CHAPTER 2: CELL STRUCTURE AND CELL ORGANISATION

UNICELLULAR
Plasma semi-permeable

non-organelles
membrane regulates the movement of substance

biochemical reactions and living process

Cytoplasm
occurs

mechanical strength and support plant

Cell wall
cells

Vacuoles plant elongation (Amoeba sp.)

Amoeba live in freshwater
Nucleus controls the activities of the cell Constantly changing shape in response to stimuli
CELL COMPONENTS

Use pseudopodium (false feet) for movement and feeding

release energy and sites for cellular
Mitochondria
respiration
Cytoplasm is 2 layers, inner (endoplasm) and outer (ectoplasm)
Pseudopodia also used for eating, surrounding food (phagocytosis), packaging it in a
Ribosomes sites for protein synthesis food vacuole and digests it with lysozyme (lysosome
enzyme)
Smooth ER Exchange of substances through plasma membrane
Endoplasmic synthesize lipids Os moregul a ti on
by diffusion
reticulum
Rough ER Water goes into the cell by osmosis and fills the Regul a te wa ter
transport proteins contractile vacuole, when full, blows out the water
processing, packaging and transport from time to time(osmoregulation)
Golgi apparatus
centre Amoeba sp. reproduces by binary fission, but
produces spores when cannot do binary fission
Lysosomes digestive compartments in a cell
MULTICELLULAR
Centrioles (animal 1. Cells grow, change shape and differentiate in multicellular organisms.
cell division
cell)
2. Mature cells carry out different functions, like different medical specialists are experts
Chloroplasts captures energy for photosynthesis in their field, like a cardiologist in the heart, the neurologist in the brain, etc.
3. They undergo specialization to carry out their functions more efficiently.
4. Organisation is in this form:
 PLANTS
Multicellular
Cell Tissue Organ System Two main types of tissue in plants:
Organism
Meristematic tissue
5. Cells that carry out a function are grouped into tissues. o Consists of small cells with thin walls, large nuclei, dense cytoplasm and
6. Different tissues that carry out a function are grouped into an organ. no vacuoles
7. Several organs that contribute to one section of an organisms functions (circulatory, o Young, actively dividing cells, undifferentiated, located at root tips and
muscular) are grouped into a system. shoot buds
8. Several systems make up an organism. Permanent tissue
o Differentiated/partly differentiated mature tissues
ANIMALS o Three types of permanent tissue:
There are 4 main types of tissue in an animal: Epidermal tissue
Ground tissue (parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma)
Vascular tissue ( xylem tissue, phloem tissue)

Tissues in animals Organs in plants are leaf, stem, root and flower.
Systems are root and shoot systems.
o Root system all plant roots.
Muscle tissues o Shoot system stem, leaf, bud, flower and fruit.
Connective tissues
(movement) Nerve Stem, branch for support system.
(bind structure, Leaf for photosynthesis.
Epithelial Smooth muscle provide support and
tissues (transmit
(intestine, blood nerve impulses, Flowers for pollination.
tissues protection)
vessels, urinary and control and
- Tendons
protection, reproductive tract) coordiante body
-Ligaments
secretion and activities)
Skeletal muscle - Cartilage
absorption - neurons
(arms and legs) - Bones
dendrites and
Cardiac muscle - Blood
axons
(heart walls) Fat cells

Tissues work together to perform a specific function. These are called organs. Examples
are lungs, heart, kidneys, brain etc.
Example: The skin:
Consists of various tissues joined together
2 main layers, the epidermis and the dermis
Epidermis is made of epithelial tissue, which constantly divides
Dermis is made of connective, nerve, epithelial and muscle tissue
Blood is supplied through blood capillary network
Nerve endings are scattered throughout the skin, transmit impulses to nervous
system
Epithelial cells produce hair follicles, sweat glands and oil glands
Internal environment consists of blood plasma, interstitial fluid and lymph.
Physical factors include temperature, blood pressure and osmotic pressure.
Chemical factors include pH, salt and sugar content.
Homeostasis is maintenance of constant internal environment for optimal cell
performance.
Any change in the internal environment will cause homeostasis to kick in and
work to cancel the change. This is governed by the negative feedback
mechanism.
 CHAPTER 3: MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCE ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE Movement of substance across the plasma membrane

The structure of the plasma membrane (fluid mosaic model)

Hydrophilic head Function: regulates the exchange of
substance between the content of a cell and the Differences between Passive Transport and Active Transport
external environment PT (osmosis, facilitated and simple AT
Hydrophobic tails A polar head is attracted to water diffusion)
A pair of non- fatty acid tails is repelled by Does not require energy Require energy from cell respiration
water Substances move with concentration Substances move against concentration
gradient gradient
Will continue until an equilibrium is Process leads to accumulation or
The pl asma membrane is reached elimination of the substance from the
generally described as s emi-
cell
permeable or selectively
permeable because it only l ets
certa i n substances through. Osmosis
The movement of water
Wa ter molecules can move across molecules from region of their
pl a sma membrane. higher concentration to a
region of their lower
Wa ter s oluble s ubstances such as concentration through a semi-
gl ucose and amino a cids and ions permeable membrane.
need to aid by ca rrier protein.
Simple diffusion
Molecules that can move freely across Molecules that cannot move freely The movement of particles
the plasma membrane by simple across the plasma membrane and require (molecules or solutes) within a gas
diffusion the aid of transport protein (pore or a liquid from a region of high
proteins and carrier protein) concentration to a region of lower
Lipid-soluble molecules (A,D,E,K, Water-soluble molecules (glucose, amino concentration.
glycerol) acids)
+ + 2+
Water Inorganic ions ( K , Na , Ca )
Small uncharged molecules (O 2 and CO 2 )
Facilitated diffusion
The movement of hydrophilic water diffuses into
molecules or ions across the and out of the cell at
Normal cell
plasma membrane with the help Isotonic equal rate
shape
of transport proteins. no net movement
of water

water diffuses out

Active transport Hypertonic of the cell by osmosis Crenation
The movement of particles across the cell shrinks
the plasma membrane against the
concentration gradient, that is
from a region of low PLANT CELLS
concentration to a region of high Water diffuses into
concentration. the large central
vacuole by osmosis.
Hypotonic The large central Turgid
vacuole expands,
causing the cell to
swell.
Isotonic Hypertonic Hypotonic
Water diffuses into
Normal cell
Isotonic and out of the cell at
Solutions with equal Solution with a Solution with lower shape
solute concentration higher solute solute concentration equal rates.
concentration
Water diffuses out
of the large central
ANIMAL CELLS vacuole by osmosis.
Solutions Observation Discussion Condition Both the vacuole Plasmolysis.
and cytoplasm lose The plant
Hypertonic water to cell becomes
water diffuses into
surroundings and flaccid and
the cell by osmosis
Hypotonic Haemolysis shrink. less turgid.
the cell swell up
The plasma
and eventually burst
membrane pulls away
from the cell
 CHAPTER 4: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE CELL

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE CELL

Elements Chemical compounds

(one atom) (more than two elements)

Inorganic Organic
(x carbon) ( Carbon and
(eg: water) hydrogen)

Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic acid

The Effects and Applications Of Osmosis In Everyday Life
1. Wilting of plants
Problems can arise if chemical fertilisers are added in excess to the soil.
The soil solution becomes hypertonic to the cell sap of the root hair cells. Monosaccharides Fats Enzymes
Water moves out of the plant by osmosis.
When flaccidity spreads throughout the plant, wilting occurs.
Disaccharides Oils
2. Preservation of foods
Food can be preserved by using salt or sugar.
When salt or sugar is added to the food, it creates a hypotonic condition
for the microorganisms that spoil the food. Polysaccharides Waxes
Water passes out from the microorganisms into the concentrated
solution. This results in slower growth of the microorganisms or even
death.
Phospholipids

Steroids

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Carbohydrates 1. Primary source of energy
(C,H,O) 2. Monosaccharides (Glucose, Fructose, Galactose)
a. Reducing sugars
3. Disaccharides ( Maltose, Sucrose, Lactose)
a. Joined together through condensation
b. Break down by adding water (hydrolysis)
c. Maltose & lactose ( reducing sugar)
 Sucrose (non-reducing sugar) General
4. Polysaccharides ( Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen) charateristic Bind with substrate to produce product
Lipids (C,H,O) 1. Fats and Oils
a. 1 glycerol: 3 fatty acids (saturated or unsaturated) Not changed or destroyed
2. Waxes
3. Phospholipids (plasma membrane) Highly specific
4. Steroids
a. Include cholesterol and hormones (progesterone,
Needed in small amounts
testosterone, oestrogen)
Proteins (C,H,O,N) 1. Made up of one or more polypeptides (monomers: amino
acids Essential and non-essential) Metabolic reactions: Reversible
2. Broken down into amino acids by hydrolysis
3. Protein structures: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary The activities can be slowed down or inhibited
Nucleic acids (DNA 1. Store genetic information)
and RNA) 2. Basic units ( nucleotides) Require cofactors to function
a. Nitrogenous base
b. Pentose sugar Mechanism
c. Phosphate group (Lock and Key)
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Water 1. A polar molecule
2. Functions:
a. Medium for biochemical reactions
b. Solvent
c. Transport medium
d. Providing support and moisture
e. Maintain body temperature Factors pH
affecting the
f. Lubrication
activity of Optimum pH (enzymatic reaction rate is the fastest)
g. Maintaining osmotic balance and turgidity
enzymes Changing in pH, changing the charges on active site causing
h. High surface tension and cohesion reducing the ability of both molecules to bind
Temperature, C
ENZYMES: Low C, slow reaction
Metabolism (anabolism and catabolism) the temperature every 10 C, the reaction is doubled until the
Consists of intracellular and extracellular optimum temperature is reached
Biological catalysts Max C will causing the enzyme to denatured
Proteins Substrate concentration, [subs]
Naming: -ase Low [subs], rate of reaction increases with the [subs]
Uses: Increase [subs], more products are formed, increase rate of
o Food processing reaction
o Tenderising meat Constant rate, enzyme is saturated, all active sites are filled up
o Detergent manufacturing Enzyme concentration, [enzyme]
reaction rate is directyly proportion to the [enzyme] until
maximum rate is achieved