies on a flooded treatment basin upon which aquatic plants are held in wastewater treatment in Bayawan City,
flotation till they develop a thick mat of roots and rhizomes upon which biofilms the Philippines
form. In most cases, the bottom is lined with either a polymer geomembrane,
concrete or clay (when there is appropriate clay type) in order to protect the
water table and surrounding grounds. The substrate can be either gravelgenerally limestone or pumice/volcanic rock,
depending on local availability, sand or a mixture of various sizes of media (for vertical flow constructed wetlands).
Subsurface flow wetland

Types

Subsurface flow wetlands can be further classified as horizontal flow and

vertical flow constructed wetlands. In the vertical flow constructed wetland, the
effluent moves vertically from the planted layer down through the substrate and
out (requiring air pumps to aerate the bed). In the horizontal flow CW the
effluent moves horizontally via gravity, parallel to the surface, with no surface
water thus avoiding mosquito breeding. Vertical flow CWs are considered to be
more efficient with less area required compared to horizontal flow CWs. Schematic of a vertical subsurface flow
However, they need to be interval-loaded and their design requires more know- constructed wetland: Effluent flows
how while horizontal flow CWs can receive wastewater continuously and are through pipes on the subsurface of the
easier to build.[1] ground through the root zone to the
ground.[3]
The French System combines primary and secondary treatment of raw
wastewater. The effluent passes various filter beds whose grain size is getting
smaller (from gravel to sand).[1]

Applications

Subsurface flow wetlands can treat a variety of different wastewaters, such as

household wastewater, agricultural, paper mill wastewater, mining runoff,
tannery or meat processing wastes, storm water.
Schematic of the Horizontal Subsurface
The quality of the effluent is determined by the design and should be customized Flow Constructed Wetland: Effluent
for the intended reuse application (like irrigation or toilet flushing) or the flows horizontally through the bed.[3]
disposal method.

Design considerations

The wastewater passes through a sand medium on which plants are rooted. A gravel medium (generally limestone or
volcanic rock lavastone) can be used as well and is mainly deployed in horizontal flow systems though it does not work as
efficiently as sand.[1]

Constructed subsurface flow wetlands are meant as secondary treatment systems which means that the effluent needs to
first pass a primary treatment which effectively removes solids. Such a primary treatment can consist of sand and grit
removal, grease trap, compost filter, septic tank, Imhoff tank, anaerobic baffled reactor or upflow anaerobic sludge blanket
(UASB) reactor.[1] The following treatment is based on different biological and physical processes like filtration,
adsorption or nitrification. Most important is the biological filtration through a biofilm of aerobic or facultative bacteria.
Coarse sand in the filter bed provides a surfaces for microbial growth and supports the adsorption and filtration processes.
For those microorganisms the oxygen supply needs to be sufficient.

Especially in warm and dry climates the effects of evapotranspiration and precipitation are significant. In cases of water
loss, a vertical flow CW is preferable to a horizontal because of an unsaturated upper layer and a shorter retention time.

The effluent can have a yellowish or brownish colour if domestic wastewater or blackwater is treated. Treated greywater
usually does not tend to have a colour. Concerning pathogen levels, treated greywater meets the standards of pathogen
levels for safe discharge to surface water. Treated domestic wastewater might need a tertiary treatment, depending on the
intended reuse application.[1]

Plantings of reedbeds are popular in European constructed subsurface flow wetlands. Other plants are cattails (Typha spp.)
and sedges.
Operation and maintenance

Overloading peaks should not cause performance problems while continuous overloading lead to a loss of treatment
capacity through too much suspended solids, sludge or fats.

Subsurface flow wetlands require the following maintenance tasks: regular checking of the pretreatment process, of pumps
when they are used, of influent loads and distribution on the filter bed.[1]

Comparisons with other types

Subsurface wetlands are less hospitable to mosquitoes compared to surface flow wetlands, as there is no water exposed to
the surface. Mosquitos can be a problem in surface flow constructed wetlands. Subsurface flow systems have the
advantage of requiring less land area for water treatment than surface flow. However, surface flow wetlands can be more
suitable for wildlife habitat.

For urban applications the area requirement of a subsurface flow CW might be a limiting factor compared to conventional
municipal wastewater treatment plants. High rate aerobic treatment processes like activated sludge plants, trickling filters,
rotating discs, submerged aerated filters or membrane bioreactor plants require less space. The advantage of subsurface
flow CWs compared to those technologies is their operational robustness which is particularly important in developing
countries. The fact that CWs do not produce secondary sludge (sewage sludge) is another advantage as there is no need for
sewage sludge treatment.[1] However, primary sludge from primary settling tanks does get produced and needs to be
removed and treated.

Costs

The costs of subsurface flow CWs mainly depend on the costs of sand with which the bed has to be filled. Another factor
is the cost of land.

Surface flow wetland

Surface flow wetlands, also known as free water surface constructed wetlands,
can be used for tertiary treatment or polishing of effluent from wastewater
treatment plants. They are also suitable to treat stormwater drainage.

Pathogens are destroyed by natural decay, predation from higher organisms,

sedimentation and UV irradiation since the water is exposed to direct sunlight.
The soil layer below the water is anaerobic but the roots of the plants release
oxygen around them, this allows complex biological and chemical reactions.
Schematic of a free-water surface
Surface flow wetlands can be supported by a wide variety of soil types including constructed wetland: It aims to replicate
bay mud and other silty clays. the naturally occurring processes, where
particles settle, pathogens are destroyed,
Plants such as Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and Pontederia spp. are and organisms and plants utilize the
used worldwide (although Typha and Phragmites are highly invasive). nutrients.

However, surface flow constructed wetlands may encourage mosquito breeding.

They may also have high algae production that lowers the effluent quality and
due to open water surface mosquitos and odours, it is more difficult to integrate them in an urban neighbourhood.

Hybrid systems

A combination of different types of constructed wetlands is possible to use the specific advantages of each system.[1]

Contaminants removal
Physical, chemical, and biological processes combine in wetlands to remove
contaminants from wastewater. An understanding of these processes is
fundamental not only to designing wetland systems but to understanding the fate
of chemicals once they enter the wetland. Theoretically, wastewater treatment
within a constructed wetland occurs as it passes through the wetland medium
and the plant rhizosphere. A thin film around each root hair is aerobic due to the
leakage of oxygen from the rhizomes, roots, and rootlets.[4] Aerobic and
anaerobic micro-organisms facilitate decomposition of organic matter. Microbial
nitrification and subsequent denitrification releases nitrogen as gas to the
atmosphere. Phosphorus is coprecipitated with iron, aluminium, and calcium
compounds located in the root-bed medium.[4][5] Suspended solids filter out as Newly planted constructed wetland
they settle in the water column in surface flow wetlands or are physically filtered
out by the medium within subsurface flow wetlands. Harmful bacteria and
viruses are reduced by filtration and adsorption by biofilms on the gravel or sand
media in subsurface flow and vertical flow systems.

Nitrogen removal

The dominant forms of nitrogen in wetlands that are of importance to

wastewater treatment include organic nitrogen, ammonia, ammonium, nitrate
and nitrite. Total nitrogen refers to all nitrogen species. Wastewater nitrogen
removal is important because of ammonias toxicity to fish if discharged into
watercourses. Excessive nitrates in drinking water is thought to cause
Same constructed wetland, two years
methemoglobinemia in infants, which decreases the blood's oxygen transport
later
ability. Moreover, excess input of N from point and non-point sources to surface
water promotes eutrophication in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and coastal oceans
which causes several problems in aquatic ecosystems e.g. toxic algal blooms, oxygen depletion in water, fish mortality,
loss of aquatic biodiversity.[6]

Ammonia removal occurs in constructed wetlands - if they are designed to achieve biological nutrient removal - in a
similar ways as in sewage treatment plants, except that no external, energy-intensive addition of air (oxygen) is needed. It
is a two-step process, consisting of nitrification followed by denitrification. The nitrogen cycle is completed as follows:
ammonia in the wastewater is converted to ammonium ions; the aerobic bacterium Nitrosomonas sp. oxidizes ammonium
to nitrite; the bacterium Nitrobacter sp. then converts nitrite to nitrate. Under anaerobic conditions, nitrate is reduced to
relatively harmless nitrogen gas that enters the atmosphere.

Nitrification

Nitrification is the biological conversion of organic and inorganic nitrogenous compounds from a reduced state to a more
oxidized state, based on the action of two different bacteria types.[7] Nitrification is strictly an aerobic process in which the
end product is nitrate (NO3 ). The process of nitrification oxidizes ammonium (from the wastewater) to nitrite (NO2 ), and
then nitrite is oxidized to nitrate (NO3 ).

Denitrification

Denitrification is the biochemical reduction of oxidized nitrogen anions, nitrate and nitrite to produce the gaseous products
nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitrogen gas (N2), with concomitant oxidation of organic matter.[7] The end
products, N2O and N2 are gases that re-enter the atmosphere.

Ammonia removal from mine water

Constructed wetlands have been used to remove ammonia and other nitrogenous compounds from contaminated mine
water,[8] including cyanide and nitrate.
Phosphorus removal

Phosphorus occurs naturally in both organic and inorganic forms. The analytical measure of biologically available
orthophosphates is referred to as soluble reactive phosphorus (SR-P). Dissolved organic phosphorus and insoluble forms of
organic and inorganic phosphorus are generally not biologically available until transformed into soluble inorganic forms.[9]

In freshwater aquatic ecosystems phosphorus is typically the major limiting nutrient. Under undisturbed natural conditions,
phosphorus is in short supply. The natural scarcity of phosphorus is demonstrated by the explosive growth of algae in
water receiving heavy discharges of phosphorus-rich wastes. Because phosphorus does not have an atmospheric
component, unlike nitrogen, the phosphorus cycle can be characterized as closed. The removal and storage of phosphorus
from wastewater can only occur within the constructed wetland itself. Phosphorus may be sequestered within a wetland
system by:

1. The binding of phosphorus in organic matter as a result of incorporation into living biomass,
2. Precipitation of insoluble phosphates with ferric iron, calcium, and aluminium found in wetland soils.[9]

Biomass plants incorporation

Aquatic vegetation may play an important role in phosphorus removal and, if harvested, extend the life of a system by
postponing phosphorus saturation of the sediments.[10] Plants create a unique environment at the biofilm's attachment
surface. Certain plants transport oxygen which is released at the biofilm/root interface, adding oxygen to the wetland
system. Plants also increase soil or other root-bed medium hydraulic conductivity. As roots and rhizomes grow they are
thought to disturb and loosen the medium, increasing its porosity, which may allow more effective fluid movement in the
rhizosphere. When roots decay they leave behind ports and channels known as macropores which are effective in
channeling water through the soil.

Metals removal

Constructed wetlands have been used extensively for the removal of dissolved metals and metalloids. Although these
contaminants are prevalent in mine drainage, they are also found in stormwater, landfill leachate and other sources (e.g.,
leachate or FDG washwater at coal-fired power plants), for which treatment wetlands have been constructed for mines.[11]

Mine waterAcid drainage removal

Constructed wetlands can also be used for treatment of acid mine drainage from coal mines.[12]

Designs
Design characteristics
Surface flow CWs are characterized by the horizontal flow of wastewater
across the roots of the plants. They require a relatively large area to purify
water compared to subsurface flow CWs and may have increased smell
and lower performance in winter.
Subsurface flow CWs: the flow of wastewater occurs between the roots of
the plants and there is no water surfacing (kept below gravel). As a result,
the system is more efficient, doesn't attract mosquitoes, is less odorous
and less sensitive to winter conditions. Also, less area is needed to purify
water510 square metres (54108 sq ft). A downside to the system are Vertical flow type of constructed
the intakes, which can clog or bioclog easily, although some larger sized wetlands
gravel will often bypass this problem. For large applications, they are
often used in combination with vertical flow constructed wetlands. In
warm climate, for organic loaded sewage, they require about 3.5 m2 / 150
 L for black and grey water combined, with an average water level of 0.50 m. In cold climate they will require the
double size (7 m2/150 L). For blackwater treatment only, they will require 2 m2 /50 L in warm weather.
Vertical flow CWs: these are similar to subsurface flow constructed wetlands but the flow of water is vertical
instead of horizontal and the water goes through a mix of media (generally four different granulometries), it requires
less space than SF but is dependent on an external energy source. Intake of oxygen into the water is better (thus
bacteria activity increased), and pumping is pulsed to reduce obstructions within the intakes. The increased
efficiency requires only 3 square metres (32 sq ft) of space per person, down to 1.5 square metres in hot climates.[1]

Plants and other organisms

Plants

Typhas and Phragmites are the main species used in constructed wetland due to
their effectiveness, even though they can be invasive outside their native range.

In North America, cattails (Typha latifolia) are common in constructed wetlands

because of their widespread abundance, ability to grow at different water depths,
ease of transport and transplantation, and broad tolerance of water composition
(including pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen and contaminant concentrations).
Elsewhere, Common Reed (Phragmites australis) are common (both in
blackwater treatment but also in greywater treatment systems to purify
wastewater).
Newly planted constructed wetland for
Plants are usually indigenous in that location for ecological reasons and blackwater treatment (Lima, Peru)
optimum workings.

Fish and bacteria

Locally grown bacteria and non-predatory fish can be added to surface flow
constructed wetlands to eliminate or reduce pests, such as mosquitos. The
bacteria are usually grown locally by submerging straw to support bacteria
arriving from the surroundings.

Costs
Since constructed wetlands are self-sustaining their lifetime costs are
significantly lower than those of conventional treatment systems. Often their
capital costs are also lower compared to conventional treatment systems.[13]
They do take up significant space, and are therefore not preferred where real The large roots of this uprooted plant
estate costs are high. growing in a constructed wetlands
indicate a healthy plant (Lima, Peru)

History
Subsurface flow CWs with sand filter bed have their origin in Europe and are now used all over the world. Subsurface
flow CWs with a gravel bed are mainly found in North Africa, South Africa, Asia, Australia and New Zealand.[1]

Examples
USA

The Arcata Marsh in Arcata, California is a sewage treatment and wildlife protection marsh.
Australia

The Urrbrae Wetland in Australia was constructed for urban flood control and
environmental education.

At the Ranger Uranium Mine, in Australia, ammonia is removed in "enhanced"

natural wetlands (rather than fully engineered constructed wetlands), along with
manganese, uranium and other metals.

See also A hybrid system using Flowforms in a

treatment pond, in Norway.
Decentralized wastewater Water-sensitive urban design
system Wetland classification
Ecological engineering Wetlands Construdos (a
Floodplain restoration company in Brazil)
Rain garden
Vegetative treatment system
Water-sensitive urban design
References
1. Hoffmann, H., Platzer, C., von Mnch, E., Winker, M. (2011): Technology review of constructed wetlands -
Subsurface flow constructed wetlands for greywater and domestic wastewater treatment (http://www.susana.org/en/r
esources/library/details/930). Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Eschborn,
Germany
2. For example, see Urban Drainage and Flood Control District, Denver, CO. "Treatment BMP Fact Sheets:"
"T-08. Constructed Wetland Pond" (Nov. 2015) (http://udfcd.org/wp-content/uploads/uploads/vol3%20criteri
a%20manual/09_T-08%20Constructed%20Wetland%20Pond.pdf) and
"T-09. Constructed Wetland Channel" (Nov. 2010) (http://udfcd.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/T-09-Constr
ucted-Wetland-Channel.pdf). Part of the Urban Storm Drainage Criteria Manual, Volume 3 (http://udfcd.org/c
riteria-manual).
3. Tilley, E., Ulrich, L., Lthi, C., Reymond, Ph., Zurbrgg, C. (2014): Compendium of Sanitation Systems and
Technologies - (2nd Revised Edition) (http://www.eawag.ch/forschung/sandec/publikationen/compendium_e/index_
EN). Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Duebendorf, Switzerland. ISBN 978-3-
906484-57-0.
4. Brix, H., Schierup, H. (1989): Danish experience with sewage treatment in constructed wetlands. In: Hammer, D.A.,
ed. (1989): Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment. Lewis publishers, Chelsea, Michigan, pp. 565573
5. Davies, T.H., Hart, B.T. (1990): Use of aeration to promote nitrification in reed beds treating wastewater (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080407845500127). Advanced Water Pollution Control 11: 7784.
doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-040784-5.50012-7. ISBN 9780080407845.
6. Carpenter, S.R., Caraco, N.F., Correll, D.L., Howarth, R.W., Sharpley, A.N. & Smith, V.H. (1998)Nonpoint
pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/1051-0761(19
98)008%5B0559:NPOSWW%5D2.0.CO;2/abstract).Ecological Applications, 8, 559-568.
7. Wetzel, R.G. (1983): Limnology. Orlando, Florida: Saunders college publishing.
8. Hallin, S., Hellman, M., Choudhury, M.I. & Ecke, F. (2015) Relative importance of plant uptake and plant
associated denitrification for removal of nitrogen from mine drainage in sub-arctic wetlands (http://www.sciencedire
ct.com/science/article/pii/S0043135415302116). Water Research, 85, 377-383.
9. Mitsch, J.W., Gosselink, J.G. (1986): Wetlands. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, p. 536
10. Guntensbergen, G.R., Stearns, F., Kadlec, J.A. (1989): Wetland vegetation. In Hammer, D.A., ed. (1989):
Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment. Lewis publishers, Chelsea, Michigan, pp. 7388
11. "Wetlands for Treatment of Mine Drainage" (http://technology.infomine.com/enviromine/wetlands/Welcome.htm).
Technology.infomine.com. Retrieved 2014-01-21.
12. Hedin, R.S., Nairn, R.W.; Kleinmann, R.L.P. (1994): Passive treatment of coal mine drainage. Information Circular
(Pittsburgh, PA.: U.S. Bureau of Mines) (9389).
 13. Technical and Regulatory Guidance Document for Constructed Treatment Wetlands (http://www.itrcweb.org/Guidan
ceDocuments/WTLND-1.pdf) (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council.
December 2003.

External links
Constructed Wetlands - US Environmental Protection Agency (https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/constructed-wetlands)
Handbook, studies and related resources
Publications on constructed wetlands (http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library?vbl_2%5B%5D=&vbl_7%5B%5
D=33) in the library of the Sustainable Sanitation Alliance

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