Frequency and Amplitude

Modulation
Introduction on Electromagnetic
Radiation
 Electromagnetism
Electricity and magnetism are different facets of electromagnetism
recall that a static distribution of charges produces an electric
field
charges in motion (an electrical current) produce a magnetic
field
a changing magnetic field produces an electric field, moving
charges
Electric and Magnetic fields produce forces on charges
An accelerating charge produces electromagnetic waves (radiation)
Both electric and magnetic fields can transport energy
Electric field energy used in electrical circuits & released in
lightning
Magnetic field carries energy through transformer
 Electromagnetic Radiation

Interrelated electric and magnetic fields traveling

through space
All electromagnetic radiation travels at c = 3108
m/s in vacuum the cosmic speed limit!
real number is 299792458.0 m/s exactly
 Examples of Electromagnetic
Radiation
AM and FM radio waves (including TV
signals)
Cell phone communication links
Microwaves
Infrared radiation
Light
X-rays
Gamma rays
Wavelength (Frequency)
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Relationship between frequency, speed and
wavelength
f l = c
f is frequency, l is wavelength, c is speed of
light
Different frequencies of electromagnetic
radiation are better suited to different
purposes
The frequency of a radio wave determines its
propagation characteristics through various
media
 Generation of Radio Waves
Accelerating charges radiate EM energy
If charges oscillate back and forth, get
time-varying fields

+ -
+ + - -
+ -
E
- +
- - + +
- +
 Generation of Radio Waves
If charges oscillate back and forth, get time-varying
magnetic fields too.
Note that the magnetic fields are perpendicular to the
electric field vectors

+ -
+ + - -
+ -

- +
B - +
- +
- +
Polarization of Radio Waves

Transmitting E
antenna
 Reception of Radio Waves

E Receiving antenna works best

when tuned to the
wavelength of the signal, and
has proper polarization

Electrons in antenna are jiggled

by passage of electromagnetic wave

Optimum antenna length is l/4: one-quarter wavelength

Brief History of Radio
1864
James Clerk Maxwell
published his equations
of electromagnetism.
1887
Heinrich Hertz proved
that waves travel through
the ether by creating a
spark in a gap between
two wires and picking up
a voltage in a loop of
wire the first transmitter
and receiver of electromagnetic
waves.
1896
Guglielmo Marconi took out
patents on a system of wireless
telegraphy.
1906
Lee de Forrest invented the
triode vacuum tube for sensitive
detection of telegraphy signals.
Despite the fact that De Forrest
did not understand how the
audion worked this invention
began the modern electronic
era.
1906
Reginald Aubrey Fessenden transmitted voice and
music over radio waves using a 100,000 Hz alternator
designed by Charles Steinmetz at General Electric
Company. This was the beginning of broadcasting of
audio over the airways.
1912
Edwin Howard Armstrong analyzed
the operation of the audion
tube and made the first vacuum
tube amplifier as part of
a sensitive receiver of wireless
telegraphy. He used regeneration
now called feedback. Noting that
the vacuum tube circuit could be
made to oscillate, he used this to
make the first electronic transmitter.
Armstrongs work ushered in
the modern era of radio transmission
and reception.
1916
David Sarnoff, working for the Marconi Company,
envisaged "music boxes (radios) as consumer
products and the system of radio broadcast as we
have it today.
1918
Armstrong enlisted in the army during World War I and
worked for the Signal Corps in Paris. He developed the
superheterodyne receiver which became, and is to this day,
the basis of AM radio receivers.

1919
The Radio Corporation of America was formed out of
General Electric Company and the American Marconi
Company with David Sarnoffas commercial manager.
Between 1918 and 1923 radio broadcasting became
pervasive as inexpensive radios became widely available.
Sarnoff became president and perhaps the most powerful
person in the burgeoning communications industry.
Amplitude and Frequency
Modulation Principles:
 Encoding Information on Radio
Waves

Two common ways to carry analog

information with radio waves
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM): static free
 What is AM?
Amplitude modulation (AM) is a
technique used in electronic communication,
most commonly for transmitting information
via a radio carrier wave. AM works by
varying the strength of the transmitted signal
in relation to the information being sent. For
example, changes in the signal strength can
be used to reflect the sounds to be
reproduced by a speaker, or to specify the
light intensity of television pixels.
 In the mid-1870s, a form of amplitude
modulationinitially called "undulatory
currents"was the first method to successfully
produce quality audio over telephone lines.
Beginning with Reginald Fessenden's audio
demonstrations in the early 1900s, it was also
the original method used for audio radio
transmissions, and remains in use by some
forms of radio communication"AM" is often
used to refer to the medium wave broadcast
band.
 AM Radio
Amplitude Modulation (AM) uses changes in
the signal strength to convey information

pressure modulation (sound)

electromagnetic wave
modulation
 AM Radio Broadcasting Standards
PHILLIPPINE FCC
PARAMETER
STANDARDS STANDARDS
Occupied Spectrum 535 1605 kHz 540 1700 kHz
Allocated BW 1160 kHz 1160 kHz
BW per Station 9 kHz 10 kHz
Number of Station 118 station 107 station
Spacing between
36 kHZ 30 kHz
Station
Carrier Frequency + 20Hz of the + 20hz of the
Tolerance assigned frequency assigned frequency
Guardband + 500 Hz + 500 Hz
Intermediate Frequency 455 kHz 455 kHz
Modulation Scheme AM AM
Type of Emission A3E A3E
 PHILLIPPINE FCC
PARAMETER
STANDARDS STANDARDS
Receiver Characteristics Super heterodyne Super heterodyne
Audio Frequency Response 50 15000 Hz 50 15000 Hz

Frequency Allocation for AM Broadcast Stations

Channel Frequency
Number (kHz)
1 531
2 540
3 549
4 558
. .
131 1701
 Service Areas
Primary Service Area the term means
the area in w/c the groundwave field of
1mV/m (60 dBu) is not subjected to
objectionable interference or fading
Secondary Service Area the term means
the area served by the sky wave and not
subject to objectionable interference.
Intermittent Service Area the term means
the area receiving service from the
groundwave but beyond the primary
service area and subject to some
interference and fading
 What is FM?
Frequency modulation (FM) is a form
of modulation which represents information
as variations in the instantaneous frequency
of a carrier wave. In analog applications, the
carrier frequency is varied in direct
proportion to changes in the amplitude of an
input signal. Digital data can be represented
by shifting the carrier frequency among a set
of discrete values, a technique known as
frequency-shift keying.
 FM is commonly used at VHF radio
frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of
music and speech. Normal (analog) TV
sound is also broadcast using FM. A
narrowband form is used for voice
communications in commercial and amateur
radio settings. The type of FM used in
broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-
FM. In two-way radio, narrowband narrow-fm
is used to conserve bandwidth. In addition, it
is used to send signals into space.
 FM is also used at intermediate
frequencies by most analog VCR systems,
including VHS, to record the luminance
portion of the video signal. FM is the only
feasible method of recording video to and
retrieving video from magnetic tape without
extreme distortion, as video signals have a
very large range of frequency components
from a few hertz to several megahertz,
too wide for equalisers to work with due to
electronic noise below -60 dB.
 FM also keeps the tape at saturation
level, and therefore acts as a form of noise
reduction, and a simple limiter can mask
variations in the playback output, and the FM
capture effect removes print-through and
pre-echo. A continuous pilot-tone, if added to
the signal as was done on V2000 and
many Hi-band formats can keep
mechanical jitter under control and assist
time base correction.
 FM Radio
Frequency Modulation (FM) uses changes in
the waves frequency to convey information

pressure modulation (sound)

electromagnetic wave
modulation
 FM Radio Broadcasting Standards
PHILLIPPINE FCC
PARAMETER
STANDARDS STANDARDS
Occupied Spectrum 88 108 MHz 88 108 MHz
Allocated BW 20 MHz 20 MHZ
In 200kHz In 200kHz
increment from increment from
88.1MHz (FM 88.1 MHz (FM
BW per Station
Channel 201) to Channel 201) to
107.9 MHz (FM 107.9 MHz (FM
Channel 300) Channel 300)
Spacing between Station 800 kHz 800 kHz
Carrier Frequency + 2000 Hz of the + 2000 Hz of the
Tolerance assigned frequency assigned frequency
Maximum Frequency
+ 75 kHz + 75 kHz
Tolerance
Guardband + 25 kHz + 25 kHz
 PHILLIPPINE FCC
PARAMETER
STANDARDS STANDARDS

75 sec with 75 sec with

Pre-emphasis break frequency break frequency
of 2122 Hz of 2122 Hz

Intermediate Frequency 10.7 MHz 10.7 MHz

Receiver Characteristics Super heterodyne Super heterodyne
Audio Frequency Response 50 15000 Hz 50 15000 Hz
 FM 2-way Analog TV
PARAMETER
(Mobile Radio) (Aural Portion)
Maximum Frequency
+ 5 kHz + 25 kHz
Deviation
Intermediate Frequency 21.4 MHz 45.75 MHz
1 for f = 5 kHz 1.67 for f = 25 kHz
Modulation Index
And fm= 5 kHz And fm= 15 kHz
Frequency Allocation for FM Broadcast
Stations

Channel Frequency
Number (MHz)
201 88.1
202 88.3
203 88.5
204 88.7
. .
. .
300 107.9
 Frequency Allocation for FM Broadcast
Stations
Class Service Authorized ERP AHAAT
Power
A Commercial 25 kW 125 kW 2000ft
10 kW (min)
B Commercial 10 kW 30 kW 500ft
1 kW (min)
C Non-commercial --- 1 kW ---
Community
station
D Educational 10 kW --- ---
Station
Broadcast Auxiliary Services for
AM and FM

Studio-to-Transmitter Link

Band Operating Frequency Maximum Power

A 300 to 315 MHz 15 W

B 734 to 752 MHz 15 W

C 942 to 952 MHz 15 W

 Remote Pick-up Broadcast Station

Band Operating Frequency Maximum Power

A 315 to 325 MHz 35 W

B 450 to 451 MHz 35 W

C 455 to 456 MHz 35 W

 Communications, Coordination and
Control Link
Band Operating Frequency Maximum Power
A 4 to 12 MHz 100 W (SBS)

B 25.67 to 26.1 MHz 160 W (ERP)

C 162.235 to 162.615 MHz 160 W (ERP)

166.25 MHz, 170.15 MHz
D 432.5 to 433 MHz 200 W (for repeater)
437.5 to 438 MHz
Maximum Power Allocation

Area Maximum Power

Metro Manila 50kW
All other areas 10kW
C ---
D 10 W authorized
 AM vs. FM
FM is not inherently higher frequency than AM
these are just choices
aviation band is 108136 MHz uses AM technique
Besides the greater bandwidth (leading to stereo
and higher audio frequencies), FM is superior in
immunity to environmental influences
there are lots of ways to mess with an EM-waves
amplitude
pass under a bridge
re-orient the antenna
no natural processes mess with the frequency
FM still works in the face of amplitude foolery
Frequency Allocation
 Converting back to sound: AM
AM is easy: just pass the AC signal from the
antenna into a diode
or better yet, a diode bridge
then use capacitor to smooth out bumps
but not so much as to smooth out audio bumps

amplifier/
D
speaker
 Converting back to sound: FM
More sophisticated
need to compare instantaneous frequency to
that of a reference source
then produce a voltage proportional to the
difference
Compute L = [(L+R) + (L-R)]/2; R = [(L+R) - (L-
R)]/2
amplify the L and R voltages to send to
speakers
Amplification is common to both schemes
intrinsic signal is far too weak to drive speaker
 Definition of terms
Operating Frequency
The carrier frequency at any particular time.
Authorized Frequency
The carrier frequency authorized by the authority.
Operating Power
The transmitter output power
Daytime
The term Daytime refers to the period of time
between 2200 to 1000 Universal Time Coordinates
or 6:00AM to 6:00Pm local standard time
 Nighttime
The term nighttime refers to the period of time
between 1000 to 2200 Universal Time Coordinates
or 6:00PM to 6:00AM local standard time.
Frequency Swing
The instantaneous departure of the frequency of the
emitted wave from the center frequency resulting
from modulation.
AHAAT
Antenna Height Above Average Terrain. The height
of the radiation center of the antenna above terrain 3
to 16 kilometers from the antenna.
 Antenna Field Gain
The ratio of the effective free space field intensity
produced at 1.6-km in the horizontal plane
expressed in mV/m for 1KW antenna input power to
137.6 mV/m.
Antenna Power Gain
The square of the ratio of rms free space field
strength produced at 1.6-km in the horizontal plane
expressed in Vm/m for 1KW antenna input power to
137.6 mV/m.
Experimental Period
The term Experimental Period means that the time
between 12 midnight to 5:00 AM local standard time
or 1600 to 2100 Universal Time Coordinates.