e

For Th

The 78 rpm Era in

Southeast Asia
Essays and Annotations by
Jason Gibbs, David Harnish, Terry E. Miller, David Murray, Sooi Beng Tan, and Kit Young

ATLANTA:
Dust-to-Digital
2013
1
 CONTENTS

Track List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

PART I THE RECORD INDUSTRY IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

The First Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
The Rise of the Local Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

PART II SOUTHEAST ASIA AND ITS MUSIC

Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Laos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Cambodia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Burma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

PART III THE RECORDS

Disc A: Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Disc B: Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Disc C: Burma, Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Disc D: Malysia, Singapore, Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

2 3
4 5
 A VIETNAM LAOS CAMBODIA
1. Tn Tn Gi in V I ET NA M
2. Phleng Boran C A M BODI A
3. X Ti Bng Qu Phi, Th Nh V I ET NA M
4. T Cnh C u Thua Bc V I ET NA M
5. Thawai Phaka Thi C A M BODI A
6. Nang Nak L AO S
7. Khaek Mon L AO S
8. Nam Nh-T V I ET NA M
9. Gap Pa Pheng L AO S
10. Khng Minh, Mu Tm T V I ET NA M
11. n Vng C V I ET NA M
12. X Ti Bng Qu Phi V I ET NA M
13. Thong Yon . . . C A M BODI A
14. Khap Salang L AO S
15. Vn B D T V I ET NA M
16. Nang Khluan L AO S
17. Lom Phat Sai Khao L AO S
18. T Di Cnh/Kim Tin V I ET NA M
19. Hi Tri CaoXng X V I ET NA M
20. Khap Thum Lao L AO S
21. Teb Bantom C A M BODI A
22. Gi Th V I ET NA M
6 7
B THAILAND CAMBODIA LAOS VIETNAM
1. Phleng Boran C A M BODI A
2. Ht Mu V Ht Ni V I ET NA M
3. Khaek Lopburi T H A I L A N D
4. Khap Ngeum Thang Khaokan L AOS
5. Danse Ancienne L AOS
6. Chant de Bateliers V I ET NA M
7. Promenade en Foret C A M BODI A
8. Khmer Kroak C A M BODI A
9. Thet Mathi/ Sthu Ku Lak-kham-kaeo L AOS
10. Cha Pi C A M BODI A
11. Zhan Zhao Bi Jian T H A I L A N D
12. Pleng Sen Lao T H A I L A N D
13. Lam Toei Jep Saep T H A I L A N D
14. Homrong Chan Chao T H A I L A N D
15. Srey Sroh Mien Thrung C A M BODI A
16. n Hu, C Bn V I ET NA M
17. An Nangsue Thawng Kan L AOS
18. Chc Anh i V I ET NA M
19. Rabam Dawadoeng T H A I L A N D
20. Huang A-lai L AOS
21. Khaek Khao T H A I L A N D
22. Phram Dit Nam Dao T H A I L A N D
23. Lam Khaen T H A I L A N D
C BURMA THAILAND
1. Maung Kyaw Ei Sandaya Nyunt: Ah Hson BU R M A
2. Ffawn Jao Sri Oi T H A I L A N D
3. Doi Rup T H A I L A N D
4. Mingala Ma Thein Nyunt. . . BU R M A
5. Mingala Ma Thein Nyunt. . . BU R M A
6. Mon Ap Son T H A I L A N D
7. Hnit Kan Pyaing Hpuza BU R M A
8. Pleng Khrawp Chakar. . . T H A I L A N D
9. Son Nant Tha Myaing: Sha Pon Gyi BU R M A
10. Lakhon Rueang Kraithong T H A I L A N D
11. Lao Phan T H A I L A N D
12. Thet Hta BU R M A
13. Tap Phraw Law T H A I L A N D
14. Sanda Min Yodaya BU R M A
15. Hpon Taw Bwe BU R M A
16. Shit Hkan Palin BU R M A
17. Khap Mai Ban Doh T H A I L A N D
18. Ba Ba Win BU R M A
19. Son Taw Myaing BU R M A
20. Taw Hnit Taung Swe BU R M A
21. Miss Whiskey BU R M A
22. Mi Ba Myitta BU R M A
23. Yodaya Bwe Gyi BU R M A
24. Nyut Nyut Hsaing Hsaing BU R M A
D MALAYSIA SINGAPORE INDONESIA
1. Lambaresik I N DON E SI A
2. Dji Hong I N DON E SI A
3. Dondang Sayang M A L AYSI A /SI NGA POR E
4. Ile-Ile I N DON E SI A
5. Tumba Lela-Lelan I N DON E SI A
6. Angkat-Angatan I N DON E SI A
7. Pengantin Berarak M A L AYSI A /SI NGA POR E
8. Tjikadjangan I N DON E SI A
9. Gambos Ya Omar M A L AYSI A /SI NGA POR E
10. Lagu Daerah Sumatera I N DON E SI A
11. Shier Zhulei M A L AYSI A /SI NGA POR E
12. Ka Abdi I N DON E SI A
13. Babarlajar Mataram I N DON E SI A
14. Gambos Sri Mahkota Kelantan M A L AYSI A /SI NGA POR E
15. Poetih Poetih Sapoet Andoek I N DON E SI A
16. Chek Siti I M A L AYA SI A /SI NGA POR E
17. Titipati I N DON E SI A
18. Kitjir Kitjir I N DON E SI A
19. Ogingo Mamangka Vuhan M A L AYSI A
20. Wak Daing M A L AYSI A /SI NGA POR E
21. Aer Mata Djato Berlinang I N DON E SI A
 Mek
VIETNAM

ong
Bangkok
CAMBODIA
Tonle Sap Lake

INDIA MAINLAND SOUTHEAST ASIA Phnom Penh MARITIME SOUTHEAST ASIA

-
-

CHINA
Andaman
- Ho Chi Minh City
Sea Gulf of
Thailand
addy

PHILIPPINES
I r r aw

Taiwan
Mandalay Hong Kong
Ha Noi Sabah

St
BURMA BRUNEI

ra
MALAYSIA

it
of
LAOS Kuala Lumpur MALAYSIA

M
en

al
we

ac
Hainan

ca
Sal

Vientiane Borneo
SINGAPORE
Rangoon I PHILIPPINES
Hue
sa

Sumatra Sulawesi
THAILAND
n

Palembang New Guinea

VIETNAM
Mek

Bangkok
IND
ong

CAMBODIA
ONE
SIA
Tonle Sap Jakarta
Semarang
Phnom Penh Bandung Java Surabaya
Lombok
Andaman Ho Chi Minh City
Bali EAST TIMOR
Sea Gulf of (formerly Saigon) Timor
Thailand
Indian Ocean
AUSTRALIA
8 9
Sabah
MALAYSIA BRUNEI
10 11
 PREFACE
IN THE EARLY 1980S, pioneering record collector and researcher Dick
Spottswood purchased a small cache of eleven Indochinese record-
ings from the estate of a former Victor record company executive. The
records passed from one collector to the next, eventually landing in
my own collection. The records, two Vietnamese and nine Lao, were
obviously very rare, and like the collectors before me, I was unable to
make any significant progress in researching them. I contacted Terry
E. Miller, one of the worlds leading researchers of Lao and Thai music.
Terry was not aware of these recordings, but his interest was piqued
and he agreed to annotate the material.
While Terry was digging into the music, I continued to hunt for
information about the Victor series. Surprisingly, there seemed to be
no information about this series, despite the fact that Victor is one of
the largest and most researched 78 record companies. Finally, with the
help of collector/researcher Jonathan Ward, as well as David Seubert
and his colleagues working on the Encyclopedic Discography of Victor
Recordings (University of California, Santa Barbara), we discovered
details about the series among the thousands of Victors yet-to-be-
cataloged history cards. These handwritten index cards, which
Victor kept for all of their issued discs, included detailed information
taken by the engineer at the time of the recording session. With this
new information and Terrys knowledge of the region we were able to
12
reconstruct a basic itinerary for the expedition that resulted in these
records. Inspired by these discoveries, our research grew to include
records from Thailand, and eventually all of Southeast Asia.
"Longing for the past" is a common translation of vng c, a type
of Vietnamese aria, described in this collection by writer Jason Gibbs
as the single most important musical work in 20th century Vietnam.
Although vng c was itself a new musical framework in the late teens,
it evoked a powerful nostalgia for the people of southern Vietnam. It
makes a fitting title for this collection since many of the pieces heard
here represent a musical era that, to varying degrees, no longer exists.
Styles become obsolete, instruments fall into disuse, Western influenc-
es seep in, cultures assimilate, and artists fade into obscurity or, as in
the horrific case of Cambodia, are wiped out by war or genocide. As a
collector, my interest is in these older styles, and their surviving traces.
Although this collection is the first to present 78 rpm recordings
from across the entirety of Southeast Asia, it is not intended to be a
survey of all the musical forms found there, nor is it even meant to be
representative of the wide variety of Southeast Asian music recorded
during the six-decade reign of the 78 rpm format. Many genres of
popular and traditional music are not included here, and many cul-
tures were never recorded in the first place. The records presented here
reflect one collectors view of the traditional, obscure, and sometimes
obsolete styles captured on the medium of 78 rpm records.
A few words are in order regarding the organization of this book
and the CDs. It is difficult to neatly categorize the recordings by coun-
try of origin since Southeast Asian borders were in flux throughout
the decades in which these recordings were made. We have organized
the annotations by the current name of the country from which the
music originates. In the case of Malaysia and Singapore, the two were
not separate at the time of these recordings, and although nearly all
recordings from the Malay Peninsula were made in Singapore, it is
not usually clear where the musicians were from. Therefore, we have
labeled these Malaysia/Singapore. In the case of Burma, we have cho-
sen to use the name Burma instead of Myanmar for reasons detailed in
the Burma introduction.
The CDs are organized loosely in a westerly direction. Beginning
with what was formerly called Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, and Cam-
bodia), then moving to Thailand, Burma, and finally southward to
Malaysia and Indonesia.
Although some of these records are in less than ideal condition,
we believe that their extreme rarity warrants their inclusion. While
professional transferring and restoration techniques have been judi-
ciously applied, we hope that the historical importance outweighs the
inconvenience of audible noise.
Because of the archaic nature of many of these recordings, I felt
it was important to describe the contents in great detail, perhaps
more than is necessary for the casual listener. I enlisted the help of
several researchers and ethnomusicologists to describe the music.
I am most indebted to Terry E. Miller, who not only authored the
sections on Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand, but provided much help
and advice along the way. I would also like to thank the other con-
tributing authors: Jason Gibbs (Vietnam), David Harnish (Indone-
sia), Sooi Beng Tan (Malaysia/Singapore), and Kit Young (Burma).
Their contributions are indicated by their initials. Part I: The Record
Industry in Southeast Asia, and the track introductions (in italics)
were written by me (except were noted by author initials). Many other
researchers have contributed as well and are listed in the acknowledge-
ments (page 271).
The images in the book come primarily from old postcards. The
postcards range from photographs of authentic musicians to staged
portraits, sometimes promoting exotic stereotypes for Europeans.
Nonetheless, there are interesting elements in even the most exoticized
images, such as rare old instruments or costumes. The images are cap-
tioned, unless there is some form of caption on the original image.
Id also like to offer special thanks to Jonathan Ward for his help
transferring records, research, advice, and the loan of several records
from his excellent collection. Additional thanks to Will Summits and
Michael Robertson for contributing records from their collections.
It is my hope that this collection of old, sometimes obscure sounds
will not only provide engaging surprises for listenerswhether they
are new to Southeast Asian music, students of the region, or those who
share a cultural history with this musicbut also remind us of the
depth and beauty of the past, as we move inexorably forward.
David Murray
Oakland, California
13
14 15
 INTRODUCTION

Their voices and their long bamboo instruments produced music both sympathetic and harmonious.
They danced, waving wands or garlands of flowers, and posed, almost without effort, in a series of graceful attitudes.
Maxwell Sommerville, Traveler 1897

OVER 2,000 YEARS before the first recording in this collection was Ramayana, a Hindu epic telling the story of the god Rama, and the
made, the ng Sn people, of what is now northern Vietnam, were Jatakas, a collection of stories about the various lives of the Buddha,
making large bronze drums, some weighing nearly 200 pounds. The provided major themes for dance, theater, storytelling, and song across
bronze drums are interesting not only as instruments and ritual Southeast Asia.
objects but also because they are decorated with scenes of elaborate Stone carvings from Hindu and Buddhist temples provide more
rituals, warriors, and musicians. Some details. Due to the ephemeral
of these musicians are pictured holding nature of the palm leafs on which
what appear to be bamboo mouth organs writing was done, and the vulner-
similar to the bamboo khene heard in ability of bamboo and wooden
this collection and still played in Laos instruments in the tropical envi-
and Thailand today. Unfortunately, we ronment, temple carvings provide
can only guess how those instruments some of our only glimpses at the
sounded. Tracings of ng Sn drum state of music during these cen-
Since the time of the ng Sn drums, the long centuries have turies. Bas relief carvings at Angkor Wat, the massive Khmer temple
left us only musical hints as to the sound of Southeast Asian music, built in the early 12th century, depict many instruments reminiscent
until the first recordings finally gave us concrete evidence. Hinduism of those used today. The Khmer Empire was eventually overrun by the
and Buddhism spread throughout the region, and with these religions Siamese kingdom of Ayutthaya, which itself was later defeated by the
came their stories, dances, and other cultural influences. Both the Burmese. In each case, we know that it was customary for the victors to

Lao khene player, ca. 1870

16 17

Detail of Angkor Wat bas relief
absorb the court musicians and dancers from their conquests, spread-
ing musical styles and ideas.
Yet in Indonesia, where Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms thrived
until the rise of Islam in the 16th century, carvings at the 9th century
Javanese temple of Borobudur show Indian-influenced instruments
that are no longer used in the region.
The lure of lucrative spices brought Europes attention to Southeast
Asia. Intending to bypass the Silk Road, the Portuguese established a
trading settlement in Goa, India, in the early 16th century. An inexo-
rable stream of Europeans followed, adding more layers of musical
18
influence. The Dutch East Indies Company was established in Indone-
sia in 1602 and took control of much of the spice trade.
As Europeans began visiting Southeast Asia, descriptions of the-
atre, music, and instruments began to appear in the accounts of their
travels. Although these accounts often suffer from ethnocentrism and
lack of musical vocabulary, many of todays instruments are clearly
described.
Temple carvings continued to document music; some from the late
1700s clearly show the khene, gong circle, xylophone, and other instru-
ments that are common today.
Expanding from India, the British began occupying parts of
Burma in the late 1700s, taking Rangoon in 1824, and finally succeed-
ed in colonizing in 1886. The British East India Company established
the Straights Settlements in 1826 in parts of the Malaysian Peninsula,
becoming a British colony in 1867.
French missionaries began to establish themselves in Vietnam in
the mid-1600s, leading to French colonization by 1864. Cambodia and
Laos soon were consolidated with Vietnam to form French Indochina,
before Siam, which had managed to avoid colonization, could gain
control of those regions,
With the 20th century drawing near, and the Dutch, French, and
British controlling most of the region, Southeast Asia was on the cusp
of entering the age of recorded sound, when its musical legacy would
finally begin to change from mere hints and guesses to something
more tangible.
Burmese ensemble, ca. 1892
Laos, 1870 (following pages)
19
20 21
 PART I
THE RECORD INDUSTRY IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

22 23
 THE FIRST WAVE
In those days, natives of the countries where we set up our temporary laboratories wanted
records of their songs, their bands, and storytellers.
Harry Marker, Recordist for Columbia Records from 19051930
THE EARLY RECORD COMPANIES never intended to be ethno-
musicologists. They had no interest in documenting the
worlds music or preserving cultures. They were simply
in the business of selling expensive phonograph ma-
chines. However, they quickly realized that in order
to sell machines they had to sell records that ap-
pealed to people in different locales. So in the first
years of the 20th century, a handful of European
and American record companies began sending
recording teams to far-flung regions to establish
themselves in the emerging marketplaces. At first,
the record companies werent sure what would sell and
they seemed willing to record almost any type of mu-
sic they could find. This purely commercial approach led to
the recording of a startling number of musical styles in a wide ar-
ray of languages, inadvertently creating a vast and invaluable archive of
global music.
24
Recording came to Southeast Asia during this original
wave of world-music recording. In 1902, only a few short
years after the birth of the recording industry, the Brit-
ish Gramophone Company sent recording engineer
Frederick Gaisberg on a trailblazing trip to the
Orient. Sailing first to India, Gaisberg, with his
young assistant George Dillnutt, made hundreds
of recordings in Calcutta before continuing on
to record in Tokyo, Shanghai, and Hong Kong.
From there he sailed to Singapore, Siam, and then
Rangoon. The records were pressed in Germany and
then sent back to be sold to the local public. When
Gaisberg returned to London in August 1903, he had
been gone nearly a year.
The company and the industry were growing rapidly, espe-
cially in India. The following year, the Gramophone Company sent two
young recording engineers, William Sinkler Darby and Max Hampe, to
25
make another series of recordings in several cities across India, as well
as Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and Burma, building on the many technical
and cultural lessons learned on the first trip.
To satisfy the publics growing interest in the phonograph and its
desire for new records, Gaisbergs younger brother Will led a third
recording tour from 1906 to 1907, with George Dillnutt as
his assistant. Together, they made a large assortment of
recordings throughout India, as well as Cantonese
recordings in Hong Kong. However, they ventured
no further into Southeast Asia than Rangoon.
Because competition was fierce, the Gram-
ophone Company made a strategic move and
opened a pressing plant and gramophone
cabinet factory in Calcutta in 1908. This gave
them the advantage of being able to build pho-
nograph cabinets faster, cheaper, and better
suited to the climate and to deliver records more
quickly to the market. This was the only pressing
plant in India well into the 1920s and where their
Southeast Asian records were manufactured.
Also in 1908, the Gramophone Companys George
Dillnutt graduated from assisting to leading his own expedi-
tion. While in Rangoon, he recorded Po Sein, Burmas most famous
singer and actor. Po Sein and his troupe recorded a series of traditional
Burmese musicals called zats, some in lengthy sets of over 40 records.
The recordings were destroyed by mold, due to the tropical heat, and had
26
to be completely redone. Dillnut also recorded in Singapore, Java, Siam,
Ceylon, and India and soon after, with nearly a decade of Asian record-
ing experience, became the Gramophone Companys head recording
expert in India, the home base for all their Asian recording activity. By
this time, the Gramophone Companys catalog included hundreds of
Southeast Asian recordings from Burma, Singapore, Java,
and Siam.
Although the Gramophone Company was first
to record in Southeast Asia, others soon followed.
Germany was on the forefront of phonograph
technology and there were several German la-
bels involved in the early recording scene. The
Beka label made its first Southeast Asian re-
cordings in 1905 when the recording team of
Willy Bielefeld, Heinrich Blumb, and William
Hadert made recordings in Constantinople,
Cairo, and Calcutta before arriving in Rangoon
on Christmas day. Like the Gramophone Com-
pany, they also recorded Burmese theatrical works
in sets of 4060 records, as well as shorter pieces.
They left Burma for the Dutch East Indies where they
recorded Javanese gamelan ensembles as well as the popular
stamboul songs, a type of theatre music influenced by European music.
An emergency stop in Bangkok yielded no recordings, unfortunately.
Instead, after a few days they left for Singapore where they continued
recording. Their next stop was Hong Kong (where they made record-
ings above an opium den) and then on to Shanghai and Tokyo, finally
returning to Berlin in July of 1906. A follow-up expedition took place in
19061907, which included Singapore, Siam, the Dutch East Indies, as
well as India and China. A third South-
east Asian tour was conducted in 1909.
Odeon was another important Ger-
man label, first making recordings in
India, Siam, Burma, and the Dutch East
Indies in 1907 and 1908. They, too, re-
corded a wide variety of styles: traditional
Javanese gamelan, stamboul, and another
genre of popular music known as kro-
ncong. Odeon soon came to dominate the
Indonesian market. While other compa-
nies sent agents to set up offices, Odeon
used local agents to find and record tal-
ent. Eventually, the other labels followed
suit and came to rely on local talent scouts
or agents. Some of these agents went on to
form the first locally-owned labels.
A third German company, Lyrophon,
was also recording in Southeast Asia.
Lyrophon had started out making cylinders before switching to the flat
disc format. Very little is known about their activities in Asia, but adver-
tisements from 1913 listed records in many Asian languages, including
Siamese, Burmese, Annamite (Vietnamese), Malay, and Javanese.
Between 1910 and 1913, the German record industry experienced
a restructuring. Lyrophon, along with Beka, Odeon, and others, were
acquired by the German holding company Carl Lindstroem A.G.
The American record companies
Columbia and Victor were not as involved
in Southeast Asia. Victor made no record-
ings in the region during these first years
of recording. Columbia, as early as 1904,
had sent recording engineer Charles Carson
to Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Tokyo. In
1907, Carson was joined by Harry Marker
and continued making Chinese recordings.
Marker went on to record in Singapore and
Bangkok later that year. While in Bangkok
he conducted a recording session at the
palace of King Rama V. Marker returned
again in 1910, making hundreds of Java-
nese, Arabic, and Chinese recordings in the
Dutch East Indies. In Singapore he recorded
more Malay and Chinese records.
As with most of these ground breaking
early recording pioneers, there is scant infor-
mation on the actual details of their experiences. Marker was one of
the few who left us a brief account of his travels. He was nothing if not
tenacious. A short New York Times article from 1912 recounts his suffer-
ing burns from an oil lamp explosion in Shanghai, being quarantined
27
in Port Arthur, and losing trunks on the Trans-Siberian Railway. He
even claimed to have once smoked opium to lure a famous but reluctant
Chinese singer.
With oppressive temperatures, monsoons, mosquitoes, fever, dys-
entery, and language and cultural barriers, not to mention
hauling hundreds of pounds of fragile equipment and
wax masters across the continent, its astonishing
that these recording engineers were able to over-
come the many obstacles before them.
One strategy to make expeditions easier
and more efficient was to travel along the an-
cient maritime trade routes. Rangoon, Bang-
kok, Singapore, Jakarta, and other port cities
were easily accessible by ship. Because roads
inland were sparse (if there were any at all) and
railroads had not yet been built, the music of the
interior was neglected.
French Indochina was under-recorded by the
major labels in this initial wave of recording. Tending
to do business in colonies to which they were related, English,
German, and American companies never recorded in the French colo-
nies of Indochina in these early years.
The French Path label began as a manufacturer of cinema equip-
ment just before the turn of the century. At first they released cylinder
recordings before switching to the flat disc in 1906. In 190809, Path
recordists Henri Lachappelle and M. M. Saife traveled to India, Siam, Ja-
28
pan, China, and French Indochina where they made a significant num-
ber of recordings. Unfortunately, there is very little surviving documen-
tation of these expeditions other than the discs themselves, which are
quite rare.
Path established offices in Tokyo, Shanghai, Bombay, and
Singapore and continued to record in Siam and Indochina
for the next few years until the outbreak of World War I
ended the first phase of recording in Southeast Asia,
as elsewhere.
Although recording by the Gramophone
Company continued through the teens, engineer
Fred Gaisberg himself noted that it was not a
productive time for the industry. The German
labels, Beka, Odeon, Lyrophon, and others (now
controlled by Lindstroem), suffered the most as in-
ternational shipping and commerce were disrupted
and the German economy left in ruins.
Conversely, the 1920s was a period of growth for
the record industry; new electrical recording technology
was being developed that significantly improved the sound of the
records. Economies were rebuilding after the war. In Germany, the la-
bels controlled by Lindstroem had begun to recover as well. Both Beka
and Odeon released a series of records from Indochina and recorded
in the Dutch East Indies. An Odeon catalog from 1926 lists over 300
Vietnamese records. In 1928, both made historic trips to Bali, where
each made a series of historic Balinese gamelan recordings. Indochina
continued to be an important market for Path. Columbia was active
in Burma, Siam, Singapore and Dutch East Indies. Victor would finally
venture into Southeast Asia in 1924, when engineers Jack Linderman
and Fred Elsasser made recordings in French Indochina. A second
series of Victor recordings were made in 1927 on a trip that included
Tonkin, Hue, and Saigon, and included the first ever recordings of
music from Laos.
Meanwhile, the Gramophone Company had switched to their His
Masters Voice trademark in 1916 and continued recording heavily
in India, Burma, the Dutch East Indies, and Singapore. By 1930 their
Southeast Asian catalog was very large, and yet dwarfed by the stag-
gering number of Indian records they had made. They opened a new,
modern pressing plant at Dum Dum, outside of Calcutta, that greatly
improved their production capabilities through the 1930s. But the re-
bound of the 1920s came to a halt with the stock market crash in 1929.
Shockwaves rippled through the worlds economy, seriously damag-
ing the record industry. In order to survive, the recording industry
undertook a complicated series of legal maneuvers that led to a massive
merger. The Gramophone Company, Columbia, the Lindstroem labels,
and Path (both had recently been acquired by Columbia), as well as
other labels, merged to form the conglomerate EMI. The various im-
prints continued to release Southeast Asian records during the 1930s,
but struggled with the effects of the Depression as well as competition
from radio and cinema.
29
30 31
 THE RISE OF THE LOCAL LABELS
LOCAL ENTREPRENEURS often lacked the resources
to break into the record business. Recording, mas-
tering, and pressing discs required a large in-
vestment, as well as advanced engineering ca-
pabilities. The only option for most aspiring
record producers was to establish a partner-
ship with a European record company as an
agent. This was a symbiotic relationship, to
varying degrees, in which the agent would
assume duties such as the choosing of art-
ists and repertoire, as well as the arranging
and supervising of recording sessions. In ex-
change they would become the sole sales repre-
sentative for their region.
Merchants often came to record production
through the selling of general merchandise or musical
instruments. For example, the Katz Brothers were general
merchants and music importers with a head office in Singapore and
branches in Penang, Sumatra, British Borneo, and Siam. Around 1907,
32
they appear to have made a deal with the German re-
cord label Beka to release recordings under their own
Katz Brothers label and began issuing Siamese re-
cords under their own name, presumably manu-
factured by Beka with Beka matrix numbers.
Although they acted as agents for Odeon in
Singapore, Siam seems to be the only area in
which their label operated.
Tio Tek Hongs company in the central
Javanese city of Semarang sold everything
from clothes to motorcycles and was an agent
for Odeon before World War II. Unlike Bekas
arrangement with the Katz Brothers, Tio Tek
Hong did not have his own label, but instead the in-
scription made by Tio Tek Hong and Company store,
Semarang was printed at the bottom of the Odeon label.
As with the Katz Brothers, its not clear to what extent they were
involved in selecting artists or supervising recording sessions. Tio Tek
Hong eventually started his own eponymous label in the mid-1920s.
33
 Although these early agent relationships were more akin to market-
ing strategies by the larger record companies than they were independent
operations, the 1920s saw the emergence of several local companies with
a higher degree of autonomy. These companies would often arrange
their own recording sessions locally in one of the major la-
bels studios, and send off the masters to be manufac-
tured abroad, often by German pressing factories.
Singapore had been an important center of
recording activity since Gaisbergs first record-
ing tour, and likewise became fertile ground
for the emergence of new local labels. Mout-
rie and Co. were sole agents for the Gramo-
phone Company in China as early as 1904,
and in Singapore in the 1920s and 1930s.
Like other agents, their business included
music related items such as sheet music, ra-
dios, as well as the sale and repair of musical
instruments. They graduated from mere dis-
tributors to selecting and arranging artists, and
releasing them under their own label, yet they were
still closely linked to the Gramophone Company. In
1934, Moutrie and Co. released their first Chap Kuching re-
cords, which specialized in a popular theatrical music called bangsawan.
The wax master recordings were sent off to the pressing at the Gramo-
phone Companys plant at Dum Dum, India, to be pressed, and returned
for sale in Moutrie shops.
34
Chap Singa was started in 1937 by M.E. & T. Hemsley Co., another
local distributor of the Gramophone Company, also based in Singapore.
Tom Hemsley had previously supervised Moutries Chap Kuching label
before starting Chap Singa. The main focus of the labels was popular
theatrical music, such as stamboul, kroncong, and bangas-
awan. Their artists included stars of the day, and they
would promote their recordings by holding kro-
ncong contests and other public events. Neither
Chap Singa nor Chap Kuching survived WWII.
Hemsley later started the Delima label, which
featured Javanese singers. He was also the
distributor for the Canary and Tjap Angsa
labels, both of which were introduced in 1939.
While some local companies used the
Gramophone Companys pressing services
at their Dum Dum plant, others were pressed
in Hanover, Germany, by Deutsche Gram-
mophon. Mong Huat & Co. of Singapore was
a distributor for the Hindenburg label, owned
by Deutsche Grammophon and aimed specifically
at the Southeast Asian market. When the Hindenburg
label ceased production in the 1930s, it seems that Mong
Huat made arrangements to continue with his own Pagoda label, still
pressed by Deutsche Grammophon. Pagoda featured operas of Singa-
pores thriving Chaozhou immigrants from the Guangdong province of
Southern China, as well as various Malay recordings.
In Siam, Rabbit was one of the first truly independent labels.
T. Ngek Chuan started his career as part of a traveling outdoor cinema
troupe that exhibited films throughout southern Thailand and north-
ern Malaysia. He eventually opened a cin-
ema and store. The records in his store sold
so well that, in 1925, he decided to start his
own label. Arranging his own recordings, he
would send the masters off to be pressed in
Germany. The Rabbit label proved success-
ful and throughout the 1930s40s released a
wide variety of music: folk, classical and pop-
ular, even Chuans own Malay String Band.
In the years leading up to WWII, Rabbit also
released cultural propaganda songs of Luang
Wichitwathakan, songs with a Western ap-
proach intended to modernize the country.
The wars effect on Germany caused Rabbit
to falter, and soon a new group of indepen-
dent labels sprung up in Bangkok.
Even more so than World War I, WWII
was a turbulent period for the music industry
in Southeast Asia. Recording, pressing, and
distribution were greatly disrupted. The Japanese invasion of Southeast
Asia had a devastating impact on the types of music allowed to be re-
leased, and recording came to a halt in the occupied countries. But after
the war, the end of the colonial period opened up new opportunities. At
the same time, many of the major labels discontinued or drastically re-
duced activity in Southeast Asia, instead pursuing larger, international
mainstream pop markets. The vacuum created by the exit of the major
labels was quickly filled by a new generation
of independent labels.
Two important developments after the
war made the local record business more af-
fordable: the establishment of record-press-
ing facilities in Southeast Asia, and the use
of magnetic tape for recording. Although the
development of magnetic tape began in the
early 1930s , it wasnt until the 1950s that it
began to gradually replace the cumbersome
method of recording onto wax masters. It be-
came realistic for a small operation run by
just a few people to set up in a basement or
the back room of shop and produce record-
ings that were less costly and better sounding
than the major labels releases just a decade
earlier. The Rangoon label Toe Na Yar was
owned by Daw Than Yin and was recording
to tape in her basement by the mid-1950s.
Revered Burmese singer Mar Mar Aye stated in a recent interview that
some recordings were pressed in as little as 500 copies. While the biggest
hits might have sold as many as 10,000 copies, the affordability of tape
and local manufacturing allowed them to release these limited runs.
35
 With the reduction of cost and the absence of major label competi-
tion, independent record companies began to sprout up around South-
east Asia throughout the 1950s.
Since the mid-1930s in Vietnam, the Asia label
had been releasing recordings of ci lng, a form
of musical theatre from southern Vietnam.
They were soon joined by many other labels
based in Saigon, where the popular ci
lng dominated the market.
Thailands luk thung craze spawned
a bewildering number of labels with dis-
tinctive, colorful graphics. Luk thung
was a form of popular music with ties
torural culture and whose star singers
would often start their own eponymous
labels. Thailand also had several labels
dedicated to Thai classical music.
Burmas thriving film industry helped
lay the groundwork for a music scene that
combined old and new sounds. As in Thai-
land, some labels focused on traditional music
and dramas.
Irama was one of the largest post-war labels in Indo-
nesia. Started in 1954 by jazz impresario Suyoso Karsono, Irama re-
leased a wide variety of music and controlled a number of subsidiaries.
36
Irama continued to be successful into the microgroove era. However,
theIndonesian music industry came to be dominated by Lokananta, the
national recording company ofIndonesia. Lokananta tried
to counter Western influence by promoting Indone-
sian cultures and popular music with a local in-
fluence. A little-researched aspect of this era is
the degree of influence imposed by govern-
ments. Nearly every Southeast Asian coun-
trys record industry was affected to some
degree by government control, from the
softer cultural manipulations of Thai-
land and nationalism of Indonesia, to
Burmese songs glorifying the military
or Vietnams communist propaganda.
Only Cambodia and Laos were left
out of this wave of locally owned record-
ing. While Cambodia had a handful of
labels, Laos had none at all.
By the 1960s, many of these indigenous
labels followed the global trend and transi-
tioned to the new microgroove LP and 45 rpm
format. The 78 rpm record, recorded musics primary
medium for six decades, faded into history.
37
38 39
 Add Rabbit Label
40 41
 PART II
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND ITS MUSIC

42 43
 VIETNAM
Vietnam is located in mainland Southeast Asia along the eastern coast
of the Indochinese peninsula, bordered by China to the north, Laos and
Cambodia to the west, the South China Sea to the east, and the Gulf of
Siam to the south. While the Vit (or Kinh) people make up nearly 90
percent of the population, Vietnam is also home to more than 50 ethnic
groups. There are sizeable Chinese and Khmer minorities, and a variety
44
of highland ethnic groups live along the Annamite Cordillera and in the
mountains bordering China and Laos.
The Vietnamese people trace their origins to the ng Sn culture
present in the Red River basin during the centuries before the common
era.This region was captured by the Chinese in 111 BCE and remained
under Chinese control until 938 AD. China has remained a strong cul-
tural influence to this day. From the 15th century, Vietnam began its
southern advance, over several centuries seizing and settling in the
kingdom of Champa (located along the coastline of the
Annamite Cordillera) and later in the Khmer territories
of the Mekong delta.
In the 16th century, Vietnam came into contact
with European culture through Catholic missionaries.
In 1858 France began a military campaign that would
eventually seize all of Indochina. During the early 20th
century the French constructed a commercial and ad-
ministrative infrastructure to consolidate their control
of the colony. They divided present day Vietnam into
three regions: Tonkin in the north, Annam in the center,
and Cochinchina in the south, which along with Cam-
bodia and Laos comprised French Indochina.The major
cities of Vietnam that correspond to the three regions
are Hanoi (the present day capitol), Hu (the royal capi-
tol), and Saigon (the commercial hub of the country).
Though Vietnam continued to resist the French,
they also sought to learn from the West in order to mod-
ernize their nation. The August Revolution in 1945 was
the prelude to a war of resistance that led to Frances de-
feat and exit from Vietnam in 1954. From that time Viet-
nam was split into two nations, the Democratic Republic
of Vietnam in the north and the Republic of Vietnam in
the south. After decades of conflict, the county was uni-
fied as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
Vietnamese music is influenced by both Chinese
and South Asian elements, the latter through long-term
contact with the Cham and Khmer kingdoms. Prior to
colonization, popular musical entertainments included
ht bi (also known as ht tung or ht b), a court-sup-
ported musical theatre with origins in Chinese opera;
ht cho, a folk theatre of the north, the ritual and enter-
tainment music of the court and ceremonial music used
in local festivals; ca tr (or ht o), a form of chamber
music from the north featuring the musical recitation of
poetry; and nhc ti t (music of talented amateurs), a
style of chamber music originating in the central region that empha- also stories influenced and adapted from French literature and from
sized instrumental creativity and virtuosity. motion pictures. Vietnamese also composed new songs in the style
From around 1910, a new syncretic musical theatre form that used of nhc ti t, most notably D C Hoi Lang (At the Night Drum
elements of ht bi and nhc ti t as well as folk songs and the music of Thinking of Him, 1918) by Cao Vn Lu, which developed into the ex-
that regions ethnic Chinese. First known as ca ra b (literally, "gesture tremely popular aria type, vng c (longing for the past) represented
coming out of song"), it developed into a popular new theatrical genre on a number of recordings included here. JG
called ci lng, the dominant genre of the 78 rpm format. Originally,
plots were based on Chinese stories used in ht bi, but soon there were
45
 LAOS similated into Siamese culture, those on the Khorat Plateau maintained the only way to reach Laos from Thailand, other than by air, was by To the inexperienced listener, all Lao music probably sounds pretty
their Lao cultural identity, and as a result much of northeast Thailand ferry across the Mekong. Now there are three bridges, at Pakse, at Sawa- much alike. So what distinguishes around 13 named regional forms?
Laos is Southeast Asias only landlocked nation. It is 236,800 square today is culturally (and musically) Lao. Because of its orientation to nnakhet, and at Vientiane. In each case drivers from left-side driving First, the names of each genre are preceded with either khap or lam.
kilometers, slightly larger than the state of Utah, with a population of Bangkok, however, the northeast has experienced much more modern- Thailand must convert to the right-side driving of Laos. Khap denotes genres in the Vientiane region and all areas to the north.
about 5 million people concentrated along the Mekong River in sev- ization than did the area across the Mekong in Laos proper. Musically, Laos is one of the most under-researched countries in Lam denotes genres in the south. Both terms essentially mean to sing
eral modest-sized cities. Outside Laos came under French the world. Having only one small but carry the implication that the
of the cities, the population is protection in 1893 as part of the teacher college, it has not pro- melody is closely related to the
sparsely settled in the rural ar- expansion of French Indochina, duced any of its own music schol- linguistic tones of the poetry. The
eas, including the mountains along with Vietnam and Cambo- ars. Although there have been names of each genre connote ei-
that dominate much of the coun- dia. Because the French resisted government agencies charged ther a place name, a geographical
try. About half the population is Siamese claims to much of Laos, with supervising research by for- feature, or the name of an eth-
ethnically Lao, lowland-dwelling it has remained less developed eign scholars, until around 2000 nic subgroup. For example, khap
people who practice wet-rice and more conservative culturally their efforts hampered more than phuan, found in Xieng Khouang
agriculture, with the remain- than northeast Thailand. Largely encouraged fieldwork. The geog- province in north-central Laos,
ing people scattered through the administered by Vietnamese civ- raphy of the country itself has also denotes singing of the Phuan, a
mid and upper elevations of the il servants trained by the French, discouraged research. Although Lao subgroup. Khap ngeum, a
mountains. Laos suffered benign neglect the lowland Lao population is genre found just north of Vien-
During the 19th century, through its independence in only around 3 million, there are tiane, refers to its location along
Siam sought to control much of 1954 and fell further behind dur- 10 to 15 regional musical styles the Ngeum River, which flows
what is now Laos. An invasion by ing the destructive Vietnam War. (depending on what is counted). into the Mekong just east of Vien-
Siamese King Rama III in 1827 During the war, whole cities and In the southern region a given tiane. Lam khon sawan, found in
destroyed much of the city of Vientiane and forced most of the popula- towns were obliterated, and today long-forgotten cluster bomblets con- artist may perform several local south-central Laos, refers to its
tion to the Khorat Plateau in what is now northeast Thailand (Isan) as tinue to kill and maim Lao children and farmers. As a result, Laos still styles, but in the north, each tends to be isolated from others. Given the locale near the city of Sawannakhet on the Mekong.
well as to the central plains in an arc north of Bangkok. With Lao people lacks more than a rudimentary infrastructure in terms of roads, com- difficulties of travel to each regionparticularly into the many moun- Making musical distinctions requires an experienced ear, es-
now living in Thailand, the central Thai began to take note of Lao music munications, and economy, although it is slowly improving in spite of tain villages that are inaccessible by roadit comes as no surprise that pecially in the south. The genres preceded by lam differ in terms of a
and culture. While those who moved to the central plain gradually as- its conservative, old-style communist government. Until quite recently, few scholars have documented these styles beyond a superficial level. basic melodic form that singers vary slightly to fit different texts and

46 47
 to accommodate the by their teachers. Because many Lao are nonliterate, most teaching has CAMBODIA Sen started. But ironically, the oldest layers of Khmer music still live,
linguistic tones. The ac- been by rote. A performance, then, features a pair of male and female though transformed, as Thai classical music. This is so because when
companiment for all lam singers, at least one khene player, with the pair alternating throughout. By nearly any measure Cambodia, a small nation of only 14.7 million the Siamese, centered at Ayuthaya, conquered Angkor in 1432 and its
genres may be the khene Such performances remain a common feature of national, local, and people, underdeveloped, poor, governed by an entrenched single-party successor capital, Longvek, in 1594, they not only destroyed the empires
(pronounced something temple-based festivals. government, would not seem to great temples and palaces but forcibly
like can)free-reed Less representative of the Lao culture, but often prominent in re- be very significant, but consider- carried off much of the population,
mouth organ alone, but corded anthologies, Lao classical or court music was cultivated ing its glorious past as one of the including its musicians, dancers, and
the addition of a local in the royal capital, Luang Phrabang, in the administrative capital, worlds greatest empires centered artists, resettling them in Siam where
fiddle or plucked lute Vientiane, and to lesser extents in other centers such as Champassak. around Angkor, it cannot be ig- they gradually morphed into Siamese
plus small drum and Whether its origin came from Angkor in Cambodia or from Ayuthaya nored. Even as the Khmer (the indistinguishable from earlier layers
small metal percussion in Siam/Thailand, by the end of the 19th century it was only an echo of proper adjective) culture has suf- of Siamese. Since there is no record of
is also possible. Other Thai practice, with one exception. The Lao sometimes added khene to fered near extinction twice, first Siamese music from before the con-
than the khap genre of the classical instruments (xylophones, gong circles, fiddles, flute, oboe, in 1432 when the Siamese in- quest of Angkor, there is no way to
Luang Phrabang, those drums, and other percussion), and while there was a contradiction be- flicted their final defeat on Ang- know to what extent Siamese music
in the north are nor- tween the equidistant classical tuning and nonequidistant khene tun- kor, and second when the Khmer changed under Khmer influence. As-
mally accompanied by ing, it was minor enough that few noticed. Recordings from before 1975 Rouge reign of terror (1975 serting that this influence was either
either khene or a single show that playing levels in Laos were far simpler than those in Thailand. 1979) attempted to extinguish ev- extensive or defining raises touchy is-
free-reed pipe simply Following the abolition of the monarchy in 1975, classical music was ex- erything Khmer and recreate the sues of cultural nationalism.
called pi. tinguished until well into the 1980s when it was slowly and reluctantly nation as a simple agrarian soci- The relationship between Siam
The essential feature that defines all Lao genres is repartee, a vocal revived for purposes of representation at foreign festivals. Since then it ety obedient to its blood-thirsty and Cambodia is therefore quite
version of the war of the sexes in which male and female singers alter- has slowly recovered but remains simple in style to this day. TM rulers, it has also demonstrated resilience. There remains to this day a tangled. The Khmer people brought from Angkor would have noticed
nate. Their texts may be related to (feigned) courtship, but others depict lively and distinctive musical culture. remnants of the Angkor Empire within Siam, because before the rise
competition, insults, and asking each other questions about cultural Because of its history, Khmer music was unable to develop the lev- of Sukhothai (13th century) and Ayuthaya (14th century), Siams earli-
practices, religion, history, or old stories. While some skilled singers el that Thai music did, and indeed everything had to be rebuilt nearly est power centers, most of present-day Thailand was part of the Khmer
can improvise passages of poetry, though based on previously memo- from scratch following Vietnams invasion of Cambodia in 1979 when Empire. Evidence of this is easily seen in the many temple ruins to the
rized models, most singers perform memorized poetry taught to them the Khmer Rouge were ousted and the now entrenched regime of Hun west nearly to the Burmese border and north towards present-day Vien-

48 49
tiane, Laos. These include a number of magnificent temple complexes at
Phimai, Phanom Rung, Muang Tam, and Preah Vihar in the northeast
and a more modest one at Muang Sing in the west, as well as many small
hospitals (resting places for travelers) scattered throughout. Because
the empire was so far-flung and communication with the center so dif-
ficult, it is not certain that the Khmer subjects at the fringes were more
than local people who had adopted aspects of the empire. But as a result,
many aspects of Siamese/Thai culture
today reflect the Khmer Empires in-
fluence.
In terms of music there is also
a reciprocal relationship. Assum-
ing that Siamese music was indeed
remodeled under Khmer influence
in the 16th century, it seems ironic
that the Siamese, led by Thailands
most famous composer, Luang Phra-
dit Phairaw, later helped restore and
remodel Khmer court music in the
early 20th when the modest court in
Phnom Penh sought to reestablish its court music and dance. As a con-
sequence, virtually the entire repertory of Khmer classical music is of
Thai origin, even if titles are in Khmer and the performance style differs
in certain respects. But classical music constitutes only part of the pic-
ture, for Cambodia has a variety of distinctive local genres played by vil-
lage musicians for specific occasions, especially for weddings and spirit
ceremonies. In these one hears Cambodias most distinctive timbres,
rhythms, and textures. That we can continue to hear all of these today
is nothing short of a miracle, considering that the Ministry of Culture
estimated in 1988 that around 80 percent of Cambodias musicians and
dancers had been killed, died of disease, or fled the country during the
Khmer Rouge period. Clearly, then, the recordings included here are
additionally valuable because they document Khmer music before these
grievous losses.
Thanks to its French colonial
masters, Cambodia came to be cir-
cumscribed by fixed boundaries with
Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand, but like
borders elsewhere in the region, they
mask the ethnic makeup of the land.
There are significant numbers of Khmer
in the Delta of the Nine Dragons, what
the Mekong River is called in southern
Vietnam, including temples and rem-
nants of court music. Three provinces
in Thailands lower northeastBuri-
ram, Surin, and Srisaketare predominantly Khmer speaking to this
day, and the greatest Khmer temple beyond Angkor sits on the border of
Thailand and Cambodia, where access remains in disputethe United
Nations declared the temple to be within Cambodia, but entry can only
be gained through Thailand because the temples Cambodian side is a
sheer cliff. Many Lao live in the northwestern provinces bordering Laos,
and Cambodias northeast mountains, the Dangkrek, are inhabited by
upland peoples, some speaking languages unrelated to Khmer but cul-
turally close to many groups in nearby Vietnams Central Highlands.
Perhaps the most intriguing ques-
tion to ask of the living traditions of
Khmer music is its relationship, if any, to
the silent music depicted in the stone bas
reliefs of Angkor Vat and Angkor Thom.
Studies of the archaeological evidence
in relation to contemporary phenomena
remain preliminary, and drawing con-
clusions will always have risks. None-
theless, at least one modern instrument
is clearly depicted at Angkor Vat, a semi-
circular gong circle, doubtless an early
version of what became the kong thom
in Cambodia, khawng wong yai in Thai-
land and Laos, and kyi waeng in Burma.
Many military-like scenes depict hang-
ing gongs and numerous figures appear
to be playing wind instruments. The
small cymbals used to mark time (ching
in Thai and Khmer, sing in Lao) are also
seen. Most intriguing is what appears to
be a bowed monochord, now thought to be the highlands kni, which has,
in addition to the bowed string, another running from the bridge to the
players mouth, giving the instrument a most unusual timbre.
Today in Cambodia many of the institutions that support music and
dance have been restored. Others persist as best they can. Cambodia still
has a king and thus a court-music estab-
lishment. The Royal University of Fine
Arts teaches music, dance, and theater.
The many tourists around Angkor sup-
port performers in restaurants and other
venues. Many of the land-mine victims
living around Angkor play local wed-
ding-style music for tourists. Wedding
musicians play gigs for ceremonies, and
presumably the spirit ceremonies have
resumed. In Thailands lower northeast
there are remnants of classical music and
much ceremonial music associated with
spirits.
The selection of recordings offered
here reflects but a small part of this heri-
tage, but does so in memory of musicians
who lived in the past and of those who
died during the Khmer Rouge period. TM
From a distance Thailand may seem
like a small country, but like most na-
tions, the closer you get, the more complicated it becomes. That is true
of Thailand both generally and musically. Putting the music heard in

50 51
 THAILAND
this collection into perspective requires keeping multiple perspectives
within view: some cultural, some historical, and some as particular as
the prime minister in power.
Geographically, Thailand is defined by officially recognized bor-
ders, but as is true of most of its neighbors, these boundaries seem arbi-
trary in relation to factors such as language, culture, and even geogra-
phy. Before the age of European colonialism, Southeast Asias kingdoms
expanded and contracted continuously based on how much power each
ruler could project and hold. Power extended outwards as far as pos-
sible, but the further from the court, the more amorphous
that power became, and much of the territory between king-
doms was ambiguous in terms of loyalty. National boundaries
came about as a result of the colonial expansion of the Brit-
ish and French, the former extending their power from India
east into what became Burma (now Myanmar) and down the
Malay Peninsula including what is now Malaysia. The French
controlled the southeastern parts of the subcontinent, com-
prising what is now Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. Thailand
(called Siam until 1939), through the adroit leadership of its
kings during the 19th century, escaped colonialization, but
had they failed, it is clear that either (or both) the French and
the British would have happily absorbed Siam. Conversely,
the Siamese rulers had been laying claim to vast territories
extending to the south as well as east and north of the Me-
52
kong River all the way to northern Vietnam based, at least in the latter
case, on language relationships. This is because the Tai language family
includes the Lao and some of the main minority groups in northern
Vietnam. Siamese expansion was stopped by the French in a series of
treaties and French expansionism was resisted successfully by the Sia-
mese kings. As a result, the modern borders were compromises, and the
Thai nation includes three Malay provinces in the south, a host of Lao-
speaking provinces in the northeast, three Khmer-speaking provinces
in the lower northeast, and a great variety of non-Tai minority groups
along its northern and western borders. Consequently, music in Thai-
land demonstrates much greater variety than Thai music, especially aristocratic (or court) tradition from localand
if the latter is defined as that of the central Thai
culture alone.
Modern Thailand, while unified through the
imposition of central Thai as the national lan-
guage and power concentrated in Bangkok, still
consists of four distinct cultural regions, though
those distinctions are less and less pronounced as
a result of modernization. The central plain, to the
east, north, and west of Bangkok, is the nations
main culture, but musically distinguishes the
mainly ruralmusic. The north, northeast, and
south each have distinctive music types and styles,
in fact the northeast is subdivided into three mu-
sical areas: one Khmer based, one Lao, and one
centered around the city of Nakhon Ratchasima
(aka Khorat).
Besides the factors of differentiating clas-
sical/court from local, and one region from another, there are the education, communication, and living patterns to his subjects, and this
factors of modernization and globalization. These too are reflected in included Western music brought about both by plan and through the
music, including some of the selections heard here. Kings Mongkut and influence of the growing community of Western diplomats, traders,
Chulalongkorn (Rama IV and V, respectively), ruling from 1851 to 1910 military advisers, and missionaries. The lesser of the two was the de-
and the prime architects in maintaining Siams independence, used velopment of Western classical music through the formation of Siams
modernization to counter any European ideas of imposing manifest first symphony orchestra in 1911. Even with support from the court (and
destiny in order to civilize their expanding empires. It was especially later the Fine Arts Department) and the training of Thai to play West-
King Chulalongkorn who brought Western patterns of administration, ern classical instruments, symphony orchestras have always struggled
53

in the kingdom, even today. Popular music, on the other hand, flour-
ished. The Western community brought social dance music, and later
Thai learned both to play this music and to dance. The first major genre
of popular music, called luk krung (songs of the city), was primarily
ballroom dance music sung with sophisticated poetry. These songs were
54
made famous by the band Suntharaphon
founded in 1943 and led by Bun-Uea Sun-
thonsanan, who both arranged and played.
From this other kinds of songs developed
with more down-to-earth lyrics expressing
the lives of ordinary people, including farm-
ers, the beginnings of what is now Thailands
most prominent popular genre, the luk thung
(songs of the fields). Although luk thung
songs were originally from central Thailand,
those that developed to express the experi-
ence of northeastern Thai, who are culturally
Lao, have come to dominate (luk thung isan).
The present compilation, while not com-
prehensive, nonetheless includes Thai clas-
sical, both played by traditional ensembles
and instruments as well as by instruments
representing newer influences, as well as an
example from the northeast and one popu-
lar song. Some of these tracks offer surprises
too and fill lacunae in our history of music in
Thailand. TM
BURMA munities, and languages. The Burmans, predominantly Theravadan
Buddhists, comprise 68 percent of the total population.
At this point in time (2012), there is no internationally accepted conven- Both lowland (Mon, Burman, Rakhine, Karen, and others) and
tion for referring to the country, which, during the era of these record- mountain peoples (Shan, Kachin, Karen, Chin, Naga, Wa, and oth-
ings, was known as Burma. As several observers have pointed out, ers) in Burma over the centuries have adapted instruments arriving via
both Myanma and Bama have been used interchangeably through- trade routes from other countries and kingdoms to flavor indigenous
out Burmese history, with Bama musical culture. The duty of every
or under British rule Burma used victorious monarch in kingdoms
colloquially and Myanmar used throughout Burmese history was to
in more formal contexts in Burmese appropriate foreign artisans, musi-
writing. In the 1990s, the Burmese cians, and performance genres upon
military government decided uni- conquest.Of particular relevance for
laterally to change the official name these recordings, was the Burmese
of Burma to Myanmar. Various op- conquest of Ayudhya in Siam in 1767.
position groups, exile publications, Siamese performers were forced into
and academic organizations and slavery and brought to the Burmese
journals still use Burma. Because court where they taught their arts
we focus here on recordings from to Burman musicians and dancers.
the early to mid-20th century, we Siamese songs from the Ramayana
will use Burma. (Thai Ramakien) were reinterpreted
Burma, with its borders delineated by British Imperial Rule in 1885, in Burmese language and musical style. These Yodaya songs became a
fronts the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea, framing the western core genre popular into the 20th century and used extensively in the
coast of mainland Southeast Asia. With China to the north, India (As- first years ofrecordings.
sam) and Bangladesh to the west and Thailand and Laos to the east and Over the centuries Burmese musicians have joyfully embraced
south, Burma todaywith its inheritance as a busy crossroads by land instruments from Persia, China, India, Thailand, Europe and Bur-
and seais host to an extraordinarily diverse group of cultures, com- manized them with new tunings and sometimes imaginative recon-
55
figurations. Several instruments on these recordings are of particular
interest.A set of tuned drumsoriginally a collection of seven and said
to be from Indiawas extended in the 1860s to 19
tuned drums hung on a wooden frame circle with
enough space for a player at the center.This larger
drum circle, known as the hsaing waing, enabled
the evolution of virtuosic techniques still in use to-
day. The cornet, slide guitar, mandolin, concertina,
violin, banjo, lap harp, piano, and iron-barred xy-
lophone all folded into use in Burmese ensembles
in the late 19th and early 20th centuries but were
adjusted to accommodate Burmese tunings and
modes and techniques of playing. The national
iconic arched Burmese harp (saung gauk) shares its
shape with other cultures, has a cousin used among
the Karen, and was long the favored chamber in-
strument of the Burmese court accompanying the
earliest songs extant: theKyo.
The structure of the Burmese language is more
closely related to Tibetan than Thai in the Sino-
Tibetan classification of languages.In representing
its tones through song, singers must obey certain
caesuras and glottal stops to be understood, in
addition to making other words longer and fluid through melisma (a
group of notes sung to a single syllable) for both expression and clarity
of meaning. To an outside ear, the abrupt, stopped toneswith their
56
corresponding motion in instrumental accompanimentdictate a
rhythmic propulsion and deceleration distinct from surrounding mu-
sics in Burma.The mark of an extraordinary singer
is his or her ability to timemelismas and stops cor-
rectly to the regular meter of the bell and clapper
(si, wa)a relationship to timing common to other
musics of Southeast Asia.
The early introduction of both silent film and
recording technology by the British yielded a re-
markable creative response among the Burmese,
which was initially among the Burman majority
and later expanded to other groups incorporating
their own languages and music.In the 1920s, some
Western, and later Burmese silent films, were ac-
companied by Burmese musicians. Singers and
instrumentalists emerged who later received great
acclaimand fostered a renaissance of Burmese per-
forming styles, both popular and classical.
With silent films requiring constant live back-
ground music, ensembles began to compete with
one another to attract audiences to particular
movie theatres. Demonstrating ones improvisatory
skills through virtuosic display in instrumental
interludes became a prerequisite for sandaya (piano) and hsaing play-
ers leading their groups. The great sandaya, hsaing waing leaders, the
slide guitar and sang gauk players, all performers and composers of the
1930s, and onwards were able to create music that carried both the fla- music based on classical styles known as khi' haung with an accompany-
vor of the old Mahagita classical canon, but also introduced complex- ing lecture series by well-known writers on music.
ity and greater ingenuity in instrumental patterns, incorporating more As the Burmese generations born in the 1920s and 1930s pass on
range on their instruments. those who remember listening to some of these recordings as children,
As with instruments, vocal techniques from other cultures were the musicians among them even remembering meeting or working
imported and adapted to Bur- with some of the performing artists
mese singing styles. Popular a proverbial golden age of Burmese
movie stars would record hit musical intricacy that connected audi-
songs from movies, the sales of ences across generations will gradually
which would ensure a large audi- recede. However, the good news is that
ence. Often, both Burmese and some younger musicians are learning
Western styles would be mixed the music of the hsaing waing, learn-
in one song: verses in Burmese ing to sing songs from the Mahagita
style with refrains accompa- and khi haung song styles. Ensembles
nied by a Western harmonized around Burma are active at Pagoda fes-
vamp. As more western popular tivals, issuing DVDs, uploading their
styles were absorbed into the work to the Internet, playing for theatre
Burmese music of the 1940s and performances, and even collaborat-
onward,less melisma was incor- ing with popular musicians. Work on
porated into singing styles. archiving the thousands of recordings
In Burma, hand-cranked re- represented by this current selection
cord players were used into the has begun in Yangon (formerly Ran-
1970s, replaced by cassette machines which were more portable and goon), which will be accessible to younger Burmese and international
cheaper than long-playing record players.Studios at the Burma Broad- audiences online: for all who wish to soothe their ears and awaken to
casting Service in Rangoon (which became known as the Myanma Ra- history in a legacy of remarkable music and poetry. KY
dio and Television Service in the 1960s) broadcast Burmese classical and
57
 MALAYSIA, SINGAPORE & INDONESIA
Indonesia is part of island Southeast Asia, and Malaysia is both part
of island and mainland Southeast Asia, usually respectively called East
Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak, located on the island of Borneo) and
West Malaysia (the Malay Peninsula). There are approximately 245 mil-
lion people in Indonesia and 28 million in Malaysia. The majority in
both countries is Muslim, particularly in Indonesia where over 85per-
cent or about 208 million people follow Islam, making Indonesia the
country with the most Muslims in the world. Singapore, the city-state
in between Malaysia and Indonesia, is a secular state (with Buddhists,
Confucians, Muslims, Christians, and Hindus) and has about 5 million
people. In sharp contrast with Malaysia and especially with Indonesia,
Singapore is an economic powerhouse with one of the worlds highest
per capita GDP.
The majority of Indonesians and Malaysians are Malay peoples
speaking very similar Austronesian languages. Malay was the lingua
franca among the diverse types of Malays living in the archipelago (Ma-
laya, Borneo, Indonesian islands, Southern Philippines, and southern
Thailand). Songs recorded in Malay were popular among the Malays in
the archipelago. The Indonesian language was largely adopted in 1928
from the Malay language spoken in the ports in Java and Sumatra. To-
day, virtually all Indonesians speak Indonesian, though it is still nor-
mally a citizens second language. Indonesia is much more diverse than
Malaysia with some 300 ethnic groups spread over thousands of islands.
Malaysia is officially multiethnic and multicultural with a much higher
58
percentage population of Chinese and Indians than Indonesia. Singa- as a wedding gift of the royal family of Riau (Indonesia). The bamboo nent. During the 78 rpm era, Singapore was a major center of recording
pores majority people are Chinese descent with sizable Malay and In- flutes, suling, are found in both nations as is the rebab, a bowed lute pur- activity, with performers traveling from different parts of Malaya and
dian minorities; English heads the list of official languages, which also portedly of Arab or Persian origins, which has a particular importance the Malay archipelago to record, while in Indonesia, recordings were
includes Malay, Chinese, and Tamil. Both Indonesia and Malaysia have in the Malaysian mak yong and the Javanese and Sundanese gamelans. made in various Javanese cities. Most of the recordings available in this
indigenous peoples (orang asli) speaking distinct languages. Other shared traditions in- collection are either relics of history
Indonesia and Malaysia had different colonial masters: Indonesia clude the shadow puppet play, or are antecedents of the traditions
was colonized over stages by the Dutch, while Malaysia (and the area wayang kulit, an a cappella pop- we can still hear today.
of Singapore) was colonized by the British. Both nations were also oc- Islam style, nasyid (which began The Malaysian and particu-
cupied by other foreign powers: the British for Indonesia and the Portu- in Malaysia), Malay opera, Islam- larly the Indonesian governments
guese for Malaysia (Portugal also occupied areas of East Indonesia for ic music using the gambus (Malay have frequently tried to preserve
centuries). The distinct Dutch and British backgrounds further sepa- oud), martial arts (pencak silat), traditional performing arts, such
rated Indonesia and Malaysia in terms of politics, legal systems, devel- and certain Sufi traditions, zikir. as gamelan and wayang kulit, and
opment, and music. Malaysians also speak English much better than Both countries also have other teacher-training programs have
Indonesians. While Indonesia achieved independence from the Dutch theatrical traditions and masked sometimes been established to
soon after the end of World War II, the Federation of Malaya was de- dancing. In some states in Malay- transmit the arts. It is not only
clared as an independent federation of the Malay states in 1957 and the sia, religious groups have man- religious leaders that challenge
name Malaysia was adopted in 1963 when the existing states of the aged to ban pre-Islamic tradi- traditional arts, but also a new
Federation were joined by Singapore, North Borneo, and Sarawak. Sin- tional arts, such as wayang kulit, generation of media-savvy and
gapore left Malaysia to form its own nation in 1965. and such efforts are sometimes globally oriented youth who tend
Both Malaysia and Indonesia are considered gong cultures, with a attempted in Indonesia. The posi- to be drawn to globally circulat-
plethora of gongs used in music ensembles. The musics of Java and Bali in tion of women in public performance has come under scrutiny in both ing styles (e.g., reggae, metal) and new hybrid popular styles such as
Indonesia are characterized by gamelan ensembles, consisting of gongs, countries, though at the same time a number of traditions that used campursari (Javanese gamelan with Western instruments) and the In-
metallophones, gong-chimes, drums, and flutes in a variety of combina- only to be available to men are now also available to women. While both donesian megaphenomenon, dangdut (combining Indian film music,
tions. Smaller ensembles, often with fewer numbers of bronze or metal countries have a sizable Chinese minority, that in Malaysia has had a Western instruments and rock, Malay orchestra elements, and Arab ele-
instruments, are found throughout both countries. Gamelan traditions larger impact in the recording industry. In Singapore, Chinese influ- ments). Films and media, including MTV outlets, have been supporting
were seemingly first introduced to Malaysia in the early 19th century ence is much more pronounced and Chinese artists are more promi- most of the popular styles. DH
Singapore harbor, ca. 1920s (following pages)
59
60 61
 PART III
THE RECORDS

62 63
 DI SC A
VIETNAM LAOS CAMBODIA

64 65
 A1 V I E T N A M recordings most often consist of a type of aria called vng c (meaning
Tn Tn Gi in ca. 1946 longing for the past), a type of musical form that allows for much im-
Sun Bin Feigns Madness provisation. Vng c is the single most important musical work in 20th
Performed by t Tr n, voice century Vietnam.It evolved from a piece entitled D C Hoi Lang
Hu, guitar (Hearing the Night Drum I Think of My Husband) written by Cao
Thy (or Thy), violin Vn Lu (Su Lu) in the late 1910s (see track A3).D C Hoi Lang
A sia 16 5 8 -1 is relatively simple and brief, employing 20 musical phrases that are
each two measures in length (articulated by the song lang, a castanet
Asia was the first label run by a Vietnamese ownerNg Vn Mnh, a.k.a. played with the foot). Over the years, the phrases gradually doubled,
Thy Nm Mnh (ca. 19081957).He originally worked in his fathers bicycle the expansion providing greater distance between structural points in
and rickshaw repair business.In 1936 he bought some used and slightly the melody and allowed for more melodic elaboration.
out of date recording and pressing equipment from Path, then set to work t Tr n (19192001) is one of the greats of recorded ci lng
on learning to record.Asia was originally located at ng Danel, Bnh Ty and is often called the King of vng c (vua vng c).His actual name
(Ch Ln), then later moved to 324 Bn Hm T (the current location of the is Nguyn Thnh t t meaning "the last born child." He was the
X Nghip Bng T Si Gn Video Audio). Specializing in ci lng, the label youngest of 10 children in his family. He added the appellation Tr n,
primarily released records from 1936 or 1937 through the early 1950s. In the the name of the district in Cn Th province where he was born.He
early days, their recordings were apparently not as state-of-the-art in sound sang this version of Tn Tn Gi in (Sun Bin Feigns Madness)
quality as the foreign labels. Ng Vn Mnh is reputed to have gotten along early in his career and it was this work that cemented his reputation as
very well with the artists. Asia had a near monopoly on Vietnamese record- a performer and established Asia as a prestigious label. Asia came into
ings during the war and its immediate aftermath. JG existence as an indigenous label when the multinationals began to leave
the Vietnamese market at the outset of World War II.This record set is
The first decade of the 20th century saw the birth of a new style of supposed to have sold like hotcakes in 1947.
popular musical theatre in southern Vietnam that came to be known t Tr ns singing was especially admired for his technique and
as ci lng (meaning reformed theatre). Its popularity grew to such breath control, as well as the sweet sound of his voice.This work is a
an extent that by the 1940s ci lng was the main genre of Viet- tour de force for t Tr n where in this state of madness he sings the
namese music being recorded in the 78 rpm format. These ci lng melody, brings in folk songs, and recites verse.Tn Tn Gi in is

66 67
68 69
here presented in a 16 beat form (16 nhp), where the structural beats A2 C A M B O D I A
are spread allowing more melodic elaboration and variation.The first Phleng Boran 1930
and sixteenth beats are marked by a tapping of a song lang. Old Song
Tn Tn was a general of the Qi state that was allied with the Performed by Sak Som Peo Ensemble
Zhou state and is believed to have died in the year 316 BCE. He feigned Columbia GF 6 8 4, W LI-310
madness to avoid betraying his knowledge of military strategy and
to escape from the Wei. He was the author of Sun Bins Art of War, Little information has surfaced about this obscure series. Columbia recorded
which is sometimes conflated with Sun Tzus Art of War. the GF series in what was then Indochina, and pressed the records in France for
The ensemble is made up of guitar and violin.Both of these sale in both regions. The series included Vietnamese and Cambodian record-
Western instruments are played in an distinctly Vietnamese man- ings. Unfortunately, the series does not seem to include any Lao recordings.
ner. According to H Trng An, the violin was introduced to the
ci lng ensemble by Mi Cn in the late 1930s. In this music, the The traditional music of the Cambodian villages is strikingly differ-
guitar is known as a ghi-ta phm lm and is an acoustic Spanish guitar ent from the classical court tradition. Whether for weddings, spirit
with the space between frets dug out (or concave: lm) that allows ceremonies, repartee entertainment, or narrative singing, it empha-
the player to add microchromatic embellishments to fit a compositions sizes the use of stringed instruments, including one with a distinct
mode.This manner of modifying the guitar to play the ornaments of timbre, the khse diev, a chest-resonated monochord, unfortunately not
Vietnamese traditional music is said to have been invented in the 1920s heard in this collection and likely not recorded during the 78 rpm era.
by a music master named Su Tin from Rch Gia, a city located on the Both classical and village traditions suffered grievous losses during the
Gulf of Siam near the Cambodian border. JG Khmer Rouge period but both have rebuilt. Interestingly, much village
music is now played by those known as land-mine musicians. The
long period of warfare involving different factions within Cambodia,
the Vietnamese, Thai, and Americans resulted in Cambodia being
thoroughly sewn with land mines, which continue to kill and maim
people to this day. Some of these victims now play village music at the
various temples at Angkor to attract donations from tourists. The piece is simply titled Phleng Boran, meaning Old Song, and is
70
A3 V I E T N A M
X Ti Bng Qu Phi, Th Nh 1924
Sentencing Precious Consort Pang, Part 2
Performed by Vn H Ban with the Vn H Ban Troupe
V ic tor 4 3 419 -A
The American record company Victor was based in Camden, New Jersey, and
was not a big player in the Southeast Asian record market. Although they had
an affiliated headquarters in Shanghai that made many recordings of Chinese
opera and popular music, and could have easily mounted recording trips to
Southeast Asia, Victors first foray into the region was lead by two American
recordists, William Linderman and Fred Elsasser. The team left the Port of San
Francisco on June 24, 1924, bound for Shanghai, Teintsen, Peking, Hong Kong,
Canton, and French Indochina. Although there is little information about their
recording trip, some recently discovered archival evidence shows that they
made this record, and others, in Saigon in December of 1924. The following
month they made recordings of Cambodian music (likely in Vietnam) before
eventually arriving in Tonkin, in Northern Vietnam, in February. They returned
to San Francisco on June 10th, 1925, almost a year after their departure from
the same port. Oddly, the recordings they made were released in Victors well-
known series of Chinese opera recordings, yet turn up very rarely.
This recording features a village string ensemble. The instruments
include vertical bamboo flute (khloy), three-stringed fiddle (tro khmer), This disc excerpts the same play about Precious Consort Pang as track
a two-stringed fiddle (tro ek or tro u), small cymbals (ching), and singer. A12. However this recording is of ci lng instead of ht b theatre. It
also is an early recording of the aria known as vng c.The melody is
likely from the phleng kar category, songs sung at weddings. TM D C Hoi Lang (Hearing the Night Drum I Think of My Hus-
71
72 73
band) written by Cao Vn Lu (Su Lu) in the late 1910s. Cao Vn Lu
was born in 1892 in Long An province but grew up and lived in Bc Liu
province.He loved ti t (talented amateur) music from his youth and
later became a musician in a local ci lng troupe.
The original lyrics of D C Hoi Lang are based on a poem by
Nguyt Chiu with a theme similar to the famed Vietnamese novel
in verse Chinh Ph Ngm Khc (Lament of a Soldiers Wife). It is
thought that Cao Vn Lus words also reflect the separation from his
wife that his parents mandated when she proved unable to bear children.
This melody, separated from the lyrics, became the basis for the
aria Vng C Hoi Lang (Remembering Things Past Thinking of My
Husband) that is sung on this record side.This is probably one of the
earliest recordings of any form of vng c.The lyrics from Precious
Consort Pang follow the form and melody of D C Hoi Lang.
According to the discs label, the performers are a quartet Anna-
mite.Annam (meaning pacified South) was a generic name that the
French gave to the three regions of Vietnam that they controlled.How-
ever, a 1926 Victor Catalog lists the performers as belonging to the
Vn H Ban Troupe.The Vn H Ban Troupe, based in Ch Ln, was
managed by Hunh Kim Vui.They presented some of the best staged
performances of the early 1920s.
The recording opens with recited dialog, with the melody starting
at the 0:55 second mark.The vng c melody concludes at 2:35 and is
followed by more recited dialog.The work consists of 20 measures that
accelerate slightly.Although it is sometimes difficult to hear, the song
lang foot castanet punctuates the end of many of the measures. JG

Dan tranh player

74 75
 A4 V I E T N A M that was created by Nguyn nh Nghi in the 1910s or 1920s. o Nh
T Cnh C u Thua Bc 1927 was the star actress of his troupe.
Describing the Scene of a Songstress Losing at Gambling Ci lng in Vietnamese means "renovate" or "reform," so cho ci
Performed by o Nh (actress Nh) lng refers to renovated cho.Confusion arises because the predomi-
V ic tor 4 0 0 2 7-A-1 nant musical theatre genre of the south became known as ci lng
(or renovated theater), and it is this meaning of the word that is most
It seems that Victor made only two recording tours of Indochina, the first in common today. Cho is a form of musical theatre thought to have
1924/25 (see track A3), and the second made 2 years later. While we know that originated in the 18th century in rural northern Vietnam. The subject
the first expedition was led by two recordists from America, the second record- matter often pokes fun at societal mores.
ing team remains anonymous. Victor kept what they called history cards Nguyn nh Ngh was born in 1883 in Thu Li village, Tin L
for all of their issued discs. These handwritten index cards included detailed district of Hng Yn province (about 80 miles southwest of H Ni)
information taken by the engineer at the time of the recording session. While the and died in 1954 in H Ni.In originating cho ci lng he expanded
cards for the second expedition do not include the names of the recordists, the the musical ensemble (traditionally often only two musicians playing
dates of each recording allow us to reconstruct the itinerary. They reveal that the two-string fiddle called n nh and various percussion) and incor-
114 sides were recorded, using recently developed electrical recording equip- porated melodies from outside of traditional cho.He also wrote plays
ment, in the fall of 1927 and released in 1928 and 1929 in a series numbered that incorporated current social themes.He was especially famous for
40000-40113. Based on the performers names, song titles, and recording dates, his comedic performances known as Trn Ci or laugh attacks.
it appears that the team began recording in Hanoi, in northern Vietnam, on This excerpt is entitled T Cnh C u Thua Bc (Describing
September 8, 1927. From there they traveled south to Hue, in Vietnams central the Scene of Songstress Losing at Gambling). The songstress, or c
region, and began recording on October 3. The final recording sessions took u, would be a performer of ca tr or ht oa geisha-like enter-
place in Saigon from October 29 to November 11. tainment where cultivated poetry is recited according to melodic rules
to the accompaniment of the n y (plucked lute with three strings)
The troupe in this recording was based at the Rp Ci lng H vin and a praise drum performed by an audience member.See tracks A22
H Ni. This theatre still stands at the intersection of Hng Bc (Silver and B2 for examples of this musical form. JG
Street) and Ph T Hin and is today called the Rp Chung Vng (The
Golden Bell Theatre). Its an example of a form called cho ci lng

Victor catalog pages

76 77
78 79
 A5 C A M B O D I A
Thawai Phaka Thi 1930
Offering Flowers to a Monk
Recited by Lad Un
Columbia GF 6 9 3, W LI-3 3 2
This recording is from a genre of solo song unknown in the literature
today. This song of offering is sung by a former high-ranking monk
(khruba) named Lad Un in Phnom Penh, listed as a krou balad or
deputy teacher. The Khmer language is only minimally tonal, and
consequently Khmer vocal music tends to be plainer than that of tonal
language singers, such as Lao, Thai, and Vietnam. TM
A6 L AO S
Nang Nak 1927
Lady Snake
Performed by the Ensemble of the Governor of Vientiane
V ic tor 4 0 0 71-A
The recordings made during the Victor expedition detailed in track A4 are
mostly of Vietnamese music, but 36 of the 114 sides contain what appear to
be the earliest known recordings of Lao music. What isnt detailed on Victors
history cards is where the Lao recordings were made. The cards indicate that
Vietnamese recordings were made in Hue on October 3, 1927, and then nothing
until the 36 Lao recordings were made on October 12. Could the recording team
80
have been waiting for the Lao musicians to arrive in Hue? Searches of Vietnam-
ese newspapers from the time do not mention any sort of festivals that visiting
musicians might have attended. Its unlikely that Lao musicians would have
been invited to such a festival anyway, Lao music was very much looked down
upon by the Vietnamese at that time.
The possibility that the team traveled to Laos seems even more unlikely.
Laos is extremely remote and undeveloped, even today. The journey into Laos
would have been arduous and difficult to make in the nine days between ses-
sions, involving hauling heavy equipment and blank discs across the Annamite
Cordillera mountain range and the rice fields of south central Laos. To continue
on to Saigon would have required maneuvering around unnavigable rapids and
waterfalls on the Mekong River at Khong. During much of the year, the weather is
hot and humid and travelers at that time risked contracting a variety of diseases,
especially malaria and cholera. The question of where the recording sessions oc-
curred remains a mystery.
Eleven sides from the Lao series are included in this collection.
This composition, of Thai origin, is Nang Nak, but only the first of
two sections was recorded. Nang translates as Lady and Nak is the
Lao pronunciation of the Indic word naga, the mythological snake
deity of Hinduism. In spite of these allusions, the composition has
nothing to do with religious ritual. The ensemble mixes classical in-
struments with the Lao khene, a practice peculiar to Laos. The classical
instruments include bamboo flute (khui), fiddle (so i), small cymbals
(sing) and xylophone (lanat ek). TM
81
 A7 L AO S
Khaek Mon 1927
Performed by the Ensemble of the Governor of Vientiane
V ic tor 4 0 0 71-B
Everything regarding the previous track applies here except that the work
is an excerpt from a much longer piece entitled Khaek Mon, given on
the label in French as La Malaisienne (The Malaysian). The Thai/Lao
classical repertory includes a number of compositions whose titles begin
with Khaek Mon but are completed with more words, e.g., Khaek Mon
Bang Khun Phrom. The composition performed here (in part), however,
is simply an independent composition called Khaek Mon whose title
has no translation. Khaek refers generally to Muslim people and could
allude to Muslims in southern Thailand, in Malaysia, from India, or even
the Middle East including Persia. Mon refers to the original people, civili-
zation, and language of Burma, a people who now occupy the Mon State
in Burma, areas of western Thailand, and pockets elsewhere in Thailand.
The terms also refer to specific scales or modes in Thai music. The
khaek mode (thang khaek) is normally notated as G-A-B-D-E-F#-G (with
the understanding that F# represents a tone halfway between E and G,
lower than F# and higher than F) while the mon mode (thang mon) is
written as Bb-C-D-F-G-A-Bb. Compositions in khaek mon mode con-
stantly switch between these two scales, as is true of this performance.
This excerpt comes from a later part of the composition, not near the
beginning, but since sing (small cymbals) cannot be heard, it is difficult
to know exactly where. TM
82
A8 V I E T N A M
Nam Nh-T  ca. 1930
A Great Man
Performed by Nguyn Vn Minh, tc Minh-Con
(a.k.a Minh, Junior)
Columbia GF 52 9, W LI- 57
If one sound had to be chosen to evoke Vietnam, for many it would
be the sound of the n bu, also known as the nc huyn (mean-
ing single-string instrument). The word bu means gourd and refers
to the dried gourd fastened to the handle, surrounding the string
at the point where it connects to the handle. In the past this gourd
may have served as a resonator, but today it survives as a decorative
feature.
The n bu is played exclusively with harmonics that are pro-
duced at nodes at 1/2, 1/3, l/4, 1/5, and 1/6 the length of the string.
A small bamboo plectrum held in the right hand plucks the string
while the lower side of the hand stops the string at the appropriate
node. The left hand moves the handle to bend the pitch downward
by moving in the direction of the instrument, or upward by pushing
the handle away from the instrument. The pitch can bend as much
as a fourth or fifth in either direction. The left hand also produces a
variety of vibratos, glissandi, and grace notes. The instruments vir-
tuosity and expressiveness are to be found in its left hand technique,
which should have a subtlety that mimics the sound of the Vietnam-
ese singing voice or declaimed poetry.
n bu player, left
83
 Traditionally, however, the n bu was looked down upon and A9 L AO S
was kept out of court ensembles. The Vietnamese also have a saying Gap Pa Pheng 1927
Lm thn con gi ch nghe n bu (If youre a girl you shouldnt lis- Chanting with Song
ten to the n bu) because of the instruments melancholy tone.Tra- Performed by Molam Som
ditionally the n bu was played by itinerant blind musicians (ht V ic tor 4 0 0 2 5 -A-1
xm) but it was also incorporated intoVietnamese chamber music,
known as music of talented amateurs (nhc ti t).More recently it The most typical form of repartee singing among the Lao (both in Laos
also takes part in the ensembles of cho and ci lng. and Northeast Thailand) is called lam in southern Laos and Thailand,
According to musician and scholar Bi Trng Hin, the musician and khap in central and northern Laos. A person who is skilled at sing-
heard here is either a very talented ht xm performer, or possibly a ing is a molam, but the term is also used to refer to the genre generally.
performer of Hu styled chamber music. In any case, the music is the The male singer, Molam Nai (Mr.) Som, is accompanied on a 14 tube
Nam, or southern style, in the manner of a Hu musician. khene chet free-reed mouth organ by an unnamed musician, and the
The title on the records label is probably a misprint instead of notes imply it was performed at Muang Khong, the area of dramatic
Nam Nh-T it should read Nam Nhi T which translates as A rapids and falls in the Mekong River in the southern Lao province of
Great Man. Siphandone, meaning four thousand islands.
The sticker affixed to the record label reads bn my a ht v The first side of this record, heard here, uses poetry that describes
sa cha / Phc, 92 Hng Bng. It advertises the Phc store on nature, warning that by going into the woods one comes into danger
Hng Bng street in Hanois old quarter that sells phonographs and from many wild animals, in crossing the river to see the magic tree
makes repairs. JG (mai manikhot). The second side of the record (not included here) con-
tinues with the same poetry, describing the fruit on the trees, saying
whoever eats that fruit will become younger and that few gain access
to that fruit. He sings that even hearing the beautiful natural sounds of
nature cannot substitute for his beloved.
Musically, the style heard is known as lam som, an archaic style
that seems to have preceded that which is heard now, called lam siph-
andone. Although it is usual for the singer to begin with introductory

84 85
86 87
poetry in a non-metrical delivery, here the singer goes right into the
main poem, which is sung in meter. The introduction was most likely
omitted in order for the poem to fit the duration of the record. The
body of the poem follows a scale pattern that can be expressed as A-C-
D-E-G, but at cadence points the mode changes to A-B-D-E, finally
descending from B to the tonic A. TM
A10 V I E T N A M
Khng Minh/Mu Tm T  ca. 1929
Kong Minh, Mother Searches for Her Child
Performed by Van Thanh Ban (or Vn Thnh Ban)
Beka 2 013 7 I, 9 2 310
Although the German label Beka recorded in China, Burma, Siam, Singapore
and the Dutch East Indies beginning in 1905, it wasnt until the late 1920s that
they released Indochinese recordings. The recording engineer Heinrich Lampe
made this recording on a trip that included China, the Dutch East Indies, as well
as Indochina. A small symbol engraved in the dead wax," the area between the
label and the grooves, indicates that this record was made using Lindstroems
own electrical recording process, implemented in Berlin just a year earlier, in
1928, making this one of the first uses of that system in the field. Like Siegfried
Frenz for Odeon, Lampe also made historic Balinese recordings for Beka in 1928.
Although both Odeon and Beka were controlled by Lindstroem, they still acted
autonomously, sending separate teams to Bali.
88
This is instrumental ci lng mu- instruments in other East Asian countries.Many works in the nhc ti
sic in the Guangdong Chinese t repertoire were drawn from Chinese melodies and were Vietnam-
or h style.It is performed in ized in their manner of performance.
the qung mode, a pentaton- Interestingly, the label of this disc has the words An-Lo-Man,
ic scale thought to be joyful a phonetic representation in Vietnamese letters of Allemande, the
in affect.The instrumental French word for German.Beka, of course, was a German label. JG
ensemble consists of a n
nguyt (a two-stringed
moon-shaped lute with A11 V I E T N A M
raised frets), a n nh (two- n Vng C (6 cu)Km c Chic late 1950s
stringed fiddle related to the Playing Vng C (6 measures)solo n km
erhu) and a bamboo flute (a so or Performed by Nm C
maybe a ch). There is a bell playing L amS on 13 7-1
that is perhaps a penglinga pair of finger
cymbals connected by a string. Lam Son was one of the many postwar Vietnamese labels based in Saigon that
Khng Minh (181-234), whose real name was Zhuge Liang, was a focused on cai luong. These small independent record labels throughout South-
chancellor during the Shu Han dynasty known as a legendary strate- east Asia continued to issue 78 rpm records in the 1960s.
gist.On this side, the melody Khng Minh is coupled with another
composition entitled MuTm T, or A Mother Searches for Her Nm C, whose real name was Dng Vn C, was born to a very
Child. poor family in 1919 in the village of Lc Thch in Tr Vinh province.
Ci lng in the h qung style flourished in areas like the Ch He learned music from the Chaozhou Chinese in this region who Throughout his career he was active with theatrical troupes, on
Ln district of Saigon, as well as many towns and cities of the Me- appreciated his precocious talent and gave him chances to learn and the radio and in the recording studio. In 1946 he moved to Saigon to
kong delta area, which had a considerable Chinese population, many perform traditional ensemble music.He practiced music while tending perform with a ci lng troupe.From 1950, he was a musician for
of whom often formed the affluent merchant class.The influence of water buffalo in the fields.Listening to vng c recordings by C Nm traditional music performances on Radio France-Asie and later in
Chinese music upon Vietnamese traditional music has been lasting Cn Th and C Ba Bn Tre in the late 1930s inspired him to take up the 1960s for many groups on Radio Saigon.He was also a musi-
and profound.Most of Vietnams string instruments correspond to the moon-shaped lute (n km or n nguyt). cian with the Hoa Sen and Kim Chung ci lng troupes.
89
 He might also be considered something of a session musician
who regularly recorded with several labels.He was dubbed one of
the The Three Foremost Musicians of Saigon (Ba nht danh
cm Si Gn) along with his close friends By B (who uses the
name Vin Chu when composing ci lng and vng c) and
Vn V.The three of them, in various combination and on inter-
changing instruments, were prolific recording artists.Nam C
died January 24, 1980, in Saigon.
Part of the success of vng c had to be due to the fact that
it was tailor-made for the 78 rpm and later the 45 rpm record-
ing.Contemporary vng c typically lasts around 6 minutes or
a little longer and has a neat structural break half way through,
allowing it to be recorded on the two sides of a disc.
Below is a time chart mapping out the three phrases through Nam C
their duration on this recording.Each timing represents the clap-
ping of the song lang and the articulation into phrases that results. In a 1963 interview Nam C said that traditional music at its best
It sounds approximately three quarters through the phrase and did not stick too closely to a fixed framework and allowed for inspira-
at the start of a new phrase.The duration between each sound of the tion.His recording of the vng c form shows him working within a
clapper is shown in parentheses and demonstrates the approximately pentatonic tonal realm, yet, through rhythmic variety, different types
three to one ratio between segments, except in the case of the opening of articulation and ornamentation, weaving a fascinating melodic
phrase, which is shortened by the introduction. web.In the interview, he also noted that when he made records he of-
ten played with a slightly heavier touch because the technology did not
introduction0:00-0:21 (21) always pick up softer subtleties. JG
phrase 1 0:21-0:48-1:03 (27 seconds + 15 seconds)
phrase 21:03-1:47-2:02 (44 + 14)
phrase 32:02-2:42-2:56 (40 + 14)

90 91
 A12 V I E T N A M
X Ti Bng Qu Phi 1928
Sentencing Precious Consort Pang (Part 6)
Performed by Ni Giam with the bn ht Vn H Ban
Odeon 157.0 61, 111

This is part of a Chinese tale also found in Chinese opera as part of the
Judge Bao stories (in Vietnamese he is known as Bao Cng).They are
set during the Song dynasty reign of emperor Renzong.Consort Pang
was the daughter of Pang Heng (Vietnamese: Bng Hng) who was
one of the Kings ministers and one of Judge Baos chief rivals.She was
evidently involved in her fathers conspiracy against the king and was
tried and executed for her crimes. These stories, though based upon
historic characters, are fictional.
Ht b, also called ht bi or ht tung, is the Vietnamese equiva-
lent of Chinese opera.This form was adopted by the Vietnamese court
and also incorporated Chinese historical figures often as a way to extol
moral and virtuous actors in history.This classical theatre developed
very strongly during the Nguyn dynasty of the 19th and early 20th
centuries, but it began to wane with the popularity of ci lng.
Ht khch refers to the khch mode, one of the northern or Chi-
nese modes.This system of modes is thought to be vigorous and happy
in affect, though if it is sad (like this work), its a strong sadness.
Although there is no artist information on the label, an Odon re-
cord catalog from 1928 states that the record is performed by Ni Giam
with the bn ht Vn H Ban. JG

92 93
94 95
A13 C A M B O D I A
Thong Yon/Phleng Barang/
Rueang Khun Chang Khun Phaen ca. 1929
Performed by Mr. Salat
Odeon 1575 3 4B, Tub 2 9 4
The important engineer Siegfried Frenz recorded this during an expedition that
lasted 4 years. Beginning in 1928, he made the first ever recordings of Balinese
gamelan (see tracks D6, D15), which were released in small numbers on the
Odeon label. His travels also included Africa, India, and Indochina, where this
recording was made.
Brass bands came to Southeast Asia during the 19th century with both
military and diplomatic delegations from Europe and the United States
and were copied by both Thai and Khmer. Heres a Khmer female
vocalist with a Western brass band. According to the label, there are
three songs: 1) Thong Yon, a Thai composition going back to the
Ayuthaya period (13501767), 2) Phleng Barang, a Western melody
composed by the King of Cambodia, and 3) Rueang Khun Chang
Khun Phaen, from the story of Mr. Chang and Mr. Phaen, disc 2. The
label refers to the singer as Mr. Salat, but she is clearly female. TM
A14 L AO S
Khap Salang 1927
Salang singing
Performed by Suphantha-amat and Pheng Bing
V ic tor 4 0 0 2 3 -B
Luang Phrabang was the royal capital of Laos, as opposed to the ad-
ministrative capital in Vientiane, until the abdication of King Sisavang
Vattana in 1975, the result of the victory of the communist Pathet Lao
over the royalist government. Located along the upper Mekong River
in central northern Laos, the court supported a variety of classical mu-
sic and dance drama, all comparable to the other great court traditions
of the area, namely Thailand and
Cambodia. Certain of the court
traditions have been revived
in recent years, mainly for
tourists.
Luang Phrabang
also retains several
styles of folk repartee
singing, most accompa-
nied by a small clas-
sical ensemble, with a
small chorus of onlookers
providing choral interludes.
Among the many local styles
from around Laos, those in the north use the word khap for singing
while those in the south use lam.
This track is a continuation of Khap Lot Khai Long Khon, the
first side of this record (not presented here). The title means Singing
while going through the khai rushes, khai rushes being a plant that
grows in the Mekong River, and it is described on the label as wat
Luang Phrabang, meaning Luang Phrabang style. The singer, named
Suphantha-amat, is accompanied by a single so u, a two-string fiddle
with a coconut body.
This second part of the song is given the title Khap Salang,
which denotes the typical repartee singing performed today in Luang
Phrabang. A fuller term for the genre is khap salang sam sao, mean-
ing salang in three tempos. The third section of a complete cycle is
known specifically as khap thum, thum referring to the evening period,
from 7 pm to midnight, in the old court time system still generally
used today.
The poetry says, Oh, you are from within the palace and you are
beautiful. Probably courting poetry, the words describe the scenes, the
rushes, and going down to the waterfalls. As is normal to this day, the
music uses a five-note (pentatonic) mode, C-D-E-G-A, with C as the
tonic pitch. TM

96 97
A15 V I E T N A M
Vn B T 1931
Literature of the 4th Lady
Performed by B C Chung
Beka 2 0 3 6 0 -2 , 12 0 0 3 3

There are few details about the engineers who made 78 rpm recordings around
the world. Luckily, both Beka and Odeon engineers initialed their recordings in
the dead wax, and researchers have painstakingly correlated their initials with
matrix and catalog numbers to create a picture of their movements. The initials
on this record are that of Paul Thulcke, and while little is known about him
personally, he appears to have been the recordist responsible for this excellent
series of Vietnamese and Cambodian recordings made in the early 1930s (see
tracks A22, B2, and B16).

This is an example of ht chu vn, a form of spirit mediumship music

from northern Vietnam.Known for its bright sound and lively tempos,
ethnomusicologist Barley Norton has described this musical form as
vibrant earthy music with popular appeal. When a medium experi-
ences possession she (and sometimes he) will manifest the spirit of a
succession of spirits who all have their own characteristics and person-
alities.In this recording the medium is representing the 4th lady of the
temples pantheon.
Ht chu vn and spirit mediumship has historically had its stron-
gest presence in the Nam nh region, but was ubiquitous throughout
the north of Vietnam.This form of ritual practice incorporates aspects
of Daoism, Confucianism and Buddhism and is often associated with
fortune telling. The ensemble consists of a n nguyt player and two
percussionists playing bamboo clappers (phch), small cymbal (cnh)
and a small barrel-shaped drum with two heads (trng ci).
B C ChungMrs. Eldest Chungis listed as the singer and is
also the medium. All we know of her is that she lived in H Ni. The
other musicians are unattributed. JG

98 99
 A16 L AO S A17 L AO S
Nang Khluan 1927 Lom Phat Sai Khao 1927
Mourning Lady The Wind Blows Through the Mountains
Performed by Nang Salit and Nang Nak, singers, Performed by Nang Salit and Nang Nak, singers,
with the Ensemble of the Governor of Vientiane with the Ensemble of the Governor of Vientiane
V ic tor 4 0 0 2 4 -A-1 V ic tor 4 0 0 2 4 -B-2

Two female singers, Nang Salit and Nang Nak, perform the Thai/Lao Everything from the notes regarding Lao classical music from the
classical composition Nang Khluan (Nang Khruan in Thai) accom- previous track applies, except that the composition is Lom Phat Sai
panied by three instruments, lanat (xylophone with 21 bars), khawng Khao, also a Thai composition. TM
vong (gong circle, 17 bronze gongs mounted horizontally on a rattan
frame), and sing (small bronze cymbals). This minimal ensemble was
provided by the governor of Vientiane, but it is incomplete, lacking an
aerophone or drums. The instruments are in poor tune, especially the
gong circle. The idiom is from the Thai classical tradition but played
simply in sam san (Thai, sam chan), the slowest of the three tempo
levels as indicated in the cymbal pattern. Although some Lao wish
to claim Lao classical music as independent of Thailand, the Lao play
compositions by known Thai composers in the Thai idiom. It is known
that many Lao classical musicians had been sent earlier to Bangkok to
study, and, at least later, some Thai teachers were sent to Laos to teach.
The relationship between Lao style and Thai style, and the matter of the
compositions played, is a contentious one between Thai and Lao be-
cause of long-standing negative feelings stemming from, among other
things, the fact that the Thai king, Rama III, invaded and destroyed
Vientiane and carried off most of the population in 1828. TM

100 101
102 103
A18 V I E T N A M A19 V I E T N A M
T i Cnh/Kim Tin 1927 Hi Tri CaoXng X 1940
Four Great Landscapes/Gold Coins Hail Heavens HighXng X
Performed by M Dinh and M Dung Performed by C Nm Cn Th
V ic tor 4 0 0 2 8 -A Beka 2 0 7 8 6, 12 0.8 9 7

Ca Hu is the sung chamber music of Hu and is closely related to C Nm Cn Th (literally fifth aunt from Cn Th)whose real
nhc ti t (music of talented amateurs). There is speculation that Hu name is Trng Th Trcwas born in 1916 in the small city of Cn
music and music of the central region has been influenced by the music Th, in the Mekong Delta.She died in 2007 in Saigon.While she
of the Chm.The Chm kingdom flourished between the 7th and performed ci lng music she was not known as a stage actress.She
15th centuries in the central region of Vietnam.The Chm continue attained fame as a radio performer and for her recordings on the Beka
to live in Vietnam and Cambodia to this day.Of Malayo-Polynesian record label.She performed on Wednesday and Saturday nights for
descent, although they were originally followers of the Hindu religion, many years on French Radio Saigon that later became Radio France-
the majority follow Islam today.Chm music uses scales similar to the Asie (i Php ). C Nm Cn Th was known as the nightingale of
equal-tempered seven tone scales of Thailand. traditional music (chim ho mi c nhc) and the songwriter L Thng
In function, ca Hu is similar to ht o of the northit is an is said to have remarked that her voice was like wind rustling in bam-
entertainment combining poetry and music where women sing for boo branches (ting gi lao xao cnh trc).
mens entertainment.It is the vocal side of n Hu, Hu chamber Xng X is one of the Seven Grand Pieces (By bi ln) also
music.Often the musicians entertained men on the boats upon the known as the Seven Ritual Pieces (Nhac l). It is performed in the h or
Perfume River (Sng Hng). The poetry composed to these melodies nhc mode, considered to be a variant on northern or Chinese modes,
invokes an idealized friendship. which are conventional anhemitonic pentatonic scales (five note scales C Nm Cn Th
This side features two popular works of the ca Hu / nhc ti t with no semitones).The title comes from the names of two pitches of
repertoire.T i Cnh is a composition in the Nam or southern the mode named xng and x. This piece is thought to be both ma- work intended for a record or for broadcast.
mode. Kim Tin is in the Khch or northern (or Hakka) mode.The jestic and gentle, but often expresses some sadness or grievance.While C Nm Cn Ths performance is accompanied by the two-string
singing is accompanied by unattributed so (wooden flute), n nh C Nam Cn Th was a performer of music from the ci lng reper- moon shaped lute (n nguyt called n km in the south) and the two-
(two-string fiddle), and n nguyt (moon-shaped lute) players. JG toire, this piece is more like a concert ariaa self-contained dramatic string fiddle (n nh sometimes called the n c in the south). JG

104 105
A20 L AO S
Khap Thum Lao 1927
Khap thum repartee singing
Performed by Phuma and Pheng Bing
V ic tor 4 0 0 70 -B
The best known musical style from Luang Phrabang is khap thum,
khap meaning to sing and thum referring to the period of evening
from 7 pm to midnight. In todays performances, the male and female
singers are accompanied by a small classical ensemble, usually bowed
strings (so i and so u), dulcimer (khim), flute (khui), and small percus-
sion (sing cymbals and kong drum). But in this recording, only one
instrument is used, the so u, a two-stringed fiddle with a coconut
body. Each singers section is followed by a chorus of onlookers. The
performers are the same as in track B17, though the chorus has a more
prominent role, especially at the tracks end. The words are hard to
decipher but suggest courtship, including the phrase I will never for-
get you. As is true to this day, the music uses a five-note (pentatonic)
mode, C-D-E G-A, with C as the tonic pitch. TM
106
A21 C A M B O D I A
Teb Bantom early 1930s
The Sleeping Angel
Performed by Uncredited Pinpeat Ensemble
Beka B2 0 5 8 6 -1
Max Birckhahn was born in 1881 in Berlin. Both he and his older brother, Otto,
began as recording engineers for the Favorite label. Although original Favorite
documents no longer exist, researcher Hugo Strtbaum has discovered what
appears to be a series of recordings made by Max Birckhahn in China and Siam
in 1910. Favorite was folded into the Lindstroem group in 1913, but the Birckhahn
brothers continued to record for Lindstroems Odeon (see track D2) and Beka
labels. Birckhahn likely made this recording in Siam in the early 1930s.
Although someone marked dagger dance on the record label, this
is a long entertainment piece that means The Sleeping Angel and is
normally played by a mohori ensemble. Here a nonstandard ensemble
uses soft mallets for playing both xylophones (roneat ek and roneat
thom), the gong circle (kong thom), along with small cymbals (chhing)
but without a drum.
The roneat ek has 21 bamboo or hardwood bars and is played in
octaves. The larger roneat thom has only 16 bars and generally plays
counter to the roneat ek. Its been suggested that metallophones of this
sort were modeled on the Javanese saron and gender. TM
Max Birckhahn in Siam, 1932
107
A22 V I E T N A M
Gi Th 1931
Sending a Letter
Performed by C Ba Thnh
Beka 2 0.3 8 0, 12 0 0 7 8
What Vietnamese today call ca tr was often called ht o in the
first half of the 20th century. Ca tr literally means singing with
cards, the cards being bamboo tokens given to performers as praise
and payment. Ht o means singing of songstresses, o being
the term for the singers, who are always women.This genre is made up
of poetry written in forms that are meant to be sung to the accompani-
ment of the n y (a three-string lute unique to Vietnam), phch (a
bamboo block performed by the singer with two small wooden sticks),
and the trng chu (a praise drum performed by a listener).
The history of ca tr is rather murky but the art appears to have
its origins in the court, which used it in ceremonies and festivals. It
became a music of the regional aristocracy, performed for both kings
and mandarins, and was organized according to a guild system.By the
19th century it had moved away from the court and into the private
homes of mandarins: scholar/bureaucrats following the Chinese mod-
el. This style became known as ht chi or singing for entertainment
and became the predominant venue for the art.It fostered a style of
verse that was individualistic, sometimes expressing discontent with
the existing political order; it contained a germ of liberal, independent
thought running contrary to Confucianism.
108
Stephen Addiss has sketched the creative context of ht o: A
literatus, for example, might write a verse and dedicate it to a col-
league. Instead of simply giving the poem to his friend, he could take
it first to a singer. She would scan it for its form and note the tones of
each word, and then accompany the poet to his friends house with a
n y player. The friend would strike the small drum in such a way
that he could rhythmically comment on the poem. The drum part
added to the musical totality making the friend both performer and
critic.
There is no information about the author of this poem on the
recording.The poem is sung with a great deal of ornamentation and
padding syllables, making it difficult to understand. It is nevertheless
extensively alliterative, using wordplay heavily and featuring the start-
ing consonant t. The title Gi Th is actually the title of the form
and suggests a literary style like a composed letter.
At the time of this recording, ht o/ca tr was strongly as-
sociated with Khm Thin Street (noted on the label).This was the
primary entertainment district for Vietnamese (not French) residents
of 1920s1940s H Ni, sort of like a Bourbon Street.It was known for
dance halls, restaurants, brothels, but especially nh c ohouses of
songstresses. JG
109
110 111
112 113
 DI SC B
THAILAND CAMBODIA LAOS VIETNAM

114 115
 B1 C A M B O D I A B2 V I E T N A M
Phleng Boran 1930 Ht Mu V Ht Ni ca. 1930
Old Song Sung Prelude and Sung Speech
Performed by the Sak Som Peo Ensemble Performed by Mme. Ba Thinh
Columbia GF 6 8 4, W LI-311 Odeon 157.7 6 0, T UB 8 6 0

This is the same village string ensemble heard in track A2, but without
the vertical bamboo flute (khloy). As with track A2, the title is Phleng
Boran (Old Song") and is likely a wedding song (phleng kar). TM
This example of ht o shares the same singer as Gi Th (track
A22).On this track, she sings an unexceptional and unattributed poem
about the poets excitement at drinking tea and listening to the fine
singing of young ladies.
The mu form is an introductory poem that is composed of two
or four couplets of six and eight syllables.Mu is mispronunciation of
Chinese (mo), meaning face, and has a function of a heading for
the subsequent words. Its character is slow and relaxed, as it prepares
for the ht ni, literally meaning spoken singing, a part of the poem
where the poet expresses his innermost feelings in rhyme.
Ht o employs a uniquely Vietnamese string instrument, the
n y. The n y can be from 3 1/2 to 4 feet in length. Tradition-
ally, it has three strings tuned at a fifth and octave, and 11 deep frets
to allow for vibrato and ornamentation. A listener plays the praise
drum (trng chu). The drummer is thought to be an aesthete rather
than a musician. His strokes (traditionally ht o was an entertain-
ment for men only) both articulate the form and praise or criticize the
performers. JG

116 117
 B3 T H A I L A N D includes only the beginning section (the third tempo level). Con-
Khaek Lopburi 1907 trary to the label, which says it is a xylophone solo, the work is per-
Lopburi (In Malay Accent) formed by a small piphat ensemble, likely of five musicians playing
Performed by Uncredited Ensemble ranat ek (xylophone), khawng wong yai (gong circle), pi (quadruple
Beka 2 5 0 2 5 reed), taphon (horizontal drum), and ching (small bronze cymbals).
The first word in the title, Khaek, indicates the works samniang
This recording was made during Bekas second expedition, in 1907. A third trip or ethnic character. The Thai repertory includes a great many works
was made in 1909 and soon after they were folded into the Carl Lindstroem whose titles begin with such a word, including Lao (Lao), Jin (Chinese),
group of labels. Single-sided records like this were phased out Khamen (Khmer/Cambodian), etc. Each term references a
in Europe by 1906, but were still used in Asia for several certain mode/scale, a particular drum pattern, and
more years. in some cases, particular instruments associated
with the culture. Khaek vaguely references
Khaek Lopburi is the title of a long classi- Malaysia or India and indicates the particu-
cal composition fully presented as a phleng lar drum cycle (nathap khaek), sometimes
thao, or composition in three tempo lev- a pair of drums (klawng khaek), the scale
els: sam chan (third) is an extended ver- pitch level, and the general idiom of the
sion of the original part (sawng chan, melodic instruments. Lopburi referenc-
or second level), where the number of es a small city in central Thailand that,
beats/measures is doubled through while never a capital, was important
elaboration. The final section (chan historically as the residence of the fu-
dio, or first level) is a reduction of the ture King Narai (16561688), and today
original by half. In this case the sec- is a city offering numerous ruins going
ond level (original) is anonymous, but back to the Khmer period. While the
the third level was composed by Mr. recording is rather noisy, it is also among
Choi Suntharawathin and the first by Mr. the earliest recordings ever made of Thai
Montri Tramote. This recording, however, (or Siamese, as it was known then) music. TM

118 119
120 121
 B4 L AO S
Khap Ngeum Thang Khaokan 1927
Khap Ngeum Repartee in Questioning Format
Performed by Mr. Thi and Ms. Duang-di, singers
Mr. Mi, khene
V ic tor 4 0 0 7 2-B-2
Unlike many of the other tracks in this collection,
this record could have been recorded yester-
day, for it demonstrates that khap ngeum has
remained stable over a long period. Khap
means to sing and is customarily used with
genres in central and northern Laos. Ngeum
refers to the Ngeum River, which flows into
the Mekong just east of Vientiane. It is pos-
sible, however, that khap ngeum originated
in central or northern Laos, for stylistically
it is very different from Lao lam in the Vien-
tiane region while more closely resembling lo-
cal styles far to the north.
The title in Lao means questioning khap
ngeum, for in this repartee the two performers ask
each other questions, but in fact the theme, as heard here,
remains courtship. In several successive rounds, the male, Mr.
Thi, sings accompanied by khene played by Mr. Mi, while the female,
122
Ms. Duang-di, answers in speech called pan-nya. The latter term
also denotes a form of formal, verbal courtship in which both males
and females speak to each other in memorized or partly improvised
poetry. In several Lao regional genres, especially khap ngeum, the
female customarily answers in pan-nya. The khene mode used
in this genre is either lai nyai or lai noi depending on the
singers range, and is best expressed as pitches D-F-
G-A-C-D. While ordinary khene playing uses one
or two drones, in khap ngeum style there are no
continuous drones, though short passages can
include one (the upper D).
On the first side of this record (not pre-
sented here), the male sings please dont
desert me and make me a widower. If you
have to ride on an elephant, dont forget
me. The female makes a short response,
and the male continues saying, if you dont
love me, you have many ways to say it or to
refuse what I offer, but she replies that shes
always ready to accept what he offers. In this
track, Mr. Thi continues by saying he wants to
settle down here but she refutes that, saying you may
pretend to say so, but you seem to have something in mind
but wont say it, but its different from what you feel. She says fi-
nally, As I said, I am single and have no relationship with anyone. TM
123
 B5 L AO S accompaniment to the local repartee singing of the Luang Phabang
Danse Ancienne 1931 area, called khap thum luang phabang. A complete round usually
Old Dance consists of the alternation of the male and female singers, but this track
Performed by Thao Keota and Thao Nnh, khenes, includes only the male. While the introductory melody could perhaps
with Thao Phou Xhon, Thit Oun, et al. accompany dance, khap thum performers typically sit cross-legged
Phonothque Nat ionale/ Path 3 4 2 6 on the floor, dancing perhaps with only simple arm movements.
Although repartee singing is characteristic of the Lao generally, only
In 1931, musicians from Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, along with musicians the Luang Phabang style is accompanied both by the khenethe most
from other parts of the world, traveled to Paris to take part in the Exposition Co- characteristic of Lao instrumentsand instruments borrowed from
loniale Internationale, a sort of Worlds Fair intended to promote and celebrate the classical or court tradition TM
French colonialism. The Exposition featured pavilions with foods, crafts, and
music from various French colonies and even included a massive reconstruction
of Cambodias famed Angkor Wat (see photo on opposite page). Fortunately, the
Institut de Phontique at the Muse de la Parole of the University of Paris was
on hand to make recordings, including some of the Southeast Asian musicians.
The recordings were eventually released on the Muses Phonothque Nationale
label in conjunction with Path in the late 1930s or early 1940s. In addition to
ensemble recordings, both Thao Keota and Thao Nnh each recorded solo khene
solos. Since these recordings were made in Paris, and the Lao Victor recordings
detailed above were probably made in Vietnam, it seems more than likely that
no 78 rpm recordings were ever made in Laos itself.

Following an introductory melody played by two or more free-reed

bamboo mouth organs (khene) and a coconut-body fiddle (so u), an
enlarged ensemble with at least two fiddles, bamboo fipple flute (khui),
and pair of small bronze cymbals (sing), the ensemble begins the

Lao khene ensemble (Paris Colonial Exposition, 1931)

124 125
 Lao so u players (Paris Colonial Exposition, 1931) Thao Koeta, khene (Paris Colonial Exposition, 1931) Khawng vong player (Paris Colonial Exposition, 1931)

126 127
 B6 V I E T N A M
Chant de Bateliers 1931
Song of the Boatmen
Performed by Orchestre Bat-m
Phonothque Nat ionale/ Path 3 8 0 5, Par t 5 6 01

All the other Vietnamese recordings included in this collection were

recorded for commercial purposes, with the intent of appealing to the
largest possible audiences.They often featured well-known stage per-
formers presenting their most famous work.This recording, however,
appears to have been recorded for ethnological purposes and featur-
ing performers who traveled to France as part of the Paris Exposition
Coloniale Internationale.
The label identifies this recording as Chant de Bateliers, literally
Song of the Boatmen.The recording features an anonymous male
vocalist singing to the accompaniment of a n nh (two-string violin)
and percussion, a drum and bell.
According the traditional musician Vanessa V Vn nh, this is
an example of nhc canh, or vigil music.This all but forgotten genre of
music was part of the funerary rites of northern Vietnam.The func- nication with the spirit world, this music has a certain similarity with
tion of the music is to help guide the spirit to the next world.Thus, the ht chu vn (see track A15 ), except the bowed n nh is substituted
vocalist sings of the boatmen who undertake this journey across the for the plucked n nguyt.Years of war and campaigns undertaken by
river to assure the deceaseds arrival in paradise. the communist government of North Vietnam to eradicate superstition
The musicians who performed this music were of low social status and wasteful funeral customs ultimately led to the disappearance of
and were often itinerant street musicians on the side.In its commu- this once common musical form. JG

From Orchestre Bat-m (Paris Colonial Exposition, 1931) Orchestre Bat-m (Paris Colonial Exposition, 1931)

128 129
 B7 C A M B O D I A
Promenade en Foret 1931
Walking in the Forest
Performed by uncredited artists
Phonot hque Nat ionale/ Pat h 3 4 9 2
Khmer classical music, because it was restored
with the help of Thai musicians, closely follows
Thai conventions. Virtually all the repertory
is of Thai origin. But several factors distin-
guish Khmer performance. First is rhythm.
Where Thai musicians play in strictly even
time values, with or without syncopations,
Khmer musicians play in a lilting manner,
what could be heard as dotted patterns:
long-short, long-short. This gives Khmer
music a more casual feel than Thai, which
may be faster and sound more serious or even
aggressive. The second difference is in the style
of the aerophone. The Thai quadruple reed (pi)
plays an idiom that strays considerably from the
structure of the composition both in pitches and time,
making its idiom strikingly different from that of the other
instruments. It seems to float over the rest. The Khmer reed (sralai)
plays a more regular version of the melody along with the others. This
may stem from the singing practices of the two cultures. Thai classi-
130
cal singing (the style determinant for reed playing) is also distant from
the structure, with great latitude in rhythm and pitch. This is likely en-
hanced by the fact that Thai is a tonal language, and its inflections must
be made clear in the singing contours. Khmer is minimally tonal, and
thus lexical tones do not need to be coordinated with melodic
contours. Khmer singers do not just follow the melody
more closely and simply, but to the point that several
singers can sing in unison. Khmer musicians also
do not display the virtuosity heard commonly
in Thai music. This may stem from prefer-
ence, but the fact that the tradition had to
be rebuilt several times is certainly a factor
as well.
Promenade en Foret (Walking in
the Forest) suggests that this is music
to accompany action, mostly used in the
masked drama or dance drama. Among
the most commonly used action tunes for
walking are Damnoeur Khmer (the Khmer
walking), Lao Doeur Prey (a Lao walking
in the forest), and Cheut Chhing (walking
using the chhing cymbals for accompaniment). Two
compositions are played here, the second being Cheut
Chhing. Khmer theater music includes numerous such action tunes
for specific situations. Listeners who know the repertory can often tell
from the music what is happening on stage, even without seeing it. TM
Cambodian roneat ek player (Paris Colonial Exposition, 1931)
131
132 133
 B8 C A M B O D I A
Khmer Kroak 1950s
Khmer People, Get Ready to Fight
Performed by Wohar Sam
Philips 5 9 0 41-A
Cambodias greatest storytelling genre, chrieng, is performed by a male
singer, who relates epic stories in poetry accompanied by one of several
possible instruments. When the long-necked lute (chapey) is used, the
singer accompanies himself. In northeast Thailand, chrieng is some-
times accompanied by the Lao free-reed mouth organ (khene), a wind
instrument, in which case there is a separate accompanist. Here the
singer Wohar Sam accompanies himself
on the chapey, performing an ex-
cerpt of Khmer Kroak, roughly
Khmer People, Get Ready to
Fight. While the traditional
function was to relate age-
old stories, the medium
was also ideal for didactic
texts designed to influence
peoples thinking, including
texts created by the govern-
ment to serve its purposes. TM
 from the Mathi section (kan 10), Mathi being the wife of Vetsandon.
B9 L AO S
Thet Mathi/ Sthu Ku Lak-kham-kaeo/
Wat Vientiane 1927
Buddhist Preaching for the Mathi Section
Performed by Buddhist monk Jan
V ic tor 4 0 0 7 9 -B
This track consists of Buddhist preaching of the story of Prince
Vetsandon (sometimes romanized as Vessandara), the last of the 543
lives of the man who achieved nirvana, becoming a Buddha, thereby
escaping from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Prince Vetsandon
lived an exemplary life, and his story, divided into fourteen chapters
(kan) is read from a large palm-leaf manuscript written in the old Lao
alphabet during the Boun Prawet festival, which, in Laos, occurs dur-
ing February or March. Each chapter of the story, individually spon-
sored by a family, is read by a different monk. In actual practice, even
though the monk holds the manuscript before him, he more often than
not preaches the section from memory, perhaps in his own version. In
contemporary practice it is also possible to preach the story using
memorized poetry in a highly melodic fashion, but because Buddhist
monks may not sing, they use the verb preach to describe this style.
Even when read from a manuscript, the monk must realize the linguis-
tic tones in a way that suggests melody.
Here, a former monk named Jan, in Luang Phrabang style, chants
In this dramatic episode, Mathi went to the forest to collect fruits but

Chapey player
134 135
136 137
finds little. On her way back to the cottage she met tigers and lions
blocking her path, but after hearing her pleas they allowed her to
safely pass. At home she could not find the children and began a futile
search. In deep sorrow, she fainted. Vetsandon returned and found her
and was able to bring her back to life. Then he told her the truth about
the children, that he had given them to an old man named Chuchok.
Mathi understood Vetsandons profound generosity and blessed him
for his deed. TM
(The first side of this record can be heard on Dust-to-Digitals Black Mirror:
Reflections in Global Musics.)
B10 C A M B O D I A
Cha Pi 1930s
Old Drama
Performed by Ms. Taeng, Ms. Sam, Ms. Huch,
and the Ensemble of Mr. Soi Sang Wan
Beka 7575 4 -1, 411
This record features three female singers alternating, with a classi-
cal ensemble. While the label provides the names of the three female
singers (Ms. Taeng, Ms. Sam, Ms. Huch) and the name of the ensemble
(pinpeat ensemble of Mr. Soi Sang Wanbut should be Ms.), it does
not provide the title of the theater piece from which it comes, referring
to it simply as Cha Pi or old drama. Also, the term used to describe
the genre seems to mix masked drama (khon) with dance drama
138
(lakhon). Because the music is classical, it could be either. In either
case, the singers are separate from the dancers and musicians. It is
usual for the dancers to act out the actions described in the song text
using a vocabulary of gestures and stances known to connoisseurs of
Khmer classical dance. TM
B11 T H A I L AN D
Zhan Zhao Bi Jian 1940s
Mr. Zhan Zhao in a Sword Competition
Performed by Zhong Zheng Shun Xiang Chaozhou Opera Troupe
Tiger L S. 10 4 8 D
The Tiger label was produced by Leesong and Company and seems to consist
solely of folk operas of the Chaozhou immigrants, from southern China. Tigers
recordings were made in Bangkok, but Leesong and Company may have possibly
been headquartered in Singapore, which also has a large Chaozhou community.
Even during the Ayuthaya period (ca. 1350-1767) there were signifi-
cant numbers of Chinese in the old Siamese capital. Most came from
eastern Guangdong province and spoke Chaozhou (pronounced
Teochiu in dialect) Chinese. After the capital was reestablished in
Bangkok in the late 18th century, increasing numbers of Chinese im-
migrated to Siam, so many in fact that during the first few decades of
the 19th century, the Chinese outnumbered the Siamese in Bangkok.
As the Chinese worked their way up the economic scale from basic
laborer to shop owner to factory owner, they enjoyed not just their
own restaurants, clubs, secret societies, recreations, and products, but
their music and opera as well. Indeed, Bangkok Chinese had much
greater wealth than their counterparts suffering through civil wars and
economic malaise back home. Consequently, Bangkok became a center
of Chaozhou opera production, boasting of several permanent theatres
where new operas were premiered.
Probably recorded in the early 1930s in Bangkok, this side features
a somewhat unexpected phenomenon, a chorus of five young singers,
in fact, teenagers. Among Chaozhou operas many distinctive features
is the use of a childrens chorus, sometimes the children of the adult
actors, sometimes young Thai more or less given to the troupe by dirt
poor parents, especially from the northeast. Until 1937 Chaozhou op-
era had no women actresses in Thailand, their roles played by teenage
boys, but in that year the government banned teens from performing,
allowing women to enter the stage. The same restrictions did not occur
in China until 1950.
The opera from which this song comes is Zhan Zhao Bi Jian
(Mr. Zhan Zhao in a Sword Competition) performed by members
of the Zhong Zheng Shun Xiang Chaozhou Opera Troupe. Of the five
singers, all male teens, two play the role of qingyi (female) and three of
xiao sheng (young male). Their names are given, family name first: Li
Zhu, Xue Hen, Sheng Zhi, Qui Ying, and Ming Zhu. TM
139
Chaozhou Actors, Singapore

140 141
B12 T H A I L A N D
Pleng Sen Lao, Na 1 ca. 1950
Offering of Alcohol to the Gods, Part 1
Performed by the Thewaprasit Ensemble
S angthong S TC 10 2 2 , MSK 4 6 8 2
Sangthong was one of the many labels that proliferated in Thailand after World
War II. Most of these labels featured classical music but began to focus on the
popular luk thung and luk krung styles in the latter half of the 1950s.
Phleng Sen Lao, Na 1 (Offering Alcohol to the Gods, Part 1) is a quired a piphat ensemble to play naphat compositions between sections
phleng naphat (action tune) from the highest class of reper-
tory played by the piphat ensemble. Normally played
during a wai khru (teacher greeting) ritual, the com-
position is here played in the context of reading
or preaching the epic story of Prince Wetsan-
dawn, the penultimate life of the Buddha just be-
fore enlightenment. As such the story is a Jataka
(Chadok in Thai). The reading of the story once
a year throughout much of Thailand is an im-
portant marker during the Buddhist calendar,
but in central Thailand, where it is called thet
mahachat (preaching the great Jataka), it oc-
curs during the middle of the year. In the north-
east, where it is called Boun Prawet and remains
142
very popular, it occurs early in the year, around February. In Laos such
chanting is also prominent, enough so to have been among the early re-
cordings from Laos featured elsewhere in this collection (see track B9).
The reading requires either a Buddhist monk, or a former monk,
to recite the story from traditional palm leaf manuscripts, though in
the northeast it is more usual now for monks or laymen to preach
in a form of heightened speech called thet lae that resembles singing
(Buddhist monks are not permitted to sing, they preach, however
much it sounds like singing to laymen). Northeastern Boun Prawet
involves no music but central Thai performance, at least in the past, re-
consist of three sections, called lam thang san, lam thang nyao, and lam
of the story. In this case, the story comes from Part 5, Chu-
chok. It refers to an old man encountered by Prince
Wetsandawn who requests the prince give his chil-
dren to the beggar. This he does to show his utter
generosity and obedience. Consequently, this is
also considered the saddest section of the story,
and the chants are sometimes given added
emotional weight with elaborate melismas. The
track included here, however, includes only the
piphat ensemble, this being a hard mallet
ensemble with both taphon horizontal drum
and a pair of klawng that barrel drums. TM
(Part 2 of this record can be heard on Dust-to-Digitals
Black Mirror: Reflections in Global Music.)
B13 T H A I L A N D
Lam Toei Jep Saep ca. early 1960s
Stinging Pain
Performed By Molam Nuanchan and Amphon Sangachit,
with Thongsa Khrongsap, khene
Columbia GE T 10 3 0, CEI 319 3 8
Lam is the typical form of repartee singing for Lao both in northeast
Thailand (Isan) and Laos, though each area has distinctive character-
istics. Lam klawn denotes lam in Isan and means the performance will
toei respectively, and performed in that order. Lam klawn was the most
prevalent form of repartee singing in Isan until eclipsed by luk thung
popular songs in the 1980s. As heard here, the typical accompaniment
is with a khene free-reed bamboo mouth organ with 14 or 16 pipes. If
the male and female voices have different ranges, the player can switch
modes between lai yai and lai noi, the two pentatonic modes (minor
sounding, A-C-D-E-G) used for toei. Here, however, both voices work
well with the same mode, lai noi. Male and female alternate four times
without break, but a complete stage performance could last as long
as 30 minutes. Toei is the conclusion for a feigned courtship between
the two singers, from their first meeting and getting acquainted, to
expressions of love, to parting. That their separation is difficult is borne
out by the title, which means Stinging Pain. Amphon Sangachit
was leader of the well-known Ubon Phatthana band, from Ubon
Ratchathani, Isans easternmost province. TM
143
144 145
 B14 T H A I L A N D
Homrong Chan Chao ca. 1940s
Chan Chao Overture
Performed by Piphat Phataya-koson
Rabbit T 8 4 3 4 -3, CEI 31521

The Rabbit label was likely the first of Thailands independent record compa-
nies. It was founded by T. Ngek Chuan, a resourceful small businessman who
started out selling books and records. In 1925 he decided to begin making his
own records, sending the masters to Germany to be pressed. His company
thrived in the 1930s and 1940s, recording a remarkably wide variety of music:
classical ensembles, brass bands, string bands, folk music from all around the
country, even the government propaganda tunes of Luang Wichitwathakan.
When the German pressing plants he relied on were destroyed in World War II,
new local companies began to supplant his label.

One of four sides that together present a classical composition titled

Homrong Chan Chao, homrong means roughly overture. Such
works could be performed independently in any of a several circum-
stances. The ensemble, a piphat mai khaeng (hard-mallet piphat)
appears to be dominated by the pi because the microphone has been
placed too close, but there are at least two to four other instruments,
plus percussion. TM

146 147
B15 C A M B O D I A
Srey Sroh Mien Thrung 1930
Beautiful Lady
Mr. Muean and Ms. Aet with the Sak Som Peo Ensemble
Columbia GF 6 75, W LI 313
Here is a typical village-type string ensemble with singers. This repar-
tee song titled Beautiful Lady alternates a male singer (Mr. Muean)
and a female singer (Ms. Aet), who are accompanied by a pair of
two-stringed fiddles (tro ek and tro u) and small cymbals (ching). The
ensemble is described as a string ensemble (khrueang khasae) and its
name is Sak Samphao, which literally translates as sailing ship. The
genre is not clear from such a brief performance but may be ayaye, a
well-known genre of repartee song sung in villages. TM
148
B16 V I E T N A M
n Hu, C Bn 1931
Hu Instrumental, Ancient Piece
Performed by Cu Tn t (Uncle Youngest Tn), n bu
Cu Qu (Uncle Qu), n nh
Cu Ba (Uncle Three), n nguyt
Beka 2 0 3 4 6 -1, 9 2 9 8 4
C Bn, meaning Ancient Composition, is an example of Hu
instrumental music (n Hu or n Hu according to the regional
spelling on the label).The musicians who played n Hu were usually
officials of the imperial court then located in Hu in the central region
of Vietnam.
This music was often derived from the ceremonial and entertain-
ment music of the court. C Bn is part of a group of pieces known
as Su Bc, or Six pieces in northern mode.Northern, in this case,
means Chinathe Bc mode is a pentatonic scale that corresponds to
the typical Chinese modal pattern of C-D-F-G-A. C Bn is probably
a Vietnamization of a Chinese melody.It is moderate and soothing in
affect.
The music is heterophonic: the three instruments, n bu (the
monochord), n nh (a two-string fiddle related to the Chinese erhu)
and the n tranh (a 16-string zither related to the Chinese guzheng or
Japanese koto) perform the same abstracted skeletal melody.This music
starts with a brief introduction that explores the mode.One of the musi-
cians strikes a castanet (song lang) every two measures as well.
The three musicians are identified only by first name with an
appellation of cu, meaning a younger maternal uncle.This is a very
familiar and endearing way of addressing a young man.Its possible
that the n tranh player, cu Ba, is actually Nguyn Hu Ba, who
would have been 18 when this recording was released.As a teenager,
Nguyn Hu Ba studied music with the musical masters of Hu.Later
in life he became a leading scholar and pedagogue of traditional music
in the Republic of Vietnam.He later appeared on recordings released
by UNESCO and Musicaphon. JG
B17 L AO S
An Nangsue Thawng Kan 1927
Reading a Book in repartee form
Performed by Phuma and Pheng Bing
V ic tor 4 0 0 70 -A
The track is described as an nangsue, which literally means read a
book. The book in question, however, would have been a palm-leaf
manuscript into which were scratched the texts for Buddhist sermons,
local stories, and other forms of literature. The scratches are filled
with lamp black. In the past it was customary at funerals for an older,
learned man to read the manuscripts of stories to entertain and teach
the mourners in a kind of elevated speech that, by realizing the tonal
contours required by the linguistic tones of the words, produced a
melodic style. But in Luang Phrabang there is a style of unaccompanied
repartee singing with the same name but not the same meaning. Its
singing, however, is little beyond the melody produced by old-fashioned
reading, and like speech, it has no fixed meter. But the singing genre
is a form of repartee consistent with other Lao forms normally called
khap or lam. Here a former Buddhist novice (siang) named Phuma
and a female, Pheng Bing, perform an nangsue in wat style, a term
unknown to us. Understanding the language of this poetry is difficult
for outsiders to the Luang Phrabang dialect, and consequently we
cannot provide a translation. Because the style of singing heard here is
otherwise unknown (because an nangsue as heard today is somewhat
different), we also cannot explain what is meant by wat style. TM
149
 B18 V I E T N A M ci lng troupe leader heard her and
Chc Anh i 1963 decided that she should be taught the full
Zhu Yingtai repertoire of arias.She gradually worked
Composed by Vin Chu her way into performing troupes and
Performed by L Thy, singer more important roles, establishing her
Nam C, n sn fame as a leading performer for the Kim
By B (Vin Chu), n tranh Chung troupe.This recording presents
L am S on 5 9 8 -1 her as a 15-year-old.The government of
Vietnam has recognized her as an emi-
The lyrics of this piece are based upon The Butterfly Lovers (Zhu nent artist (ngh s u t).
Yingtai , in Vietnamese Chc Anh i), a well-known This recording opens with the
Vin Chu
Chinese story from the late Tang period that is sometimes compared to melody Hnh Vn (Floating Clouds)
Romeo and Juliet.Zhu Yingtai is the heroine of this love story about a thought to be light and relaxed in affect.At 0:53 seconds into the piece,
young woman who disguised herself as a man in order to get an educa- the vng c starts with a ro, an unaccompanied introduction, con-
tion.The furtive romance she has with a fellow student leads to tragic sidered a chance to show off ones vocal prowess.The vng c melody
consequences. proper starts at 1:03.This work is a self-contained concert aria where
Vin Chu (a.k.a. By B or Hunh Tr B) transformed a scene the Butterfly Lovers story is encapsulated, the heroine confiding to
from this tale into a 6-minute work in the vng c form that the ci the listeners her state of mind and emotions, often through metaphoric
lng actress L Thy premiered near the beginning of her career as scenes of nature. The mist expresses her reluctance to leave the school
a teenager.Vin Chu, one of ci lngs most prolific authors and and her true love:
recording artists, was born in 1924 in n Chu hamlet, Tr Vinh
province and as of this writing is still alive in Saigon. Sng trng nhum rng thng vn vng
L Thys full name is Dng Th L Thy. She was born May a tin em ln ng
20, 1948 in Vnh Long province to a poor family and was the oldest White mist tints the pine forest, lingering
of eight children.At the age of 10 her singing talent was noticed and It sees me off on my trek
cultivated. She heard a vng c record and learned it by heart.A local

150 151
152 153
 As the blossom, she confides her wish that she and her love had
had a chance to clarify their feelings, but the current (lifes vicissitudes)
has carried them far apart.
For the audience, the Butterfly Lovers story could be transposed
into their own livestheir own hopes for love and marital harmony also
dashed by circumstances like the star-crossed lovers of the legend. JG
B19 T H A I L A N D
Rabam Dawadoeng, Part 2 ca. 1940s
Dance of the Second Tier of Heaven, Part 2
Performed by the Duriyapranit Piphat Ensemble & Chorus
Columbia GE T 4 4 3 -2 , CEI 3 70 6 8 -1BT R
Here the composition Rabam Dawadoeng is performed simultane-
ously by a piphat ensemble and a chorus of females.Rabam means
dance, and thus this work likely accompanied a kind of dance drama
in which the singers tell the story.The piphat, however, is not a stan-
dard hard mallet type but the soft mallet form (piphat mai nuam),
which normally uses flute and fiddle instead of double reed.Thai
classical dance has roots in Indian dance.Both are vocabulary dances
in that the gestures and body positions convey the literal meaning of
the sung text. Dancers learn these gestures through imitation and as
a fixed vocabulary as the dance teacher calls out the terms denoting
them.The most basic vocabularies have been organized into student
compositions called, e.g., mae bot lek, or small basic lesson.The lyrics
154
of this track describe the beauty, plenty, and comfort of Dawadoeng,
the second level of heaven according to the Buddhist concept of
heaven having seven levels.In addition, the lyrics describe the thewada
(angels) who inhabit this level of heaven. TM
B20 L AO S Although not presented here, she continues in the second side of this
Huang A-lai 1927 record, accusing him of coming for war, not love, and finally tells him
Worry to return to the other woman.
Performed by Nang Salit and Nang Nak, singers The ensemble alternates with two female singers, Ms. Salit and Ms.
and the Ensemble of the Governor of Vientiane Nak, who sing in unison accompanied only by small cymbals. The en-
V ic tor 4 0 0 8 0 -A-1 semble plays the same melody separately and consists of mouth organ,
xylophone, fiddle, flute, and cymbals, as heard in track A6 and A7. TM
Huang A-lai is a well-known Thai/Lao classical composition whose
title means worry or anxiety. It can be used in many forms of theatre
with words appropriate to the situation. In Thailand this piece would
normally be used in lakawn nai (inside [the court] dance drama),
lakawn nawk (outside [the court] dance drama), or likay, a form of
central Thai theatre. In this recording, members of the Governor of
Vientianes Ensemble, including two female singers, perform poetry
from the epic drama Inao, actually a series of episodic stories derived
from Java where it is known as Panji. Inao became a staple of Thai
literature after King Rama II (reigned 18091824), a skilled poet, cre-
ated a 20,520 verse adaptation of Panji for use in the private court
dance drama (lakawn nai). Excerpts from Inao were, and continue
to be, performed in the above mentioned theater genres. Because likay
was not common in Laos, this excerpt is more likely from lakawn nai.
The song text describes the frustrated love between Prince Inao
and Butsaba. Earlier Inao had agreed to marry Butsaba but fell in love
with another elsewhere and abandoned Butsaba. Now he has returned
to the city and rekindled his love for Butsaba, but she says he came, not
because of love, but for war against the city, now under enemy control.
155
Vietnamese musicians

156 157
B21 T H A I L A N D ceremony has little to do
Khaek Khao 1950s with Hinduism. The nam
White Indian dao could be a gourd, but
Performed by the Yot Silapin here it is a chest-resonated
Ensemble chordophone from North-
Thep Nak hon T T 10 0 8, T S 16 9 ern Thailand related to the
better known phin pia.
B22 T H A I L A N D Luang Phradit Phai-
Phram Dit Nam Dao 1950s raw, born Son Silapaban-
A Brahman Priest Plucks a Gourd leng in the 1880s but later
Performed by the Yot Silapin known by his honorific
Ensemble name, was Thai classi-
Thep Nak hon T T 10 0 8, T S 18 9 cal musics most famous
composer. Like all Thai
These two sides, both played by mahori composers, he created
ensembles (side B qualified as large), present compositions by known his compositions orally and dictated them to other members of the
composers. Khaek Khao, literally, White Indian, was composed ensemble, each then realizing the structure into the idiom of his
by Montri Tramote and refers to northern Indians, whom the Thai or her particular instrument. Thai music is transmitted from master
considered to have lighter skin than southern Indians. Side B presents to apprentice through imitation and into rote memory. There is no
Phram Dit Nam Dao, a composition in samniang khamen (Cambo- discussion of theory or principles. Much of this process can be seen
dian accent) by Thailands most famous historical composer, Luang in the semifictional Thai film, Homrong (The Overture), produced and
Phradit Phairaw. The fanciful title literally means A Brahman Priest directed by Ittisoontorn Vichailak and released in 2004. No other
Plucks a Gourd, but the meaning, though having nothing to do with film has ever portrayed Thai classical music in such a dramatic and
the sound of the composition, is more complicated. A phram could be a realistic way, and after an initial poor reception, the film went on
Hindu priest or a male ritualist who conducts the bai sri sukhawn cer- to win numerous international awards and has been released with
emony when he calls back a persons khwan, or spiritual essence. The English subtitles. TM

158 159
160 161
B23 T H A I L A N D
Lam Khaen 1966
Khaen Song
Phloen Phromdaen
Nok Iang 3 0 9
The late 1950s saw the birth of the luk thung craze that followed the rise to star-
dom of singer Suraphon Sombatcharoen. Many new labels emerged to promote
this popular new genre and Nok Iang was one of the most prolific. Nok Iang,
Nangfa, Dok Bua, Meuang Leung and other labels often shared the same num-
bering system, suggesting they were all pressed at the same factory, possibly
with the same owners.
Performed by Phloen Phromdaen and his accompanying musicians
using electric organ, drum, cymbals, and perhaps other percussion,
this is a ramwong song, one of the immediate predecessors to the
luk thung (country songs) that now dominate Thai popular music.
Ramwong, meaning "circle dance," originated from a central Thai
folk dance called ramthon (dancing with the thon drum) but was
formalized by (Than-phuying) La-iat, wife of Prime Minister and Field
Marshall Plaek Phibun-songkhram in the 1950s, as a distinctively Thai
ballroom dance that avoided violating the touching taboo character-
istic of Western ballroom dance. Ramwong lyrics, unlike those of the
162
sophisticated phleng luk krung (songs of city people), addressed the
lives of ordinary people, including farmers. While there was a form
of ramwong advanced by The Fine Arts Department (called ramwong
matrajan), there was also a more popular form enjoyed by ordinary
people. Entrepreneurs founded troupes consisting of ramwong musi-
cians and numerous young women who would dance with young
males on temporary stages at temple fairs upon payment of a small fee.
The present song, while sung in central Thai, inserts a northeastern
melody known as Toei Khawng as the second stanza while the rest
is newly composed. Why the main title of the track is Lam Khaen is
difficult to say because that was an old central Thai term for northeast-
ern lam repartee singing, and except for the lam toei insertion, this is
not an example of northeastern style. Even though this is intended for
ramwong dancing, the tempo and style is for the Latin ballroom dance
cha cha cha, as heard at the end of each musical interlude.
Phloen Phromdaen was one of the biggest stars of the early luk
thung era. A farm boy from Aranyaprathet, a town on the Cambo-
dian/Thai border, he became famous for his self-produced hit Chom
Thung (In Praise of the Fields), recorded when he was only 20 years
old. Lam Khaen was recorded at those same sessions. TM
(See Dust-to-Digitals Luk Thung: Classic & Obscure 78s from the Thai Country-
side for more of Phloen Phromdaen.)
163
164 165
166 167
 DI SC C
BURMA THAILAND

168 169
 C 1 BU R M A
Maung Kyaw Ei Sandaya Nyunt: Ah Hson 1933
Maung Kyaw Eis Piano Style; Ending
Performed by Sandaya Maung Kyaw,
YMCA Music Competition First Prize Gold Level Champion
Columbia RE 201, WEI 5269
By 1826, Burma was divided by the British into upper and lower sec-
tors. The British held lower Burma where they established their capital
in Rangoon and the Burmese King held upper Burma with courts at
Amarapura and later, Mandalay. In the 1870s, King Mindon had heard
of pianos owned by the British in lower Burma and was presented
with one by the Italian ambassador. The court musicians named the
instrument sandaya and immediately began using it with the hsaing
waing gong percussion ensemble, employing finger techniques derived
from Burmese instruments to play Burmese music. In the early 20th
century, sandaya was used extensively to accompany silent films and to
record as an accompaniment instrument for singers because of its loud
dynamic range that was easily picked up by early microphones. The
virtuosic styles of playing on the pat waing (set of 21 pitched drums)
and saung gauk (harp) were extended even further by sandaya players.
In 19311932, the Young Mens Christian Association held a con-
test for sandaya players to display their let swun pya, or solo improvisa-
tional styles. Maung Kyaw took the Gold Level First Prize at the age of
170
19 and added Champion to his stage and recording name. Audiences
at that time were astounded by his technique, creative ideas, and flour-
ishes. Maung Kyaw made his first recording in 1933 with Ma Kyi Aung,
Burmas most popular recording vocalist. Maung Kyaw was known for
his classical Mahagita interpretations, especially his recording of Htu
Ma Cha Na, a Patpyo genre song.
Sagaing Hla Shwe, pianist and author, observed that of all the san-
daya players at the time, Maung Kyaw was the most gifted in Burmese
sandaya techniques: ah twe ah pet (alternating left and right hands),
let pu ti (fingers intertwined on a melodic line or turn), ah ku ah set
(crossed hand playing), ah hpi ah hneit (delicacy of touch and pres-
sure), and dalu dyan (particular sensitivity to including the use of the
rising third/falling fourth and to the falling third in composing finger
patterns).
In this recording, Maung Kyaws let swun pya playing is cheered
on by a female listener. The piano, an upright, is in better condition
than most pianos heard on early recordings. As was very common, his
extemporizations moved easily from Burmese figures to short displays
of chords and melodic patterns in Western style. What is always inter-
esting to hear is that vamps stayed frequently on one chord, a harmon-
ic pedal without harmonic motion to support right hand melody.
Champion Maung Kyaw died at the untimely age of 21 in 1934; his
last recording for Columbia was Thingyan Bwe Kyo,"featuring star
singer Ko Lu Kalay. KY
171
 C2 THAILAND
Fawn Jao Sri Oi 1950s
Performed by Kotsanabanthoeng Paired Piphat Ensemble
Sunt haraphon S SP 0 0 8, K S S 3 2 9
The first side of this record presents the composition Fawn Jao Sri Oi,
a classical composition here played by the piphat mon ensemble, which
is immediately recognizable from its low-pitched, somber-sounding
quadruple-reed aerophone, the pi mon, along with its set of seven
tuned drums, the bueng mawn khawk. The piphat mon, though now a
Thai ensemble played by Thai musicians, originated with the commu-
nities of immigrant Mon who escaped from the wars in Burma going
back to the 18th century and were settled
throughout central Thailand. Although most
compositions played by this ensemble are in
samniang mon (Mon accent) and are primar-
ily heard during funerals, the ensemble also
plays for unrelated occasionsfor display of
virtuosity and even to accompany the admit-
tedly low-class likay theater. In this case the
label indicates the ensemble is sponsored by
the Khotasana Department, a now disband-
ed department of propaganda supported
by the Thai government. TM
172
C3 THAILAND
Doi Rup 1950s
Performed by Bunyong Ketkhong
Sunt haraphon S SP 0 0 8, K S S 3 4 4
Side B of the record heard in the previous track, Doi Rup, is played as
a ranat ek xylophone solo by the now deceased master artist Bunyong
Ketkhong. Ketkhong was formerly leader of the Fong Naam ensemble
which included American composer and performer, Bruce Gaston,
and which made a number of recordings on European labels. Thai-
lands most characteristic instrument, the ranat ek is a xylophone
with 21 hardwood or bamboo bars suspended on two systems of thin
ropes over a hollow, boat-shaped resona-
tor sitting on a pedestal. As for all classical
instruments, the player sits cross legged on
the floor. The ranat can be played with pairs
of either hard or soft mallets consisting of
long sticks with disc-shaped beaters on the
ends. While the standard style consists of
octaves, solo playing requires numerous
other techniques, including intricate orna-
mental patterns, hand crossing, glissandi,
and spectacular solo patterns. Males have
typically played with these flashy techniques,
though in recent years females have come
to prominence. TM
173
 C 4 BU R M A
Mingala Ma Thein Nyunt, Ma Sein Thin, Ma Sein Thi
A Ngyeint, Lay Pyay Htoh Lu Byet Ka, Ma Sein Hkaw
1911
Welcoming Ma Thein Nyunt , Ma Sein Thin, Ma Sein Thi and
Their A Ngyeint Dancers and Singers with Finale, Clown Dance,
and Introduction of Ma Sein
The Gramophone Comp. GC- 8 -113 3 8 ( H 8 8 0 5R)
clowns while singing and dancing for the audience.
The engineers when recording this instrumental introduction
placed a Burmese pattala, a lead instrument, in this case played in
exaggerated Thai style, and a bamboo flute close to the microphone.
In the background can be heard a let swe baja (concertina). The male
clowns welcome Yodaya Ma Sein Thin and her sorority of dancers.
Either she comes from Thailand or is of Thai background; hence, the
sobriquet Yodaya before her name and choice of song. KY

The next two tracks were recorded by Max Hampe in August of 1911. Hampe first
recorded in Asia in 1904 as the assistant to William Sinkler Darby. He went on
to become the Gramophone Companys resident recording expert in India from
1911 to 1913. India was used as a launching point for Southeast Asian recording
trips.
Both this track and the following are
recordings of a performance of a
ngyeint, a theatre form that devel-
oped popularity at the end of the
1800s and thrives today. The clowns
and musicians engage in a long ses-
sion of jokes, gags, and satire when
allowed, before they introduce the
dancer or group of dancers whose
conceit is to treat the comedians as
pests, but will engage in repartee with the
C 5 BU R M A
Mingala Ma Thein Nyunt, Ma Sein Thin, Ma Sein Thi
A Ngyeint A Hsan Hhtoh 1911
Mingala Ma Thein Nyunt, Ma Sein Thin, Ma Sein Thi A Ngyeint
Presenting Some New Tunes
Gramophone Comp. GC-9 -13 2 3 9 ( H 8 8 0 6 R)
The a ngyeint presentation continues from the previous track, Ma Sein
Thin calls to the musicians, Listen to my song! and they all begin a
Yodaya Mahagita style song but with very pronounced Thai charac-
teristics.
The pattala continues to play in Thai stylewhere the Thai ranat
players would play fast tremolos and long rolls with their mallets in
octaves, the Burmese pattala and pat waing players imitate with slower
repetitions. The bamboo flute takes a primary melodic role over the
usual outdoor obbligato line played by Burmese hne, hne gyi (or in Thai
piphat ensembles, the pi nai or pi nawk). KY

174 175
176 177
 C6 THAILAND
Mon Ap Son 1950s
The Fairy
Performed by the Yawt Silabin Troupe
Phillips BTC-10 12 2 , JOB-2 7 2
Mon Ap Son (The Fairy) is performed by an odd combination of a
vibraphone (substituting for a ranat ek) along with other piphat mon
instruments. This recording perhaps reflects the emphasis the Fine
Arts Department placed on performing Thai music on Western instru-
ments during and after the administrations of Field Marshall Plaek
Pibun-Songkhram (1938-1944, 1948-1957), who banned many tra-
ditional activities, including the performance of classical music, in
the name of modernizing the country. The Fine Arts Department also
issued full scores of many Thai compositions that included instruc-
tions for playing these works on a Western percussion ensemble, since
the performance of classical music on authentic Thai instruments by
musicians seated on the floor was declared to be less than civilized. Be-
cause this track is neither fully Western nor Thai, it suggests a certain
ambivalence at the time about this process. TM
178
C 7 BU R M A
Hnit Kan Pyaing Hpuza ca. 1964
Loves Double Destiny
Composed by Ko Bo Khin
Performed by Mar Mar Aye, singer
and the Mandalay Myoma Ensemble
Toe Na Yar T NC 2 9 9 B
Toe Na Yar was one of the many Burmese-owned labels that proliferated in
Rangoon in the 1950s and 1960s. The label was run by Daw (Mrs.) Than Yin out
of her house, where she had set up a tape-based recording studio. The records
were sold in record shops along Rangoons Bo Soon Pat Street, some pressed in
editions of less than 500.
Mar Mar Aye, one of Burmas most extraordinary singers, now living
in the United States, relates that she was 23 when she made this record-
ing in the label owners home in Mandalay. The sandaya (piano) player
is U Sein Thaung who lives now in Los Angeles. The accompaniment is
filled out by a kyauk lon pat (six-pitched drum set), pat ma (large two-
sided drum), hne (shawm), and si wa (bell).
Each generation in postwar Burma referred to the prior genera-
tions music as khi haung, or old period, while the music of their con-
temporaries was kalarbaw, or modern. As early as the 1920s, the sit kyo
khi, or pre-WWII Burmese music for British and Burmese silent films
used elements from both Western and Burmese musical languages.
Frequently a Yodaya style melody would be followed by a chorus
179
employing a chordal vamp. Note the very last verse of Hnit Kan Pya-
ing Hpuza, with its brief altered piano accompaniment. Mar Mar Aye
sings of lovers who swear eternal fealty, never to suffer hatred in their
betrothed lives into reincarnation.
The Mandalay Myoma Musicians Associationa gathering of am-
ateurs and professionalswas organized in 1925 by composer Myoma
Ngyein to address the need to understand more about Western music
through notation, begin to present Burmese music through notated
scores, and to provide music merging Burmese music with Western
harmonic structures for festivals, silent films, and recordings.
Toe Na Yar is the word for a mythical creature from the Himalayas
whose image is illustrated on the record label. KY
C8 THAILAND
Pleng Khrawp Chakara Wan Thao Tawn Abu
Hassan Taeng Ngan ca. 1930
Sida Cordifolia Flower in Three Tempo Levels,
from The Marriage of Abu Hassan
Performed by Nai Po & Thai Royal Page Military Brass Band
Columbia 510 6 8 -3, S 70 0 47 2- C
The use of a military brass band to play such a traditional classical
form is quite surprising. Brass bands first came to old Siam with visit-
ing delegations from Europe and the United States in the early 19th
century. By the end of that century enough Siamese musicians had
180
learned to play these instruments to form bands connected with the
court and military. A few Western bandmasters visited Siam, some
staying long enough to teach in some of the ephemeral music schools
that arose. These bands were tuned in Western equal temperament
and played arrangements using a limited degree of harmony, but as is
heard, their tuning was not yet sure-footed. The custom of brass bands
playing Thai classical compositions continues to this day, in many sec-
ondary schools, in private organizations, and for funeral processions,
where the bands may be seen playing from flat-bed trucks.
King Rama VI (19101925), the author of this stage work, was
apparently more interested in the arts than in governing. His theatre
piece about Abu Hassan, taken from the Tales of 1001 Nights, includ-
ed music, but it is doubtful that it was performed as theatre with the
accompaniment of a brass band. This track is only one side of a much
longer composition called Phleng Thao, in which a composed melody
is expanded proportionally into a drawn out version (sam chanthird
tempo level), then immediately played in its original form (sawng
chansecond tempo level), then reduced by half to a compressed form
(chan diofirst tempo level), each preceded by a vocal section accom-
panied only by drum and small cymbals. This track apparently begins
in sam chan with the vocalist, and although the ensemble normally
continues playing in sam chan, this recording has the ensemble speed-
ing up greatly, then slowing for the return of the vocalist, evidently
singing the second section of the sam chan. Thus, this track is but a
small part of the whole. TM
C 9 BU R M A
Son Nant Tha Myaing: Sha Pon Gyi ca. 1928
In the Fragrant Forest:The Princess Seeks Her Lost Consort
Performed by Yadana Myit, singer
Taung Dwin U Kyawt, saung gauk
HM V P 14 57 8, 8 0 - 8 52
The form of Son Nant Tha Myaing is a poetic recitation. Sometimes
sung, sometimes half-spoken/half-sung, it is known in Burmese as Ya
Du and is appended to songs or inserted toward the middle. The saung
gauk (harp) begins an ostinato pattern that frames Yadana Myits nar-
rative of the story. When melodic figures appear, her voice intensifies
the than aet (the Burmese term for a dramatic style of breaking the
voice to represent crying), while in the lyrics she despairs of ever find-
ing her lover as the ostinato accompaniment returns.
Listen to the gentleness of the saung gauk strings as they are
plucked. This is the sound of silk strings that older Burmese saung
gauk aficionados remember from their childhoods. Very faint is the
sound of the tayaw (horn violin) as it weaves its way, accompany-
ing both saung gauk and voice. Yadana Myits singing led to her later
career as a film actress. KY
181
182 183
 C10 T H A I L A N D
Lakhon Rueang Kraithong, 6 1910
Kraithong, Part 6
Performed by Nai Chon & Nai Suk
with the Luang Sano Phinphat Ensemble
Gramophone Concer t GC 7-12 3 4 5, 12 5 9 3 o
The first Siamese recordings were made by Fred Gaisberg on his
famous 19021903 recording expedition to Asia for the Gram-
ophone Company of England. Beginning in Calcutta, he
then traveled to Tokyo, Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Sin-
gapore, finally arriving in Bangkok in June of 1903.
Over the course of 4 days he made 100 recordings.
His assistant, George Dillnutt would eventually re-
turn to Bangkok while leading his own recording
tours. Dillnutt made this record in the spring of
1910, on a trip that included the Middle East, many
Indian cities, as well as Burma, Malaysia, Singa-
pore, and Indonesia.
Among the dance dramas of Thai classi-
cal music, lakhawn nawk (outside [the court]
dance drama) was most accessible to the broader
public, primarily played by males, and of a more
down to earth nature than the all-female lakhawn
nai (inside [the court]) heard only within the confines
of the court. Krai Thawng is a well known stage work by King Rama
II (18091824) whose protagonist is a mythical crocodile hunter. The
accompanying ensemble is described as the Luang Sano Phinphat En-
semble, using an old term for what is now called piphat; it is likely a
five-piece group (piphat khrueang ha) consisting of ranat ek (higher
xylophone), khawng wong yai (lower gong circle), pi
nai (quadruple reed aerophone), drum, and ch-
ing (small, bronze cymbals used to mark
the cyclic meter). Although recorded
in 1910, making it one of the oldest
extant recordings, stylistically it
could have been recorded to-
day. This suggests performance
stability over a long period,
though there is no way to
know whether the style of
1910 was also long-standing.
Since the dancers do not
sing, their roles are spoken/
chanted/sung by male singers
in the ensemble. As is heard
in this track, the person speak-
ing for the stage dancer ranges
seamlessly from normal speaking
to heightened speech, which, while
musical, is not considered melody. TM

184 185
 C11 T H A I L A N D
Lao Phan, Part 1 1950s
Khaen Song, Part 1
Performed by the Honorable Mom Luang Thawi Watriwong
Rabbit 161-1, MSK 3 757
The mandolin, a small plucked chordophone of Italian origin, is hardly
Thai, but in this rare recording it is made to sound convincingly like a
Thai instrument. Its style comes closest to the krajappi long neck lute,
though without the lower pitches, but stylistically it is also similar to
the idiom of the jakhay, a three-stringed zither played horizontally on
the floor with a large buffalo horn plectrum. The anonymous composi-
tion, Lao Phan, likely originated in central Thailand after the two
invasions of the Lao capital, Vientiane, in the late 18th and early 19th
centuries, when the Siamese army forcibly resettled thousands of Lao
in the provinces surrounding Bangkok. Although they have long since
forgotten their original Lao musical culture, in which the khene free-
reed mouth organ is central, they certainly retained it through at least
part of the 19th century before transforming themselves into central
Thai. The composer created a short melody that is played in alternation
with other short melodies or in variation form; consequently, a perfor-
mance can be short or long depending on what is included. TM
186
C12 B U R M A
Thet Hta late 1950s
Loving You with All My Soul
Performed by Hta
Thr ee Flags DP 117, MH 10 6 4
Though Shwe Taing Nyunt died when his daughter Htaa stage name
for Ma Tin Ayewas only 2 years old, his circle of friends, musician
colleagues, and fans were constantly in touch with Htas family. Her
earliest memories were of listening to her fathers recordings with
these friends visiting the house. She played the let swe baja (concer-
tina), mandolin, saung gauk (harp), and sandaya (piano), which gave
her a firm basis in rhythmic precision. This recording, from the 1960s,
became a hit. Hearing her on radio, her fans were completely devoted
to the ayatha, or aesthetic nuances, in her vocal delivery. She was a
favored singer of the Sit Pyi Kyit post-World War II period famous
composer and sandaya performer Gita Lulin U Ko Ko and sang in his
ensembles on Myanmar Radio and Television. Many composers and
lyricists wrote songs for her, and she served for many years as a judge
on the government So-Ka-Ti-Ye annual competition for singers, danc-
ers, musicians, and lyricist-composers. Hta still does some performing
on Myanmar Radio and Television and lives in Yangon.
Hta sings Thet Hta accompanied by a full hsaing waing en-
semble: pat waing (21 pitched drums), kyi waing (small bronze gongs in
a circular frame), maun (brass gong set), kyauk lon bat (drums, gong,
and clappers). KY
187
188 189
 C13 T H A I L A N D
Tap Phraw Law  1930
Phraw Law Suite
Performed by Lady Charoen, singer
and the Bang Khun Phrom Palace Khene Band
Columbia 510 0 3 -15, S 70 0 0 4 2- O
Among all the recordings of Thai music presented here, this one is the
most surprising. The work, Tap Phraw Law, is performed by a khene
wong, that is, an ensemble of khene mouth organs from northeast
Thailand. Normally, the khene is played individually, both solo and
to accompany a singer, but for most Thai, khene ensembles were only
created in the 1970s for use in schools and consisted of instruments
either of the same pitch or an octave apart playing central Thai classi-
cal melodies in unison. Here the ensemble plays a suite of short central
Thai compositions related to the epic story of Phra Law, which origi-
nated in northern Thailand.
Bang Khun Phrom Palace was located along the Chao Phraya
River in Bangkok, but was an area inhabited by members of the old
Lao royal family who had been captured and exiled from Vientiane in
the 1770s. In addition, musicians, dancers, and artists from the court
were settled in Bangkok, while ordinary people were settled in villages
in the provinces surrounding Bangkok. We can only assume that the
Lao descendants still played khene but adapted it into an ensemble
to play central Thai music. Such ensembles are not only long gone,
but long forgotten. TM
190
C14 B U R M A
Sanda Min Yodaya 1929
The Moon
Performed by Ma Sein Sin, singer
and Saya Htun Hpe, saung gauk
Arranged by Saya Htun Hpe
with lyrics from O Tha Tint Sone Yodaya
HM V N 3 2 4 6, 8 0 -2 210 ( bx 6 0 9 6)
assisted Fredericks younger brother Will on a 1906 recording trip. Dillnutt even-
Arthur James Twine was the Gramophone Companys recordist in Persia in the
late 1920s. He also made recordings throughout Iraq, India, and in Rangoon,
where this track was recorded.
To bring songs to record companies quickly, sometimes musicians
would take traditional Yodaya tunes, mix and abridge them to match
the length of a record side as mentioned above. Of all the genres in
the Mahagita, the Yodaya songs were flexible enough to be drastically
edited in this way, and yet also become an occasion for creative use of
the song. Saya Htun Hpe was a harpist whose style in this Yodaya ac-
companiment keeps a staccato plucking style reminiscent of the early
BurmeseSiamese styles of presentation, imitating original mallet pat-
terns on the Siamese ranat.
Ma Sein Sin was a well known a ngyeint dancer and singer. She sings
of the clarity of the night with a full moon shining over the earth. KY
C15 B U R M A
Hpon Taw Bwe 1921
Homage to a Royal Eminence
Performed by Ma Thin
HM V P 5 3 8 7, GC 13 -13 0 8 0
George Dillnutt began his career at the young age of 17, and soon joined
Frederick Gaisberg as assistant on his first Asian recording tour in 1902. He then
tually became the Gramophone Companys resident recording expert in India
in 1908, leading his own expeditions in the region until he was relieved by Max
Hampe, toward the end of 1910. With careful listening one can hear the engi-
neers voices at the end of the song saying How was that? followed by good."
Dillnutts voice is surely one of them. But which one? And who is the other?
The label description in English tells us that this is a Song with Piano,
but there is no description on the label in Burmese for the instrumen-
tation. The piano sound (in fact, clanging more like a set of brass gongs
[kye waing] with a rhythmic thwack in the foreground marking the
timing) that we hear is actually typical for the upright pianos linger-
ing from late 1885 when the Mesquith piano company, from Madras,
set up shop in Rangoon catering to British and rich Burmese patrons.
Because so many of these uprights were left untuned, unvoiced for
so long, the hammer felts saturated by tropical moisture, their sound
became the typical sandaya (piano) sound for Burmese audiences of
191
the time. The thin bell-like textures on this recording were preferred to
pianos with heavier sound and tempered tuning.
The song form Bwe is found in the Mahagita and this performance
is an abbreviated version. The language is florid and typical of descrip-
tions of homage paid to courtiers and the royal family. Although Ma
Thin made several recordings with HMV, there are no accounts of her
background. Her singing style is the heavy thrust of singers used to
outdoor performing and the early recording techniques of shouting
directly into the microphone. KY
C16 B U R M A
Shit Hkan Palin (Ah Sa) ca. 1940
The Eight Royal Thrones
Performed by Maung Pwa Gyi, singer
Composed by Shwe Taing Nyunt
HM V N 17 70 3, OMF 7 6 7 9
The Burmese collective psyche was deeply scarred by humiliation and
shame after the British sacking of Mandalay in 1885. Frequently, song
textseven up to independencefocused on the loss of the throne, the
court, the connection to royal lineage, and a grand history and culture.
In Shit Hkan Palin, Shwe Taing Nyunt speaks of the magnificence of
the royal thrones in Mandalay (the Lion throne, sole survivor now on
view at the State Museum in Yangon). The eight thrones also repre-
sented eight virtues of the king. The three noble supports connecting
192
the earth to the cosmos were the throne of Indra and the celestials, the
throne of the Buddha, and the thrones of human monarchs.
Nostalgia, yearning, and loss are frequent companions in songs
that grieve for Burmas sad history. As a composer, Shwe Taing Nyunt
was particularly gifted in using poetic images to move the singers of
his songs. A singer whose voice could evoke this yearning, or lunsaya,
was treasured by audiences.
Maung Pwa Gyi opens Shit Hkan Palin with a declarative de-
scription of celestial beings and their connection to Burmas kings. He
is accompanied by banjo, tayaw (horn violin), slide guitar, and a pat
waing (21 set drum circle). KY
C17 T H A I L A N D
Khap Mai Ban Doh 1940s
Singing with Percussion
Performed by Piphat Troupe of Khru,
with teacher Rawt Aksarathap of Chiangmai
DC J BAT-3 3, DG 15 8
D. Couper, Johnson & Co. (DCJ) of Bangkok was an early independent Thai
record label. It appears that at one point they were also a liquor importer/
distributor. They recorded both classical music and luk krung, a popular music
influenced by Western styles.
Unusual in many respects, this recording presents Khap Mai Ban Doh
played by a piphat ensemble in northern Thailand, probably Chiangmai.
Because piphat ensembles were atypical of the north and required some
wealth for support, we speculate that this was the ensemble of Princess
Dararatsmi, the last member of the royal family of Lanna (the old name
for the northern kingdom). In addition, instead of using central Thai
pi, there are two northern aerophones used, likely pi nae in both small
(noi) and large (luang) sizes. The composition is one of the oldest in
the repertory and was probably derived from a northern composition the two heads. This instrument is now obsolete but was formerly used in
called Prasat Wai, but the form of this performance is odd in that the the old mahori ensemble that consisted of a saw sam sai fiddle, a krajappi
sections are played: 1, 3, 2, 3, 1. The title alludes to the earlier use of the lute, and small percussion. Indeed, performance of this work by a piphat
ban doh drum, a small two-headed drum with a handle and string with sounds awkward because so many pitches must be sustained, and the
a small stone or other hard object attached to the end; when the player repeated strikes on the khawng wong gong circle do not blend well with
twirls the handle back and forth, the ball swings back and forth hitting the somber character of this piece. TM
193
194 195
C18 B U R M A
Ba Ba Win 1950s
Glorious Beloved
Performed by Pyi Hla Hpe, singer
Composed by Sein Wai Hlan
HM V A .1.F 16 0, OMH 7 3 2 2
Pyi Hla Hpe (19121990), from Pyay, (Brit-
ish: Prome) was well known as a recording
artist and made famous the song Nat
Shi Naun, about a historical figure
of great courage. Pyi Hla Hpe moved
to Rangoon for study and within a
short time, with his musical talent,
also quickly learned acting skills and
started working with the A-1 Film
Company. In 1936, he became direc-
tor of the A-1 music ensemble which
became one of the finest in Burma. For
some of his silent films, he would stand
behind the screen and sing live while the
audience watched the film. At Burmese In-
dependence in 1948, Pyi Hla Hpe left behind
recording, singing, and the stage to enter the
new army of independent Burma.
196
The opening structure of Ba Ba Win (known as Ba Ba Win Win
in song collections) combines new lyrics with a genre from
the Mahagita known as Teidat, performed in my-
inzain mode. In this version, the initial two
verses are followed by a chorus of West-
ern chord changes which accompany
first Pyi Ha Hpe and then coro-
net/trumpet with a mute. The ti
kwet, or instrumental patterns,
are frequently played in uni-
son by tayaw, sandaya, and
slide guitar after the cho-
rus returns the song to its
Burmese musical home.
Songs of the Sit Kyo Khit
(pre-World War II) pe-
riod would frequently mix
forms in this way: Burmese
tei thwa (melody) for open-
ing lyrics and Western chord
changes or vamps for a cho-
rus. This compositional prac-
tice continued into the 1970s, but
with chorus sections replacing cha
cha patterns with harmonic changes and
styles from rock and roll. KY
C 19 B U R M A
Son Taw Myaing  1930s
The Forest Paradise
Performed by Ma Kyi Aung, singer
Composed by Shwe Taing Nyunt
Columbia V E 2 0 4 6, W EI 12 3 5 -1
This selection, Son Taw Myaing, and Mi Ba Myitta (track C22),
happily give us two opportunities to hear Burmas first widely popu-
lar female recording artist, singer Ma Kyi
Aung, and including Shit Hkan Palin
(track C16) three occasions to hear the
songs of composer Shwe Taing Nyunt (the
father of Hta, heard in track C12).
Ma Kyi Aung (18991956) came from
a family of theater performers and was
already a singer and dancer in an ah ngyeint
troupe at the age of 17. Her popularity as an
early recording artist was such that Colum-
bia signed her on to an exclusive contract
for 8 years when she was 25.
Ma Kyi Aungs singing style set a stan-
dard for popular singing of the time: total
control of timing nuances, imaginative in
melodic decoration, strong in low registers,
using the breath to creative advantage,
always charming and conveying humor, irony, and finding the right
emotional textures for dramatic lyrics.
Because this recording is a continuation, there is no instrumental
introduction. We hear Ma Kyi Aung, a slide guitar as accompani-
ment, and in the far distance a Burmese horn violin (tayaw), most
likely played by Tayaw U Ko Ko Kyi, who famously played in Ma Kyi
Aungs ensemble. The role of the violin (in classical music usually the
palwe [flute] or hne) is to accompany the singer and saung gauk (in this
case, slide guitar) by coupling the same line, but weaving in different
melismas. The slide guitar, tuned to Bur-
mese pitch, offers harmonic pivot points
in accompaniment.
Shwe Taing Nyunt adaptated Son
Taw Myaing from the Pat Pyo song
Phone Mya Mya Min (The Many-
Gloried Prince from the Ramayana). Pat
Pyo is a genre of extended song later added
to the compendium of genres in classical
Mahagita collections. The lyrics are in a
repeated verse style and describe how the
forest heals the hurt from the difficulties
that lovers experience. KY
197
Burmese actors and actresses

198 199
C20 B U R M A
Taw Hnit Taung Swe ca. 1939
The Lure of the Forest and Mountains
Performed by Thaton Ba Hein
The Twin F T 7 2 6 5, OMF 8 2 3 2
The Twin Record Company began in India at the end of
1927 as a subsidiary of the Gramophone Company. At
first, the label was used primarily to reissue Indian
recordings, using pseudonyms, at a lower price.
There were many Burmese recordings included
during the 1930s and 1940s, some reissued
from the His Masters Voice and Zonophone
labels.
To fit onto a record side, the grand Ma-
hagita songs had to be necessarily edited
and shortened from what in live perform-
ing circumstances would be at least a half
hour of repeated verse with ti kwet, or in-
strumental interludes, also repeated. The rep-
etitions gave singers and instrumentalists oppor-
tunities to embellish with great skill a melody simply
rendered on the first iteration. Arrangers took liberties
with verses for recording, even adding lines from other songs to
better fit a record side.
200
Only the first two verses of Taw Hnit Taung Swe are on this re-
cording, both repeated. The lyrics on the recording have not been
changed from the original Mahagita text. This Yodaya piece was clas-
sified in Burmese as kye thwa from the Thai cheut klong, both
meaning procession on stage with gong for the original
Siamese characters from the Ramakien. The song de-
scribes the beauty of the forest, how the bird calls
beckon the royal personage to stay and aban-
don human company.
Singer Thaton Ba Hein (born 1909)
arrived in Rangoon from Thaton, in the
southern Tenesserim region, with fellow
musicians and actors at the beginning
of World War II. Thaton Ba Hein audi-
tioned for the Anglo-Burmese manager
of The Twin (in Burmese Ah Hmwa Nyi
Naung) record company. At the audi-
tion, he was asked to sing at the loud and
soft extremes of his voice and was reward-
ed with a contract for his first song, Daung
Ya Byan, and a compliment of very good."
Thaton Ba Hein has a lovely, expressive
than aet, or glottal breaking in the voice, which is
always appreciated by Burmese audiences as evidence of
a singers emotional depth. In addition to his music career, Thaton
Ba Hein also acted in movies. He died at the age of 66 in Rangoon. KY
C21 B U R M A
Miss Whiskey 1930s
Performed and Composed by Myat Lay
HM V Brit ish Burma Film 8, O JB 6 015
Unlike other Southeast Asian countries, the beginnings of Burmas local record
industry grew out of its cinema. The British Burma Film Company began in
the early 1930s and were pioneers in the development of Burmese talk-
ies. Like other companies, their records consisted solely of movie songs
(see track C18).
U Myat Lay, known as a charismatic actor in the 1930s, recorded
Miss Whiskey, which was also the title of a movie in which he
starred, produced by the British Burma Film Company. In the Bur-
mese period of silent film, the wide distribution of 78 rpm records
with their hit tunes were excellent promotional tools to bring in
new audiences to the movies to see singers act. Frequently, the musi-
cians who recorded a song would also perform when the movie was
shown in the big city theatres of Rangoon and Mandalay.
As for the intent of the song Miss Whiskey, Myat Lays char-
acter says, Whether youre pining after old things or looking for the
new, kindness doesnt show itself in this world where love is scarce. Miss
Whiskey will show you kindness. A trumpet, hne, pat waing, and san-
daya spin into chromatic slides toward the end of this section (notably
experimental and emblematic of Western music to the Burmese) of the
song as U Myat Lay laughs in a pose of drunken stupor. KY
201
C22 B U R M A
Mi Ba Myitta 1930s
Parents Compassion
Performed by Ma Kyi Aung, singer
Composed by Shwe Taing Nyunt
Columbia V E 212 5, CEI. 815 3
Shwe Taing Nyunt (19081942) had an extraordinary reputation as
musician and composer. His name, meaning The Golden Pinnacle,
was bestowed on him by Ma Kyi Aung because of the many songs he
composed for her with memorable lyrics, characterized by his keen,
insightful perspective on human foibles. Shwe Taing Nyunt was the
most prolific composer of the Sit Kyo Khit (pre-World War II) period.
He was brought in by Columbia, after he began his recording career at
HMV, to compose for Ma Kyi Aung.
As a child, he was lauded for talents on the pattala and as a hsaing
and sandaya player in his fathers ah ngyeint and zat pwe troupes. He
became fluent in the improvised musical responses to the patter of
clowns on stage, and he writes this into the opening of Mi Ba Myitta
as the repartee of Ma Kyi Aung with her listeners.
Mi Ba Myitta is extracted from a Jataka (stories of the lives of
the Buddha) tale reminding children of a parents love, no matter if
karma brings evil consequencesin this case the murder of a king by
his son, the prince. KY
202
C23 B U R M A
Yodaya Bwe Gyi 1906
The Grand YodayaSong
Performed by Mah Thane May, singer
The Gramophone Company 3 -13 3 7 7, E 4 5 8 4
This track was recorded during the Gramophone Companys third tour of India,
led by Will Gaisberg, Fredericks younger brother. Will had been taken under his
brothers wing in 1901 and quickly worked his way up to recording engineer. This
third tour was focused mostly on India, where the Gramophone Company was a
market leader and therefore under pressure to keep up a steady supply of new
releases. Will Gaisberg, with his brothers former assistant, George Dillnutt,
made nearly 1,300 recording between May 1906 and the beginning of 1907 in
cities across India, as well as in Burma and Hong Kong.
Among the genres of song in the Mahagita, the Burmese traditional
classical canon, are the Yodaya (Burmese for Ayudhya, the old Siamese
capital) songs. These are Burmese adaptations of specific tunes known
as Nah Pat in Thai used in the Ramakien dance-drama and for honor-
ing teachers.
During the reign of King Hsinbyushin, from 1763 to 1765, the
Burmese conquered Ayudhya and took hostage Siamese artisans,
theatre performers, and musicians who lived at the Burmese courts of
Amarapura and Inwa, near present day Mandalay. Myawaddi Mingyi
U Sa, the legendary musician and composer, adapted these songs in the
1780s from the Siamese musicians and rewrote lyrics in Burmeseno
203
 longer always related to the Ramayana characters and actionpraising
the palace, courtesans, and forest scenes for the royal court. Myawaddi
Mingyi U Sa composed this Yodaya Bwe Gyi for court performance
of the Inao drama, originally from Java. Framing the story of a Java-
nese prince, it was adapted by the Siamese and brought to Burma.
Because of their relatively short verse forms, recognizable instru-
mental introductions (kyay sin), and interludes (ti kwet), the Yodaya
songs were easily abridged by musicians for recording in the studio on
a 3-minute record side. Later, composers would use a Yodaya style to
compose contemporary melodies known as khi hsan.
According to writer and singer Shwe Ku Nan Nwe Nwe, Mah
Thane Mays vocal quality in this recordingconstricted throat, nasal
delivery, shouted deliveryis indicative of an outdoor theatre voice
and singing loudly for the early microphones, but also characteristic of
singers from Mandalay who learned their craft from the descendents
of the Siamese teachers at the royal court. She remarks that Mah Thane
Mays melismas do not accommodate well to the Burmese language,
especially in the opening verse praising the palace, Nan Le, Hmyaw
ba Nan, suggesting that her style of singing is closer to earlier Siamese
prosody. Mah Thane Mays kwet sait, or interpretive embellishments, musicians hear as upbeats, but with inaudible downbeats played with
are cropped and shortened, unlike other Burmese singers of the early cymbals known as si. The kye waing gong circle and hne (double reed
20th century whose singing style of classical music emphasized elabo- shawm) perform the interludes, while the pattala (bamboo xylophone)
rate embellishment and more open-throated approaches. accompanies Mah Thane May in Thai style mallet playing of parallel
Interesting to hear in this early 1906 recording is the prominence octaves rather than the right-left alternating distribution of intervallic
of the clapper (wa la khot) in a steady duple meter on what Burmese and melodic material in Burmese style. KY

204 205
C24 B U R M A
Nyut Nyut Hsaing Hsaing 1930s
The Lingering Gloomy Atmosphere
Performed by Yadana Myit, singer
HM V P 14 6 2 3, 8 0 - 47 9 4
In this recording of Nyut Nyut Hsaing Hsaing, the microphone is
placed so that we can really hear the untempered tuning of Burmese
sandaya (piano): a lowered seventh and raised fourth. Both the banjo
and tayaw (horn violin) are played with Burmese tunings in pule mode
as they shadow the piano line. The lyrics are abridged from a Papyo -
Bawle song in the Mahagita. In the original Papyo, the lyrics focus on
the authors longing, unbearable on a gloomy day, asking the Rain God
if monsoon rain and storm is a punishment for human indiscretion.
The classical tempo would have been slower, the melisma more florid,
as each verse is repeated twice. The many Paypyo and few Bawle songs
were added to the repertoire of the Mahagita in the early 19th century.
Paypyo lyrics are more lengthy than the Yodaya genre and their instru-
mental accompaniment is more florid. In the text of Nyut Nyut Hsa-
ing Hsaing, the Papyo form is extended by Bawle, a particular musical
introduction and short verse. However, in Yadana Myits version, the
Bawle section is left out. KY
206
Papyo
How gloomy the atmosphere, with a darkening fog,
Longing pierces my heart while my eyes try to see.
The northern wind blows and withered leaves fall through branches,
The orb of the sun behind clouds, like a peacocks eye, as summer
approaches with a new year, lighting up suddenly this forest glade.
Bawle
Thazin flower blossoms intoxicate the forest, awaiting royal collection.
Parakeets, wing on wing sing in chorus among the mountain cliffs.
Even the greatness of the Royal Palace cannot assuage this longing.
The lonely one languishes.
Blinding rain with its chill drops causes a blur of existence in all the eight
directions of the universe.
O, Rain God, what mightiness causes you to blind us with rain,
flash at us with lightening and deafen us with mighty roars?
O, Rain God, perhaps you cannot bear the lonely ones.
Your war on us who languish at the entrance to your celestial abode,
punishing us with your battle cries.
O, Asura the Great...muster your deafening and blinding battalions.
207
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 DI SC D
MALAYSIA SINGAPORE INDONESIA

212 213
 D1 I N D O N E S I A
Lambaresik 1940
Pure Heart
Performed by Nji Ajat, singer, with Tjelempoeng Orkest
Panglipoer Galih
Canar y H S 131 (A 7 2 6 7 )
The Canary label was introduced in 1939 by Path Orient, by then part of
EMI. Canary recorded in Indonesia and pressed its records in China. It was
distributed in Indonesia and in Singapore by Tom Hemsley. Hemsley had
previously been involved with the Chap Singa and Chap Kuching labels. Ca-
nary was focused on Sundanese recordings as well as other popular forms.
This piece by a Celempung orchestra (Tjelempoeng Orkest) is essen-
tially a Sundanese (West Javanese) gamelan salndro. These gamelans,
like most in Java and Bali, were symbols of prestige and power, even if
owned by families rather than by nobles. This ensemble and this piece,
however, are both unique and clearly of historical interest. Though
the orchestra names itself after the celempung, a zither used in some
214
gamelans, the instrument does not appear in the recording. The labeling
of these discs was not always accurate as the marketing agent or producer
or someone not in the ensemble sometimes developed the descriptions.
And, though this is a Sundanese gamelan salndro, one core instrument of
that ensemble, the bonang gong-chime, is absent.
The recording does, however, capture the spirit of a celempung
ensemble in featuring vocal music accompanied by a small ensemble. The
piece is a Sundanese tune (lagu kawih) featuring an arrangement to fit the
instrumentation available for the recording. The singer is closely recorded
probably because of the quality of her singing and the importance of the
poetry. One of the featured instruments, which sounds too close to the
microphone, is the gambang xylophone.
The piece is introduced by the rebab (two-string fiddle), and uses
a 16-beat cycle. Other instruments include kendang (drums), goong
(large gong), and kempul (smaller gong). One important Sundanese
characteristica syncopated kempul pattern during the last four beats
of the cycleis clear in each of the cycles. The tuning is the anhemi-
tonic (five note scales with no semitones) pentatonic salndro and the
featured vocalist is Nyi Ayat (Nji Ajat). DH
215
 D2 I N D O N E S I A tanbul) emerged in 1891 in Java and is a Eurasian/Malay hybrid largely D3 M A L AY S I A / S I N G A P O R E verses are created spontaneously, and are based on themes such as love,
Dji Hong (Lagoe Tionghoa) 1926 based on the stories of 1,001 Nights combining song, (sometimes Dondang Sayang, Part 1 1940 wisdom, the natural surroundings, luck, and fate. Each verse of the pan-
Performed by Miss Riboet bawdy) comedy, and drama. Miss Riboet, whose career was pushed for- Love Song, Part 1 tun has four lines: the first couplet is known as the pembayang (imagery)
Beka B. 1510 7-2 , 2 7 7 75 ward by the impresario Tio Tik Djien, was a famous drama and stam- Performed by Miss Rohani, Pancharan Muda Kr. Party, and the second couplet as the maksud (meaning). Some lines of the pan-
bul singer in Jakarta and recorded a large number of songs in a variety and the Chap Ayam Orkest tun are repeated in the stanza. Because each side of the record is limited
Miss Riboet was popular enough as a stage performer that Beka started a Miss of forms. Tio Tik Djien was also well known for compelling the art- Chap Ayam / Pathe 610 2 6, A 7514 to 3 minutes, only one female vocalist singing two verses of the dondang
Riboet Records series. This was recorded by Max Birckhahn (see ists in his productions to play soccer as well as master their art. sayang is featured in this Chap Ayam recording.
track A21). Though a stambul song, this particular recording Path was one of the first labels to establish offices in China, The dondang sayang singer is accompanied by the
omits some of the Western instruments normally setting up in Shanghai by 1908. The Chinese branch of ronggeng ensemble, which consists of a violin, two
This is a fascinating piece featuring the well- used and instead sounds more Chinese and Path was acquired by British Columbia, which soon rebana (frame drums), and a knobbed gong.
known singer, Miss Riboet (also called Miss might have been featured in a Chinese play. merged into EMI in 1931. While Path records in All dondang sayang songs are based on one
Riboet Orion), who is credited with popu- The instruments include violin, piano, and various Chinese languagesincluding Hokkien, melody with an introductory motif played
larizing both stambul songs and tonil (Ma- woodblock; the latter is reminiscent of Cantonese, Amoy, Chaozhouhad been dis- by the violin, which is familiar to sing-
lay dramas with contemporary settings Chinese music and controls the rhythm in tributed widely in Southeast Asia, it wasnt un- ers and audiences. As in asli music, the
and dramas based on everyday life). She Chinese opera. The piano is played in oc- til the late 1930s that they began marketing singer and violinist carry the melody
was so popular that there was even a taves in a style to replicate the sonority of Malay language records with their Chap Ayam heterophonically with variations in
Miss Riboet II in a rival theater com- the Chinese yangqin zither and the violin series, which continued until about 1960. ornamentation. The rebana drums play
pany. The song mainly uses Malay/In- might be substituting an erhu fiddle. The interlocking patterns of the eight-beat
donesian language with some Hokkien melody, similar to what we find in opera, Meaning "love song," dondang sayang is a asli rhythmic cycle, which is marked
words inserted. Such language mixing is heterophonic; that is, the violin, piano, type of social syncretic music performed by the gong at beat eight The diatonic
was not uncommon but was usually re- and vocal perform nearly the same melody by the Malays and Peranakan (Chinese major scale is employed in the pembayang
stricted to Chinese Indonesian and Malay- without the use of functional harmony. The who have acculturated to Malay culture) section. The melody of the second maksud
sian audiences during the early 20th century. gapped scale used is similar to both the Chi- of Malaysia and Singapore. In a performance section modulates to a fourth higher before
This is a song used in stambul theatre, nese pentatonic and the Javanese slendro. DH of dondang sayang, singers create a good-hu- returning to the tonic. SBT
which is also known as the Malay Opera. Kome- moured atmosphere as they exchange witty Malay
die Stambul (literally Commercial Entertainment Is- verses in repartee (jual beli pantun). The Malay pantun

Malay ensemble, Sundanese ensemble with blown gong (following pages)

216 217
218 219
 D4 I N D O N E S I A
Ile-Ile 1950
Way of Moving
Folk ways 14 3 6 a
Although ethnographic field recordings were made in 1890 by Jesse Walter
Fewkes, shortly after Edison invented the first cylinders, it wasnt until Moses
Asch started Folkways in 1948 that documentary recordings became widely
available to the public. Harold Courlander, a novelist, folklorist and anthropolo-
gist, served as the first editor of the Folkways ethnic series, producing over 30
albums during his tenure. The next two tracks first appeared on his 1950 Folk-
ways set Music of Indonesia.
Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of ethnic groups in
North Sumatra, including Toba, Karo, Pakpak, Simalungun, Angkola,
and Mandailing, each of which are distinct but related in terms of
language and culture. The music styles of the various groups vary, as
do the religious practices. Some, like the Toba, are largely Christian;
most are predominately Muslim; and a few have held onto pre-Islamic
and Christian practices.
This piece features what appears to be a gambang xylophone and
male vocal accompanied by a drummer. A gong, and perhaps tube
zither in off-beats, along with the drum, create a static, four-beat cyclic
background structure in support of the music. The text in parts con-
cerns longing. The gambang and vocal melody are related and gener-
ally move in parallel directions in a flexible heterophony; the gambang
220
also introduces the piece and plays in between verses. This music and
these instruments indicate indigeneity and are related to the pre-
Islamic/Christian cultural strata. DH
D5 I N D O N E S I A
Tumba Lela-Lelan 1950
Playful/Wistful
Folk ways 14 3 6 b
The Minangkabau (Victorious Water Buffalo) are the worlds largest
matrilineal ethnic group located in the coastal and highland areas
in West Sumatra, famous for their architecture of peaked roofs in
imitation of curved water buffalo horns. In general, the Minangkabau
are Muslim, and often very strongly Muslim, but they have retained
pre-Islamic cultural customs (adat) particularly in the uplands area,
and Islam had to be tempered with matrilineal patterns. The people are
also known for their extensive, sung oral histories.
This upbeat piece is likely a song in the cheerful category,
distinct from sad songs and laments. It features a male vocalist,
childrens choir, fiddle (rabab), and hand-clapping that keeps the pulse.
The soloist sings four phrases and is joined by the childrens choir for
two phrases in a kind of responsorial structure, then he sings four
more phrases and is accompanied once again, and so forth. The vocal
and fiddle melodies are performed in close heterophony. DH
221
 D6 I N D O N E S I A
Angkat Angatan 1928
To Depart
Performed by Gender Wajang, Koeta
Odeon 2 0 47 6 6, Jab 5 5 9
By the time Beka and Odeon first traveled to Bali in 1928, they had been record-
ing in the Dutch East Indies for years, and were both controlled by the German
Lindstroem company. The initials in the dead wax of the records indicate that
each label used a different recordist; Heinrich Lampe for Beka and Siegfried
Frenz for Odeon (see track D15). It is not clear if the trips were made together
or separately, or in what order. The Balinese recordings were considered a
complete commercial failure: apparently the Balinese had so much live music
that they couldnt understand a need for recordings. Although these were the
only commercial Balinese recordings made during the 78 era, they had a wide
impact, inspiring Western composers such as Colin McPhee.
Gender wayang (note: the "g" in gender is hard) is a Balinese quartet of
10-keyed metallophones in slendro tuning, a nearly equidistant pen-
tatonic scale. One pair of metallophones is an octave higher than the
other pair and musicians use two mallets each, unlike other gamelan
playing where musicians play a mallet with one hand and damp keys
with the other hand. In gender wayang, the musicians must play and
damp keys with both hands. The players left hands normally play the
Balinese reyong players
222
same melody in unison and octaves while the right hands perform
melodies in interlocking figurations. The ensemble is used to accom-
pany wayang kulit, the shadow puppet play in Bali; other wayang kulit
theatres with differing music accompaniment exist in Java, Sunda, and
Lombok. Gender wayang in Bali is also sometimes used to accom-
pany life-cycle rites such as cremations, other rites for the dead, and
teeth-filings.
This piece is Angkat Angkatan, meaning in this case to depart,
and used in the theatre to accompany the travels of puppet characters
through forests or space when they leave from one scene, for example
at a palace, en route to another. Compositions for wayang kulit are di-
vided between sitting pieces, performed before the beginning of the
story, and those pieces used to accompany the characters and action
as directed by the puppeteer or dalang. Though normally performed
within the story, this recording of Angat Angkatan was commis-
sioned and performed outside of a wayang performance and features
most of the piece (these recordings were limited by the recording
medium to a maximum of 3 minutes or so), including brief dense mo-
ments of batel, a form used for battle and action scenes.
The performers are led by I Wayan Lotring, one of the most fa-
mous Balinese musicians and composers in Balinese history. Lotring
was a master not only of gender wayang, but also of a variety of
gamelan styles. He directed several gamelan groups in addition to this
gender wayang quartet in Kuta. DH
223
224 225
 D7 M A L AY S I A / S I N G A P O R E
Pengantin Berarak ca. 1911
Wedding Procession
HM V P 2 8 0 3, GC 8 -10 52 6 (mx:H 9 9 70 R)
Max Hampe, and his older brother Franz, were prolific recording engineers for
the Gramophone Company. Max Hampe began recording in 1904 and ended his
role with the company around 1916, after recording some 17,000 sides. Hampe
arrived in Batavia (now Jakarta) on December 1, 1910 to replace engineer
George Dillnutt. By January 1911 he had recorded 250 sides in Indonesia and
then left for Rangoon, and then India. By late October of 1911, he had returned
to Singapore where he most likely made these recordings. A group of five re-
cords featuring this ensemble were released:P 2801-2802-2803-2804-2805.
The traditional weddings of the Peranakan (Chinese who have accul-
turated to Malay culture) of Melaka, Singapore, and Penang comprised
a series of rituals that lasted 12 days. These rituals were brought by the
Hokkien who migrated from Fujian province in South China to Ma-
laya. Pengantin Berarak (Wedding Procession) is a recording of the
instrumental music performed by a seroni ensemble during Peranakan
weddings. The ensemble is played at specific ceremonies, such as when
the groom is carried in a sedan chair in a procession to the brides
house, during the purification and initiation ceremony, the meeting of
226
the bride and the groom, or when the wedding couple pay their respect
to their elders. The seroni band resembles the regional drum and blow-
ing music ensemble (guchui yue), which perform during processions,
festivities, weddings, and funerals in China, but the seroni band has
been localized.
The main instrument of the seroni ensemble is the Chinese
double-reeded shawm known as suona. The suona is made of wood or
metal, with the lower end shaped like a bell. The player rests his lips
against a small metal lip-disc. The Peranakan named this instrument
seroni after the Malay shawm serunai. Two different sizes of seroni are
used in the wedding ceremony. Other instruments in the ensemble
include the Chinese flute, a pair of small cymbals, drums, and flat
Chinese gongs. A Malay or Javanese knobbed gong has been added by
some ensembles, and some Malay melodies have been incorporated.
In this HMV recording, the seroni and a higher pitched flute play
the main melody while a lower-pitched flute replies in antiphonal style
with the other two melodic instruments. They are accompanied by
an eight-beat interlocking rhythmic pattern played on two different
pitched gongs and a small drum (woodblock). This softer style is usu-
ally performed during the quieter moments of the wedding resembling
the softer style of guchui yue. The larger seroni performed together
with the other percussion instruments is usually played for processions
outdoors. The latter is similar to the louder style of guchui yue. SBT
Chinese wedding ensemble
227
 D8 I N D O N E S I A
Tjikadjangan (pelog) 1939
Song in the Style of Cikajangan City
Performed by Oman, Doeleh, and K.O.E. Sabri
HM V NS7 2 4, OMG 5 8 8 4

Tembang Sunda, which features sung poetry accompanied by kecapi

(zither) instruments and suling (bamboo flute), is a classical vocal style
originating from the Sunda kingdom of highland West Java. Developed
in the court of the regent Kebupaten Cianjur in the late 19th century,
the tembang Sunda is one of the most serene of Indonesian ensembles.
The style began as an entertainment in which aristocrats would sing
in poetic meters derived from West Javanese or Central Javanese vocal
forms. A variant, kecapi suling, which arose in the 1970s and omits the
vocals, is performed in restaurants and hotels in many parts of Indone-
sia due to its soft and mellifluous sound.
There are normally two kecapi: the lower-pitched kecapi indung
and the higher-pitched and kecapi rincik or anak. Functioning respec-
tively as mother (slower, outlining bridges and interludes) and child
(faster, filling in parts), the indung has 1820 strings and the rincik
(which often plays at twice the density of the indung) normally has This piece, like most, features a vocalist singing poetry (tembang)
15 strings. One to eight vocalists might participate in performances in the Sundanese language. The tuning is pelog. The male vocalist
of tembang Sunda. Musicians traditionally hold performances in the sings in meter (panambih), and the kecapi players follow the vocal
evenings and are not paid for their services. Pieces begin with free me- melody. The suling player, who opens the piece, intersperses melodies
ter and heavily ornamented songs (mamaos), followed by fixed-meter in between verses of poetry, thus never overlapping with the vocalist.
songs (panambih). Tembang Sunda serves as a sonic link to the past for aristocrats. DH

228 229
 D9 M A L AY S I A / S I N G A P O R E
Gambos Ya Omar 1911
Performed by Salih
HM V P 2 7 8 4, GC 9 -12 8 5 4

This recording was made by Max Hampe in Singapore on the same trip as track
D7. Aside from one brief 1909 recording session conducted by George Dillnutt in
Penang, all other Malay recordings were made in Singapore.

Gambos Ya Omar is a love song from a Middle Eastern bangsawan

play. Omar, the male character, pleads with Siti not to be angry after they
had just quarrelled with each other. The song is sung in Malay using the
dance-song genre called zapin. The Malay zapin is an adaptation of the
Arabic zapin, which was brought to the state of Johore by Arab migrants.
The dance was performed by men only in the early days, but was mod-
ernized as the zapin was adapted and employed in the Middle Eastern
stories of bangsawan theatre. New zapin dance motives and choreogra- This recording resembles the zapin in the village setting, where
phy were created for both men and women dancers in bangsawan. The the melody is performed by the vocalist, gambus, violin, and harmo-
Malay bangsawan, ronggeng groups, and later, Malay film, were responsi- nium. The marwas hand drums and a cone-shaped drum dok play the
ble for popularizing the zapin and spreading it to other parts of Malaya. four-beat zapin rhythm. The song starts with a short gambus introduc-
As the title of the recording shows, the main instrument in the tion, which is based on the melody of the song, emphasizing the zapin
ensemble is the gambus, a Middle Eastern oud, which has a wooden rhythm. This is followed by stanzas sung in the AABB form. Section B
pear-shaped body, a round back, and a short neck. The gambus has five of each stanza has a tonal centre that is a fourth below that of section
to eight strings in double courses and a single high string. The Arabic A. The loud and sharp interlocking rhythms of the marwas at the end
mode and the style of plucking of the gambus strings give the song a are characteristic of the zapin tahtim (coda) for the dance ending. SBT
Middle Eastern essence.

230 231
 D10 I N D O N E S I A
Lagu Daerah Sumatera ca. 1955
Sumatran Song: The One Who Sits Has an Impeded Voice
Performed by Plah and Raslah
IndraVox 1.3 9 s.a., X R 2 4 3

Dutch-born ethnomusicologist Bernard IJzerdraat made this recording in the

mid-1950s. He was sponsored by Radio Republic Indonesia to take documentary
music recordings of peoples in remote areas of Indonesia, including Kerinci
and other areas of Sumatra, along with places like Makasar in South Sulawesi
and the isolated island of Roti (Rote). The 78 rpm discs were distributed to RRI
stations under the name Indravox, but were not sold publicly. IJzerdraat, who
was deeply immersed in Indonesian (particularly Javanese) culture, was in later
years known variously as S. Brata, Suryabrata, and Bernard Suryabrata. Indra-
vox evolved into the well-known Lokananta label in the late 1950s.

This a cappella (without instruments) vocal piece by two females is

an example of regional entertainment from Kerinci in central Suma-
tra near Mount Kerinci, the highest peak and one of the most active
volcanoes in Indonesia. The singers perform a metric song in close
heterophony; one voice occasionally precedes the other in moving to
a new pitch or expresses slightly differing ornamentation. The perfor-
mance both is melismaticthat is, the vocalists sing single syllables
of text while moving through a variety of tonesand features long,
sustained tones. DH

Sumatran dancers

232 233
D11 M A L AY S I A / S I N G A P O R E
Shier Zhulei 1930
Twelve Drops of Tears
Performed by Mei Yu
Pagoda V 3 2 0 2 a
Shier Zhulei represents a type of narrative-style singing from the
southern Fujian provinces of Quanzhou and Amoy. Using the Min-
nan (southern Fujian) dialect, the female singer expresses her longing
for her lover who is far away. Known as kua-a in the Amoy dialect,
these songs were brought by the southern Fujian immigrants into
Taiwan, and were later developed into an operatic form called kua-a-
hi (also known as Taiwanese opera). Kua-a songs were passed down
not only through oral tradition, but were published in songbooks that
were widely distributed. Many of the songs were used in the famous
opera stories, such as San Bo Ying Tai, Chen San Wu Niang, and
Mengjiangnu Seeking Her Husband at the Great Wall. The stories
and music were introduced to Southeast Asia, and popularized by Chi-
nese opera troupes and singers who performed in the region.
The kua-a songs often have 10, 12, 24, 28, 30, or even 48 verses. In
many of the songs, the singer will begin the first verse with the word
first, the second verse with the word second, and so on. This ex-
ample has twelve verses: the first verse starts with the words first step,
the second verse with the words second step, and the last verse ends
with the words twelfth step. The song is accompanied by the nanguan
ensemble (known as nanyin in southern Fujian today). It consists of
234
courts of Cirebon and Javanese regents.
calist (as here), to provide the background
the dongxiao (end-blown flute), erxian (two-string spiked fiddle), pipa
(four-string short-necked plucked lute), and sanxian (three-string long-
necked plucked lute). SBT
D12 I N D O N E S I A
Ka Abdi ca. 1957
To Me
Performed by Upit Sarimanah, singer
with Gamelan Sunda Pusaka, led by R. Tuteng Djobari
Nusant ara 4 57- 4 2 , Imco 75 6
determined by the patokan (structural outline) of the piece. The gongs,
Nusantara was one of the many subsidiaries of the Irama label.
This recording features the Sundanese (West Java-
nese) gamelan salndro, an ensemble of metallo-
phones, gong chimes (bonang), gongs, drums,
a bowed spiked lute (rebab), xylophone (gam-
bang), and vocalist. Gamelans emerged
in Sunda in the 16th century from the
As elsewhere in Java and Bali, gamelans
were aristocratic symbols of prestige and
power. The gamelan salndro is very ver-
satile and has been used for instrumental
performance, to accompany a female vo-
for life-cycle rites (weddings, circumcisions,
feasts, celebrations, and government occa-
sions), and to accompany the rod-puppet the-
atre (wayang golek), dramas, dance-dramas, social
dances (jaipongan), and sometimes even martial arts. The drummer is
responsible for tempo and dynamic changes and leads the dance accom-
paniment. The Sundanese salndro (as well as the Javanese slendro) is
a pentatonic, anhemitonic scale (a five note scale with no semitones.).
The rebab player leads off this piece and the drummer and metal-
lophones (saron) quickly enter in interlocking parts, playing patterns
consisting of the large goong, the smaller kempul and the horizon-
tally mounted kenong kettles outline the form, in this case
a 16-beat cycle. The rebab part is important enough
that the player (Hamid) received a credit on the
record label. The vocalist, Upit Sarimanah, en-
ters after the first cycle. A male vocalist adds
some commentary in the background.
Upit Sarimanah (19281992), featured
in this recording, was one of the best-
known female vocalists (sinden) in Sunda
during the 1950s1960s. Born with the
name Suyamah, she first appeared as a
vocalist on stage at age 7. She performed
extensively for both Dutch and especially
Indonesian radio and recorded a great
many songs. In addition to gamelan, she also
was famous for singing popular music. DH
235
236 237
D13 I N D O N E S I A
Babarlajar Mataram ca. 1940
Mataram Set the Sail
Performed by Gamelan Musicians of Yogyakarta, Java
Odeon 2 7 818 7a, Jab 2 3 9 7
This recording features the gamelan of Central Java. The title, Babar-
lajar (today Babar Layar) refers to a gendhing bonangan, a reper-
toire that features the bonang gong-chime. Gendhing bonangan
(or soran) are loud pieces omitting vocals meant to be
played outdoors and contrasting with what is some-
times called gadhon, a repertoire that feature vo-
cals and soft instruments intended for indoor
palace enjoyment. The other part of the title,
Mataram, refers to the 16th18th century
powerful Islamic kingdom of Central Java.
This short recording features what is
generally performed as the second and last
part (inggah) of the composition. After an
introduction by the player on the bonang ba-
rung (featuring chimes in two rows), the mu-
sicians perform several cycles of the melody,
then the piece accelerates during the second-
to-last cycle, and then quickly ritards in the last
cycle to the conclusion. The core melody (balungan)
238
is played by the saron metallophones while the bonang plays a comple-
mentary leading melody and the kendhang (drum) player directs the
volume, tempo, and conclusion. In this recording all of the inner punc-
tuation is clearly audible, as well as the bonang panerus, a gong-chime
pitched an octave higher than bonang barung and playing at twice the
density, and perhaps the bonang panembung, a gong-chime pitched an
octave lower than the bonang barung.
Javanese gamelan music includes forms that are irregular or short
in numbers of beats per gong cycles, or gongan (e.g., 8 or 16 beats
per gong stroke), up to compositions with 512 beats per
gong stroke. Babar Layar is a well-known gendh-
ing tengahan (middle-size composition of the
large-size gendhing repertory), meaning in this
case that there are 128 beats per gong stroke
or gongan, in pelog tuning in pathet (mode)
lima. Interestingly, the piece emphasizes the
fourth pitch in pelog tuning (not found in
any pathet) toward the end of the cycle. The
peking (highest-pitched saron metallophone)
playing style indicates that the piece was
recorded in Yogyakarta; the piece Babar
Layar is often associated with that palace
tradition. The pre-World War II date may mean
that this was a palace gamelan of either Yogya-
karta or the nearby minor court, Pakualaman. DH
239
Javanese actors Sumatran musicians (right)

240 241
D14 M A L AY S I A / S I N G A P O R E
Gambos Sri Mahkota Kelantan ca. 1930s
Gambos Crown of Kelantan
Performed by Obid, singer
with the Special Singapore Malay Orchestra
Odeon A 2 0 619 3b (s t r 16 47 )
Gambus refers to the short-necked Middle Eastern lute called ud,
which is the main instrument used in the gambus ensemble. In
Malaysia, the gambus is played during religious occasions such as the
birthday of the Prophet Muhammad, the end of the Muslim fasting
month, and the Muslim New Year. It is also played at Malay weddings,
circumcisions, and other festivities. Because of its association with
Islam and the Middle East, it is performed in the bangsawan plays of
Middle Eastern origin.
Gambus Sri Mahkota Kelantan is a love song from the Malay
opera that is sung in Malay. Performed by an urban orchestra, the
piano has been added to the traditional gambus ensemble comprising
a gambus, violin, and hand-held marwas drums. In the urban orches-
tra, a flute, rebana frame drum, tambourine, and a knobbed gong can
also be used. Through the Malay opera, folk social ensembles such as
the gambus and ronggeng ensembles were modernized and popular-
ized throughout British Malaya. The music of these ensembles that was
recorded became the first popular music in the country.
In this recording, the gambus performer does not improvise on
the Arabic mode in the introduction, but begins with a short preamble
242
based on the melodic theme of the song. However, it is interesting to
note that even though the piano has been introduced, it plays the same
melody (in octaves) as the gambus, male vocalist, and violin, thus
maintaining the heterophic texture of the melodic lines of village gam-
bus music. Only a few triads are played by the piano at the end of the
piece. Short interludes between the verses are also played by the piano
in octaves. SBT
D15 I N D O N E S I A
Poetih Poetih Sapoet Andoek 1928
White White Bathing Towels
Performed by Ni Lemon, singer
with the group Djanger Abijan-Timboel
Odeon R A 2 0 47 9 0 b (JA B 57 3)
Another example from Siegfried Frenzs 1928 Balinese session (see track D6).
Among the many genres on the island of Bali is janger, which roughly
translates as infatuation and began as a youth style of music in the
1920s1930s, partially in response to stambul theatre. It was one of the
few non-gamelan styles of early 20th century music and featured equal
numbers of young men and women singing and performing choreog-
raphy together, generally while seated in a square. Janger still exists as
a form today, though it is rare and considered quaint. This rendition is
typical of the style of janger as developed from the 1920s1950s.
Janger performances centered around social occasions, including
cultural and political meetings, and was also performed occasionally
for tourists in the 1930s. Women (called janger) were usually dressed
similarly to legong court dancers or rejang temple dancers, virtually
always including an arched headdress in the shape of a cili (rice god-
dess), while the men would dress in a hybrid styles wearing a kamben
or bapang cloth on top completed with Western dress, including
berets, tennis shoes, short trousers, knee socks, and sometimes even
sunglasses. The movements often included acrobatics, salutes, and
gymnastic exercises, and the flexible style
of music and dance gave young adults the
opportunity to interact and flirt.
This piece opens with men perform-
ing a style of kecak (rhythmic unison
vocal chant on the syllable chak; in fact,
the males are called chak or kecak), origi-
nating from the Sanghyang trance dance
tradition (this is about the time that
kecak was extracted to become its own
dynamic form). The males are quickly
joined by a rebab (bowed lute) playing
a repeating melody in the pelog scale
(hemitonic pentatonic form) in a 16-beat
cycle, and the men perform syncopated
vocal lines against the melody. The music
Kecak dance is punctuated by a frame drum (terbang
or rebana) and small gong (klentong or klenang) playing on offbeats.
At a signal from the lead male vocalist, this section ends and a group
of women enter singing a folk tune in pelog tuning with men respond-
ing with an interweaving countermelody and a suling bamboo flute
added, following the womens melody. The women sing text describing
the beauty of the janger intermixed with nonsense syllables. The music
in this section begins at a moderate pace and progressively accelerates
and grows in volume, then ends again with a male vocal signal. DH
243
244 245
 D16 M A L AY S I A / S I N G A P O R E
Chek Siti I 1935
Miss Siti 1
Performed by H. Dolmat and Saianah
Pagoda V3 6 6 6 a
Pagoda was active during the 1930s and resumed after the war with some
further releases during the 1950s. Some were reissued on Columbia with the
same V3000 series catalogue number. Based in Singapore, Pagoda recorded
Chaozhou and Amoy operas, as well as popular styles of the time, such as kro-
ntjong, stamboul, dondang sayang, and others.
Chek Siti is a duet from a Malay bangsawan play that consists of four
sections. The traditional ronggeng ensemble comprising the violin,
Malay frame drum (rebana), and gong is used in the singing sections.
The first part is sung by two well-known bangsawan performers,
H. Dolmat and Saianah. The male character announces the name of
the song in Malay at the beginning. This is followed by an exchange
between the two singers about love, using the joget dance song. Joget is
a fast and lively dance song performed by the ronggeng ensemble dur-
ing weddings and other Malay festivities. A unique feature is the use
of the compound duple meter and a four-beat rhythmic pattern that
juxtaposes units of two notes and three notes played in succession. This
feature is also found in Portuguese music, showing a strong influence
of this music on joget. Joget uses the strophic form; each stanza of the
Malay pantun verse is sung with the same melody.
246
The two singers enter into a dialogue in the second section of the
recording. The male vocalist asks Siti for her hand in marriage but
she rejects him. He then sings a melancholic slow asli song known as
lagu nasib (song of fate) in the third section, and is accompanied by
two violins, a piano, and a guitar. Lagu nasib depicts a sad situation in
bangsawan plays, such as the separation from or rejection by a loved
one. Rubato is used to express the heart-rending emotions. The final
section ends with a joget again, sung by the female vocalist. The male
singer says he wants to kill himself because of this rejection. SBT
D17 I N D O N E S I A
Titipati  ca. 1930s
Bridge to Death
Performed by Mas Adjeng P. Laras Aroem
with Gamelan Tjakran of Tuan Liem Yoe Giok
Odeon A 2 0 4 4 4 3 b, JA B 157 1
The Central Javanese gamelan is perhaps the best-known type of
ensemble in Indonesia. Here, Titipati is performed by a smaller
gamelan in a quieter, refined, and indoor style. This style features the
soft instruments of Javanese gamelan, such as rebab fiddle, suling
flute, gender metallophones, gambang wooden xylophone, celempung
zither, and, especially, vocal poetry (tembang) sung by a female solo-
ist (pesindhen).
247
248 249
 Central Javanese gamelan is
sometimes divided into loud
and soft styles. The record-
ing displays the floating
quality of the soft style
without the promi-
nent sounding of the
balungan, or skeletal
melody, featured in the
loud style. The melody
here is implicit and
sometimes referred to as
lagu batin (inner melody).
The musicians perform
cengkok, the melodic elabora-
tions particular to their instru-
ment, in interaction with each
other and with the pesindhen, whose melody floats more freely with
greater rhythmic and melodic independence from the musics pulse.
This piece also features ciblon drumming, the active middle-size
drum used to accompany some forms of action and dance. The two
bonang gong-chime instruments, the lower-pitched barung and higher-
pitched panerus, perform in an interlocking style called imbal (or
pinjalan). The piece uses the anhemitonic, pentatonic scale, slendro. DH
250
D18 I N D O N E S I A
Kitjir Kitjir ca. 1955
Glorious Beloved
Performed by Jetty and Suhairi, singers
with Orkes Gambang Keromong
S enandung X BK 0 18 ( imco 2 6 3)
Senandung was another of Iramas many sublabels. Recordings might appear
on multiple Irama labels, such as Bamboo, Nusantara, Gembira, and Putri.
The Chinese communities around the Indonesian capital of Jakarta
(formerly Batavia) maintained or created a number of musical forms
to meet their needs. Among these is gambang kromong, an ensemble of
Chinese and Pribumi (native) Indonesians. This hybrid ensemble fea-
tures one or two Chinese-style fiddles (tehyan), a side-blown Chinese-
style flute (using the Indonesian term, suling), an Indonesian 18-keyed
xylophone (gambang), an Indonesian gong-chime of ten kettle-gongs
(kromong), and various Indonesian percussion instruments. In ad-
dition, guitars are sometimes added. Gambang kromong once used
a large number of Chinese melodies as part of its repertoire, but the
events of the mid-1960swhen tens of thousands of communists
(and sometimes merely Chinese money lenders) were killed or brutal-
izedhave led to a gradual disappearance of Chinese pieces and their
replacement by local songs. The current ensemble normally performs
at weddings and other Peranakan (mixed-blood, Chinese Indonesians)
cultural events.
251
252 253
 This is a love song sung in Indonesian by a woman and man back
and forth to each other. They sing about the troubles and remedies of
love between a couple. One of the fiddles leads off the piece with the
gambang, kromong, and suling clearly audible in the background, and
this same combination, backed by dynamic drumming reminiscent
of that of gamelans in Sunda, separates the verses. The verses use a
strophic repeating melody with implied harmony going from a tonic
to dominant chord; the woman and man alternate singing verses two
times, then she sings a final verse. The lines for each verse, set in cou-
plets, end with the same vowel, proceeding i, a, u, a, a. DH
D19 M A L AY S I A
Ogingo Mamangka Vuhan ca. 1958
The Forest Paradise
Performed by Irene Tungou
Radio Sabah RS13
Although the state of Sabah was not established until 1963, when it joined the
Malaysian Federation, Radio Sabah began broadcasting in the early 1950s, in
what was then British North Borneo. The station broadcast in English, Malay,
two Chinese dialects, and eventually Dusun, the most widely spoken language
of the Kadazan people of North Borneo. This was part of a nine record set that
included popular music as well as traditional gong-based styles, and was in-
tended for airplay, rather than sale to the public.
254
A type of secular Kadazan song from Putatan, an area near Kota
Kinabalu, the capital city of Sabah, this is a love song sung by a female
vocalist about someone who is beautiful. It uses the traditional pen-
tatonic melody called sinding in Tambunan in the interior of Sabah
or hius in Penampang and Putatan, where this song originates.Sung
in the Kadazan language, this kind of song would have been sung for
entertainment in the home at night or during a social gathering or
drinking (tapai or rice wine) session.In the olden days it would have
been normally unaccompanied (but sometimes a long-necked lute
called sundatang was used).During the 1950s, these secular pentatonic
songs began to be accompanied by the guitar using the diatonic scale
as the instrument was introduced into the villages.
The accompanying band in this recording includes a banjo or a
ukelele, guitars, and a double bass, plus wind instruments.This kind of
traditional singing accompanied by a dance band became popular and
was played over the radio during the 1950s to 1980s. This gave rise to
the Kadazan Dusun pop music industry in the 1970s.
This song was recorded at Radio Sabah (now Radio Television Ma-
laysia). Radio has been the most popular medium throughout Sabah
for more than 50 years, and even in the remote interior, people still
listen to the radio for information and entertainment.Radio Sabah, or
todays RTM, has several sessions in Kadazan Dusun, Timugon Murut,
and west coast Bajau. People like to tune in to these at certain times to
hear the news and also find out who has died. SBT
255
D20 M A L AY S I A / S I N G A P O R E
Wak Daing 1952
Performed by Saemah, singer
with the Osman Ahmad Orchestra
Chap Ayam P T H 13 9 ( PA 9 2 57 )
Paths Chap Ayam (Rooster Brand) series was aimed at the Malay language
market. They began with a series numbered 60000 in 1938 (see track D3). In
1951 they switched to a series with the prefix PTH. Both series were recorded
in Singapore.
Bangsawan is a form of Malay commercial theatre that developed
in British Malaya at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th
centuries. Also known as Malay opera, bangsawan was syncretic, and
incorporated Malay, Chinese, European, Indian, Arabic, and other sto-
ries and elements. The term bangsawan (meaning nobility) referred
to the stories and characters that mainly concerned royalty. Each
performance consisted of one or more stories accompanied by songs,
and interludes called extra turns were performed during set changes.
Depending on the type of story performed, the music adapted to the
musical influences from Malaya as well as other parts of the world.
Wak Daing refers to the name of a warrior in a bangsawan play
who has gone away to fight for his kingdom. In this song, the female
vocalist (probably the heroine in the play) sings of her love for him, and
about how she misses him, in the Malay language. As a song from the
256
Malay repertoire, Wak Daing D21 I N D O N E S I A
combines Malay and Western Aer Mata Djato Berlinang ca. 1930
characteristics. The Malay Tears Flow from the Eyes
Orchestra (orkes Melayu), Performed by Moh Aminor Aidjawi, singer
led by Osman Ahmad, with Orkest Setia Pamoedah
mixes the instruments Beka B 8 8 52 7-1, 12 3 4 4B
of the ronggeng en-
semble (comprising a Another recording from the engineer Siegfried Frenz, possibly made near the
violin, accordion, re- end of his expedition that began with his Balinese Odeon recordings in 1928.
bana, and a knobbed While Beka and Odeon were both controlled by Lindstroem, its not clear to
gong) with Western what extent the labels were integrated. In this case, Frenz, who had made many
instruments (such as Odeon recordings, was also recording for Beka. In 1933, Frenz returned to the
the piano, double bass, Berlin studios where he recorded until 1941.
and guitar). The ronggeng
ensemble accompanies social Are Mata Djato Berlinang is a sad song, or lagu nasib (song of fate),
dancing at Malay weddings and associated with a Middle Eastern story in the Malay musical theatre or
other social occasions. Wak Daing is a slow ronggeng asli song that opera. The singer tries to remember a loved one who has passed away.
is characterized by an eight-beat rhythmic pattern played by the rebana He is accompanied by a modernized gambus ensemble comprising the
and lower register of the piano, and marked by the gong on the seventh gambus, accordion, violins, double bass, marwas drums, and maracas.
and eigth beats. Other Malay characteristics include the independent The gambus begins with a short improvisation (similar to a taksim) four-beat masri rhythm. Masri is similar to the rhythmic pattern mas-
melodic lines by the singer, violin, guitar, and higher register of the introducing the Arabic mode. This introduction is followed by the mudi kabir of the Middle East and is often used in devotional Islamic
piano, and a tense and nasal vocal style. The melody of each stanza is singing section where the male vocalist, accordion, and violins carry songs, such as nasyid. The gambus style of plucking, masri rhythm,
repeated with different texts that use the four-line Malay verse (pantun) a similar melody but perform in heterophony. Each stanza consists of and mode used give the song a Middle Eastern essence. Compared
form. Western characteristics include the use of the diatonic scale and four lines that are divided into two melodic sections. to the earlier versions of lagu gambus, the texture is thicker as more
triads played by the piano. SBT The singer and melodic instruments are joined by the rebana instruments are played, with the double bass providing a jumping bass
(frame drum), maracas, double bass, and plucked gambus that play the line based on the masri rhythmic pattern. SBT
257
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
JASON GIBBS researches Vietnamese music and popular culture and
is the author of the book Rock H Ni & Rumba Cu Long. He wrote
the entry for Vietnam in the Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular
Music of the World and has published articles in a number of journals,
including Asian Music, Journal of Vietnamese Studies, and Southeast
Asian Research.
DAVID HARNISH is chair of the Music Department and director of
Gamelan Gunung Mas at the University of San Diego. He is the author
of Bridges to the Ancestors: Music, Myth, and Cultural Politics at an
Indonesian Festival and cowriter/editor of Divine Inspirations: Music
and Islam in Indonesia.
TERRY E. MILLER is known primarily as a specialist in the musics of
Mainland Southeast Asia, especially Thailand and Laos. He has also
worked extensively in the United States, the West Indies, the United
Kingdom, and China. His most widely known work is as coeditor and
writer of The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: Southeast Asia
and as cowriter of a survey textbook, World Music: A Global Journey.
Dr. Miller retired from Kent State University in 2005 where, in ad-
dition to teaching, he founded and directed both the KSU Thai and
Chinese Ensembles.
270
DAVID MURRAY is the curator of Haji Maji (www.HajiMaji.com), a
blog dedicated to the exploration 78 rpm Asian music. He previously
produced two LPs for Dust-to-Digital; Luk Thung: Classic & Obscure
78s from the Thai Countryside and Kassidat: Raw 45s from Morocco. In
addition to collecting and researching old records, he is a musician and
graphic designer in Oakland, California.
SOOI BENG TAN is professor of Ethnomusicology at the School of Arts,
Universiti Sains Malaysia. She is the author of Bangsawan: A Social
and Stylistic History of Popular Malay Opera and coauthor of Music
of Malaysia: Classical, Folk and Syncretic Traditions. Current research
projects include the study of Malay 78 rpm recordings in Malaysia, the
development of popular music in Southeast Asia, and the comparison
of Chinese music in Malaysia and Indonesia.
KIT YOUNG began study of Burmese piano Sandaya styles in the 1980s
and as pianist and composer performs frequently with Burmese col-
leagues. She lived in Myanmar for 5 years and, with Burmese friends,
started Gitameit Music Center in Yangon, which, in 2007, began digital
archiving of Burmese 78 rpm recordings and video documentaries
featuring elderly Burmese performing artists.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Produced, edited, compiled, and designed by David Murray
Design and production consulting by Debbie Berne
Annotations and essays by Jason Gibbs, David Harnish, Terry E. Miller,
David Murray, Sooi Beng Tan, and Kit Young
78 rpm transfers by Jonathan Ward
Audio restoration and mastering by Michael Graves, Osiris Studio
Records and images from the collection of David Murray
Additional records from Jonathan Ward, Michael Robertson, Terry E. Miller,
and Will Summits
Additional images from Philp Drillien, Axel Ebenbck, Jason Gibbs,
and Hugo Strtbaum
Photograph of record sleeves (end papers) by Matt Knoth
Proofreading by Laurie Dunne
A very special thanks to Terry E. Miller for so much input and effort.
Thank you to the contributing authors for sharing their time and expertise:
Jason Gibbs, David Harnish, Terry E. Miller, Sooi Beng Tan, and Kit Young.
I would like to acknowledge the following record researchers for their tire-
less and important work: Pekka Gronow, Alan Kelley, Michael Kinnear,
Ross Laird, Rainer Lotz, Christian Zwarg, Dick Spottswood, Hugo Strtbaum,
Paul Vernon, and Philip Yampolsky.
Thank you to everybody who contributed: Poonpit Amatayakul, Amy
Armstrong, Ne Myo Aung, Mar Mar Aye, Qu Bo, Debbie Berne, Jarernchai
Chonpairot, Peter Doolan, Philip Drillien, Laurie Dunne, Michael Graves,
David Harnish, Benno Hupl, Rick Heizman, Liam Kelley, Jacqueline Pugh-
Kitingan, Laurentius Kitingan, Matt Knoth, Aileen Kuo, Wah-chiu Lai, Lance
and April Ledbetter, Rob Millis, Phong Nguyen, Shwe Ku Nan Nwe Nwe,
Michael Robertson, Panya Roongruang, Sam-ang Sam, Will Summits, U
Tin, U Toh, Bi Trng Hin, Vanessa V Vn nh, Su Wai, Jonathan Ward,
Andrew Weintraub, Sean Williams, Wang Yingfen, Wim Van Zanten.
All text 2013 by the respective authors
This release 2013 Dust-to-Digital
Components under license from various sources
Printed in China by Asia Pacific Offset
Color separations by iocolor, Seattle
Dust-to-Digital
PO Box 54743
Atlanta, GA 30308-0743
www.dust-digital.com
271