UK Air Vehicle Technology

2011
A review by the Materials & Structures
National Technical Committee

Engines and Powerplants

Knowledge
Transfer
Network
Aerospace,
Aerospace & Defence
Aviation & Defence
 Contents

Abstract
This review has been produced under the auspices of the Materials and Structures National Technical Committee,
an integral part of the Knowledge Transfer Network in Aerospace and Defence. The central requirement for the
review is to provide informed opinion on the foreseen needs and opportunities for capability in materials and
structures for UK air vehicles.
The review has been mounted on the Aerospace and Defence KTN Website and is available for responsible
use throughout the UK R&D community, sponsors, users and suppliers. Weighted information generated within
these reviews can be used to guide potential sponsors and suppliers of the research and to enable end users
to maximise their involvement in the research and its uptake. Guided research and development is one element
essential to refresh UKs competitive position.

Contents
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Foreword by Dr Ruth Mallors 3 4.5 Design and Materials Choices 23

4.5.1 Virtual Systems Verification 23
Foreword by Dr Mike Hicks 4 4.5.2 Intake and Fan Systems 23
4.5.3 Core Compressors 24
1 Executive summary 5 4.5.4 Core Combustors 24
4.5.5 Fuel and Fuel Systems 25
2 Review Scope 6 4.5.6 Core Turbine Systems 25
2.1 Vehicles reviewed 6 4.5.7 Power Transmission 26
2.2 UK strategies and philosophies for 4.5.8 Casings 26
engines and powerplants 6 4.5.9 Exhausts and Nacelles 26
2.3 Market size and its importance to the UK 7 4.6 Manufacturing Developments 26
2.4 Markets 8 4.6.1 Net Shape Processes 26
2.4.1 Aero Gas Turbines 8 4.6.2 Surface Engineering 26
2.4.2 Land Based Power Generation 8 4.6.3 Ultra Low Cost Tooling 26
2.4.3 Marine Applications 9 4.6.4 Advanced Materials Processing 26
2.4.4 Fuel Cells 9 4.6.5 Assembly Integration 27
2.5 International Outsourcing 4.7 Operational Issues 27

3 Recent history 10 5 Possible Future Scenarios 28

3.1 Engine and powerplant concepts 10 5.1 Safety 28
3.1.1 Military Engines 10 5.2 Reliability 28
3.1.2 Civil Engines 10 5.3 Efficincy 28
3.1.3 Land Based Power Applications 11 5.4 Affordability 28
3.1.4 Marine Applications 12 5.5 Environmental Impact and Sustainability 29
3.2 Current Design and Materials Choices 12 5.6 Aviation applications 29
3.2.1 Design Tools and Modelling 13 5.6.1 Civil Aircraft Engines 29
3.2.2 Intake and Fan Systems 13 5.6.2 Military Aircraft Engines 30
3.2.3 The Core Compressor 13 5.7 Marine Applications 30
3.2.4 Core Combustors 14 5.8 Fuel Cells 30
3.2.5 Fuels and Fuel Systems 15 5.9 Land Based Power 30
3.2.6 Core Turbine Systems 16 5.10 Space Applications 30
3.2.7 Power Transmission 17
3.2.8 Casings 17 6 Requirements Perceived for Materials & Structures
3.2.9 Exhausts and Nacelles 17 Research & Development 31
3.3 Manufacturing Developments 18 6.1 Safety 31
3.3.1 Virtual Processes 18 6.2 Reliability 31
3.3.2 Metals Cleaniliness 18 6.3 Efficiency and performance 31
3.3.3 Tailored Microstructures 19 6.4 Affordability 31
3.3.4 Powder Alloy Components 19 6.5 Environmental Impact 32
3.3.5 Composites Manufacture 19
3.3.6 Near Net Shape Processes 19 7 Research Collaboration 33
3.3.7 Welding, Joining and Bonding 19 7.1 National strategies for collaboration 33
3.3.8 Coatings 19 7.2 International collaboration 33
3.4 Operational Issues 20
3.4.1 Scheduled Maintenance 20 8 Summary 34
3.4.2 Health Management & Prognostics 20
3.4.3 Unscheduled Maintenance 21 Principal Authors 34
3.4.4 Non-Destructive Evaluation 21
Materials & Structures NTC Members 35
4 Current trends 5 year horizon 22
4.1 Aviation Applications 22 About the Aerospace & Defence KTN 36
4.2 Land Based Power Generation 22
4.3 Marine Applications 23
4.4 Fuels Cells 23
2
 Foreword by Dr Ruth Mallors

UK Aerospace and Defence is a success story by any

measure. It is a high value, high skilled and high technology
industry that competes on the world stage, second only to
the US in size and revenue.
The sector delivers against the UKs highest level strategic
agendas such as high-value manufacturing, low carbon,

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science and innovation and of course, defence. Employing
over a hundred thousand people, UK A&D industry
delivers real value and a genuine balance to the economy.
The sector has a rich heritage of technological innovation
throughout the supply chain, which has kept the UK at
forefront of the global aerospace and defence Markets.
Numerous examples exist of how effective partnerships
between business, government and academia have
created and sustained the UKs competitive and military
advantage.
While todays success story is largely the result of technology partnerships of yesterday,
tomorrow remains a challenge.
The opportunity for growth is undeniable. Products that emerge from the sector are amongst
the most complex manufactured and continue to increase in complexity; global competitors
are developing capability at a formidable rate; the global security and defence climate
continues to evolve but remains uncertain. The combination of these factors only underpins
the necessity for broader and deeper collaboration and partnership.
Facilitated by the Aerospace and Defence KTN, the National Technical Committees provide
the environment and mechanisms through which this collaborative spirit can thrive. The NTCs
are partnerships between industry, government and academia that deliver value-add outputs
from technology roadmaps, to collaborations, to knowledge assets such as this report. I invite
you to join this innovation climate by becoming a member of the KTN and engaging with the
NTCs.

Director
Aerospace, Aviation & Defence Knowledge Transfer Network

3
 Foreword by Dr Mike Hicks

With collaboration being the irrefutable enabler

to innovation in any technology driven sector,
the National Technical Committees (NTCs) have
become the foremost focal points around the
issues of science, innovation and technology
across a range of disciplines within aerospace
and defence. Through this partnership
approach between industry, government and
academia fostered within the Materials and
Structures (M&S) NTC, a number of business-
led initiatives are delivering real value to the
sector, such as comprehensive technology
roadmapping that enable collaborative research and clearly identify priorities for future funding.
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This document, one in a series of such reviews prepared by the M&S NTC, contains the
consensus view of the materials community across the UKs engines and power-plants
sector. Developments in materials technology are fundamental to delivering the performance
demanded in this highly competitive market. Innovative materials solutions permeate
throughout such power-plants, delivering reduced weight, improved specific fuel consumption,
lower emissions and greater endurance, whilst always maintaining safety as the overriding
priority. The report includes an assessment of the requirements and opportunities for which the
UK is well-positioned to deliver, and identifies the research and technology development that
are required to ensure the UK remains world-leading and competitive in these global markets.
In an ever-evolving economic and technology climate, these reviews truly are living documents
that need to reflect the very latest thinking of the expert community. They will be periodically
reviewed and updated, with a view to continuously expanding the range of contributors. The
broadest community is encouraged to use these reports to inform their thinking and influence
their strategies. The knowledge contained in these reports needs to be widely transferred
both within and beyond the engines and power-plants sector to ensure innovations and
developments are spun in and out of the sector.
I hope you find this review both informative and engaging. Should you have any comments or
questions, please connect with the M&S NTC or the Aerospace and Defence KTN to ensure
your voice is heard.
.

Chairman
Materials & Structures National Technical Committee

4

A review considering the materials and structural
requirements for research and development to support
the design, manufacture and operation of gas turbine
engines and powerplant in the UK has been produced
under the auspices of the Materials and Structures
National Technical Committee, an integral part of
the Knowledge Transfer Network in Aerospace and
Defence. The central requirement for the review to is
to provide informed opinion on the foreseen needs
and opportunities for materials and structures research
supporting UK gas turbine engines and powerplant
operating in aerospace, marine land and energy
provision.
The review has been mounted on the Aerospace and
Defence KTN Website and is available for responsible use
throughout the UK R&D community. Weighted information
generated within these reviews can be used to guide
potential sponsors and suppliers of the research and to
enable end users to maximise their involvement in the
research and its uptake. This review is one of nine that cover
Executive Summary
1
the perceived range of UK aerospace platforms and systems
including those that are novel or disruptive in nature. It is
intended that these Reviews should be regularly updated.
Initially an outline of the engines and powerplant to be
reviewed, the underlying UK strategies and philosophies for
UK engines development and the size and importance of this
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market to the UK are provided against perceptions of market
trends and international out-sourcing issues. Then trends
in structural concepts or engine architectures, in structural
design, materials choice, manufacturing development and
operational issues are identified against three time frames
namely; current and recent history, those seen for the next
five years and speculatively those perceived over a twenty
year horizon.
This review of market led development enables common
drivers for research to be identified over the three time
frames supporting Safety, Reliability, Efficiency, Affordability,
Environmental Impact and Sustainment. Against these
persisting drivers more than 40 areas for possible research
and development are identified, justified and detailed.
5
2 Review Scope
This review is one of nine produced and upgraded progressively by
the National Advisory Committee for Materials and Structures, now
the National Technical Committee, each being to a similar format and
standard. Overlapping issues are identified. Potentially disruptive vehicle
technologies are treated separately as an individual field described as
Future vehicles and concepts.
2.1 Vehicles Reviewed
This Review encompasses engines and powerplant. A
complete list of reviews includes:-
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Civil transport aircraft ( > 50 seats )
General aviation, personal and business aircraft (< 50
seats)
Sports and recreational aircraft
Combat aircraft for strike, air defence, surveillance and
training
Military transport aircraft including in-flight refueling
Rotorcraft, military and civil
Space vehicles including satellites
Future vehicles and concepts
Engines and powerplant
Within the context of this Review, the terms engines and
powerplant will encompass conventional gas turbine
engines for both civil and military aircraft including large
and small transports, training and combat aircraft, rotorcraft
and specialised uninhabited variants. The term powerplant
is adopted to accommodate unconventional options and
developments such as fuel cells, ducted fans and more
electric variants. Diesel engines used in light general aviation
aircraft are not included. It should also be remembered that
the remit of the Materials and Structures National Technical
Committee encompasses marine and land military platforms,
both deploying gas turbines.
The range in engine output required is considerable from
circa 150KW for light air taxis or personal aviation/entry level
trainers to several tens of MW for large transports and other
applications such as ground based power generation and
marine engines. In terms of thrust, this review will cover
plant from approximately 1000lbf thrust to approximately
100,000lbf (4.5kN to 450kN thrust, hereafter Imperial units
are used consistent with industry practice). Engine size and
thrust must be balanced against the fundamental requirement
of the aircraft to takeoff and climb safely at maximum weight
whilst the engine architecture should be optimised to match
as closely as possible the speed of airflow through the engine
with aircraft cruise speed thereby minimising specific fuel
consumption. This range in output can be divided in arbitrary
terms:-
6
Turbofans for long range civil transport aircraft generally
deploying large engines of greater than circa 50,000
lbf thrust from engines with large fans and high bypass
ratios.
Turbofans for short to medium range aircraft with thrusts
in the range of between 10,000 to 50,000 lbf used for inter
hub connections and larger business/corporate jets with
progressively lower bypass ratios for the smaller/faster
aircraft. Additionally larger uninhabited (military) aircraft,
including some long range and high altitude variants.
Combat military aircraft and business jets using turbo fans
with thrust levels up to circa 20,000 lbf (90kN), generally
lower bypass ratios and afterburning for military variants.
Turbopropellors for regional aircraft and military transport
aircraft typically of shorter range commonly with thrust
levels up to approximately 5,000 shaft horsepower (shp).
Propellor driven training aircraft, sports, personal and
air taxis and the smaller end of the private wings market
with a range in engines from diesel engines to small
turboprops with circa 2000shp maximum. These may also
be used for smaller uninhabited air vehicles.
Turboshafts for rotorcraft and specialised variants of the
smaller uninhabited rotorcraft again with typically up to
2000shp.
Gas turbine for land and marine vehicles and for fixed
power generation, the latter with outputs into the
megawatt range.
2.2 UK strategies and philosophies for
engines and powerplant
Such a wide range of required power output has been met
by use of series of engines with different architectures based
around a limited number of common cores. For any one
engine, variation in operational demands can be extreme
from emergency power for heavily laden aircraft at take-
off to maximum economy during high altitude cruise. The
ambient operation environment also varies very significantly
with the need to accommodate zero natural air flow during
ground idle to supersonic intake flow rates at speed or low
altitude ambient air pressures and temperatures contrasting
with much reduced pressures and temperatures at altitude.
An example of modification of architecture to meet differing
aircraft needs and missions is the evolution of the Rolls-
Royce Trent series of 3 shaft turbofans. The family is based
on a common core design philosophy but which finds
application in 6 different airframes with thrust ratings from
53 95,000lbs and has also provided the basis for the MT30
marine Trent engine which is being used in the US Littoral
Combat Ship design (USS Freedom).
It may be noted that combat aircraft introduce a further set
of requirements including very high aircraft speeds and the
need for exceptional power levels in the short term that are
met by afterburning and, possibly, by water injection.
Requirements for UK capability in materials, structures and
architectures for powerplant are much as those for airframes
comprising:-
1. Safety. Safety has been the first imperative for decades
and whilst this high priority can be effectively taken as read
it should be recognised that many research programmes on
improved materials or structural techniques for engines are
supporting this fundamental requirement.
2. Reliability. In this review attention is drawn to reliability
of operation that is the need for civil transport aircraft to
be available for daily use with minimal interruptions for
inspection or servicing and with optimised maximum service
life. World-wide pressures have mounted for 24 hour airport
operations and for longer and longer range aircraft flying
inevitably for longer periods non-stop. Readiness is always
an issue for military equipment as is the need to minimise
maintenance down-times especially when unscheduled.
3. Efficiency and performance. The priority given to
improving competitive levels of performance in transport
aircraft specified as speed, cruise altitude and specific fuel
consumption bear heavily upon engine development. The
balance struck between these sometimes conflicting drivers
has traditionally been very dependent upon the cost of fuel
but increasingly minimising environmental impact reinforces
the need for improving efficiency by progressively minimising
fuel consumption.
4. Affordability. The pressure for low cost flights from the
travelling public is the dominant factor. Whilst low specific
fuel consumption and low through life costs are critical for
affordable operation, initial costs of the engines, indeed for
the aircraft as a whole, must not be disregarded. The same
drivers also apply to military engines.
5. Environmental Impact and Sustainability. Present
and future programmes address directly the requirement
to reduce specific fuel consumption and hence to minimise
emissions assuming the persistent use of aviation kerosene.
To these issues must be added the ever present requirement
to reduce perceived noise levels. The aviation sector is
working towards achieving performance improvement
targets by 2020, set by the Advisory Council for Aeronautics
Research in Europe (ACARE). CO2 emissions are to be
reduced by 50% per passenger kilometre, noise by 50%
and NOx by 80%, all from a 2000 baseline. The reduction in
carbon-dioxide emissions will require a 15-20% improvement
from the engine, 15-20% from the airframe and 5-10% from
improved air traffic management and operational efficiency.
Balancing Potentially Conflicting Requirements.
These drivers for future research and development will persist
and remain the principal responsibilities for the airframe,
engines and systems designers and manufacturers. The
issue is as always to balance the relative impacts of the
different requirements and for the future it is imperative that
more emphasis be given to the environmental issues. Clearly
all these drivers are interrelated.
For example, when fuel prices are low, emphasis may well
be given to designs for near supersonic cruise speeds and
expensive mass-saving new materials may be of lower
priority. High fuel prices will increase the need for reductions
in parasitic mass and enable research into new materials
or lightweight structures but high and supersonic speeds
will reduce in priority. A further example of this balance is
found in the increased attractiveness of slower, low altitude
turbopropellor aircraft for shorter aircraft route when lowest
specific fuel consumption is an issue. Similarly environmental
pressures weigh against high speeds and high altitude
cruise.
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Like safety, environmental impact has frequently been
implicit within development requirements. For example,
research for low parasitic mass structural materials or for
high temperature engine materials addresses reducing fuel
consumption or certain engine emissions and hence leads
directly to a reduction in environmental impact, so the same
developments can deliver improved operational affordability
and partially reduced environmental impact.
Additionally it may be required to balance different specific
noxious emissions for lowest overall environmental impact
against targets that are difficult to optimise. That is whilst
reduction in fuel consumption per passenger mile is
consistently of merit, conflicting pressures are found when
balancing emissions of the oxides of carbon, hydrogen and
nitrogen and un-burnt hydrocarbons, for example, in the need
for simultaneous reduction in the products of carbon and
nitrogen. Moreover, whilst in general, high engine by-pass
ratios benefit fuel efficiency and noise abatement, propellers
and open rotors with yet higher propulsive efficiencies may
be less than attractive in terms of perceived noise levels and
acceptability for sensitive airport operations.
Moreover, the whole aircraft life cycle must be considered
since advanced materials used in manufacture of high
efficiency engines maybe high in environmental impact,
scarce in supply or difficult at disposal. Furthermore the
sustainability and affordability of aviation kerosene per se
may be considered as an environmental issue. Pressure for
changes in fuel chemistry is as much an issue of sustainable
supply from new fuel sources as emissions per se.
Priority for military aircraft will always be given to performance
provided that it is affordable. The UK maintains a strategically
important hold on the design, manufacture and operation
of military powerplant with further additional commercial
export value. In tactical terms efficient reliable operation of
powerplant in demanding environments is a critical key to
successful sustainable military operations.
2.3 Market size and its importance to the UK
Commercially the design, development and manufacture of
powerplant are of great importance to the United Kingdom
currently generating circa 10B (2009 figures) per year in
turnover of which the large majority is exports. It is to be
7
2 Review Scope

recognised that engine sales are usually accompanied by

in-service support contracts that can persist for decades
generating revenue and high value employment opportunities
in their own right.
Gas turbine engines for civil transport aircraft account for
4.4bn per year whilst internal and export sales with service
support of military engines amounts to a turn-over of a
further 2bn per year. In addition gas turbine derived marine
and land based power markets turn over 2.5bn and 1bn
respectively.
Closely linked to the engine activities are those of the
international equipment suppliers notably those providing fuel
and engine controls. Whilst the engines domain is dominated
in the UK by the activities of Rolls-Royce, suppliers such as
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re-design. Drivers in the business jet market remain strong and
it is likely that new products will be introduced throughout the
sector with developments throughout the product range from
light to super large jets. The key products for the UK supply
chain are aircraft from Bombardier, Gulfstream, Dassault,
Raytheon and Cessna.
From the perspective of UK military developments, major new
projects such as the Joint Strike Fighter (the F35 Lightning II
variants) or the A400M transport coupled with interspersed
upgrades for established airframes such as Typhoon or Hawk
maintain the need for advances in design, technology insertion
and application of improved materials, whilst the ever present
need for safe, reliable and cost effective operation provides a
continuous need for improved engine life management, repair
and maintenance practices.

Goodrich and GE Aviation have a significant UK presence.

Also aircraft systems manufacturers/integrators such as The emergence of uninhabited aircraft as a new genre of
Airbus, Boeing, BAE Systems or AgustaWestland have production aircraft has introduced requirements for low cost,
capabilities both of their own and within a supply chain of adaptable powerplant particularly at the smaller end of the
equipment manufacturers typically for engine control and fuel spectrum. In the short term the relatively small numbers
supply systems. of these platforms make bespoke engine developments
unattractive and main stream engines tend to be adopted,
yet obviously some development is necessary.
2.4 Markets
2.4.2 Land Based Power Generation
2.4.1 Aero Gas Turbines Industrial gas turbines range in size from truck-mounted mobile
plants to large complex systems generating up to 250MW from
Internationally, the civil air transport market has grown in
a single unit. The smaller units up to about 60MW are usually
terms of passenger miles since its inception and although the
derived from aeroengine designs, whereas the larger plants
rate of growth has reduced from the heady 15% per year of
are dedicated units specifically designed to produce very high
the 1950s it now appears that a steady growth rate of 4-5%
power outputs over long periods of time. When combined with
per year might be anticipated over the next two decades. (ref
heat recovery through a steam turbine in a combined cycle
Rolls-Royce Market Outlook Sept 2009). In the short term
plant they have the highest efficiencies of all power plants, up
excess new aircraft are being produced to be parked and
to 60%. Their main advantage is the ability to be turned on and
aircraft retirements are at record levels but taking a longer view
off within minutes, supplying power during periods of peak
it would seem that somewhere in the region of 65,000 new
demand, and their major challenge is running at very high
aircraft will be produced over the next twenty years requiring in
loads for extended periods leading to component distress and
the region of 140,000 engines, the latter worth perhaps 500B.
limited component life. Current predictions are that there is a
Presently, despite negative trends in international financing and worldwide market opportunity for gas turbine power generation
the collapse of numerous airline operators, the outlook from of circa 100B out to 2017.
the UK perspective for civil aircraft manufacturing is of strong
growth. The recessionary pressures experienced worldwide
from 2008 will defer the growth period. However, Airbus
production is forecast to grow from a level of more than 470
in 2010 to more than 600 aircraft a year by 2012, the highest
level in its history. This forecast rise is supported by a record
backlog of more than 3,700 aircraft. A new C-class range of
civil transport aircraft is under development by Bombardier
whilst Boeing has also launched its B787 new concept long-
range aircraft with apparently record levels of orders. Pressure
is also mounting in the competitive development of new single
aisle short haul aircraft from Airbus, Boeing, Bombardier and
Embraer.

In the regional market Bombardier has launched the C Series

aircraft (110 130 seats). Globally the 50-100 seat market will
be very competitive with aircraft launched by Japan, Russia
and China. In order to maintain market share it is likely that the
existing manufacturers in this sector, Bombardier, Embraer and
ATR will be required to insert new technologies into existing
aircraft, both jet and turboprop, with significant modifications or

8
2.4.3 Marine Applications
Gas turbines are used in many naval vessels, where they are
valued for their high power-to-weight ratio and their ships
resulting acceleration and ability to get underway quickly. The
first large scale, gas-turbine powered ships, were the Royal
Navys Type 81 Frigates, the first of which was commissioned
in 1961. Since that date, the gas turbine has become firmly
embedded in naval applications where its small size, high
power output and flexibility in operation makes it an attractive
power source. In commercial applications it has been less
successful as the high fuel cost makes their operation
uneconomic. However in niche markets, e.g. larger cruise
ships such as the Queen Mary II, gas turbines are becoming
more common. The major challenges for maritime operation
are both the more corrosive atmosphere due to presence
of sea salt in air and fuel and use of cheaper fuels. Whilst
market size is difficult to predict given the short, cyclic, nature
of maritime ship building a steady growth in the market is
envisaged.
2.4.4 Fuel Cells
Fuel cells are coming of age and will undoubtedly influence
market trends. With projected efficiencies approaching 70%,
as well as delivering improved air quality, the target is to have a
marketable 1MW product in service to compete with equivalent
diesel products addressing a market worth around 5B per
year.
2.5 International Outsourcing
Obviously, engines and powerplant are sourced from
international companies and the nature of international trade
ensures that capability in manufacture, research and design
can be found all around the globe and may regularly be
sourced offshore. This creates significant pressure on UK
[Fig 1]. Rolls-Royce Lift system to provide STOVL capability for the Lightning F35B
suppliers to be vigilant, flexible and world class and for all
sources of potential funding to be focussed on the critical
aspects of research, design and manufacturing capability.
In addition to this global presence of individual companies
most engine developments and their subsequent manufacture
are achieved by intercompany collaboration and by the
formation of consortia or new companies with ownership
shared internationally. CFM provide such an example in the
combination of core engine technology from General Electric
(USA) with fan and intake from Snecma/ SAFRAN (France).
In the UK Rolls-Royce has successfully increased its range of
smaller engines both military and civil sectors by the addition
of Allison in the USA and buy out of BMW from Rolls-Royce
Deutschland in Germany.
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The international nature of engine design, development and
manufacture also encompasses military engines. For example,
the Eurojet consortium was formed in 1986 to co-ordinate and
manage the EJ200 for Eurofighter Typhoon. By December
2006, Eurojet had completed deliveries of the 363 EJ200s for
the Tranche 1 Typhoons with contracts for yet further engines
following.
Currently a very large consortium of international partners
has developed the F35 Lightning II for future generations of
attack aircraft in three principal variants, conventional, carrier
capable and STOVL. In this programme the UK is principally
represented by Rolls-Royce and BAE Systems. BAE Systems
and its partners are responsible for parts of the airframe while
Rolls-Royce and its partners are bringing unique STOVL
capability to both the F135 and F136 engine programmes
through design manufacture and future supply of vertical fan,
its drive shaft and vectored thrust systems [ Fig 1 ].
9
3 Recent history
This is described in terms of the structural concepts, associated
materials choices and manufacturing techniques for in-service UK
applications.
3.1 Engine and Powerplant Concepts
The recent history in engine concepts and design has been
one of refinement based upon technology developed over
several decades from the 1940s with perhaps the most
significant contributions for aviation being the introduction
of multiple shafted engines and the turbofan with very large
fans. In marine and land applications the use of gas turbines
has expanded very significantly, the gas turbine now being a
favoured choice for large and fast ships.
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In the UK the wide range of engine requirements for aircraft,
land and marine vehicles has been met by use of variable
engine architecture based around a common core e.g. the
Rolls-Royce RB211 and Trent families of engines. The core
is usually defined as high the high pressure compressor,
combustion and turbine stages.
Propulsion systems for aircraft use are dominated by the
need for high specific thrust for take-off or combat and low
specific fuel consumption for range and economy. In turn,
high specific thrust and propulsive efficiency require that the
change in momentum of the gas flow through the engine be
as high as possible whilst best specific fuel consumption is
seen when the exit gas speed matches that of the aircraft.
Thus two dominant variables affecting the design of a gas
turbine are the mass of air/gas flow through the engine and
its relative speeds at entry and exit.
Flexibility in engine architecture has been built around
common cores by the deployment of multiple shafts coupling
separate multi-staged compressors and turbines. Small
engines for say rotorcraft being single shafts through-twin
shafted engines seen in combat and mid-range transport
aircraft to very large triple shafted engines with large slow
moving fans for largest transport aircraft.
For any one engine, variation in operational demands
can be extreme from emergency power for heavily laden
aircraft at take-off to maximum economy during high altitude
cruise. The ambient operation environment also varies very
significantly with the need to accommodate zero natural air
flow during ground idle to supersonic intake flow rates at
speed or low altitude ambient air pressures and temperatures
contrasting with much reduced pressures and temperatures
at altitude. However, combat aircraft compound the problem
introducing the need for very high aircraft speeds with
exceptional variations in thrust levels.
Design trends and materials developments may well be
driven generically by common requirements for this wide
range of output levels. For example higher combustion
efficiency will drive the design of ever more efficient
combustors and produce even higher down-stream
temperatures all requiring a steady increase in the high
temperature performance of turbine materials or indeed
for the last stages of the compressor. In terms of materials
10
9
developments it may be noted that the persistent need
for high specific performance, however measured, puts
emphasis on structures of minimal mass and the materials
that afford this. Thus whilst many of these improvements have
been achieved by refined design, some may be attributed
to reduction in the parasitic mass of the engine by the use
of advanced materials thereby increasing levels of specific
thrust or minimising specific fuel consumption.
In addition to the need for ever improving specific fuel
consumption and thrust emphasis over the recent past has
also been strongly influenced by the need to reduce the cost
of both acquisition and deployment of engines. For example
over the last four decades the cost in real terms of a military
combat engine has halved.
3.1.1 Military Engines
Military combat engines are dominated by the need for high
specific thrust whilst transport aircraft need the best specific
fuel consumption obtainable, hence there is a divergence in
design. Moreover, gas turbine engines will perform best at
an optimal speed for that engine design. Some applications
such as engines driving shafts may spend a high proportion
of their operation at near optimal speeds, others such as
those in combat or training military aircraft might be required
to perform over wide speed/thrust ranges. Very high levels
of specific thrust have been achieved for military engines
by extremely high engine speeds but with consequent high
levels of loads in engine components and importantly very
large excursions in load levels putting emphasis on materials
developments and quality of structural design. Traditionally,
exceptional thrust levels have also been supplemented for
short periods by afterburning and possibly by water injection.
One clear trend has been a drive to reduce the complexity of
military engines effected by reducing the number of stages,
component parts and indeed size of the engine with benefits
in terms of volume, weight and, importantly, ease and cost of
maintenance [ Fig.2 ].
3.1.2 Civil Engines
For civil aviation applications environmental pressures
have produced significant priorities for engine design
dominated over the last decade by demands for reduced fuel
consumption and reduction in externally perceived noise.
The last decade or so has seen ever increasing fan diameters
producing larger mass flows at optimised speeds with a very
marked effect on specific fuel consumption [ Fig.3 ]. This
trend has also produced noise reduction with high by-pass
engines much reducing noise stemming from high exhaust jet
speeds. The resultant improvements are such that airframe
noise is now seen as just as significant a contribution to noise

[Fig 2]. Combat engines scaled to the same thrust.
perceived on landing approach as that from the engines.
3.1.3 Land Based Power Generation
Gas turbines are key components in the most efficient forms
of advanced cycle power generating plants. Their high
versatility and flexible operation makes them a very attractive
in both bed load and peak power demand applications and
their reliability makes them well suited to remote operating
locations. The last decade has seen designs that are based
[Fig 3]. Improvement in specific fuel consumption
with increasing by-pass ratio.
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on an ever-increasing amount of aerospace gas turbine
technology [ Fig.4 ] but for operating conditions that are very
different from those of aerospace.
Both types of plant are required to operate at 80 90% of
their design rating, the peak load plant for relatively short
cycles with frequent start and shutdown cycles in a relatively
short time and bed load plant for several 10,000s of hours
with no shut downs. In both cases the read across from aero
engine technology, behavior and methods is not always
appropriate. Additional challenges stem from the range of
fuels used, including liquid fuels, natural gas, synthetic gas
produced from coal or other feed stocks and biomass. This
introduces a range of fuel related problems:
Low calorific value fuels
Increased fuel mass flow for a given heat requirement
Fuel borne nitrogen leading to higher NOx emissions
Increased fuel gas temperature and high level of
contaminants (especially where gas cooling and cleaning is
restricted to maximise overall cycle efficiency)
These difficult challenges are compounded as plant is
pushed to its a maximum efficiency and operating conditions
to meet demands from power consumption while complying
with climate change targets.
3.1.4 Marine Applications
Marine gas turbines face many of the same challenges
as land based power systems in terms of operation, fuel
and their common aerospace design origins. Unlike land
base systems space is at a premium, particularly in naval
applications, so packaged systems that incorporate the
gas turbine, the intakes and exhausts, engine ancillaries,
11
3 Recent history
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[Fig 4]. Land based and marine powerplant employ aeroengine core sections
with clearly different intakes and exhausts and without, of course, the fan.
and (most recently) intercoolers are the norm. The greatest
challenge facing the marine operation of gas turbines is
in the corrosive nature of the environment, not only from
the low-grade fuel but also from the marine environment
itself. Marinisation of the engine design is thus essential.
This normally takes the form of replacement of susceptible
materials with highly corrosion resistant variants and/or
improved coatings and protection for those that cannot be
replaced.
3.2 Current Design and Materials
Choices
3.2.1 Design Tools and Modelling
The last decade has seen very significant advances in the
design of gas turbine engines centred around advanced
fluid dynamics and design optimisation as opposed to
the development of radical new systems. This trend will
continue with much emphasis on virtual design techniques,
fluid dynamics being currently particularly funded. Similarly
techniques for simulation and evaluation of impact resistance
based on dynamic codes such as DYNA3D have become
established. The result has been major changes in the
shape, and hence manufacturability, of components to
incorporate ever more radical 3D features which is pushing
current materials and manufacturing methods to their limits.
12
This trend will continue into the foreseeable future and will
provide a major impetus for the development of advanced
manufacturing techniques.
In addition to the advances in design tools, the increasingly
complex materials systems solutions coupled with the
high degree of control required for some of the advanced
manufacturing processes needed to deliver a reliable product
mean that an ever increasing emphasis is placed on materials
and process modelling. This has to encompass all levels
of scale and must address the issue of integration so that
in future it is possible to predict the properties and life of a
component starting from alloy chemistry, process route and
component geometry. Work on the individual elements of
this is well underway and some quite impressive predictions
can be made for specific materials at defined points in the
manufacturing cycle, for example cast gain structures.
However, the linking of these capabilities in a seamless and
useable way is a long way off and a major challenge for
materials science.
3.2.2 Intake and Fan Systems
The fan system has two primary functions:-
To compress bypass air.
To feed supercharged air into the core
For a civil turbofan engine, the bypass ratio can be up to
10:1, with the bypass air contributing up to 75% of the engine
thrust. The major design requirements are high aerodynamic
efficiency, low life cycle cost, minimal weight and diameter
at a low noise level and the ability to cope with a harsh
environment where impact and erosion are major factors.
The last decade has seen something of a divergence in
design and materials choice for fan systems across the
Atlantic with the UK favouring the use of hollow titanium
blades and with the emergence of hybrid metal/polymer
composites blades from North America. Similarly, although
both have used aluminium/Kevlar or steel containment
systems, the UK is now moving to titanium alloy fan casings
diverging from US practice. For the future there is a large
suite of UK and European programmes involving the UK
OEMs, supply chain and academia that is actively pursuing
the design and manufacture of a lightweight polymer
composite fan case and thin blades. The goals of these
programmes are ambitious and it is estimated success would
deliver the following performance benefits:-
Improved flutter and stability margin.
Reduced blade set weight (around 300lbs per engine for a
Trent sized application).
A reduced case weight of around 150lbs.
These programmes aim to deliver a blade design and
manufacturing capability to a technical readiness level 6
(TRL6) by late 2012 and the fan case capability to TRL5 by
early 2013 with exploitation through the future large engine
projects with an entry- into- service date of 2017.
Military fans have the same function as the civil fans but they
differ in a lower bypass ratio that ranges from 0 to about
2:1. Also the combat environment requires that the fan and
[Fig 5]. EJ200 compressor blisk.
case have minimal frontal area achieved by keeping the
inlet hub-tip ratio as low as possible and hence delivering
low weight, drag and ultimately low airframe visibility. As a
result the large titanium or composite wide cord fan blades of
previous designs are not appropriate. Instead future military
engines are increasingly using bladed disks, more commonly
referred to as blisks where the blades and discs are directly
joined to each other. These are made from conventional Ti-
based alloys and can be made by machining from solid or,
increasingly commonly, by friction joining individual blades to
the disc [ Fig 5 ].
As in the civil sector there are large weight savings to be
made by using a polymer composite case and fan system.
However the use of polymer composites in widespread
applications lags behind the civil applications that are
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pioneering the technology.
Aero derivative engines in industrial and marine applications
remove the fan entirely and either make the IP compressor
the engine inlet or replace the fan with an new LP
compressor, e.g. The Rolls-Royce MT30 marine engine
does not have a two-stage LP compressor, instead the air is
introduced straight into the aero-derivative IP compressor.
3.2.3 The Core Compressor
The core compressor has three main functions:-
To raise the pressure of the air supplied to the combustor
and deliver it at a suitable Mach number with acceptable
radial flow properties
To supply bled air for engine sealing, anti-icing and aircraft
environmental controls
To provide for any power off-take requirements.
Like the fan system the compressor has to demonstrate a
13
3 Recent history

high level of aerodynamic efficiency with adequate stability

margin for all fan-exit conditions at low weight with low life-
cycle costs.

Two designs are used in gas turbine:-

Single spool axial compressors comprising 3 to 12 discs

each with a set of rotor blades

A centrifugal compressor comprising of one or more

impellors

For large civil engines that use two core modules, the three-
shaft axial compressor layout is preferred and provides for
a very flexible and robust system allowing for each module
to run at its optimal speed. It also has the advantage of
minimiing the number of variable vane stages and hence
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engine complexity. Small civil engines and combat engines

tend to have a single core, two shaft axial layout. Centrifugal
compressors find wide application in helicopter and cruise
missile engines where size is an important factor. In all
layouts the material choices and challenges are the same.

The current materials choice for most compressor rotor, blade

and impellors is conventional Ti-based alloys, mainly Ti6/4
but with higher temperature variants such as Ti-6246 at the
back of the HP compressor stages towards the combustor
where temperature increases significantly. However, steels
and, increasingly, Ni-based superalloys are also used in the
compressors. Steels as stators where Ti-based alloys are
unable to meet the erosion and fire resistance requirements
and Ni-based superalloys, e.g. IN718, as both blades and
discs where Ti alloys are unable to meet the temperature
requirements. In many cases these alloys are reaching
the limits of their performance and surface engineering
techniques are being applied to the existing materials
to protect them from the environment or to extend their
operating capability. Such treatments include shot and laser
shock peeing, erosion resistant coatings and, increasingly,
corrosion (particularly in marine and energy applications),
oxidation and sulphidation protection systems.
combustion process is around 2,100oC, which is too hot
for the downstream components to survive. So in order to
reduce the gas temperature cooling air is introduced into
the secondary zone downstream of the primary zone. This
air also plays a key role in controlling emissions. Finally in
the dilution zone at the end of the combustor yet more air is
introduced to control the temperature profile of the gases at
the combustor exit. It is essential that combustion is complete
before this dilution air is introduced otherwise the combustion
flame will continue downstream into the turbine causes
thermal distress and overheating.

As well as the rotor and stators, compressors also require
an abradable coating that provides the gas seal around
the rotor blade tips. These are usually thermally sprayed
coatings that consist of a matrix and a dislocator phase. The
compressor blade tips cut a path through the abradable on
first turning the engine thus creating a labyrinth seal over the
blade tip. There are a wide variety of abradable choices that
are common across the industry and are usually propriety
materials developed and supplied by the supply chain.
There are three basic designs of combustor:-
Multiple combustion chambers where the flame is held in
individual chambers positioned around the engine
Turbo-annular where a number of flame chambers are held
in a common air casing
Annual where combustion occurs between and inner and
outer casing

In modern gas turbines, the third design type dominates

3.2.4 Core Combustors
In a large civil engine air may leave the compressor at
approximately 150ms-1. This is far too high to allow stable
combustion to occur so the air passes through a series
of diffusers and baffles and enters a region of low velocity
recirculation just downstream of the fuel spray nozzles where
stable combustion can be maintained. This is known as the
primary zone.
for both military and civil applications as it results in a
shorter combustion system that is lighter and less costly to
manufacture than the other two designs.
The other component in a modern annual combustor is the
fuel injectors. There are three distinct designs:-
Vapourisers
Pressure-jet injectors and

Additionally, the temperature of gases released by the

14

Airspray nozzles
Vapourisers have been extensively used in military engines
but they are not favoured in large civil aero engines because
of higher durability and emissions requirements and in recent
times injector and spray nozzle designs have dominated.
Fuel injectors for marine and power production systems
have an additional complication in that they are required to
accommodate switching of fuels. This can be accomplished
by single set of injectors that switch fuels while running or by
having two separate sets of injectors for different fuels.
In terms of materials choices for the combustor system, with
combustion temperatures as high as 2,100oC, no structural
metallic material can survive direct contact with the flame in
this environment. This has resulted in a materials strategy that
requires:-
High strength, creep and fatigue resistant, formable high
temperature alloys to enable the complex shape of the
combustor casing to be manufactured from sheet with high
temperature, cast components in critical areas
Cooling holes and ducts to be machined through the
materials in controllable patterns to control the cooling air
A thermal protection coating system (coating and bond
coat) that reduces the heat flow from the flame and gas
stream into the surrounding metal components.
Typically combustion systems are manufactured from Ni-
based superalloys such as C1023 and PK33 together with an
air plasma sprayed yttria stabilised zirconia thermal barrier
coating. However there is an urgent need to find a new,
more temperature capable, affordable replacement for these
materials as they are approaching the useable thermal limits.
As this integrated materials system of high temperature
metals and their coatings has developed a major issue has
been to understand the whole system behavior and failure
mechanisms and enable a reliable prediction of the life of
a component that depends on its coating to survive. Much
progress has been made in the last 10 years and reliable
models of the materials and coatings are beginning to
emerge.
3.2.5 Fuels and Fuel Systems
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Aviation fuel based upon kerosene has remained the first
choice for the gas turbine engine combining the advantages
of world-wide availability, although to variable standards, with
technical advantages such as high energy density, thermal
efficiency and a low freezing point. Currently trials are being
conducted on hybrid fuels that mix aviation kerosene with
liquid fuels derived from bio-mass as a potential pure-
kerosene replacement. Additionally Rolls-Royce engines
have already been cleared to use a synthetic kerosene
blend partially derived from coal rather than oil. Here can be
seen the twin influences of environmental and sustainability
pressures both to reduce the total carbon foot print of aviation
by introducing a carbon-neutral fuel cycle that consumes as
much ambient CO2 as it produces with sources of fuel that are
not so dependent upon oil reserves..
In terms of fuel systems, engine digital fuel control systems
(FADEC) are well established, enabling much enhanced
control of fuel delivery to suit engine operational demand
and flight conditions. The current trend is to extend this
capability to engine health monitoring, and ultimately to full
prognostic capability, to reduce scheduled and unscheduled
maintenance costs. Furthermore, in order to reduce smoke
and nitrous oxide emissions, lean burn fuel control systems
are being introduced. Additionally fuel management
for monitoring, mass distribution and cooling has been
enhanced. It may be noted that fuel is commonly used as
a coolant for airframes, engine oil and electrical/electronic
equipment. This also presents a challenge for the engine
control and injector systems, as it can promote the oxidation
of fuel, resulting in lacquer deposits in the controls and
coking of the injector nozzles.
3.2.6 Core Turbine Systems
The number of turbine stages depends on the engine design.
High compression ratio engines usually have at least two
shafts, with two turbines (HP and LP) driving the high and low
pressure compressors respectively. However in high bypass
turbofans such as the Rolls-Royce RB211 and Trent families
an intermediate IP turbine system is employed between
the HP and LP turbines forming a triple spool engine. The
advantage of this design is that it allows all three matched
stages of compressor and turbine to operate at their optimum
speed thus maximising the performance.
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3 Recent history
The conventional turbine system itself is an assembly of
alternate static vanes and rotating disc mounted blades
connected to shafts. The blades and vanes are contained
in a divergent casing. The turbine provides the rotational
power output along the shaft. It usually provides drive to
the fan, compressor and engine accessories as in an aero
gas turbine, but in energy and marine based applications
it produces shaft power for a propeller, rotor, pump,
compressor or generating set.
Typical civil turbines are up to 1.4m long with a maximum
diameter of 1.3m, military turbines are much smaller, typically
under 0.4m in length with a maximum diameter of around
0.75m. Helicopter engine are smaller still.
As a result of the drive over decades for improved efficiency
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and reduced emissions, turbine blades and their supporting
discs have been required to operate at ever increasing
temperatures, e.g. in 1941 the turbine entry temperature
of the Whittle W1 was 600oC, today in a modern large civil
engine it is in the region of 1500oC. Traditionally resistance to
creep damage in the blades and fatigue in the discs has been
regarded as performance limiting. As a result manufacturing
and alloy developments have been driven down two parallel
routes:-
Highly creep resistance nickel-based superalloys for blades
and
Optimised superalloys developed for high fatigue
resistance in discs and supporting structure.
Creep strength at such high temperatures has long been
known to be strongly affected by grain boundary deformation
processes and by the inherent thermal stability of the
strengthening phases. Previous decades have thus seen the
development of blades with directionally solidified aligned
columnar grain structures and then single crystals achieved
through advances in casting technology.
Superalloy chemistry has also developed over the same
time frame with early alloys suitable for single crystal blades
containing chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten
and, aluminium, titanium, tantalum, niobium or vanadium
respectively to develop solid solution strengthening and large
volume fractions of stabilised ordered intermetallic particles.
Chromium and aluminium additions have the further benefit
of controlling the chemistry of the surface oxides critical for
oxidation resistance. Recent history has perhaps focused
more on alloy chemistry in particular revisiting the advantages
of rhenium and perhaps ruthenium additions at the expense
of reductions in the refractory metal additions of chromium,
cobalt molybdenum and tungsten, primarily because such
additions reduce the precipitate coarsening rates and
increase the strengthening effects of such phases.
However because of the high cost and potential shortage
of supply of some of these critical elements alternative alloy
development paths are now being explored. For example,
work on turbine blade alloys is looking at reducing the
rhenium and ruthenium contents. For disc alloys, work
is concentrating on development of dual microstructure
components. That is, it is now possible in a single alloy
component to develop by careful control of the manufacturing
16
process a coarse, creep resistant, grain structure on the disc
rim with a fine grained microstructure in the bore of high
tensile strength without the use of these critical elements.
The hostility of the turbine environment has long required
additional protection of components from thermal effects
and air thermal barrier coating systems based on Metal-
CrAlY and PtAl bond coats with plasma sprayed or electron
beam-plasma vapour deposited yttria stablised zirconia
are common in both military and civil applications. As with
the combustors lifing and behavioural models are being
developed and refined to enable reliable life prediction for
these systems. 2nd generation systems are nearly ready
for entry into service and work is underway to define new
generations of thermal protection systems based on Mg-
Spinel and engineered 3D interfaces.
It is not just the accepted effects of fatigue and creep that
are limiting turbine components. High temperature crack
growth, sulphidation and oxidation attack are becoming
more widespread as turbine temperatures increase whilst
in the marine and power generation applications they
are complicated by the additional contamination from
the environment and low grade fuels. These extra failure
processes are now life limiting and in many cases, because
their mechanisms and effects are not well understood, may
lead to unplanned removals and even premature failures.
For the current and next generation of materials, compatible
coatings that protect against these effects are urgently
needed and some are now being actively used, but much
more work in this area is needed, including how these
effects translate into useable life prediction and thus reliable
operation.
3.2.7 Power Transmission
Power transmission is effected by four distinct types or
groups of components:-
Rotor support structures
Gearboxes
Shafts
Bearings
These components are very different in form, but have two
functions in common:
The transfer of mechanical power
The support and location of other engine components.
As a result these components have to carry very high
mechanical loads but in a relatively cool, <250oC,
environment due to the need to have oil present for
lubrication and corrosion protection purposes. Above this
temperature oil break-down and problems with coking
and attack of the components emerge. Consequently,
the materials of choice for this group of components are
steel, usually derived from tool steels and, particularly for
bearings and shaft splines, surface engineering techniques
such as through-carburising and nitriding are employed.
However as the industry moves to smaller and hotter cores
the temperatures of these components are also increasing
creating problems for both the oils, as described above,
but also for the current steels as the temperatures are
approaching their useable limits. The drive is thus to find
a new generation of both heat tolerant lubricants and high
temperature, affordable power transmission materials.
3.2.8 Casings
Engine casings surround the engine inside the
aerodynamically designed nacelle. They provide the
mounting structure for:-
The engine core
Engine ancillaries, fuel and control systems
The engine to aircraft attachments
Casings are exposed to a variety of temperatures depending
on which section they encase and must be capable of
carrying safely high thrust and shock loadings. Thus a cold
fan casing is made from aluminium, steel, or increasingly
titanium whereas the hotter turbine and combustor casings
are made from sheet nickel or cobalt based superalloys.
As with the combustor materials these current casings are
beginning to reach their thermal limits and replacement
materials are being sought.
Of more immediate concern is how to make a casing
affordably. Casings are axi-symmetric components that are
usually machined from a solid or ring rolled billet. This is very
expensive both in term of time and wasted material. There
thus exists a great opportunity for near net shape technology
to be introduced and make a major contribution to reducing
materials usage and manufacturing costs. This route is
actively being pursued for both Ti-based compressor and Ni-
based combustion and turbine casings.
3.2.9 Exhausts and Nacelles
Polymer matrix composites are now used extensively in
engine nacelles encasing steel engine mountings but this
technology tends to be bought in by the prime engine
manufacturers. There persist some difficulties with lightning
strikes that tend to reduce the damage tolerance and
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permittivity of non-metallic nacelles and cowlings and some
development continues.
Engine exhausts now incorporate novel designs specifically
enhanced for noise reduction notably the serrated trailing
edge [ Fig.6 ]. These are usually sheet metal fabrications
made from relatively low temperature alloys, e.g. aluminium
alloys and steel. However these are statically-designed
structures and thus not optimsed for all flight regimes. This
lack of optimisation has provoked an interest in developing
active noise control structures. Initial ideas centered on
conventional actuators but the complexity and weight
penalties involved means that this is not a favoured option.
A materials solution has been proposed using large sheets
of shape memory alloys to act as temperature activated
self actuating exhaust. This removes the complexity of an
hydraulic or electrically powered variable structure making
it thermally activated, driven by the engines normal flight
cycle. The principle has been proved at the lab scale but the
challenges are to:-
Tailor the shape memory alloy operating temperature range
to match the engine
Manufacture large sheet and then components in such an
alloy
Predict the reliable useable life of such a novel material
operating under engine conditions
3.3 Manufacturing Developments
Materials and manufacturing developments are intimately
linked. It is not possible to have a viable material without
having a manufacturing route and vice versa. Developments
in manufacturing are the subject of a white paper to be
published by the Advanced Manufacturing NTC and
reference should be made to that for developments in this
area. However there are a number of key developments
that affect a wide range of propulsion system materials that
should be highlighted as of major importance.
17
3 Recent history
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[Fig 6]. Experimental serrated trailing edge for noise abatement.
3.3.1 Virtual Processes
Virtual processes are used to aid manufacturing design both
to visualise and simulate the manufacturing process such
as flow of material through dies or casting moulds and to
aid design of dies and moulds themselves to dimension the
end products, the target being to achieve a right first time
approach to new developments and an improved reliability
for existing processes. This is also closely linked to materials
models, either as inputs to the process visualisation, or
as part of the outputs where properties and behaviour are
predicted.
To date good progress has been made in process
visualisation with reliable, useable models being developed
and deployed across a wide range of processes, e.g. casting,
forging, machining, welding and heat treatment. However
the linkage of these with the materials models is not very
good and there has been little progress in predicting position
specific properties across a real component.
3.3.2 Metals Cleanliness
The sensitivity of rotating machinery to mechanical damage
induced by impact, by low and high cycle fatigue loadings
or by plasticity and creep induced at elevated temperatures
has meant that ever persistent attention be applied to
the extraction and manufacture of highest quality source
materials. For example disc materials of increasing strength
have been progressively subjected to ever increasing working
stress levels with a consequent vulnerability to low cycle
fatigue and possibly impact damage. To achieve consistently
good fatigue lives has required the development of double or
even triple melting processes such as Vacuum Arc Remelting,
Electro Slag Refining or Electron Beam Cold Hearth Refining
18
to decrease the likelihood of the inclusion of harmful defects.
Additionally powder fabrication techniques have been
developed to achieve higher levels of homogeneity but at
the risk of introducing defects through handling the powder.
Increased cleanliness will continue to be a requirement
as materials are pushed into ever more extreme operating
environments, complex manufacturing processes and
more and more the need for recycling, scrap recovery and
component reversion bringing the possibility of increased
contamination.
3.3.3 Tailored Microstructures
Advances in materials through chemistry change are
becoming increasingly difficult to make without adding
rare or expensive elements, both of which make the alloy
unsustainable. However, by having a detailed understanding
of a process and careful control it is possible to develop
microstructures tailored to the local conditions the
component operates under. This has been recently shown
by Rolls-Royce where they have developed a process to
manufacture a coarse, creep resistant, microstructure on
a disc rim and a fine grain, tensile resistant bore all in one
alloy in one component. This approach shows great promise
for other components and this is being considered as a
way to develop the maximum performance out of existing
alloys. In doing this other manufacturing challenges will
be encountered such as how to successfully machine a
component with a variable microstructure whilst ensuring its
integrity and reliability.
3.3.4 Powder Alloy Components
Powder process can be used to manufacture parts effectively
to size, see section 3.3.6. Control of particle sizes and
powder purity can aid the homogeneity of the materials or
be used to manipulate grain/particle structures to maximise
fatigue resistance and fracture toughness. However, use of
metal powder for critical components is in its infancy with
early applications to nickel superalloy discs providing a good
example. It has been established that the use of powder
routes to produce engine discs has provided an increase in
fatigue life in these components by removing defects such as
the larger intermetallic particles inherent in cast metal.
3.3.5 Composites Manufacture
Composites whether based on polymeric, metal or ceramic
matrices continue to be of significance for the design of yet
lighter more efficient engines. Traditionally found as thin
shell structures in the engine such as casings, cowlings,
abradable linings and containment structures there appears
to be great opportunity to extend application into three
dimensional structures. This presents real challenges for any
composite design and particularly for manufacture. For the
polymeric matrix materials techniques such as injection and
infusion of matrix materials into prestitched or woven fibre
reinforcements and automation of the process are under
evaluation
Metal matrix composites in several forms could potentially
provide very significant weight savings and the opening out
of the engine architectures by the release of internal space.
For long fibre or monofilament metal composites currently
little has progressed beyond hand lay-up techniques whilst
for short fibre or particulate reinforced metals or ceramics
powder techniques, mechanical alloying or reactive
processing appear to be the favoured options.
3.3.6 Near Net-Shape Process
The majority of engine components are manufactured from
forgings or castings which entails large amounts of metal
removal and hence waste with some buy to fly ratios of 10:1
or more. This is an unsustainable position on both cost and
usage of materials grounds. Currently, only a small number of
components are manufacture by near net shape processes
such as metal injection molding, near net shape powder
alloy processes, additive manufacturing and spray forming.
As a result a great deal of effort is being expended on the
development and qualification of such routes for propulsion
system components, particularly on critical parts where the
introduction of a near net shape process must also deliver
the component properties, reliability and integrity such
applications require. Additionally some of these processes
can also be used for repair and refurbishment, e.g. laser
powder deposition, thus not only providing cost effective
original manufacture but also extended life and usage though
reuse following repair.
Thinner walled components have taken advantage of the
superplasticity of selected structural alloys. For example,
highly shaped compressor blades have required advances in
manufacturing technology to enable the generation of such
complex shapes. In the UK this has been achieved by the use
of diffusion bonding and superplastic forming titanium alloy
blades.
3.3.7 Advanced Machining Processes
The current trend in machining processes is the ever more
rapid removal of material to maximise machine usage
and thus minimise cost. This usually conflicts with surface
integrity requirements as such processes can easily damage
the surface or induce undesirable residual stresses in
critical locations. There thus has to be a balance between
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rapid material removal and surface integrity requirements.
Traditional machining processes based on conventional
tooling find this a difficult balance to achieve. However
the introduction of new techniques and tool designs (e.g.
high pressure cooling through the tool above and below
the cutting tip) have acceptable cutting rates and tool wear
while achieving the surface integrity requirements. More
development in this area is required along with greater
interaction with engineers predicting component lives to
understand and specify surface condition requirements for
specific components.
3.3.8 Welding, Joining and Bonding
Joining and bonding technology is becoming increasingly
important to the manufacture of complex parts and is
becoming more difficult as alloy chemistry becomes more
complex and we attempt to join radically different alloy
types in one assembly. Conventional fusion welding still
predominates but friction joining (in the form of friction stir
welding, linear friction bonding and inertia welding) and
diffusion bonding are becoming more widespread and active
research is going on into radical new technologies such as
gallium activated joining.
3.3.9 Coatings
As materials are being used under even more stringent
operating conditions protective coatings are becoming of
critical importance to their extended use. Historically coatings
have been applied as a band aid solution to an in service
problem and in many cases the substrate, coating and
method of application are not optimised. This is gradually
changing with all three elements being considered as part
of a system and developed as such. For example, a thermal
barrier coating on an engine turbine blade is no longer only
an air plasma sprayed layer of yttria-stabilised zirconia, it has
become an EB-PVD layer with a controlled microstructure
attached to a substrate with a tailored chemistry by an
optimised, low cost bond coat based on PtAl. This systems
approach to coatings is critical to their success in the future
and applies to all surface engineering solutions.
In addition to the systems approach above, legislation is
19
3 Recent history
also driving coatings development through the restriction or
banning from use of many of the chemicals or processes that
current coatings and paints depend upon. The new REACH
legislation is of particular concern because it will ban the use
of hexavalent Cr. Alternatives to the current chrome plating
systems are therefore high on the agenda.
3.4 Operational Issues
Much of the cost of an aircraft is found in the through life
servicing and maintenance and the engine plays a significant
part in this. Maintenance can be divided into two categories;
scheduled and unscheduled and the issues are common to
both military and civil applications.
For example, the development of military engines over the
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last decade encapsulated in the EJ200 for Typhoon has
produced a significant reduction in complexity of the engine
by removing intermediate stages in the compressor and
turbine, thus minimising the numbers of rotating components.
This has been achieved by improved fluid dynamics, better
component design and materials developments that have
enabled the remaining parts to be more highly loaded. These
developments have resulted in a more affordable engine and
one that is potentially much easier to maintain.
Whilst much of the cost of a military platform is found in
the through life servicing and maintenance and the engine
plays a significant part in this, the expected life and service
intervals that tend to be shorter than those of the platform
itself requiring upgrades and replacements during the
platforms mid-life. However, a further important issue is that
of unscheduled maintenance and unexpected occurrences
(see 3.4.3).
3.4.1 Scheduled Maintenance
Scheduled maintenance is a fundamental constituent of
gas turbine operations. As part of the engine certification
process, the manufacturers have to define the minimum
standard of scheduled maintenance required to operate
the engine. For aerospace applications this standard is
promulgated under Maintenance Steering Group 3 (MSG-
3). (MSG-3 is a voluntary structured process developed by
the industry and maintained by ATA to make decisions used
to develop maintenance and inspection tasks and intervals
for an airplane). This standard divides the engine into all of
its systems and subsystems and all the functions of each
system are considered along with the possible functional
failures, their causes and effects. A prime consideration is
whether the failure effect is hidden or evident to the crew
during normal operation. Hidden failure effects are far more
likely to generate some form of scheduled maintenance; a
maintenance task is mandatory for any hidden failure that has
a possible safety impact.
For each function the failure effects are categorised and then
possible actions reviewed; such as:
Cleaning
Inspection
20
Functional checks
Lubrication
Restoration
Replacement
If a maintenance action is applicable and cost-effective its
service interval is calculated. These intervals are calculated
from design reliability figures, test data and previous
service experience and are specified in cycles, hours or
calendar time. This type of maintenance requires a detailed
understanding of materials and their behaviour under
engine conditions and drives much of the current work on
creep, fatigue, probabilistic and high temperature lifing.
With increasingly arduous engine environments many of
the models that these lifing methods depend upon are at or
beyond their limit of capability and newer models for these
regimes are urgently required.
3.4.2 Health Management & Prognostics
One important contribution to the scheduling of maintenance
stems from the predictive capabilities of the materials and
structural engineers. Life prediction is an absolutely essential
element of engine husbandry whether it be for unacceptable
levels of distortion or deformation, perhaps under creep
loading, degradation by oxidation or corrosion even failure
by fatigue or stress corrosion. The ability to predict how
rapidly performance is lost and the underpinning knowledge
of the failure processes is used both in managing the lives
of service engines and for their enhancement or extension of
operating lives.
Clearance of structures for service can be on the basis of
either calculation or test commonly both. Indeed closely
coupled predictive calculations directly related to test
conditions and performance provide the evidence that
degradation mechanisms are understood and that lives are
predictable. Ever more powerful computational capability
is being coupled with predictive modelling of increased
precision and complexity. For example for decades it has
been possible to predict the rate of growth of fatigue cracks
using fracture mechanics initially in purely elastic regimes but
latterly in non-elastic regimes. Creep prediction once based
on simple engineering models has been extended to take
account of materials microstructures and crystallographic
textures. It was stated earlier that the operating regimes
of current and future engines have become so harsh that
areas once limited to fatigue alone are now prone to high
temperature failure processes such as creep and creep loads
must be considered cyclic in nature. Inevitably this trend
will persist and yet more powerful refined models will be
required and will be applied to new materials for which basic
properties need to be measured and performance quantified.
This will prove particularly challenging for the composite
materials whether polymeric, ceramic or metal in matrix.
An issue of particular importance is the prediction of the
behavior of coatings and surface treatments and the
estimation of any rates of degradation. Previous generations
have relied upon coatings to provide reduction in the need
for maintenance, repair or replacement but with acceptable
component life being provided intrinsically without the benefit Increasingly modern full authority digital engine controls
of any such coating. However, in current and future designs (FADEC) and built-in test equipment (BITE) systems give
the performance of a coating or surface treatment is integral more timely and sophisticated warning of any need for
to the life of the component per se, such that degradation unscheduled maintenance. Paradoxically, this allows
or failure of the surface treatment will precipitate component operators to schedule the unscheduled maintenance,
failure. planning it into the routine schedule and thus increasing the
availability of the aircraft
Whilst deformation and cracking process have been
relatively amenable to prediction initiation events have
proved less so whether this be the initiation of a fatigue
crack at a defect in a material or surface, the penetration by 3.4.4 Non-Destructive Evaluation
oxidation of a grain boundary, the relaxation of a protective
Whilst non-destructive evaluation is critical in ensuring the
compressive layer on a metal surface or the incipient
integrity and suitability of a manufactured component for
failure of a coating. Current interest addresses the potential
service, e.g. by guaranteeing the cleanliness of a powder
value of probability-based approaches in evaluating such
metal forging or the absence of porosity in a casting, it also
expected but less predictable events. Thus for example
has a key role to play in on-wing inspection as part of the
fatigue failure of a component containing a defect at a
maintenance regime and in repair and refurbishment. Many
surface is assured and the rate of loss of performance of the

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of the techniques are common across a number of industries
component is predictable within certain limits themselves
and applications and it is thus a widespread subject with a
subject to variability. Variability in growth rates or final residual
key role to play in ensuring reliability, fitness for purpose and
strengths might be subject to a probabilistic approach
preventing unexpected failures.
encompassing for example variations in loading regimes but
more significantly the chances of the occurrence of a defect With the drive to ever more arduous operating regimes,
of a critical size in a critical area of stress concentration is the sizes of defects and cracks sought are ever decreasing
tractable. and the NDE community are being asked to find ways of
inspecting and sizing damage in order to predict actively
On a larger scale the occurrences of bird strike, debris
properties such as remaining life. This is a very active area
damage, lightning strike etc cannot be ignored and structures
and given its importance and potential impact, is one that will
have been qualified characteristically by demonstration of
continue to be thoroughly developed. A contribution to this
acceptable levels of residual performance after such events.
modern approach is evolution of probabilistic approaches to
The predictably of occurrence of such events will steadily
maintenance and life prediction that are integrated with non-
improve.
destructive evaluation extending the established deterministic
approaches. Both philosophies have merit and may be
applied in parallel.
3.4.3 Unscheduled Maintenance
Whilst much of the cost of any military platform or civil aircraft
is found in its through-life servicing and maintenance and
the engine plays a significant part in this, a further important
issue is that of unscheduled maintenance and unexpected
occurrences. Unscheduled maintenance is maintenance that
was not part of the normal pre-defined programme. This can
be prompted by observed indications from the operators,
remote engine health diagnostics or onboard maintenance
indications from the built-in test equipment (BITE).

In military practice, it had been commonplace to remove an

engine for inspection and maintenance by Service personnel
whenever faults have been indicated but inspection of these
incidents has revealed that many were false arisings and that
removal was unnecessary. Current practice is to develop
more intelligent servicing in which analysis of the problem
and reference to supporting data and understanding enables
a reduced level of intrusive engineering thereby increasing
the availability of the platform. Inherent in this approach is
that distinction can be drawn between false arisings or minor
imperfections and damaging or even dangerous faults.

Unscheduled maintenance causes delays to operators and it

is therefore important that troubleshooting advice is accurate,
concise, timely and backed up by the necessary logistic and
technical support. Typical events can range from replacement
of a fan blade to borescope inspection of a turbine to check
the integrity of the turbine blade thermal barrier coating.

21
 Current trends (5 year horizon)

Over the next five years, engine developments and consequential

materials requirements will be dictated by the launch of engine
projects to meet the performance needs and timescales of the platform
manufacturers.

4.1 Aviation Applications technologies and, probably most importantly with the biggest
effect on meeting the requirements, surface engineering.
The civil aircraft market will see the entry into service of the
Airbus A350XWB as well as new entrants to the single aisle
market which will appear using smaller, probably 2 shaft
designs (e.g. Mitsubishi, Commercial Aircraft Corporation 4.2 Land Based Power Generation
of China). The largest market opportunity will be to re-
engine the current B737 and A320 aircraft families starting in The power generating market is a significant growth area.
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2015/16, as in their current forms, they are not compliant with
the potential Chapter 5 Rules for noise and emission limits.
The design and layout of any new engine is not settled and
proposals range from open rotors to 2 or 3 shaft conventional
turbofans of advanced design.
In the military arena the current engine programmes will
continue to be developed, F135 and F136 engines for the
F35, EJ200 for Typhoon and TP400 for the A400M, however
the major efforts will be in the development of modern,
integrated power solutions, for UAV operations (both combat
and Operation Unmanned Air Vehicles).
Advanced concepts such as the open rotor and intercooled
engines are not seen as viable in the 5 year horizon, being 20
year horizon designs. They are seen in Section 5.
For both military and civil engines, the basic requirements are
the same. The engine must be in order of priority:-
The next 5 years will see an increasing use of aero-derived
gas turbines because of their flexibility and rapid response.
The major challenges to these current products will be:-
To lower initial manufacturing costs to enable the OEMs to
offer a competitively priced package.
To lower emissions as the use of bio derived fuels, and
hydrogen, become more common.
To improve efficiency through use of a more arduous cycle.
As with aviation applications, the short timescales and
affordability issues mean that the materials technology used
will be aero-derived, thus again restricting developments to
those based on existing technologies. However differences
in operational requirements are beginning to force the
development of energy specific solutions on aero-derived
gas turbines. This type of development will accelerate as

Safety

Affordable (initial cost and through life cycle including

maintenance, fuel burn, repair and disposal)

Reliable.

Environmentally friendly.

However, in the context of military platforms, engine

performance may well be of maximum importance depending
upon the requirements for the platform itself.

It would seem for the immediate future that the

aforementioned trends of the recent past will persist, but
with perhaps subtle shifts in emphasis, particularly toward
environmental issues.

Given the time constraints and the emphasis on affordability

the materials choices are limited to existing technologies
or developments of them as there is insufficient time to
develop and deploy radical, step change technologies.
Materials technologies that can be realised in these timescale
include polymer matrix composites, non critical near net
shape powder components, the Ni and Ti-based metallic
alloys that are under development today, microstructurally
controlled components, improved and optimised component
manufacturing processes, materials and process modelling

22
advanced cycle concepts such as intercooling, and possibly
even steam injection, begin to be deployed.

4.3 Marine Applications

As with energy generating applications the use of gas
turbines in large, fast ships and warships is expanding.
Large cruise ships, e.g. the Queen Mary II, have shown
how successful this type of propulsion can be. Given the
short cycle, economy driven nature of the shipping industry
it is impossible to predict with any accuracy what further
applications of new ships will be built in the 5 year time frame.
In military applications gas turbine propulsion is now the
favoured power system. The major opportunities over the
next 5 years include the WR21 in UK type 45 destroyer and
the US Littoral Combat programme (Rolls-Royce MT30).
when re-iteration or modification is required. Whilst rig and
structural tests may be ultimately required in some form
by regulating authorities for final clearance, it seems that
virtual processes, used in advance of full scale testing, can
pre-reveal critical load cases, or any need for refinement or
modification thereby eliminating surprises in test that might
otherwise introduce lengthy delays and cost resulting from
re-iteration requiring re-building of test samples.

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In both cases the biggest challenge for existing designs
over the next 5 years is affordability but with the added
4.5.2 Intake and Fan Systems
complications of reliability (target no unscheduled The next five years will see the introduction of a lightweight
maintenance) and corrosion protection from the marine organic composite fan and casing system. This will see
environment again a surface engineering opportunity. significant weight savings in the fan/intake system through
replacement of relatively heavy Ti-based components and in
noise through the optimisation of a thin, lightweight, 3D fan
blade shape. Major efforts are already underway in the UK
4.4 Fuel Cells through large industry/government funded projects such as
A wide variety of fuel cells designs exist and many are ELF and through the formation of the National Composites
approaching commercial production. However some
technology barriers are being encountered as they are being
scaled up from the laboratory based test units. In addition the
major barriers of cost and establishment of a supply chain
for all components remain to be overcome before they can
be successfully deployed. As a result fuel cells are not seen
as competitive or useable on a large scale in the 5-year time
horizon.

4.5 Design and Materials Choice

Future materials choices will be dominated by two things:

The increasing temperature and strength requirements as

designs move to hotter, faster rotating cores.

The need to have sustainable, affordable materials and

manufacturing processes.

These are common requirements to all the categories

discussed below.

4.5.1 Virtual Systems Verification

A major issue requiring effort over the near future is a
general move to increase the use of virtual process in design
and qualification of airframe and engine components.
The advantages in design are well established but the
cost and timescale delays that are implicit in the use of a
traditional design build and test linear process are no longer
acceptable. If rig testing could be supplanted by computer
based simulation processes time would be saved especially

23
 Current trends (5 year horizon)
Centre in Bristol. The materials for these systems already
exist; the challenge is to incorporate these into an affordable
manufacturing process and deliver a design with an
acceptable, reliable life.
In parallel with this, the traditional metallic based fan and
intake will continue to be used and developed on existing
designs and will mitigate the risk inherent in the composite
fan and casing system.
4.5.3 Core Compressors
Compressors will see a gradual increase in operating
temperature which will see the increasing use of Ni-based
superalloy blading and discs in the high pressure section
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and the gradual migration of these materials towards the IP
compressor. This will carry a significant weight penalty on the
engine, which cannot be avoided as Ti-based alloys do not
have the temperature capability.
However two major weight saving opportunities over the next
5 years are:
The potential introduction of -TiAl in place of Ni-based
superalloys in blading applications. Here the addition
of aluminium to titanium produces an intermetallic alloy
capable of operating at around 600-650C with significantly
reduced density potentially affording mass reductions in
rotating components.
The application of titanium alloy or titanium intermetallic
alloy matrix composites reinforced with silicon carbide
monofilaments (MMCs) is also potentially feasible for
an advanced compressor disc but this advance may be
24
beyond the five year horizon.
In both cases the materials have been developed and
work is concentrating on delivering a reliable, affordable
component, however major obstacles remain to be overcome
in establishing a reliable supply chain, designing and lifing
with radically new materials and in making the business case
that will make these materials affordable.
In parallel with the above, the next 5 years will see an
increasing use of surface engineering in the compressor
particularly anti-frettage, glass bead/laser shock peening,
anti-erosion coatings and new compressor abradable
materials to maximise the life and performance of existing
classes of compressor materials and to extend their use into
ever more arduous applications.
4.5.4 Core Combustors
Angled effusion cooled single skinned combustors offer low
NOx but require higher operating temperatures, while the
cooling holes generate high stress concentrations. Improved
Ni-based combustors formed from sheet with improved creep
resistance and thermal barrier coatings are required. Similar
issues persist for their support structure.
There is also the possibility of the introduction of lightweight
oxide-oxide based ceramic matrix composites. This is a
technology that the UK has lagged behind in for many
years but one which is now seen as a potential step change
technology as its introduction in a combustion application
will enable lightweight, ultra low emission combustors to be
introduced. Work is underway to develop UK capability in
this area ( funded through Technology Strategy Board TSB
programmes) and the next two years will see the first trial
components, based on US materials and processes, run
in the Environmentally Friendly Engine EFE demonstrator
engine.

4.5.5 Fuel and Fuel Systems

Whilst for aircraft, kerosene is expected to remain the
preferred fuel for the near future with its high-energy density
and low freezing point, gas turbines can be designed to
operate efficiently on practically any liquid or gaseous fuel
including bio-fuels. Bio-fuels are seen as renewable and
therefore potentially capable of contributing to reducing
the carbon intensity of commercial use and easing the

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dependency on oil-sourced fuels. However, their net
contribution to reducing carbon must be assessed over the
whole fuel cycle including any broader environmental and
social concerns over land use. Internationally manufactures,
including Rolls-Royce are working with specialist partners
in assessing the feasibility of alternative fuels and trials have
been undertaken using a variety of new fuels.

There is also the potential to create synthetic kerosene from

other feedstock including biomass, although concerns over
fuel cycle efficiency and related technical and environmental
issues need to be resolved. Changes to engine architecture
and possibly materials may yet well result from any shift in
fuel chemistry.

Following the emergence of threats to civilian aircraft the use

of fuel tank inertion similar to techniques used in combat
aircraft are also beginning to appear.

4.5.6 Turbine Systems
It has been seen previously that advanced generation turbine
superalloys for blade applications incorporate increasingly
significant levels of platinum group metals such as rhenium
or ruthenium. These metals are relatively rare and as a
result have a high in cost, which makes their use in such
applications unaffordable. Two approaches are thus being
adopted to mitigate this position which will enter service in
the 5 year timescales:
A low cost alloy with limited rhenium and no ruthenium
content as a direct replacement for the current industry
standard CMSX-4.
An affordable new alloy using rare earth additions targeted
at an increased temperature capability of +50C over the
current CMSX-4.
In both cases the alloys must also have acceptable oxidation
and sulphidation characteristics and be compatible with
current and next generation thermal barrier coating systems.
The adoption of shroudless blade designs also requires:
A reliable turbine sealing material possibly based on a
metallic form or other radical technology
A cutting blade tip requiring a high temperature cutting
grit that can be bonded to the blade.
A very high oxidation resistance for the cutting tip material.
The introduction of lightweight -TiAl as a replacement for
Ni-based superalloys is also likely In low pressure turbine
applications, if the manufacturing and lifing issues can be
overcome. Not only does this present an opportunity to
develop a lightweight LP system but it also removes the
need to use expensive, increasingly unsustainable Ni-based
superalloy alloying elements in these applications. Similar
challenges exist for the introduction of CMCs in static
applications, although their introduction in a 5 year timescale
is less likely.
Materials for disc applications will see the introduction of
materials with tailored microstructures, particularly a dual
microstructure disc based on the Rolls-Royce RR1000. This
is world leading technology and will see its first application
in the Trent XWB. As with the blade alloys the increasingly
arduous environment mean that to successfully achieve this
goal sulphidation and oxidation protection through surface
engineering are major obstacles to overcome together with
the need for new lifing tools that can predict a accurate,
reliable life in this harsh environment.
25
 Current trends (5 year horizon)
4.5.7 Power Transmission
Current mainline shaft materials and bearings are
approaching the limit of their usage, both in terms of
temperature and torque carrying capability. They are also
not sufficiently resistant to oxidation and corrosion. Within 5
years direct replacement of existing materials is likely with the
next generation of high strength, corrosion resistant steels.
However there is also the possibility of using Ti-MMC shafts.
These by their very nature are lightweight and corrosion
resistant but the lack of a robust supply chain and their high
cost may mean that this is not realised in this timescale.
4.5.8 Casings
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As in the other areas of the engine the increasing temperature
requirement makes the introduction of new casing materials
urgent. The materials for this already exist, the major issue
is affordable manufacturing. Developments are underway on
this using conventional alloys but manufactured by a variety
of near net shape routes, such as near net shape powder
HIPing and shaped metal deposition.
4.5.9 Exhausts and Nacelles
No significant changes are seen in the design and materials
selection for nacelles over the next 5 years. Work is underway
looking at exhaust nozzles based on shaped memory
material and these will be trialed over the next 5 years.
4.6 Manufacturing Developments
Considerable work has been undertaken by the Aerospace
and Defence, Advanced Design and Manufacturing, National
Technical Committee to create and verify an Aerospace
Technology Road Map. The following core manufacturing
technologies have been identified as critical technologies.
4.6.1 Net Shape Processes
Titanium alloys are widely used in aerospace structural
applications, and based on future usage projections demand
may outstrip its availability. The normal conversion process
into finished component is machining and the typical buy to
fly ratio for components manufactured from billet is less than
5:1, resulting in long machining times; In order to ensure
a sustainable process a step change in the way titanium
components are manufactured is required.
Specific areas that are of interest in this theme are:
Additive layer manufacturing
High speed machining
Near net shape forming
26
Net shape casting technologies
Metal injection moulding (MIM)
Hot isostatic pressing (HIPing)
4.6.2 Surface Engineering
Engineering coatings are used extensively in the aerospace
and defence sectors as performance enablers. Although
challenged by environmental issues, the technology for
coating metal components using wear resistant chrome, Cr6+
for corrosion resistance or cadmium for galvanic protection is
mature. On the other hand, coating technologies for polymer
composites are at a much earlier stage of development.
Polymer composites are to be used increasingly in engine
structures and new coatings and processes are required to
improve their surface properties because currently they are
not adequate to meet in-service needs.
Specific areas of interest in this theme are:
Surface coating
Surface preparation
Surface performance
Nanocoating
4.6.3 Ultra Low-cost Tooling
The cost of tooling is a significant proportion of the
investment costs in an aerospace programme. In line with
the development of new manufacturing processes, there is
a requirement to develop new lower cost tooling solutions in
order to remain competitive in the market place.
Specific areas of interest in this theme are:
Fibre reinforced polymer matrix composites
Fibre and particulate reinforced metallic matrix composites
Aluminium, nickel and ferrous matrices
Ceramics matrices
4.6.4 Advanced Materials Processing
The increasing use of composites in partial replacement
of metals in engines and powerplant provides a major
potential competitive advantage and is therefore one of the
most significant changes likely to occur over the next three
decades. Whilst the most common composite materials will
be fibre composites embedded in a resin matrix, possibilities
for metallic and ceramic matrix variants are also viable.
Extensive work has gone into developing fibre polymer matrix
composites for airframes but further innovation is needed to
enable their economic application in engine components.
Issues include new composite coatings, lower labour
cost processes and new design, modelling, analysis and
inspection tools to enable thick section components to be
designed, manufactured and qualified in composites of all
matrix types.
Specific areas of interest in this theme are:
Fibre reinforced polymer matrix composites
Fibre and particulate reinforced metallic matrix composites
Aluminium, nickel and ferrous matrices
Ceramics matrices
4.6.5 Assembly Integration
The future assembly needs in the civil and military sectors will
be quite diverse. Large and small civil aircraft, military jets
and unmanned air vehicles all place unique demands upon
assembly and manufacturing supply chains. Variation in rate,
size of airframe, use of new materials, reduced fly-away cost,
etc. are driving innovations in assembly. The industry must
adopt related technologies from other industries in order
to retain its competitive international position, particularly
against the emerging countries with ambitions to promote
their own key aerospace technologies.
Specific areas of interest in this theme are:
Automation/ One way build
Design optimisation
Assembly process optimisation
Measurement-assisted assembly
Agile reconfigurable scalable modular assembly systems
Tolerance / fit modelling and analysis
Defect free build
4.7 Operational Issues
Operational efficiency will have an increasingly important
impact on engine operation and costs as we will see the
increasing introduction of health management, on board
prognostics and on wing inspection, all aimed at improved
reliability with only planned maintenance requiring off
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-wing attention. The driver for this is the power by the
hour concept where the engine EOM owns and maintains
the engine at their cost and only generates cash while the
engine is running in scheduled service. This approach is well
embedded in the civil sector but is becoming increasingly
popular in military applications as well.
Much of this work is internal to the Original Equipment
Manufacturer as it is commercially very sensitive and can
give a huge commercial advantage, Rolls-Royce report that
over 50% of their revenues come from this source. However,
large EU based projects that integrate the various sensors
and inspection techniques and prove them in pre-competitive
market are very important to the success of this approach.
Attention is drawn to the work of the National Technical
Committee covering Health Management and Prognostics.
27
 Possible future scenarios (20 year horizon)

Foreseeing trends for a horizon 20 years in the future can perhaps be

best done generically. It is considered likely that future requirements
for engines or powerplant on aerospace, marine and land platforms
will still be dictated by current drivers based upon human factors and
perceptions such as safety, reliability etc. but that the nature of the
platforms and their power systems might have changed radically shifting
the balance between these priorities.

5.1 Safety every component of the vehicle is balanced such that the
reliability of the vehicle as a whole is not compromised by any
It was noted earlier that substantial growth in aviation one components malfunction. This is perhaps exemplified
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transport has been predicted for the following decades.
Safety remains a paramount issue without equivocation. If
these predictions for growth are achieved but attention is not
paid to enhanced safety, unacceptable problems may well
ensue. In particular for aviation, near daily announcements
of aircraft accidents would prove very damaging to public
perception despite the fact that safety levels have inherently
been preserved. In simple terms, more aircraft flying at any
one time increases the likelihood of a problem whether an
incident, a failure requiring maintenance or a full-blown
accident. Rates of failure of individual components such as
a certain type of engine that are currently acceptable may
by whole life guarantees offered by manufacturers for certain
makes of vehicle. In airframe terms, minimal maintenance
requirements are a major factor determining competitiveness.
Looking downstream it can also be seen that major mid-life
inspections and overhauls can prove to be the death knell
of an otherwise serviceable used aircraft. Trends for ultra
reliable vehicles will persist and be a major market selling
issue. Research and engineering development based around
reliability parallel those specifically on safety issues but also
introduce studies on maintenance and logistical practices.

5.3 Efficiency
The pressure for ever reducing levels of fuel consumption
will persist unabated for established engine types and for
platforms as a whole. Thus we might anticipate a gradual
progression of ever improving designs and materials to
support them. However, normal pressures for increased
efficiency that persist for established types of vehicles or
aircraft might see a step change with the introduction of
smaller lower cost uninhabited vehicles. Here efficiency or
performance might be sacrificed for ruggedness, ease of
maintenance and reliability in general.

For the far future techniques deploying little-tested concepts

such as plasma drag reduction, use of Coanda forces,
electromagnetic lift and drives etc are studied in the parallel
review on disruptive technology.

prove to be too high if traffic were to increase ten-fold. So
research is needed to drive basic safety levels yet higher to
match increased levels of application. This is especially the
case with the trend towards more private flying and the use of
uninhabited systems in all domains air, space, land and sea.
5.2 Reliability
Observation of the automobile industry reveals a very strong
trend towards the ultra-reliable vehicle where reliability for
5.4 Affordability
Affordability, always an issue, has become pressing
especially for military platforms. Technology is currently being
rejected purely on the basis of its cost for civil and military
applications and greater emphasis placed on projecting
whole life-cycle costs. Any technology or technique that
renders an engine more affordable holistically is likely to find
favour and support. Long term trends such as the availability
and price of strategic materials, including fuel, are difficult to
predict yet essential to such arguments. Greater predictive
capabilities would seem essential to better judge the uptake
of new or improved technology.

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5.5 Environmental Impact and
Sustainability
Current trends that place greater emphasis on environmental
impact and sustainability will persist although the present
authors see sustainable provision of strategically sourced
materials including fuel as of over-riding importance. It
seems likely, if not certain, that the use of pure fossil fuels
will gradually evolve into the use of fuels from mixed sources
including bio-mass, provided that such new sources can be
shown to be efficient in terms of carbon sequestration and in
terms of overall crop production. This approach addresses
to some extent both the issues of carbon emission cycles
and the availability or security of fossil fuel supplies. It is by
no means clear whether the use of modified fuels will require
changes to engine architecture or materials but it would seem
likely that increases in combustion temperatures will once
again be sought.
It is argued that natural drivers for affordable efficient power
sources also support a reduced environmental impact except
perhaps in terms of perceived noise levels. For example,
the future may see control of noise emissions in greater
conflict with reductions in specific fuel consumption, e.g.
turboprops and open rotors for efficiency but with a potential
for increased noise levels.
Some thoughts on trends implicit for future platform or
vehicle issues follow based upon these persistent drivers.
5.6 Aviation Applications
A consistent trend might be seen in the development of the
private wings market with much greater use of relatively
small aircraft for private and corporate transport. Unmanned
aerial vehicles will have spread from established use for the
military to routine civilian applications and, consequently, a
new balance in requirements will be necessitated with great
emphasis on safety and reliability for potentially a rugged,
maintenance-free, cheap series of engines. At the other end
of the spectrum, space exploration and colonisation may
well have advanced to such an extent that this market has a
more dominant role and whilst safety and reliability are still
dominant drivers governing developments, performance or
efficiency has a much higher premium.
5.6.1 Civil Aircraft Engines
Yet lower specific fuel consumption will continue to be sought
from conventional gas turbine engines. Developments that
might come to dominate are a greater emphasis on turbo-
propellors and open rotor systems maximising the movement
of slow moving air. Advanced concepts or designs such as
open rotors, or intercooled engines/powerplant that are not
seen as viable in the 5 year horizon, may well be pertinent
within a 20 year horizon. Any improvement in fuel efficiency
www.aadktn.co.uk/materialsntc
obviously has bearing on environmental impact and on
affordability of aircraft in service, but maybe counterbalanced
by greater levels of perceived noise.
A near certainty is that more use of electrical equipment such
as drive systems, stage interconnections, intrinsic electrical
power take-off and engine starting will be a persistent trend
and that this will add electromagnetic performance to the
areas under materials development.
The Open Rotor. In terms of developing engine architectures,
significant interest centres upon open rotor concepts. Open
rotors either directly driven or driven via geared shafts have
been engineered and are being tested as single rotors or
pairs of counter-rotating rotors. Basically the yet larger
fan diameter of an open rotor enables yet more air to be
moved at relatively low speed because of the still larger
swept diameter of the rotor with significant improvements in
specific fuel consumption. However, the unshrouded rotor
will produce much higher levels of perceived noise than a
conventional fan engine.
Complex cycles, intercooling and reheat. The possibility
to introduce more complex, nearer ideal, engine cycles
offers opportunities to increase specific thrust and reduce
noxious emissions. The principle is to attempt to reduce the
thermodynamic losses associated with turbomachinery such
as the need to cool turbine blades. A long since established
technology of water injection into the engine combustion
stages may well be revisited perhaps to boost thrust in
otherwise down-sized engines.
The More Electric Engine Technology. Both the civil and
defence aerospace sectors are demanding increased levels
of electrical power. This is driven by the need for increased
functionality and reliability but with reduced weight and cost.
This may be achievable by replacing mechanical complexity
with elegant electrical solutions. Particular requirements in
the civil sectors are driven by the demands of increased
passenger comfort and facilities, while military aircraft
demand increased electrical requirements for network-centric
systems, weapons and surveillance equipment and the
growing unmanned sector.
The more electric engine is expected to deliver step changes
in functionality and reliability, while achieving reductions in
cost and weight. Reliant upon close engine and airframe
integration, these improvements will enable the replacement
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 Possible future scenarios (20 year horizon)

of traditional modern engine/aircraft systems (that today are
individually optimised) with fully optimised electrical ones.
An electrically powered environmental control system, for
example, is particularly attractive as it provides improvements
in fuel burn, while eliminating potential cabin air quality
problems caused by supplying cabin air from the engine.
The next step in this evolution at an engine level would be to
replace conventional lubricating systems with oil-less active
magnetic bearings, ultimately leading to the deletion of the
entire oil system and gearbox. A generator, mounted directly
on the fan (LP) shaft, would deliver power to the airframe
systems and all flight control actuators would also be electric.
However developments in this field rely heavily on
both low weight designs and advances in electric and
magnetic materials, which will be necessary to realise the
www.aadktn.co.uk/materialsntc
5.8 Fuel Cells
Yet more radical might be the use of Fuel Cells as the main
provision of electrical power. It seems that for both military
and civil platforms electrical loads are ever increasing and
that generation of electrical power via shafts and gear boxes
from the main engines is inefficient. One solution maybe to
use a more radical power source. For example, lightweight,
efficient fuel cells with an output of circa 150kW that can
be started rapidly are becoming available, with larger 1MW
systems well under development. Whilst a fuel cell is still
inherently polluting in that it may require a fuel source
that is carbon rich, cell efficiencies can be very high circa
80% matching a gas turbine operating at optimal speed in
in-flight cruise and much out-performing such an engine
on the ground or at sea. It seems conceivable that within

twenty years such equipment will be used to supplement

required temperature capability and reliability. In particular
main engines with the direct provision of electrical power.
developments in insulation technology, permanent magnet
To achieve this, current fuel cells systems will be required
materials and in power electronics are fundamental
to be proven at a suitable scale and a manufacturing route
requirements to achieving the more electric engine and more
developed and proven. New or modified materials will
electric aircraft.
inevitably be required with a great emphasis on recyclability
or sustainability.

5.6.2 Military Aircraft Engines

Whilst in the short term some exceptional developments 5.9 Land Based Power
are occurring for military aircraft engines particularly with
Trends suggested above for marine applications may well
the development of the Lightning into service with its
apply for land based power and a shift away from gas
complex turbo machinery, the pressure for ever increased
turbine power generation may occur except perhaps for
performance will not dissipate and by 2020 engine weights
the traditional uses in highly transportable high power
will have halved with reference to 1960. Current thrust-to-
applications used by the military or for example at remote
weight ratios of approximately 10:1 may yet be driven higher
airports. This trend would be driven by environmental
and for example, a target 15:1 thrust: weight ratio for military
perceptions of reduced noise and noxious emissions
aircraft will necessitate greater use of intermetallic alloy
from fuel cell based systems. Once again interest in the
systems, and ceramic matrix composites. Moreover, the rapid
development of Fuel Cells applications will mount.
uptake of a widening range of uninhabited air vehicles some
of which seemed to be aimed at civilian surveillance market For both marine and land based applications the basic
will generate a range of modified even revolutionary systems requirements persist. The power source must be:-
architectures probably based around new modular low cost
options. Affordable (initial cost and through life cycle including
maintenance, fuel burn, repair and disposal)
Military transport will see the new A400M turbopropellor and
the adaption of civil fleet aircraft for air tanker use. The trend Reliable.
to persist with and develop turbopropellor systems remains
consistent. Environmentally friendly

5.7 Marine Applications 5.10 Space Applications

Advanced designs based on more electric ship concepts Nothing has been stated in this Review with regard to
are also being proposed. These for example could use a powerplant for space vehicles although this area of expertise
gas turbine powered alternator and an electrical propulsor is seen as of mounting importance to the UK aerospace
rather than a shaft driven propeller through a gearbox. A industry. All the space issues are to be addressed in a
much smaller, high-speed turbine would be required to separate dedicated Review.
drive the alternator resulting in a small, high speed, very hot
cored engine. How current materials technology could cope
with such an environment is debatable given the degree
of distress current materials are encountering in todays
designs.

30
 Requirements Perceived for Research &
Development in Engines Materials and Structures

Short and long term drivers can be distilled for developments in materials
and engine architectures that lead to requirements for research,
development and application.

6.1 Safety those for exhaust nozzles based for example on shaped
memory material
Investigations of the consequences of changes to materials
and manufacturing processes that potentially could impact New turbine sealing materials and techniques
safety such as the damage tolerance of composite blades
Optimisation of architectures designs and materials to suit
or of components manufactured by metal deposition for
uninhabited aircraft use and the private wings market
example.
Research into radical options to enhance engine
Development of fuel tank inertion systems
aerodynamics.
Development of the understanding necessary to support
www.aadktn.co.uk/materialsntc

major improvements in safety levels to accommodate

increased numbers of engines in service
6.4 Affordability
The development of virtual capabilities to aid design at all
stages including materials properties, life prediction and
6.2 Reliability the potential to supplant rig testing. The development of
Development of traditional materials with increased service coupled codes
lives by control of impurities, inhomogeneity, chemistry or
Development of virtual simulation capabilities to enable
mechanical effects etc.
changes to architecture, geometries, gas flows etc to be
Studies on fatigue, oxidation, creep, thermal-mechanical visualised
damage and degradation of novel materials, and coatings

Studies to enhance lives for these and traditional materials

to achieve yet lower failure rates and longer predictable
lives

Improved predictive techniques for rates of engine usage,

for the accumulation of damage through life and for
residual life including probabilistic techniques etc.

Prediction and determination of lives for components made

by novel manufacturing processes

Development of anti-frettage and anti-erosion coatings

Development of holistic approaches to reliability for the

ultra-reliable engine

6.3 Efficiency and Performance

Development and introduction of new lightweight materials
throughout the engine, including polymer, metal and
ceramic matrix composites and novel intermetallic alloys

Development and application of 3D composite structures in

both rotating and static applications

Development and use of affordable environmental, thermal

and erosion resistant coatings and the associated new
manufacturing routes

Research and design development into complex cycles

and the use of intercooling and reheat

Development of yet higher temperature materials including

31
 Development of virtual tools to simulate and predict
manufacturing stages
Developments in assembly and integration techniques
The development of more affordable high temperature
materials for turbine and compressor systems
More development of lower cost manufacturing routes
including those that are close-to-form
New routes for manufacture of lightweight high temperature
casings, shafts and gears
Developments in low cost tooling
applications. These include oxide-oxide ceramic matrix
composites, novel intermetallic alloys and their protective
coatings
Development of turbine alloys with limited scarce and rare
alloying additions
Development of more electric engine architectures
Development of fuel cell technology to integrate with power
plant development
Development of high temperature electro-magnetically
optimised materials for more electric engine applications.

www.aadktn.co.uk/materialsntc
6.5 Environmental Impact and
Sustainability
Open rotors research.

Development of enhanced turbo props

Research into alternative fuels and their impact on engine

materials, structures and architectures

Development of ultra high temperature, lightweight

materials for combustor, casing, blade and static

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 Research Collaboration

Research is increasingly done via national and international collaboration

to minimise cost, broaden perspectives and enhance capabilities.

7.1 National Strategies for 7.2 International Collaboration

Collaboration
National collaborative programmes for industrially led
aerospace research and development can be identified under
the umbrella of the Aerospace and Defence Knowledge
Transfer Network as the National Aerospace Technology
Strategy. This contains a strong element of advanced
materials and structures research including SMART
structures, Advanced Materials and Health Management
www.aadktn.co.uk/materialsntc
International collaboration is perhaps best exemplified by
participation in European Framework programmes although
the opportunities for international collaboration beyond
Europe continue to mount.
Current FP7 developments are focusing on very large
programmes set at a strategic level for example by the
inclusion of aerospace within more general transportation
themes. Whilst there is an inevitable dilution of the aerospace

and Prognostics. Aligned subject matter such as advanced
design and manufacture, modelling and simulation are also
extensively accommodated. Technology developed under
this umbrella is fed into major demonstration programmes
which include future composite wing initiatives for example.
Other initiatives such as Greener by Design or OMEGA focus
more upon the environmental issues and challenges facing
the aerospace industry and growth within it.
technical focus within these large multi-national initiatives, a
myriad of individual opportunities exist within these structures
for individual participation. Frameworks beyond the closing
FP7 are perhaps now becoming more significant for research
considered within the 20 year timescale of this Review.

Open, competitively won, Government funding supports

these and of course yet further programmes via a raft of
mechanisms such as the UK Technology Strategy Board
open competitions, the Research Councils responsive
research modes and specific focused support from
the Regional Development Agencies and Devolved
Administrations.

The Technology Strategy Board places a clear emphasis on

the need for research in advanced materials and structures
albeit encompassing a far broader field than aerospace per
se, regarding Transport and Intelligent Transport Systems
as other themes for investment. For example, the TSB,
along with Advantage West Midlands and East Midlands
Development Agency are supporting the creation of the
Manufacturing Technology Centre (MTC). This centre
will address the gap in capability in the UK of translating
research and development findings into useful production
solutions. The Ministry of Defence, with its own clear cut
requirements, funds its own programmes including those in
materials, structures and health management for example but
taking cognizance of the content of these national initiatives
described above.

A key element in all these programmes is the involvement,

leadership, investment and up-take provided by UK
aerospace industry which is very substantial.

A parallel Network in Materials, Materials UK , accommodates

issues more pertinent to the materials supply industry on a
broader basis than aerospace.

Increasingly the aerospace industry supports its own

dedicated raft of Technology Centres, mostly academically
based. Some of these are collaborative with industrial
partners and even inter-industry centres and yet others as
private arrangements.

33
 Summary

Structural design, materials selection and development and advancing

manufacturing capability remain key to enabling the UK to gain and
maintain military capability and further, importantly, to generate future
commercial income for the UK from future engines and powerplants.

This review has been produced under the auspices of the Principal Authors
Materials and Structures National Technical Committee,
an integral part of the Knowledge Transfer Network in C J Peel
Aerospace, Aviation and Defence. The central requirement OBE, FREng, FRAeS
for the review is to provide informed opinion on the foreseen Prof Chris Peel
needs and opportunities for capability in materials and Advise Air Ltd
structures for UK air vehicles.

www.aadktn.co.uk/materialsntc
Tel: +44 (0) 1252 694 791,
Email: chris.peel4@ntlworld.com
Initially an outline of the engines and powerplant to be
reviewed, the underlying UK strategies and philosophies for
UK engines development and the size and importance of this
market to the UK are provided against perceptions of market Colin Small
trends and international out-sourcing issues. Then trends Project Manager - External Research (Materials Engineering)
in structural concepts or engine architectures, in structural Rolls-Royce plc - ELT16
design, materials choice, manufacturing development and Tel: +44 (0)1332 240306
operational issues are identified against three time frames Fax: +44 (0)1332 245245
namely; current and recent history, those seen for the next Email: colin.j.small@rolls-royce.com
five years and speculatively those perceived over a twenty
year horizon.

This review of market led development enables common Designer

drivers for research to be identified over the three time
Daniel Jones
frames supporting Safety, Reliability, Efficiency, Affordability
Network & Communications Manager
and Environmental Impact and Sustainment. Against these
Aerospace, Aviation & Defence KTN
persisting drivers more than 40 broad areas for possible
Tel: +44 (0) 207 091 1123
research and development are identified, justified and
Fax: +44 (0) 207 091 4545
detailed.
Email: daniel.jones@aeroktn.co.uk

34
 Materials & Structures National Technical Committee
Members

Mike Hicks (Chairman) Rolls-Royce plc

Geoff Armstrong Goodrich
David Bond Messier-Dowty
Andrew Clarke QinetiQ Group plc
Andrew Clements Cytec Engineered Materials
John Cornforth GKN
www.aadktn.co.uk/materialsntc

Paul Curtis DSTL

Richard Freeman TWI Ltd
Mark French QinetiQ Group plc
Patrick Grant Oxford Materials
Ian Gurnell Advanced Composites Group
John Haddock BAE Systems plc
Simon Harris Messier Dowty
Keith Harrison Independent
Phil Harrison Airbus UK Ltd
Terry Hirst Goodrich
Richard Jones DSTL
Ajay Kapadia National Composites Network
Nigel Keen Materials KTN
Dan Kells BAE Systems plc
Peter Morgan Corus Ltd
John Morlidge Technology Strategy Board
Michael Overd AgustaWestland
Pete Murray Aerospace, Aviation & Defence KTN
Chris Peel Independent
Richard Pitman BIS
Ken Poston Bombardier Aerospace
Malcolm Robb BAE Systems plc
Kam Sagoo BAE Systems plc
Colin Small Rolls-Royce Group plc
Iain Smith TWI Ltd
Roger Thomas TIMET
Geoff Tomlinson University of Sheffield
Paul Weaver University of Bristol
David Wilkes Ministry of Defence

35
 About the Aerospace, Aviation & Defence Knowledge Transfer Network

The Aerospace, Aviation & Defence KTN is the single overarching network of Business, Government and
Academia fostering collaborative research and development across the sector furthering wealth creation in
the UK. The KTN is funded solely by the Technology Strategy Board and is hosted by A|D|S Group, the UKs
premier trade association across Aerospace, Defence and Security.

The Chair of the Aerospace, Aviation & Defence KTN is Sir Roy McNulty, Chair of the
Advantage West Midlands Regional Development Agency.
The KTN Director is Dr Ruth Mallors.

To connect with the Aerospace, Aviation & Defence KTN you can:

Register for free at www.aadktn.co.uk to access services, networks and to

receive the weekly newsletter. Email the KTN at contact@aadktn.co.uk for
further information.

Knowledge
Transfer
Network
Aerospace,
Aerospace & Defence
Aviation & Defence

The views and judgments expressed in this report reflect the consensus reached by the authors and contributors
and do not necessarily reflect those of the organisation to which they are affiliated. Whilst every care has been
taken in compiling the information in this report, neither the authors nor the Aerospace, Aviation and Defence
KTN Materials and Structures National Technical Committee can be held responsible for any errors, omissions or
subsequent use of this information.

Images reproduced with the kind permission of: Airbus UK, Boeing, Bombardier Aerospace, QinetiQ, MUT, and Thales UK. Images on pages 5,
9, 12, 18, 22, 25, 27, 28, 32 and 33 courtesy of Rolls-Royce plc.

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