Black Equality 1961-1968

Since the Emancipation proclamation in 1865, the continuous struggle of African-Americans to gain their
full rights promised when they were freed from slavery continued even hundred years later. African-
Americans endured segregation in almost all parts of public life, inability to vote in large part of the USA,
mostly former Confederacy, mass unemployment, mistreatment, etc. Now, in the middle of 20th
century, civil-rights activists wanted to take the next step in their fight for civil rights and racial justice. At
the time, President John F. Kennedy was afraid that this issue would split the Democratic Party so he
continued to stall. Government stalled but the activists didn't and the pushed until they didn't get legal
equality, and became an inspiration and model of activism for others who were aggrieved.

The Black Freedom Movement in its origins was a global phenomenon. It owed a lot to the ideological
battle of the Cold War. The race issue threatened U.S. claims of the superiority of democracy over
communism. Communist propaganda emphasized American racism and Washington had to do
something to counter this propaganda and maintain its status as the leader of the free world. Much of
the inspiration for the activist came from India and Mohandas Gandhi.

What got many involved into the movement for civil rights and racial equality was TV coverage of the
protests and the rising numbers of activists helped civil-rights leaders to put pressure on the president to
act. Activists were aware that only comprehensive national legislation backed with the power of federal
government could guarantee full citizenship rights to African-Americans. They had to create a crisis that
would play with the conscience of the white majority and force the president to act. The most radically
segregated big city in America was Birmingham, Alabama which got a nickname Bombingham.
Birmingham was a place where Martin Luther King, Jr. launched series of nonviolent marches, sit-ins and
pray-ins. Police Commissioner Eugene Bull Connor pledged that there will be blood running through
the streets before he sees the city integrated. Great figure of this revolution, Dr. King was arrested
during a march that local court prohibited. After spending some time in prison, Dr. King published a
letter in which he talked about humiliation of racial segregation and discrimination and he used this
opportunity to justify civil disobedience to protest unjust laws. Dr. King got support from thousands of
school children, as young as 6 years old. All of this made Connor lose his temper and unleashed his men
on nonviolent youth demonstrators. This move of his actually helped the civil-rights movement since the
nation had a chance to see this horrible event on TV and the nation was shocked by this event. This was
the crisis that pushed Kennedy to help negotiate a settlement that would end the demonstrations. He
offered to desegregate stores and to start hiring black workers. By mid-1963, Freedom Now! was a cry
that was heard throw-out the nation as the protest grew. Kennedy feared that if government didnt act
the black population would turn to violence. Governor George Wallace refused to let two black girls
enter the school to which the president reacted and made him let them. George Wallace was a sworn
segregationist and he didnt give up until he was able to close the schools just to have his way. President
Kennedy used TV try to spread the message that civil rights presented as moral issue and to state that
race has no place in American life or law. He proposed a bill that outlawed segregation in public facilities
and authorized federal government to withdraw funds from those who did. As this bill went to Congress
in Washington so did the supporters. The idea of the March on Washington existed from 1941, and it
was fulfilled 22 years later by quarter of a million people. Martin Luther King took the stage after many
speeches and songs and gave a speech that would turn this event from political rally to historic event. He
talked about true brotherhood and a dream of black being integrated in the American society. Again in
the center of attention was Birmingham. KKK bombed a black church and killed four girls. These events
which occurred in the South created obstruction for the bill to be passed by the Congress. Soon a tragic
event hit America. President Kennedy was assassinated and this unfortunate event brought Lyndon
Johnson to the White House. He needed to prove himself to the liberals and offer a better solution than
Kennedy. Civil Rights Act of 1964 is the most important civil-rights law in the U.S. history. It banned
racial discrimination and segregation in public accommodations, granted the federal government new
powers to fight school segregation, and crated Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to enforce
the ban on job discrimination. This law didn't address the right to vote. Core (Congress of Racial Equality)
and SNCC (Students Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) started a campaign to register black voters
since they believed that the key to black power in the south was in ballots. This was done through
Mississippi Freedom Summer Project in 1964. Freedom Schools organized by thousands college-
students volunteers were in charge of teaching history and emphasizing African-American self-worth.
These volunteers were harassed by local law-enforcement officers and KKK members, murders even
occurred. Civil-rights activists engaged nearly sixty thousand disfranchised black into Mississippi Freedom
Democratic Party (MFDP) which went to Democratic convention and denied to be seated. This was a
turning point for SNCC in their disillusionment with liberalism. They stayed determined to get the right to
vote for the black so together with Dr. King they organized mass protest in Selma, Alabama in March
1965. Black were half of the population there but only 1 percent were registered to vote. King knew they
needed another crisis to pressure Congress to pass the act and so they provoked Selma's county sheriff
to brutally beat and arrest thousands of black protestors. During the march from Selma to Montgomery,
Alabama state police stormed into defenseless marchers. This was showcased on TV and provoked
national outrage and support for the bill. Voting Rights Bill was signed in 1965 and it invalidated any test
or device to deny the vote and it authorized federal examiners to register black in the states where they
were disfranchised. This transformed South's politics and the number of offices held by black swelled. All
of this helped AA with finding jobs, contracts for black business, and improved facilities and service in
black neighborhoods.

All of this created opportunity for black but in reality it did little for economic conditions of many African-
Americans. Violence against protesters continued only five days after Voting Act was signed in Watts, the
largest African-American district in Los Angeles. Many were killed, injured and arrested. This was the
beginning for long hot summer. Frustrated by the allure of Americas wealth portrayed on TV and by
what seemed the empty promise of civil-rights laws, black mobs stoned passing motorists, stores,
torched white-owned buildings, and hurled bricks at the troops sent to quell the disorder. A frightened,
bewildered nation asked why rioting occurred just when blacks achieved many of their goals. Militant
blacks saw the uprisings as revolutionary violence to overthrow a racist, reactionary society. The Far
Right thought them evidence of a communist plot. Conservatives described them as senseless outbursts
by troublemakers. National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders indicted white racism for fostering an
explosive mixture of poverty, slum housing, poor education, and police brutality. The commission
recommended increased federal spending to create new jobs for urban blacks, construct additional
public housing, and end school segregation in the North. Johnson and Congress, ignored the advice, and
most whites approved their inaction.

What was done for now wasn't enough nor right for young African-American who began to identify
themselves as Black Power. For these young activists the need for militant self-defense and rapid social
change was inevitable. Their motto expressed their mistrust for white society and rejecting King's
nonviolent methods and racial integration and working together with white liberals. Malcolm X played a
great role in this movement. During his time in prison he converted to Nation of Islam. He spoke in favor
of self-discipline and self-respect and separation from the white devil and they had to get to this by all
means necessary. Malcolm X was killed in 1965 by members of Nation of Islam but this didn't stop
those who were inspired by his words. His autobiography became the main text of the Black Power.
Another important name related to Black Power is Muhammad Ali, previously known as Cassius Clay
before he converted to Nation of Islam. Youth inspired by Muhammad Ali and Malcolm X abandoned
nonviolent methods of change. Now, CORE and SNCC became all black groups with a motto by all
means necessary. Black Panthers were a problematic group because of their paramilitary character and
shootouts with the police. Black power wasn't successful at their attempt to exterminate poverty and
racism affecting African-Americans. It did help African-Americans embrace their identity. Now, they
reacted skin bleachers, hair straighteners, gave their children Islamic names and glorified soul music.

Many positive changes accrued as a result of these attempts, both nonviolent and violent ones. Now,
many young African- Americans went to college, TV's Cosby Show treated this topic of changed African-
American family. Still a great part of black population lived in slums, never finished high school, and had
no job. Drug abuse, violence was affecting young African-Americans. Affirmative action programs that
were designed to compensate for past racial discrimination faced court and were proven to be
unconstitutional since race cant be criteria for college admission.