Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Objectives Outcomes
The course should enable the student to: The students should be able to:
1. Understand the applications of 1. Apply basic concept to solve lateral earth
Geotechnical Engineering in the design of pressure
footings, retaining walls and in the assessment of problems and identify how they affect
stability of slopes structures
2. Understand types of deep foundations and their 2. Solve bearing capacity problems
design principles 3. Design retaining walls and footings
4. Apply basic concept to solve slope stability
problems
5. Understand pile foundations and their design
principles.
6. Work in a team
Assessment Methods
2T+2P Courses
2/3 x Theoretical part marks + 1/3 x Practical part marks= Total marks out of 100
Assessment Procedure
1. No. of Quizzes in Theory: 4
2. No. of Assignments: 2
3. No. of Practical exercise & field work: 8
4. No. of Practical assessments: 3
Quizzes (Announced)
Q1 10Marks
Q2 10Marks
Best 2 20Marks
Q3 10Marks
Q4 10Marks
Assignments
Assingment.1 10Marks
Total 10Marks
Assingment.2 10Marks
Attendance:
A student will be considered as LATE when s/he arrives after 10minutes of the class start time.
Being LATE for THREE times in a class will be considered as ONE class absence.
The full course delivery plan must be covered. If students are absent without a valid reason, it
will be considered as if the topic/s is already covered and will be included in exams.
If a student is absent for two continuous weeks within the semester in all courses, s/he will be
DISMISSED from the College.
Absence Excuse:
If a student failed to attend any class, s/he has to submit the original excuse document
within one week from the date of absence to registration department only.
If a student failed to attend midterm or final exam, s/he has to fill in a Supplementary Exam
Form attached with the original excuse stamped from concern authorities and submit it to
the registration department within one week from the exam date.Hospital/Clinic Attendance
Certificate is not accepted as a valid excuse.
The coverage of topics in the midterm supplementary exam will include topics covered up
tothe midterm exam + topics covered one week after the midterm exam.
The final complementary exam will be conducted within four weeks from the start of next
semester.
Course Withdrawal
A student is allowed to withdraw one course during the semester. The withdrawal period will end a
week after the midterm exam result announcement.
20% of assignment scored mark will be reduced for each day of late submission.
Cheating
Referencing
Referencing or citing the sources used for your assignment is an important part of academic writing. It
is a way of acknowledging the ideas or words of others if you use them in your work. It helps avoid
plagiarism. It is evidence that you have read relevant background literature and you can provide
authority for statements you make in your assignments.
The Harvard Citation Style is the most common style of referencing; hence, it is suggested you use it
for referencing the sources you have used in your assignment or project. Please refer to the link below
for more details:
http://www.staffs.ac.uk/assets/harvard_referencing_examples_tcm44-39847.pdf
(Any citation style suitable for the course can be followed)
Plagiarism
Plagiarism occurs when others work such as print material, images, audio-visual creations,
computer programs, electronic materials, etc. are used without appropriate acknowledgement.
TEXTBOOKS
Course code Course Title Text Book used Outcomes
covered
REFRENCE BOOKS
Outcomes
Course code Course Title S.No. Reference Book/s used covered
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
Earth Pressure
2.e Introduction
Course Code-Course Name 3|Page
Department of Engineering Bachelor - Civil Engineering
During the active state, the wall moves away from backfill and a certain portion of
backfill located immediately behind the wall breaks away from the rest of the soil
mass. This wedge shape portion of soil is called failure wedge. The resisting force
due to shear strength of soil is developed in an upward direction along the failure
plane (or slip lines) as shown in Fig.
When the soil moves away from the backfill, mobilization of the internal
resistance of the soil, which builds up in directions away from the wall takes place
and hence earth pressure on the wall decreases. The decrease of earth pressure
continues upto a point until the full resistance has been mobilized. The earth
pressure does not decrease beyond this point with further movement of the wall
and is called as active earth pressure.
In passive case the wall moves towards the fill, due to some thrust etc.The
magnitude of the lateral earth pressure depends upon the movement of the wall
relative to the backfill and upon the nature of soil or fill.
If on the other hand, the wall moves towards the fill, the earth pressure
increases, because the shearing resistance builds up in direction towards wall.
The pressure reaches at the point when the shearing resistance of the soil has
been fully mobilized. Any further movement of the wall does not increase the
pressure. The maximum pressure is called the passive earth pressure
Rankines Theory assumes that failure will occur when the maximum principal stress at
any point reaches a value equal to the tensile stress in a simple tension specimen at failure.
This theory does not take into account the effect of the other two principal stresses.
Rankines theory is satisfactory for brittle materials, and not applicable to ductile
materials. This theory is also called the Maximum Stress Theory.
The Rankine theory assumes a frictionless soil-wall interface and a vertical wall (no wall
slope).
1.5 Coulombs theory: He highlighted that if the wall is not friction less
unlike assumed in Rankines case the lateral earth pressure applied by the
soil is not normal to the wall but at an angle or in other word has both
horizontal and a vertical components.
Assumptions:
The backfill is dry and cohesionless, homogeneous, istropic
and elastically undeformable but breakable.
The slip surface is the plane which passes through the heel of the
wall.
The sliding wedge itself acts as a rigid body and the value of
earth pressure is obtained by considering the limiting equilibrium of the
sliding wedge as a whole.
CHAPTER 2
Bearing Capacity
2.e Definitions
Bearing capacity is the power of foundation soil to hold the forces from the
superstructure without undergoing shear failure or excessive settlement.
Foundation soil is that portion of ground which is subjected to additional stresses
when foundation and superstructure are constructed on the ground. The following
are a few important terminologies related to bearing capacity of soil.
Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qn) : It is the maximum extra pressure (in
addition to initial overburden pressure) that a foundation soil can withstand without
undergoing shear failure.
Qn = qf qo
Here, qo represents the overburden pressure at foundation level and is equal to D
for level ground without surcharge where is the unit weight of soil and D is the
depth to foundation bottom from Ground Level.
Safe Bearing Capacity (qs) : It is the safe extra load the foundation soil is
subjected to in addition to initial overburden pressure.
qn
qs qo
F
Allowable Bearing Pressure (qa) : It is the maximum pressure the foundation soil
is subjected to considering both shear failure and settlement.
Foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with soil.
Foundation transfers the forces and moments from the super structure to the soil
below such that the stresses in soil are within permissible limits and it provides
stability against sliding and overturning to the super structure. It is a transition
between the super structure and foundation soil. The job of a geotechnical engineer
is to ensure that both foundation and soil below are safe against failure and do not
experience excessive settlement. Footing and foundation are synonymous.
2. Dense or stiff soil that undergoes low compressibility experiences this failure.
3. Continuous bulging of shear mass adjacent to footing is visible.
4. Failure is accompanied by tilting of footing.
5. Failure is sudden and catastrophic with pronounced peak in P curve.
6. The length of disturbance beyond the edge of footing is large.
7. State of plastic equilibrium is reached initially at the footing edge and spreads
gradually downwards and outwards.
8. General shear failure is accompanied by low strain (<5%) in a soil with
considerable (>36o) and large N (N > 30) having high relative density (I D >
70%).
This type of failure is seen in loose and soft soil and at deeper elevations. The
following are some characteristics of general shear failure.
1. This type of failure occurs in a soil of very high compressibility.
2. Failure pattern is not observed.
3. Bulging of soil around the footing is absent.
4. Failure is characterized by very large settlement.
5. Continuous settlement with no increase in P is observed in P curve.
Fig. presents the conditions for different failure modes in sandy soil carrying circular footing
based on the contributions from Vesic (1963 & 1973)
Assumptions
1. Soil is homogeneous and Isotropic.
2. The shear strength of soil is represented by Mohr Coulombs Criteria.
3. The footing is of strip footing type with rough base. It is essentially a two
dimensional plane strain problem.
4. Elastic zone has straight boundaries inclined at an angle equal to to the
horizontal.
5. Failure zone is not extended above, beyond the base of the footing. Shear
resistance of soil above the base of footing is neglected.
6. Method of superposition is valid.
7. Passive pressure force has three components (PPC produced by cohesion, PPq
produced by surcharge and PP produced by weight of shear zone).
8. Effect of water table is neglected.
9. Footing carries concentric and vertical loads.
10.Footing and ground are horizontal.
11.Limit equilibrium is reached simultaneously at all points. Complete shear
failure is mobilized at all points at the same time.
12.The properties of foundation soil do not change during the shear failure
Limitations
1. The theory is applicable to shallow foundations
2. As the soil compresses, increases which is not considered. Hence fully plastic
zone may not develop at the assumed .
3. All points need not experience limit equilibrium condition at different loads.
4. Method of superstition is not acceptable in plastic conditions as the ground is
near failure zone.
Fig. Terzaghis concept of Footing with five distinct failure zones in foundation
soil
Concept
A strip footing of width B gradually compresses the foundation soil underneath due
to the vertical load from superstructure. Let q f be the final load at which the
foundation soil experiences failure due to the mobilization of plastic equilibrium.
The foundation soil fails along the composite failure surface and the region is
divided in to five zones, Zone 1 which is elastic, two numbers of Zone 2 which are
the zones of radial shear and two zones of Zone 3 which are the zones of linear
shear. Considering horizontal force equilibrium and incorporating empirical
relation, the equation for ultimate bearing capacity is obtained as follows.
Ultimate bearing capacity, q f cN c DN q 0.5BN
q n cN c D( N q 1) 0.5BN
Nc Nq Ng Nc Nq Ng
0 5.7 1.0 0.0 5.7 1.0 0.0
5 7.3 1.6 0.5 6.7 1.4 0.2
10 9.6 2.7 1.2 8.0 1.9 0.5
15 12.9 4.4 2.5 9.7 2.7 0.9
20 17.7 7.4 5.0 11.8 3.9 1.7
25 25.1 12.7 9.7 14.8 5.6 3.2
30 37.2 22.5 19.7 19.0 8.3 5.7
34 52.6 36.5 35.0 23.7 11.7 9.0
35 57.8 41.4 42.4 25.2 12.6 10.1
40 95.7 81.3 100.4 34.9 20.5 18.8
45 172.3 173.3 297.5 51.2 35.1 37.7
48 258.3 287.9 780.1 66.8 50.5 60.4
Fig
Terzaghis Bearing Capacity Factors for different
The shape of footing influences the bearing capacity. Terzaghi and other
contributors have suggested the correction to the bearing capacity equation for
shapes other than strip footing based on their experimental findings. The following
are the corrections for circular, square and rectangular footings.
Circular footing
q f 1.3cN c DN q 0.3BN
Square footing
q f 1.3cN c DN q 0.4BN
Rectangular footing
B B
q f (1 0.3 )cN c DN q (1 0.2 )0.5BN
L L
Table summarizes the bearing capacity factors to be used under different situations.
If is less than 36o and more than 28o, it is not sure whether the failure is of
general or local shear type. In such situations, linear interpolation can be made and
the region is called mixed zone.
Table Bearing capacity factors in zones of local, mixed and general shear
conditions.
Local Shear Failure Mixed Zone General Shear Failure
< 28o 28o < < 36o > 36o
Nc1, Nq1, N1 Ncm, Nqm, Nm Nc, Nq, N
Ultimate bearing capacity with the effect of water table is given by,
q f cN c DN q R w1 0.5BN R w 2
1 Z
Here, Rw1 2 1 Dw1
1 Z
Here, Rw 2 2 1 Bw 2
1. 0.5<Rw2<1
2. When water table is at the base of foundation (Zw2 = 0), Rw2 = 0.5
3. When water table is at a depth B and beyond from the base of foundation
(Zw2 >= B), Rw2 = 1
4. At any other intermediate level, Rw2 lies between 0.5 and 1
The bearing capacity equation is developed with the idealization that the load on
the foundation is concentric. However, the forces on the foundation may be
eccentric or foundation may be subjected to additional moment. In such situations,
the width of foundation B shall be considered as follows.
B 1 B 2e
Factor of Safety
It is the factor of ignorance about the soil under consideration. It depends on many
factors such as,
1. Type of soil
2. Method of exploration
3. Level of Uncertainty in Soil Strength
4. Importance of structure and consequences of failure
5. Likelihood of design load occurrence, etc.
Assume a factor of safety F = 3, unless otherwise specified for bearing capacity
problems. Table provides the details of factors of safety to be used under different
circumstances.
Density of soil : In geotechnical engineering, one deals with several densities such
as dry density, bulk density, saturated density and submerged density. There will
always be a doubt in the students mind as to which density to use in a particular
case. In case of Bearing capacity problems, the following methodology may be
adopted.
1. Always use dry density as it does not change with season and it is always
smaller than bulk or saturated density.
Field Tests are performed in the field. You have understood the advantages of field
tests over laboratory tests for obtaining the desired property of soil. The biggest
advantages are that there is no need to extract soil sample and the conditions
during testing are identical to the actual situation.
Major advantages of field tests are
Sampling not required
Soil disturbance minimum
Major disadvantages of field tests are
Labourious
Time consuming
Heavy equipment to be carried to field
Short duration behavior
9. Red curve indicates the general shear failure & the blue one indicates the
local or punching shear failure.
10.The maximum load at which the shear failure occurs gives the ultimate
bearing capacity of soil.
The advantages of Plate Load Test are
1. It provides the allowable bearing pressure at the location considering both
shear failure and settlement.
2. Being a field test, there is no requirement of extracting soil samples.
3. The loading techniques and other arrangements for field testing are identical
to the actual conditions in the field.
4. It is a fast method of estimating ABP and P 32evelled of ground.
Fig
typical set up for Static Cone Penetration test assembly
It is the bearing capacity that can be presumed in the absence of data based on
visual identification at the site. National Building Code of India (1983) lists the
values of presumptive SBC in kPa for different soils as presented below.
A : Rocks
No
1 Rocks (hard) without laminations and defects. For e.g. granite, 3240
trap & diorite
2 Laminated Rocks. For e.g. Sand stone and Lime stone in sound 1620
condition
3 Residual deposits of shattered and broken bed rocks and hard 880
shale cemented material
4 Soft Rock 440
B : Cohesionless Soils
C : Cohesive Soils
Note :
1. Use d for all cases without water. Use sat for calculations with water. If
simply density is mentioned use accordingly.
2. Fill all the available data with proper units.
3. Write down the required formula
qs
P P
2 1.3cN c D ( N q 1) RW 1 0.4BN RW 2
A B
1
F
D
B = 1.21 m
2. What will be the net ultimate bearing capacity of sand having = 36o and d =
19 kN/m3 for (i) 1.5 m strip foundation and (ii) 1.5 m X 1.5 m square footing. The footings
are placed at a depth of 1.5 m below ground level. Assume F = 2.5. Use Terzaghis equations.
(Aug 2003)
Nc Nq N
35o 57.8 41.4 42.4
40o 95.7 81.3 100.4
qn = 2148.33 kPa
Square Footing
q n 1.3cN c D ( N q 1) 0.4BN
qn = 1994.43 kPa
qs
P P
2 1.3cN c D ( N q 1) RW 1 0.4BN RW 2
A B
1
F
D
q s 400 cN c D ( N q 1) RW 1 0.5BN RW 2 F1 D
a. Water table is 4 m below Ground Level
RW1 = RW2 = 1
= 16.8 kN/m3
Course Code-Course Name 40 | P a g e
Department of Engineering Bachelor - Civil Engineering
F = 4.02
b. Water table is 1.2 m below Ground Level
RW1 = 1, RW2 = 0.5
1
400 16.8 X 1.2 X 40.4 X 1 0.5 X 19.5 X 2 X 42.4 X 0.5 16.8 X 1.2
F
F = 3.227
c. Water table is 2.5 m below Ground Level
RW2 = 0.5(1+1.3/2) = 0.825
16.8 X 1.3 19.5 X 0.7
eff 17.745 kN/m3
2
1
400 16.8 X 1.2 X 40.4 X 1 0.5 X 17.745 X 2 X 42.4 X 0.825 16.8 X 1.2
F
F = 3.779
d. Water table is at Ground Level
RW1 = RW2 = 0.5
= 19.5 kN/m3
1
400 19.5 X 1.2 X 40.4 X 0.5 0.5 X 19.5 X 2 X 42.4 X 0.5 19.5 X 1.2
F
F = 2.353
5. A square footing located at a depth of 1.3 m below ground has to carry a safe
load of 800 kN. Find the size of footing if the desired factor of safety is 3. Use
Terzaghis analysis for general shear failure. Take c = 8 kPa, Nc = 37.2, Nq =
22.5, N = 19.7.
d = 18 kN/m3 (Assumed)
c = 8 kPa
F=3
Course Code-Course Name 41 | P a g e
Department of Engineering Bachelor - Civil Engineering
D = 1.3 m
Nc = 37.2
Nq = 22.5
N = 19.7
P = 800 kN
RW1 = RW2 = 1
qs
P P
2 1.3cN c D ( N q 1) RW 1 0.4BN RW 2
A B
1
F
D
B = 1.436 m
6. A square footing 2.8 m X 2.8 m is built on a homogeneous bed of sand of
density 18 kN/m3 and = 36o. If the depth of foundation is 1.8 m, determine the
safe load that can be applied on the footing. Take F = 2.5, Nc = 27, Nq = 36, N
= 35.
Data
d = 18 kN/m3
c = 0 (sand)
F = 2.5
B = 2.8 m
D = 1.8 m
Nc = 27
Nq = 36
N = 35
P=?
RW1 = RW2 = 1
qs
P P
2 1.3cN c D ( N q 1) RW 1 0.4BN RW 2
A B
1
F
D
P = qs*B*B = 6023 kN
7. A strip footing 1 m wide and a square footing 1 m side are placed at a depth of 1
m below the ground surface. The foundation soil has cohesion of 10 kPa, angle
of friction of 26o and unit weight of 18 kN/m3. Taking bearing capacity factor from
the following table, calculate the safe bearing capacity using Terzaghis theory. Use factor of
safety of 3.
Nc Nq N
15o 12.9 4.4 2.5
20o 17.7 7.0 5.0
25o 25.1 12.7 9.7
q s cN c D( N q 1) 0.5BN F1 D =94.96 kPa
Square footing
q s 1.3cN c D( N q 1) 0.4BN F1 D =103.08 kPa
8. A square footing placed at a depth of 1 m is required to carry a load of 1000 kN.
Find the required size of footing given the following data. C = 10 kPa, = 38o,
= 19 kN/m3, Nc = 61.35, Nq = 48.93, N = 74.03 and F = 3. Assume water table
is at the base of footing. (July 2007)
Data
C = 10 kPa
= 38o
B=?
D=1m
= 19 kN/m3
Nc = 61.35
Nq = 48.93
N = 74.03
F=3
RW1 = 1
RW2 = 0.5
qs
P P
2 1.3cN c D ( N q 1) RW 1 0.4BN RW 2
A B
1
F
D
B 3 6.14 B 2 3.56 0
B = 0.72 m
CHAPTER 3
Design of Retaining wall and Foundation
Retaining walls are usually built to hold back soil mass. However,
retaining walls can also be constructed for aesthetic landscaping purposes.
Earth pressure depends on type of backfill, the height of wall and the soil
conditions
Stability requirements of RW
Design a cantilever retaining wall (T type) to retain earth for a height of 4m.
The backfill is horizontal. The density of soil is 18kN/m3. Safe bearing
capacity of soil is 200 kN/m2. Take the co-efficient of friction between
concrete and soil as 0.6. The angle of repose is 30. Use M20 concrete and
Fe415 steel.
Solution
Data: h = 4m, SBC= 200 kN/m2, g= 18 kN/m3, =0.6, =30
Depth of foundation
H= h +Df
1+ sin
Df =
Proportioning of wall:
Design of stem
Ph= x 1/3 x 18 x 4.752=67.68 kN
M = Ph h/3 = 0.333 x 18 x 4.753/6
= 107.1 kN-m
Mu= 1.5 x M = 160.6 kN-m
Taking 1m length of wall,
Mu/bd2= 1.004 < 2.76, URS
(Here d=450- eff. Cover=450-50=400 mm)
To find steel
Pt=0.295% <0.96%
Ast= 0.295x1000x400/100 = 1180 mm2
#12 @ 90 < 300 mm and 3d ok
Ast provided= 1266 mm2 [0.32%]
Curtailment of bars-Stem
Design of stem-Contd.,
Development length (Stem steel)
Ld=47 bar =47 x 12 = 564 mm
Secondary steel for stem at front
0.12% GA
= 0.12x450 x 1000/100 = 540 mm2
#10 @ 140 < 450 mm and 5d ok
Distribution steel
= 0.12% GA = 0.12x450 x 1000/100 = 540 mm2
#10 @ 140 < 450 mm and 5d ok
FOUNDATION
The foundation of a structure is the part of the structure which transfers the
load to the soil on which it rests.
The ground surface in contact with the lower surface of the foundation is
called the base of the foundation
SUBSTRUCTURE:
The structure below the ground level it is called sub structure
SUPER STRUCTURE:
The structure above the ground level it is called as super structure
Types of Foundations
Shallow Foundations
If the depth of the foundation is equal to or less than its width the foundation
is classified as shallow foundation
(i) Wall Footing
(ii)Column or Isolated Footing
(iii)Combined Footing
(iv)Mat Footing
Deep foundation
If the depth of the foundation is greater than its width it is called as deep
foundation.
(i)Well foundation
(ii)Pile foundation
Design Find the area and the depth of foundation required for a column
carrying an axial load of 1250 KN. The safe bearing capacity of the soil is
120 KN/m2 . The density of the soil is 18 KN/m3 and has an angle of
repose of 30 degree.
Solution:
Load on the column = 1250 KN
Approximate weight of foundation = 125 KN
( take 10 % of total weight)
Total load = load on the column + approximate weight of the column.
= 1250 + 125 = 1375 KN
Area of the foundation = total load / safe bearing
capacity of soil
= 1375/120
= 11.46 m2
Provide a foundation area of 12 m2
Determination of depth of the foundation:
Minimum depth of
the foundation = (p/){(1-sin)/(1+sin )}2
= (120/18) {(1-sin30)/(1+sin30)}2
= 0.75 m.
= 200000N/m2
Area of the foundation = Total load / Safe bearing capacity of the soil.
= 880000/200000 = 4.40 m2
To find the length and breadth of the foundation
in case of square footing its easy because by taking square root we get all the
values
Area = 4.4
BL = 4.4
B= 4.4 /L
Equating the projections on both sides beyond the footing
( B-0.4) = (L-0.6)
Sub B Value
( {4.4/L}-0.4) = (L-0.6)
Solving the above equation we get L = 2.2 m
Sub this is B value we get
B= 4.4/L = 4.4/ 2.2 = 2 m
Now find the projections on both the axis
= 0.8 m
Net upward pressure = column load / Area of the footing
= 800000/4.4
=181820 N/m2
Determination of reinforcement in section xx axis and YY axis.
Bending moment Myy = 181820 X 2.2X 0.8 X (0.8/2).
= 128000 Nm
Factored Moment Muy = 128000 X 1.5
= 192000 Nm
Determine the depth
Muy = 0.138 Fck bd2
192000 = 0.138 x 20 x 600 x d2
d= 341 mm.
Bending moment Mxx = 181820 X 2 X 0.8 X (0.8/2).
= 116364.8 Nm
Factored Moment Mux = 116364.8 X 1.5
= 174547.2Nm
Determine the depth
Mux = 0.138 Fck bd2
174547.2 = 0.138 x 20 x 400 x d2
d= 398 mm.
From the above two depth take the greater one
d= 398 mm
Providing 10 mm dia bars at a clear cover of 70 mm
D = 398 + (10/2) + 70 = 473 mm
The overall depth may increased by 30%
Design Steps
Locate the point of application of the column
loads on the footing.
Proportion the footing such that the resultant of loads passes through the center
of footing.
Compute the area of footing such that the allowable soil pressure is not
exceeded.
Calculate the shear forces and bending moments at the salient points and hence
draw SFD and BMD.
Fix the depth of footing from the maximum bending moment.
Calculate the transverse bending moment and design the transverse section for
depth and reinforcement. Check for anchorage and shear.
CHAPTER 4
Stability of slopes
4.1 Introduction
4.2Finite slope:
If the slope is of limited extent of it s boundary, it is called finite slope
4.3Infinite slope:
If a slopes represents the boundary surface of a semi-infinite soil mass, and the
soil properties for all depth below the surface are constant, it is called infinite slope.
Modes of slope failure: An exposed ground surface that stands at an angle with
the horizontal is called unrestrained slope.
The slope can be natural or man-made.
It can fails in various modes
The failures are classified in to five major categories:
1. Fall 2. Topple 3. Slide 4. Spread 5. Flow
Fall: this is the detachment of Soil and or Rock fragments that fall down a slope, and
large amount of soil mass has slide down a slop.
Topple: this is a forward rotation of Soil/Rock mass about an axis below the centre of
gravity of mass being displaced.
References
1) Text Books
Example:
King, M. (2000).Wrestling with the angel: A life of Janet Frame. Auckland, New Zealand: Viking.
2) Reference Books
Example:
King, M. (2000).Wrestling with the angel: A life of Janet Frame. Auckland, New Zealand: Viking.
3) Web sites
Example:
Hobbit Team. (2011, November 5). 3D concept sketch [Web log message]. Retrieved from
http://www.thehobbitblog.com/