1.

How to read engineering drawing

Drawing are used to communicate the architectural and engineering design of a construction
project. There are few types of engineering drawing such as civil and structure (C&S), mechanical
and electrical drawing (M&E). Civil engineering drawing include site plan, grading, driveway, utility
locations and building setbacks. In the other hand, structure drawing are specifically on foundation,
structural steel and building support system. M&E mainly on electrical wiring, lighting plan, air
conditioning, sprinkler system and etc. Reading the engineering drawing is gathering information
from drawing. It involve visualization and interpretation. Visualization is ability to create mental
image of a building with the aid from perspective views, section drawing or given details. While,
interpretation is the ability to understand lines, symbols, dimension, notes and other information on
the working drawing. Need to familiar with the notation and unit conversion between imperial and
metric system. Abbreviation are used to maintain the drawing to look neat and tidy. It is used to
indicate elements and instructions.

2. Concrete, cement and Steel

a. Cement is a fine, soft, powdery-type substance. It is made from a limestone, clay, sand
and/or shale. When mix with water, it can bind sand and gravel into hard, solid mass called
concrete. There are few types of cement available in the market such as Ordinary Portland
cement, rapid hardening cement, Sulphate resisting cement, Quick setting cement, and
Coloured cement. Concrete are made from mixing water, sand and gravel. Plaster are made
from mixing cement with water and sand only. Last but not least, cement mortar are made
from mixing cement with water, lime and sand.
b. Concrete is made up of three basic component: cement, aggregate (rock, sand or gravel) and
water. Normal concrete mix ratio is 1:2:4. 1 part of cement, 2 part of fine aggregate and 4
part of coarse aggregate. Density of normal concrete is between 2200 to 2600 Kg/m3. There
are also other types of concrete available such as:
i. Light weight concrete
Self-weight of light weight concrete varies from 300 to 1850 kg/m3
It helps reduce the dead load, increase the progress of building and lowers the
hauling and handling cost
ii. High density concrete
The density of high density concrete varies from 3360 kg/m3 to 3840 kg/m3
High density concrete is mainly used for the purpose of radiation shielding, for
counterweights and other uses where high density is required. The high density
concrete has a better shielding property, so that it can protect harmful
radiations like X-rays, gamma rays, and neutrons.
c. Steel
i. Structural steel
Structural steel shapes are developed from steel that is formed out of a
precise cross-section. At the same time, it also follows definite standards for
chemical composition and mechanical properties. Structural steel can be
made available in various shapes like Z shape, I-Beam, L shape, HSS shape, T
shape, Bar, Plate, Rod, Rail profile, structural channel, open joist of web
steel, etc. Standard structural steel differs in different countries with
different specifications.
 Structural steel is durable, ductile, strong, and it can be transformed into
any shape depending on the type of construction. It can be constructed in
no time on the construction site. Structural steel is fire resistant.

ii. Rebar steel

Rebar steel is also known as reinforcing steel. This type of steel is commonly
used as a tension device for reinforced concrete structures. Rebar steel is
made from carbon steel and it is commonly used as a tensioning device to
reinforce concrete and other masonry structures to help hold the concrete
in a compressed state. This type of steel is available in various types of
grades that are found in varying specifications in vital tensile strength, yield
strength, elongation percentage and chemical composition.
Reinforcing steel provides durability, resistance, and stiffness that spreads
through a wide area that the other types of steel are not usually equipped
in.

iii. Mild steel

Mild steel is also known as plain carbon steel. It is another type of steel used
in steel building constructions. It is very strong and durable and does ensure
sturdy establishment. Carbon steel provides high strength which makes it
more suitable for buildings. Mild steel just like structural steel is very
flexible. Hence, it does not crack when bent. It is very much like structural
steel. It also can endure calamities like earthquakes.
Steel building constructions are gaining popularity across the globe. Almost,
all the fields have benefitted with the various advantages of steel. With the
growing use of steel in construction, it will soon take over the entire
construction field.

3. Testing required
A. Concrete
i. Test for hardened concrete:
a. Compressive strength (cube, cylinder, core)
b. Tensile strength
ii. Test on fresh concrete
a. Slump test (workability)
B. Steel
i. Tensile strength

C. Soil
The normal methods of soil investigations are: Inspection, Test pits, Probing, Boring
 The different methods of boring are:

Auger Boring

The examination of the soil for ordinary buildings can be done by a post hole auger. The
auger is held vertically and is driven into the ground by rotating its handle. At every 30 cm of
depth, the auger is taken out and the soil samples collected.

Wash Boring

Wash boring is commonly used for boring in difficult soil. The hole is advanced by an auger
and then a casing pipe is pushed to prevent the sides from caving in. A stream of water
under pressure is forced through the rod into the hole. The loosened soil in suspension in
water is collected in a tub.

Percussion Boring

In this method, the substrata is broken by repeated blows by a bit or chisel. Water is
circulated in the hole and then the slurry is bailed out of the hole.

Core Drilling

When rocks are to be penetrated for examination, core drilling is resorted to. In this process,
a hole is made by rotating a hollow steel tube having a cutting bit at its end.

Bearing Capacity
The bearing capacity of a soil is defined as the capacity of the subsoil to support the load of
the structure without yielding. The bearing capacity of the soil depends upon the
characteristics such as cohesion, friction, and unit weight. The bearing capacity can be
determined in the field and also from the results of tests conducted in the laboratory on the
soil samples.

Lab test :
i. Moisture content test, Atterberg limit test and compaction test for soil
ii. Point load test, unconfined compression test for rock

4. Common construction problem on site

a. Client related factors
i. Finance and payment of completed work
b. Contractor related factors
i. Improper site management,
ii. improper planning and
iii. Inadequate contractor experience.
c. Material related factors
i. Shortage in material
d. Labour and equipment related factors
i. Labour supply,
ii. productivity and
 iii. equipment availability/failure
e. External factor
i. Weather condition,
ii. Problem with neighbours ad unforeseen site condition