Mechanics of Material 1 2017-01 PDF

MECHANICS OF MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
rahmat.saptono@ui.ac.id 1
Introduction
Types of Materials Failures in Mechanical and
Structural Design
Limit of Strength and Ductility in Engineering
Materials
Development of New Technology, New Materials and
New Methods of Assessment
Fracture Economy
Design and Materials Selection
Engineering Design
Performance Economy
Function Cost
Safety
Durability
stretch twist
compress bend
Deformation
(MECHANICAL) LOAD Material RESPONSE Mechanical Behavior
Load-bearing Material Fracture
Mechanical Testing Quantitative Data
Design Code, Standard,
Material Selection, Use , and Evaluation
The Basic Concerns

to assure that stress does not exceed the limit a material can withstand
(the Strength of Materials)
to avoid failure due to undue deformation or fracture
Deformation Failures: A change in the physical dimension or shape of a
component that is sufficient for its function to be lost or impaired.
Fracture Failures: Cracking to the extent that a component is separated

into two or more pieces.
Corrosion: Loss of materials due to chemical action.
Wear: A surface removal due to abrasion or sticking between solid

surfaces that touch.
Erosion: Wear that is caused by a fluid (especially likely if the fluid

contains hard particles).
Type of Failures
Deformation Fracture
Time-Independent Time-Dependent Static Loading Cyclic Loading
Elastic Brittle High Cycle

Creep
Plastic Ductile Low Cycle
Environment Crack Growth
Rupture Corrosion
L A
P L

A L
L
E
P 0
e p e
Normal Shear
x V
L L
P' P b
L x
tan
L b

Elastic Limit
Proportional Limit
Elastic Deformation
Proportional Limit

E Coefficient of Proportionality

E
E = Young Modulus, Elastic Modulus
a measure of stiffness/rigidity of the material
metal
G
twist

polymer
Plastic Deformation
Ductile Fracture Brittle Fracture
Small Elastic and Plastic Deformation as well as
Large Plastic Deformation
can lead to Failure
Large Plastic Deformation always constitute failure.

Small Plastic Deformation may also cause failure.
(e.g. a bent shaft will result in unbalanced rotation vibration or
even early failure of bearing supports)
Small Elastic Deformation may also result in failure (when
deformation is tightly limited).
Buckling is elastic or plastic deformation or combination of

them due to compressive stress, resulting in large changes in
its alignment.
Ideally, a Structural Material should be:
Strong + Ductile = TOUGH
u d
Resilience (Tensile)
Toughness

The area below the curve represents the amount of energy that can be absorbed
Strength: the highest stress reached before fracture

Ductility: the strain at fracture
Time-Dependent Creep Deformation
A tungsten filament sagging under its own weight.

Deflection is time-dependent that can lead to failure
Fracture under Static and Impact Loading
Brittle (Fast) Fracture may occur when materials is subjected to

static loading (loading that does not vary or change slowly with
time)
Ductile Fracture is more preferable than Brittle Fracture

Slow Fracture is accompanied by a significant amount of plastic
deformation sometimes with a gradual tearing process.
Impact (very rapidly) loading tend to cause Brittle Fracture.
Ductile materials may be fractured in brittle manner

due to crack/sharp flaw.
The study of crack in solids is Fracture Mechanics
Resistance to Brittle Fracture in the presence of a crack/sharp flaw

is measured by Fracture Toughness (KIC)
Fracture Toughness Test
Fracture Toughness
Fracture Toughness vs. Yield Strength
Stress in Collaboration with Environment may cause Fracture
= Environmental Cracking.
Examples:
Low Strength Steel in NaOH (High pH)
High Strength Steel in H2 or H2S
SCC (Stress Corrosion Cracking) is a specific case when

materials are removed by corrosive action in the presence of
stress.
A stainless steel wire is broken when it is being exposed in a complex
organic environment including molten nylon.
Cracking is inter-granular.
Cyclic (Repeated) Loading may cause failure = Fatigue Fracture.
(High Cycle or Low Cycle Fatigue)
Heat Cycle may also cause fatigue = Thermal Fatigue.
Crack may be initiated during manufacture and service.

Crack growth may result in an Overload Fracture (Ductile/Brittle)
Example:
Rivet holes in a fuselage may crack.
The crack gradually grows during service.
Preventive Action may be done by Inspection and Repair.
Development of a fatigue crack during rotating bending of
a precipitation hardened aluminum alloy.
Fatigue Failure of a Door Garage Spring
Combined (>2 types synergistic) effects
may also produce failure
Examples:
Creep + Fatigue Enhanced Effect at High Temperature and

Cyclic Loading. (Steam Turbine in Power Plant and Gas
Turbine in Aircraft Engine).
Wear (due to the small motions between two fitted parts) +

Fatigue (cyclic loading) may collaboratively produce surface
damage followed by cracking Fretting Fatigue (a Gear
fastened on a shaft by shrink fitting or press fitting)
Fatigue + Corrosion Corrosion Fatigue
Environment may degrade the mechanical properties of

materials. Eg. Embrittlement of Polymer (UV Exposure) or
Steel (Neutron Radiation)
NEW PROCESSING AND
MANUFACTURING
METHOD
NEW DESIGN &

TECHNOLOGY NEW MATERIALS
NEW
CHARACTERIZATION
AND EVALUATION
METHOD
The Economy of Fracture
Crack and Related Problem cost 4% of GNP ($119 Billion)

in the US Economy (Also a typical in European Economy)
(along with Wear and Corrosion it is 10% of GNP)
Fracture Study Extra Design Cost
Product Liability Cost:

1. Repair, Maintenance, Replacement
2. Inspection
3. Recalls, Litigation, Insurance
Cost of Failure
(% of Total Cost)
Motor vehicle and parts 10
Aircraft and parts 6
Residential construction10% 5
Building construction 2-3
Food and related products 2-3
Fabricated structural products 2-3
Non ferrous metal products 2-3
Petroleum refining 2-3
5%
Structural metal 2-3
Tires and inner6%
tubes 2-3
The major case for motor vehicle and aircraft is Fatigue Cracking
followed by Brittle, Ductile, Environmental, and Creep.
Deformation and fracture are issues of major economic
importance especially in motor vehicles and aircraft.
Design and Materials Selection
Design:
Process of choosing the geometry, materials, and manufacturing
methods and other details need to completely describe a machine,
vehicle, structure, or other engineered items.
Wide ranges of activities and objectives

To assure that the items is capable of performing its intended
function (technical, industrial).
Also, to assure that they are physically possible and economical
to be manufactured, safe, and durable.
Technological Challenge:
1. Improved material
2. More careful design analysis
3. More detailed and accurate information on materials behavior
Material
Function
Geometry Manufacture
Iterative and Stepwise of Design
Safety Factor
To provide a degree of assurance that unexpected events in

service do not cause failure.
Dependent upon failure consequence as well as the

uncertainties of information, assumption and approximation.
X1=1.5-3.0
stress causing failure
X1 higher when uncertainties
stress in service
and consequences are higher
Safety Factor in Stress
= Allowable Stress Design
for parts subjected to deformation or cracking that gradually progress with time:
failure life
X2 X2=5-20
desired life service
higher when life is more
sensitive to small change
Safety Factor in Life
(load in service) Y load causing failure
In some cases: X1 Y
But Y in advantage can be expanded for difference sources
= Load Factor Design
Durability
The capacity of an item to survive its intended use for a

suitably long period of time
Good durability minimize cost for maintaining and replacing

items as well as increase safety and sustainability.
Prototype and Component Testing
Testing should be done:

1. At the very early stage: to provide quantitative data for design
2. At the later stage: to verify the design safety and durability
(to deal with assumptions and imperfect knowledge reflected in
many engineering estimates of strength or life)
Model Prototype is employed for

simulated service and durability testing
Critical Component Testing vs. Full Prototype Testing

Full prototype testing is expensive but may not be replaced
Simulation vs. Physical Testing

Results of simulation is as good as assumptions, data, used in the
analysis.
Strong
E 0
Stiff/Rigid Strong
A measure of the stiffness of A measure of the strength of

the materials under axial materials under axial loading
loading. to withstand plastic
deformation.
In torsional loading (Shear
Stress) is called G In Brittle materials is often
(Modulus of Rigidity) replaced by UTS.
Selection Procedure (Case 1)
Plastic Deformation is not Allowed, Deflection is not Limited
Critical Properties: c 0 or u X = 2-3
Objective: Minimize Mass
A Systematic Procedure
1. Requirements: L, P, X
2. Geometry Variable: r
3. Material Properties: c &

4. Quantity to Minimize: m
Q f1 L, P, X f 2 , c
Constant for a Given Design Vary with Materials
Once Q is obtained it may be applied to each candidate material
m r L 2

r 4
M max c1 Iz
4
Iz
M max PL
PLr 4 PL

r 4
4
r 3
4 PLX
r

1
3

c c

X
2
4 PLX 3
m L

c
4 PX 5 2
m f1 f 2
3
L3 2
c 3
Structural Index
MATERIAL INDEX
PROBLEM SET 1 (NED Prob.3.15)
Consider the beam of circular cross section of the figure below.

As before, the radius r of the cross section may vary with material and
the beam is required to have length L and carry load P. However, in this
case the strength requirement is replaced by a requirement that that the
deflection not exceed a particular value vmax.
(a) Select a material from the Table such that the mass is minimized.
(b) Repeat the selection with cost being minimized
(c) Briefly discuss your results, and suggest one or more materials that
response a reasonable choice where both light weight and cost are
important.
Deflection is Limited
Critical Properties: E
Objective: Minimize Mass
Q f1 L , P , X f 2 , E

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MECHANICS OF MATERIAL

(MECHANICAL) LOAD Material RESPONSE Mechanical Behavior

Load-bearing Material Fracture

The Basic Concerns

Fracture Failures: Cracking to the extent that a component is separated

Corrosion: Loss of materials due to chemical action.

Wear: A surface removal due to abrasion or sticking between solid

Erosion: Wear that is caused by a fluid (especially likely if the fluid

Time-Independent Time-Dependent Static Loading Cyclic Loading

Elastic Brittle High Cycle

Ductile Fracture Brittle Fracture

Large Plastic Deformation always constitute failure.

Buckling is elastic or plastic deformation or combination of

Strength: the highest stress reached before fracture

A tungsten filament sagging under its own weight.

Brittle (Fast) Fracture may occur when materials is subjected to

Ductile Fracture is more preferable than Brittle Fracture

Impact (very rapidly) loading tend to cause Brittle Fracture.

Ductile materials may be fractured in brittle manner

The study of crack in solids is Fracture Mechanics

Resistance to Brittle Fracture in the presence of a crack/sharp flaw

SCC (Stress Corrosion Cracking) is a specific case when

Heat Cycle may also cause fatigue = Thermal Fatigue.

Crack may be initiated during manufacture and service.

Preventive Action may be done by Inspection and Repair.

Creep + Fatigue Enhanced Effect at High Temperature and

Wear (due to the small motions between two fitted parts) +

Fatigue + Corrosion Corrosion Fatigue

Environment may degrade the mechanical properties of

NEW DESIGN &

Crack and Related Problem cost 4% of GNP ($119 Billion)

Fracture Study Extra Design Cost

Product Liability Cost:

Wide ranges of activities and objectives

To provide a degree of assurance that unexpected events in

Dependent upon failure consequence as well as the

Safety Factor in Stress

= Allowable Stress Design

Safety Factor in Life

(load in service) Y load causing failure

The capacity of an item to survive its intended use for a

Good durability minimize cost for maintaining and replacing

Testing should be done:

Model Prototype is employed for

Critical Component Testing vs. Full Prototype Testing

Simulation vs. Physical Testing

A measure of the stiffness of A measure of the strength of

Plastic Deformation is not Allowed, Deflection is not Limited

Critical Properties: c 0 or u X = 2-3

Objective: Minimize Mass

3. Material Properties: c &

Constant for a Given Design Vary with Materials

Once Q is obtained it may be applied to each candidate material

Consider the beam of circular cross section of the figure below.

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