Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ERIC
/959
1958 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
A cover story worth repeating
It's fact not fiction. The book cover pictured above is cracking or fraying. And CHEMIGUM LATEX provides
radically different from most you've seen. Why? the optimum in these properties along with outstand
Because it's printed on plasticized paper. ing heat and light stability and ease of processing.
CHEMIGlJM
LATEX
wofer dispersion 01
oil res;sfant rubber CHEMICAL DIVISION
Chem!gum-T. M. The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company. Akron. Ohio
d*
ation received from Texas Instruments which enabled
us to carry this project through to a successful conclusion."
fJ-
why engineers the world over rely on advanced components
from the nation ' s leading manufacturer of semiconductor
TEXASINSTRUMENTS
James A. Van Allen
I. Head, Department of Physics devices and precision components.
WI-. State University of Iowa
INCORPORATED
SEMICONDUCTOR-COMPONENTS DIVISION
POST OFFICE BOX 312 13S00 N. CENTRAL EXPRESSWAY
WO R L D'S LARGEST SEMICONDUCTOR PLANT t DALLAS. TEXAS
C Merck: & Co., Inc. MERCK & CO . bc. for sodium isoascorbate.
ARTICLES
The rise in infections due to this microorganism has renewed interest in its biology.
When a star consumes its nuclear fuel, it becomes a dwarf of extraordinary density.
The blood flows from arteries to veins through a system of microscopic vessels.
Physicists picture it in several different ways to account for its various aspects.
Zeolite crystals are used to separate molecules that closely resemble each other.
Sea birds and reptiles can drink sea water by virtue of a gland that excretes salt.
In 1925 Scopes was tried for teaching evolution. The author recalls the scene.
DEPARTMENTS
10 LETTERS
30 THE AUTHORS
149 BOOKS
162 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOA RO O F ED ITORS Gerard Piel {Publisher}, Dennis Flanagan {Editor}, James R. Newman, E. P. Rosenbaum,
C. L. Stong, Esther A. Weiss
PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC., 115 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK 17, N. Y. COPY
RIGHT 1958 BY SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. SECOND CLASS POSTAG'E PAID AT
NEW YORK, N. Y., AND AT ADDITIONAL MAILING OffiCES. SUBSCRIPTION RATE IN THE U. S. $5 PER YEAR.
THE ILLUSTRATIONS
Cover photograph by William
Vandivert and Robert Waldeck
Page Source
42 Joseph R. Goodman
43 Evelyn Urbanowitch
44-45 David Linton
46-51 Rene Martin
52-53 Rene Martin (top),
Mount Wilson and
Palomar Observatories
We already know of the curious phenomenon associated with (bottom)
high altitude flight which jet pilots ca,ll "break-off" - that 54 George D. Pappas and
point in space where reality fades and the mind runs M. H. Ross
away to delusions of grandeur. 55-56 Bunji Tagawa
57 Benjamin W. Zweifach
But what of the body - the heart, for example; how will
it react to the stresses of space ...like the absence of
(left), Bunji Tagawa
gravity or the overpowering exhilaration of flight, or ... just
(right)
58-59 Bunji Tagawa
the unknown? Might the heart too, like the mind, be overcome
60 Benjamin W. Zweifach
and run away - fibrillate, flutter uselessly and ...fail?
76-80 John Langley Howard
Knowledge such as this is essential to space conquest. 82 Brookhaven National
Knowledge not only of the mind and heart - but of other Laboratory
organs as well. Accumulating this vital data in space and 85-86 Linde Company
transmitting it back to earth is one of the functions 87-92 Alex Semenoick
of Gulton Medical Electronics. 97-99 A. J. Anderson
With sensing devices and related electronic equipment 100-101 John Langley Howard
already developed by Gulton, various physiological 102 H. A. Keener
parameters can be continuously measured and data 109 Henry B. Kane
immediately telemetered to earth. 1 10- 1 14 Eric Mose
1 16 William L. Doyle
Cardiac status, for example, can be closely gauged thousands 120 Wide World Photos
of miles out in space through such checks as blood (top), Underwood
pressure, pulse rate, peripheral temperatures, breathing
& Underwood
rate and electrocardiogram.
(bottom)
Gulton is able now to offer existing or develop entirely new 122-123 Underwood& Underwood
coordinated systems for processing such data - from primary 124 Brown Brothers (top) ,
sensing device through to readout. Write us for informative Underwood & Under
Medical Electronics Booklet. wood (bottom)
126 Underwood& Underwood
VIBRO-CERAMICS DIVISION (top left and bottom) ,
Wide World Photos
Gulton Industries, Inc. (top right)
132-136 Bunji Tagawa
Metuchen, New Jersey
139-146 Roger Hayward
In Canada: Titania Electric Corp. of Canada. Ltd., Gananoque. Onto
IROQUOIS turbojets...
assemblies
MALLORY
MALLORY-SHARON METALS
e SHARON
CORPORATION NILES. OHIO
!!Octopus" Chemical
Clears Troubled Waters
solids that are dispersed in solution
A boon to the mmmg industry since its introduction, into small masses, or Hoes, causing
Separan now separates good from bad in chemical them to settle rapidly to the bottom
for either recovery or disposal. Stated
processing, waste disposal, the pulp and paper industry
simply, Separan separates what is
and many other fields
wanted from what is not.
How does Separan work? It has a
When Separan went into commercial efforts of Dow's technical service team long, spiral-shaped molecule with
production in 1954, Dow research men (who knew how to use it). octopus-like tentacles that grasp dis
knew they had an unusual chemical. With surpnsmg speed Separan persed particles so that increased
They were startled, however, by the moved into other industries, and, un weight causes them to settle rapidly to
impressive success of Separan in the like the solids it processes, hasn't set the bottom. In a single pound of
mining field. This success was a tribute tled yet! Separan there are millions of such
to the ingenuity of many mining engi What flocculation does. Separan is a tentacles, all itching to carry away the
neers (who discovered where to use flocculating agent, a mouthful word to sludge in industrial processing fluids
Separan) as well as to the exhaustive describe its basic function of gathering or to gather up the pay load.
THE DOW CHEMICAL COMPANY, Midland, Michigan 4.m' cals, contact THE DOW CHEMICAL COMPANY,
Midland, Michigan, Chemicals Sales De
partment 603EQI.
*UADEMARK OF THE DOW CHEMICAL COMPANY
Combining the solvent properties of glycols, In the processing industries, this versatile The vitally important missile industry is
alcohols and ketones, Dowanol products product is almost indispensable. Makers of making widespread use of a new high
offer the widest range of organic solubility glass, soap, paper, textiles and many purity trichloroethylene developed by Dow
available in any modern solvents. Paint, different chemicals get quick delivery from especially for use in cleaning missile hard
brake fluid, ink, other interested manufac Dow's plants in the South and Southwest. ware. Minimum residue on the cleaned parts
turers should have new 52-page booklet. Request 44-page booklet on letterhead. reduces the danger of misfiring.
the new 122A has two identical vertical ampli Trigger selector: Internol + or -, external or line.
Triggers automatically on 0.5 em internal or 2.5 v
fiers and a vertical function selector.
peak external. Displays base line in absence of signal.
The amplifiers may be operated independently, dif Trigger level seleclian -10 to + 10 v available when
automatic trigger defeated.
ferentially on all ranges, alternately on successive
sweeps, or chopped at a 40 KG rate. Vertical Amplifiers: Identkal A and B amplifiers, "
calibrated sensitivities of 10 mY/em, 100 mY/em, 1
Other significant features include universal opti v/cm and 10 v/cm: S% accuracy. Vernier 10 to 1.
mum automatic triggering, high maximum sensi Balanced (dillerential) input available on all input
ranges. With dual trace, balanced input on 10 mv/cm
tivity of 10 mv/cm, 15 calibrated sweeps with ver
range. Input impedance 1 megohm with less than 60
nier, sweep accuracy of 5')'o and a "times-5" ex p.p.f shunt. Bandwidth DC to 200 KC or 2 cps to 200 KC
pansion giving maximum speed of 1 iJ-sec/cm on the when AC coupled. Internal amplitude calibrator pro
vided.
5 iJ-sec/cm range. Trace normally runs free, syncing
automatically on 0.5 em vertical deflection, but a Function Selector: A only, B only, B-A, Alternate and
Chopped (at approx. 40 KC).
knob adjustment eliminafes free-run and sets trig
ger level as desired between -10 and + 10 volts. Horizontal Amplifier: 3 calibrated sensitivities, 0.1
v/cm, 1 v/cm, 10 v/cm. Accuracy S%. Vernier
Rack or cabinet mount; rack mount model only 7" 10 to 1.
high. Bandwidth DC to 200 KC or 2 cps to 200 KC, AC
METAL GATHERING
ance; uniform heat-treatment because forms to provide for bearings, threads,
Using the Metal Gathering process, a
the whole part is formed from tub or weldments,
portion of a metal tube is heated in a
ing; heavy sections are integral with Uniform wall thickness can be pro
resistance unit, then "gathered" into a
tubing; no excess metal required, vided with smaller or larger diameters
forged lump or mass at either or both
hence material cost is less; a rapid on the tube,
ends of the tube. The heated end-mass
process for reproduction once tooHng Surface finishes of excellent qual
can then be immediately extruded or
is established. ity are standard, without expensive
forged to any desired rough configura
tion. After gathering or forging, any The Tapco Metal Gathering process machining or polishing,
machining operation needed to finish is readily applied to any metal, includ Burring and honing are not required,
the end is readily done right in the ing steel, stainless steel, aluminum, Grain structure is improved, and
shops of the Tapco Group. Examples titanium, and zirconium. additional heat-treatment can often be
of tubing end-features produced by eliminated since cold-working im
Designs are almost unlimited in
this process are illustrated in Figure 1. proves tensile strength,
size, complexity, and features. A broad
Metal Gathering by the Tapco meth range of tubing lengths, diameters, Tubing that has been heat-treated
od offers several advantages: one-piece and wall thicknesses can be handled before Flotrusion gains added strength
parts free from welds, brazing, or by the Metal Gathering process. Close by cold-working,
mechanical assembly; minimum tolerances can be supplied; grinding, Non-heat-treatable metals also gain
m a c h i n ing f o r e n d f e a t u r e s ; n o polishing, or honing can be vastly strength by the cold-work effect of
machining o f tube interior t o reduce reduced, and in some cases eliminated. Flotrusion,
wall thickness; better grain flow for One-piece parts replace multi-part No excess material is required . ..
g reater strength and fatigue resist- assemblies. The process can also be Flotrusion requires only the exact vol
"'Reg. Trademark - Used under License from Flotrusion. Inc. used at various points along the length ume of material that the finished part
of the tubing. requires. Material cost is kept down.
SORENSEN & COMPANY, INC. C,hange of address: Please notify us four weeks
in advance of change. If avai1able, kindly furnish
5
Richards Avenue; S outh Norwalk, Connecticut an address imprint from a recent issue. Be sure to
give both old and new addresses, including postal
zone numbers, if any.
10
PH I LCD IS FACILITIES
To assist this outstanding organization of skilled and dedicated people, Philco has
amassed millions of dollars worth of intricate equipment in plants and laboratories
from coast to coast. Philco facilities include: the world's most advanced research labs;
environmental test facilities; specially equipped design and engineering labs, plus
prototype and model shops; and the most advanced mass production facilities.
PHILCQ
At Philco the world of tomorrow is NOW! Here are human resources, plus
ultra-modern facilities, plus tremendous accumulated experience in research and
development. Here too, are unlimited career opportunities in the fields of
missiles and guidance, weapons systems, All-Transistor computers, infra-red,
advanced radar techniques and communications systems. At Philco, versatility GOVERNMENT & INDUSTRIAL DIVISION
is the key to tremendous capacity in advanced technology. Make Philco your 4700 Wissahickon Avenue
prime source for prime contracts from development to delivery. Philadelphia 44, Pennsylvania
.
II
RA YMOND M. GILMORE
AO Spencer Picture-in-a-minute
La Jolla, Calif.
Photomicrogra phy
When you use the AO Spencer Photomicrographic Camera equipped with the Sirs:
Polaroid Land Camera back, permanent photographs are ready for your files in As Dr. Gilmore correctly observes,
just 60 seconds. A coupled 'visual and photographic system lets you shoot what boating in the Aleutians is often rather
you see ... quickly and effortlessly. And with the Polaroid back possible errors in
hazardous. Nonetheless my own experi
exposure, illumination or focus can be corrected immediately.
In addition to the Polaroid Land camera back, you have a choice of 4 other readily ence in the Islands convinced me that
interchangeable camera backs; 4"x 5" fixed back; 4"x 5" Graflok back; 35mm back the old-style Aleut bidarkas were safer
and Bantam back (roll film). You choose rhe camera back and film best suited to than their modern counterparts-wooden
your specific requirements.
dories and skiffs. Early explorers ap
Here, the No.682G Camera is being used with the AO Spencer Series 4 Microstar
... an ideal combination. The builr-in base illuminator provides convenient parently agreed, for G. H. Langsdorff
Koehler-rype illumination. You seleCt specimen area and do all preliminary (1814) writes: "In my opinion, these
focusing through binocular portion of trinocular body ... focus critically with the baidal'kas are the best means yet dis
telescopic eyepiece.
covered by mankind to go from place to
The sturdy vertical pillar, the easily adjustable camera support, the camera back
and the Microstar all combine to provide a compact unit. PerfeCt alignment and
place, either upon the deepest or the
rigidity is assured ...successful photomicrography becomes a "snap". shallowest water, in the quickest, easiest
Try it and see for yourself. Your AO Represeiltative will be happy to arrange a manner possible." The historian M.
demonstration for you. Sauer (1802), Steller (who was with
- - -- - --- - - - -- - --- . Vitus Bering) and Captain James Cook
Dept. MUS also pay glowing tribute to their sea
Alnerican Optical e e I
R, ::i r:iien:,f Oe6J:;:r;, I worthiness.
graphi c Came ras. . I It is quite true that the Aleuts could
!: Company
o Please send me Brochure SB124 describing
the new Microsta r line. I usually catch all the food they needed
I
Name I
close to shore, especially in summer. But
12
AUTOMATIC
And if our products are especially
available, sir." And when you take them,
favored by designers, engineers and pro
the sale automatically is recorded on an
duction men, there's good reason. For
uptothe-second inventory of every seat
Automatic Electric's half-century-plus of
.+ ,,!!!.TRIC
on every flight the airline has over a
inventive pioneering is now backed by one
31-day period.
of the finest, most modern plants in the
That's how Teleregister Corporation's land.
Subsidiary of GENERAL TELEPHONE
"Magnetronic Reservisor" sa ves time, Among our thousands of types and vari
reduces staff and cross-communications, ations of switches and relays, you may
insures against seats being sold twice. find a solution to one of your problems.
13
I"""
Silicon Power Transistor driven to "fibril." The words "fibers" and
i.;'
5 amperes. The resistance is a frac 72
tion of that observed in other silicon 0
" '0 '.0 " " '.0
"fiber" in the caption on page
of the same article should be
-----------------------------
-
man
ediately, write GMldea
Get all the facts imm
Flum erfelt, Min neapolis 26, Minnesota.
Walter
DIVISION
OILSEEDS
For only a. penny's worth of Pro 80 Vital tein on the moisture-free basis) extends the
Gluten, bakers can raise the protein level of a shelf life of breads. As a continuous dough
I-lb. loaf of bread 20%. And they can sell the forming agent, it improves texture, grain, yield,
more nutritious product at a 3 to 5 premium crumb and softness whenever flour or formula
-to get a big slice of the growing market for do not provide adequate protein. Yet Pro 80
protein rich foods. But that's not all. As a adds no taste, odor or color of its own and it
hydration agent, Pro 80 (80% pure wheat pro- is as easy to handle as flour.
For more information about Pro 80 in breads, macaroni products, cereals, baby
foods, pet foods, write GMldea man Walter Carlson, Minneapolis 26, Minnesota.
SPECIAL COMMODITIES DIVISION
For more information about this new method of field testing aircraft radar, write GMldea man lloyd Pearson,
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Avco: Men and Machines for Defense. No amount of lost motion can be endured in
America's space-age defense programs_ Progress must be swift and continuous_ Avco, alert to its
in gas dynamics and space technology; Crosley-weapons systems, radar, communications, air
craft and missile structures; Lycoming-aircraft, marine, industrial power plants; missile sub
--'
"
systems; Research and Advanced Development Division-basic and applied research in elec ::l
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tronics, physical sciences, and advanced engineering. :>
18
COMPANY ________________________
ADDRESS _______________________
20
21
22
landing gear and two of the eight If you have never experienced the b r a ke li n i n g-w i t h o u t
giant wheels and brakes we build for nice feeling of ease and assurance qualification! That's why it's original
t h e 450,000-l b . B o e i n g B - 52 j e t that Bendix automobile power brakes equipment on more new vehicles
bomber, so vital to our national de give you, ask for a demonstration than any other make. You will find
.
fense. When this intercontinental when you inspect the new 1959 cars. it at quality-minded service places
bomber makes a landing, it's like Proof of power brake only. It's made by the same Bendix
stopping 150 passenger cars going 60 popularity is evident division that makes Cerametalix.
mph! Since ordinary brakes and lin ;;-. -. when you consider that Of course, we also
ing couldn't do this . -Y 32 percent of 1958 car make power brakes
satisfactorily, we buyers ordered them. They cost very for trucks, tractors,
#. -. developed a n extra
powerful, segmen ted
little compared to the pleasure they
afford. We also make a model which
bulldozers and other
heavy, off-the-road equipment. Even
rotor brake and a special lining called can be quickly installed on your for bicycles.
Cerametalix that withstands the present car in case a new car is not Whatever your braking problem,
extreme heat which is generated. We in your plans this year. we are sure we can help.
23
A common research problem is tracing and measuring infinitesimally Europe. After the death of Josephine he
small amounts of a certain material in a large, complex mixture. returned to South America, and became
Frequently, ordinary analytical methods cannot be used because the a professor of natural history in Buenos
amount of substance sought is so minute or because large amounts of Ayres. After many travels in the tropics,
other substances are present which interfere in the analyses. and imprisonment as a spy in Paraguay,
from which he was released in 1829, he
Use of radioactive isotopes for solving such tough problems is
retired to Sao Borja, where, surrounded
practical and economical. * The chemist simply converts the sought
by rare botanical specimens and beau
substance into a radioactive derivative by reaction with a radioactive
teous orange groves, he lived in tran
agent. He then can easily follow and measure the labeled material.
quility and died in peace."
The radioisotope method is so fantastically sensitive that accurate
results are possible where even less than one/one-millionth of a gram
"We learn that there are 399,064 spin
of the sought substance is present.
dles and 12,234 looms at work in Lowell,
Radioisotopes have been used in this manner for the determination Mass. There are 2,394,000 yards of cot
of histamines in animal tissues and the identification of blood hor ton cloth made weekly, 44,000 yards of
mones. They are equally valuable in industrial research where ex woolen cloth, and 25,000 yards of car
tremely minute substances in a mixture must be measured. pets. No less than 72 turbine wheels are
required to drive the machinery of all
Designing and manufacturing high quality, dependable instruments
the mills, besides several breast wheels;
for measuring radioactivity has been our business at Nuclear-Chicago
61,617 gallons of sperm oil and 26,000
for more than twelve years. We are a leading source for Research
pounds of lard are consumed annually."
Quality radioactive reagents, too. We would be pleased to have you
consult us on equipment needed for a progressive program in this field.
"Under the recent discoveries in pho
We have recently prepared three Technical Bulletins which describe profitable tography by M. Niepce de St. Victor, of
applications of radioisotopes in industrial and biomedical research. We believe you Paris, it is found that almost all soluble
will find them interesting and will be pleased to send them to you or to your research chemical substances are rendered avail
people. Ask for Technical Bulletins 1, 2, and 3.
able in the practice of the art. For exam
ple, if the paper be impregnated with ni
trate of uranium, then exposed in the
camera, and treated with a solution of
red prussiate of potash; a beautiful red
picture will be obtained; and if this be
afterwards treated with sulphate of iron,
a fine blue picture will be produced."
24
1958 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
EIOI's are at work in aviation, petroleum, civil engineering,
chemical, opt ical, pharmaceutical and other fields of science and
industry. Engineers, statisticians, designers and researchers are
saving costly time in handling their computational problems ... from
original design calcula i ions, to the final test data reducfion.
pinboard programming
computation time!
Burroughs
electronic digital computer
Users of Burroughs ElOI low-cost digital computers report average time savings of 20 to lover desk cal
culators and other manual devices ... plus superior accuracy. Savings in calculating time frees technical
talent for more creative jobs ... ensures better design ... allows fuller employment of laboratory facilities, , .
bigger work loads. Simplified pinboard programming can be mastered in a matter of hours. Problem solving
capacity is furth er extended by optional PUNCHED PAPER TAPE INPUT/OUTPUT equipment and
the NEW PUNCHED CARD INPUT unit, for direct computer processing of punched card files. For
brochure, write ElectroData Division, Pasadena, California.
Burroughs Corporation
"NEW DIMENSIONS/in electronics and data processing systems"
25
26
INDUSTRIAL FIRE HOSE has always led a short, tortured life ... NONWOVEN FABRICS are coming into their own with the availa
dragged over rough floors through oil and chemicals, stored out bility of man-made fibers. High-grade electrical tapes are made of
doors with the fabric outer jacket exposed to mildew damage. That's non-woven fabrics of "Dacron" polyester fiber. "Dacron" has great
why hose manufacturers have switched to jackets of "Dacron". strength and will not absorb moisture. The non-woven tape stretches
"Dacron" has high resistance to damage by abrasion, chemicals and to give a secure, snug fit in coil winding. The result is neat appear
mildew. The new hose has important performance advantages. It ance with up to one-third increase in dielectric strength.
can be stored in half the space needed for conventional hose. It's
only three-fourths the weight, too - so it handles easier and faster. Enjoy the "Du Pont Show of the Month"-on CBS-TV
27
x-ray
in industry
A fabulous "first" from G.E. ! TVX combines the speed of TVX camera picks up x-ray image of moving inspection line,
a fluoroscope, the flexibility and bright image of television. covers a pickup field up to 6%-in. diameter. Image size can
Allows continuous 100% inspection from any number of be varied electronically from Y2 to 3 times that of the object,
locations within 1400 feet of the monitor - in separate providing both magnification and image intensification.
rooms, or even separate buildings. Provides safety, too. Because the operator can be remote
The TVX monitor - designed to nest atop the control from the radiation area, any x-ray intensity needed for ade
unit - has 12in. picture tube, bright enough for easy view quate penetration may be used. Power is furnished by a
ing in normally lighted rooms. And should additional moni conventional x-ray generator.
tors be required for simultaneous viewing from multiple loca TVX service is always promptly available from General
tions, any standard TV receiver will do. Electric x-ray representatives in all major industrial areas.
For complete TVX specs and features data, see your G-E x-ray representative.
Or write General Electric X-Ray Department, Milwaukee 1, Wis., Rm. TT-14.
GENERAL _ ELECTRIC
28
EPARTURE.
DIVISION OF BRISTOL, CONN.
29
1958 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
THE AUTHORS
<'We taught ourselves
STUART MUDD ("The Staphylo
coccus Problem") recently succeeded Sir
to use the
Macfarlane Burnet as president of the
International Association of Microbio
logical Societies. He comes from Saint
Louis, Mo., where his family has long
... ifs that easy:' sity in Saint Louis for his M.A. He then
proceeded to Harvard UniverSity, where
he was the first Medical School under
PETER M. LANG, Senior Engineer graduate ever to win the 100-year-old
Boylston prize for medical research.
Mudd acquired his M.D. in 1920, then
spent several more years in biophysical
research at Harvard and later at the
Rockefeller Institute and the University
of Pennsylvania, where since 1934 he
has been professor of bacteriology.
30
1958 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
SECONDS
.3
.2
.1
.2
A major achievement in the science of angular introduce errors in tracking data, the K&E Elec
measurement, this new K&E instrument detects tronic Tilt-Angle Transducer can record the
and records angular deviations to a degree of necessary information to correct basic data.
accuracy attainable by no other method.
If you have an application in which establishment
On missile launching platforms, for instance, the and maintenance of ultra precise angular position
signal from the K&E Electronic Tilt-Angle Trans is important, the K&E Electronic Tilt-Angle
ducer can be fed directly into a servo-mechanism Transducer may exactly meet your needs. For
to make the structure self-leveling. more information please write outlining your
requirements as fully as possible to Special
Or in radar tracking, where undetected mechanical Devices, Keuffel & Esser Company, Hoboken,
tilting in either elevation or .azimuth axes can New Jersey. '604'
Linear divisions on glass and metal accurate Telescope systems of all types
up to one part in 200,000 Ultra-precise mechanical components
Special targets and reticules and assemblies
31
GIANT
a few years at the Cornell University
Medical College) he has worked ever
since.
$1325
Generator features tank selector and load selector
switches on front panel to operate one or two NTSOO!
where, since 1937, he has been a pro
tanks alternately. Other combinations of tanks and sub fessor at the University of Birmingham_
mersible transducers available from stock; larger tanks
available on special order.
D. W. BRECK and J. V. SMITH
("Molecular Sieves") are a chemist and
For mass - production cleaning and a mineralogist with, respectively, the
Linde Company (a division of the Union
high capacity chemical processing! Carbide & Carbon Corporation) and
Here's a new Narda Son Blaster ultrasonic cleaner with tremendous cavi
Pennsylvania State University. For seve
tation activity and generating capacity! Featuring full 500 watts output. ral years they have collaborated in unrav
this Son Blaster is available with a fully transducerized giant lOgallon
capacity tank. In addition, it will operate from six to 10 Model NT60S eling the complex structures of zeolites
high energy submersible transducers, at any one time, in any arrange and other silicate sieves. Breck, a gradu
ment in any shape tank you need up to 70gallon volume.
ate of the University of New Hampshire,
Install this new Narda Son Blaster, and immediately you'll start
chalking up savings over costly solvent, vapor or alkaline degreasing received his Ph.D. in 1951 from the
methods! You'll save on chemicals and solvents, cut maintenance and
downtime, eliminate expensive installations, save on floor space, and
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
release labor for other work. But perhaps most important, you'll clean where he held a U. S. Rubber Company
faster, cut rejects, and eliminate bottlenecks.
Fellowship. Smith was born in England
Whether you're interested in mass-production cleaning or degreas
ing of mechanical. electronic, optical, or horological parts or assemblies
and holds a doctorate in physics from the
rapid, quantity cleaning of "hot-lab" apparatus, medical instruments,
. _ _ University of Cambridge. He came to the
ceramic materials, electrical components or optical and technical glass
ware . _ . or in speeding up metal finishing and chemical processing of all U. S. in 1951 as a fellow at the Geophysi
types -you'll find this new Son Blaster will do your work faster, better cal Laboratory of the Carnegie Institu
and cheaper. Write for more details now, and we'll include a free
questionnaire to help determine the precise model you need. Address: tion of Washington. After returning to
Dept. SA20. Cambridge for two years of teaching, he
Consult w i t h N a r d a f o r a l l y o u r u l t r a s o n i c r e q u i r e m e n t s . The
Son Blaster catalog line of ultrasonic cleaning equipment ranges from
came to the U. S. again and took up his
35 watts to 2.5 KW, and includes transducerized tanks as well as immers present post, where, with his colleagues,
ible transducers which can be adapted to any size or shape tank you
may now be using. If ultrasonics can be applied to help improve your
he is engaged in determining the history
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32
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34
1958 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
35
What todays
WATER
are
design possibilities? .
36
100 , .,-,-rOBfmmf
-O.Q1Smm.
-
qO
\
I
Tensile Strength
80
c:
. 70
-
1'"'\ of Admiralty Brass
I)
en
\.. 60 \ ,,'"
Cll
.D
50
-
\ .,
t-'-
...J
0 , 1'-- ' -
r-
10.
40
0
30
\r........r--.
...
...
20
,ApparenT r-
10
e/as fic 'limN t- .......
a
400 500 600 700 800 'l00 1000 1100 1200 1300
Annealing Temp. in Deg.F. (I Hr. OIt Temp.)
COPPER COl LS being installed on the bottom of the main core vessel
of the Organic Moderated Reactor Experiment.
Design Problem -
Preheating lor atomic reactor
The induction heating coils used in the Organic Moderated
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Design Problem-Yours FINISHING REQUIREMENTS. The nickel silvers and low-zinc brasses
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37
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" ... these metaphysical discussions are not to be put in may in this way please himself, and admire the creations
opposition to the study of facts: but are to be stimulated. of his own brain, he can never, by this course, hit upon
nourished and directed by a constant recourse to experi the real scheme of nature. With his ideas unfolded by
ment and observation. The cultivation of ideas is to be education, sharpened by controversy, rectified by meta
conducted as having for its object the connexion of facts: physics, he may understand the natural world, but he
never to be pursued as a mere exercise of the subtlety of cannot invent it. At every step, he must try the value
the mind, striving to build up a world of its own, and of the advances he has made in thought by applying his
neglecting that which exists about us. For although man thoughts to things."
Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, 1847
40
by Stuart Mudd
uring the past two years the tech staphylococci, together with the pneu
D
caused by the pneumococci, inspired a
nology of modern medicine has mococci and streptococci, took the prin brilliant series of investigations at the
been mobilizing to contend with cipal toll. These and some other less beginning of this century under the
a spreading prevalence of purulent in well-known microorganisms are "oppor leadership of Rufus Cole, A. R. Dochez,
fection in which that same technology tunist invaders." They are closely asso Oswald T. Avery and Michael Heidel
has played an equivocal role. The preva ciated with man in his immediate en berger at the Hospital of the Rockefeller
lent infections manifest themselves in a vironment but do not necessarily cause Institute in New York. These studies,
variety of conditions, from abscesses and illness, unless they are given access to still going forward, have led to a clear
rashes to fatal blood poisoning and pneu vulnerable tissue by breaks in the normal understanding of the many pneumococ
monia. All the cases are traceflble to defenses of the body, or by general or cal types and their interaction with the
certain strains of the familiar and ubiq local debility. Infections by pneumococ defensive humors and cells of their hu
uitous staphylococcus. These strains ci and streptococci had a high fatality man and animal hosts. On the practical
are distinguished by their communica rate. Staphylococci, on the other hand, side, they yielded therapeutic horse se
bility and virulence, and by high resist often caused milder infections, and pa rums and, later, diagnostic and therapeu
ance to antibiotics. They are, in fact, the tients who contracted them spread the tic rabbit serums. These techniques did
product of selection by antibiotics; by hospital strains abroad in the world. In not, however, come into wide clinical
bad luck, these resitant strains happen 1852 a British physician named T. Hunt use, for just at that time the era of
to carry the most harmful traits of their described the mid-19th-century preva chemotherapy began.
genus. The foci of prevalence are the lence of "carbuncles, boils, whitlows, The hemolytic streptococci, as the
hospitals, where antibiotics have been pustules and superficial collections of agents of fatal post-operative and child
employed so extensively in recent years purulent matter" as "the furunculoid bed infections, attracted the attention of
not only for treatment of diagnosed in epidemic." Leonard Colebrook, writing the same group of investigators at the
fection but also for prophylactiC pur a century later about this "blackest pe Rockefeller Institute. Another brilliant
poses, often with neglect of the standard riod in all the history of hospital infec series of studies, carried on chiefly by
routines of asepsis and antisepsiS. This tion" attributes a large variety of illnesses Rebecca Lancefield, elucidated the
ironic turn of events has caught physi to the staphylococci. His roll call-includ chemistry of the many groups and types
cians ill prepared with alternatives to ing post-operative infection; skin disease, of streptococci and developed a wealth
antibiotics. The emergence of the "mira eye infection and pneumonia in new of information concerning the organiza
cle" drugs, the sulfonamides in the 1930s born infants; inflammation of the breast tion of these disease agents and the sub
and the antibiotics in the 1940s, discour in nursing mothers; outbreaks of skin dis stances elaborated in their metabolism.
aged interest and support for the classi ease in the families of hospital-born in From this knowledge came techniques
cal lines of bacteriological research just fants-is uncomfortably suggestive of for diagnosis and epidemiologic study.
as they were reaching fruition with re present experience. The work goes on in the effort to under
spect to staphylococcal infection. stand and prevent rheumatic fever and
Of course infection was the common or reasons in part historical and in certain forms of kidney disease.
hazard of hospital confinement through F.. partbiological we know less today A solid foundation of knowledge
out the centuries before the introduction about the staphylococci than about the about the natural history of the pneumo
of antiseptics and disinfectants in the other opportunist invaders. The inci cocci and streptococci was thus at hand
last decades of the 19th century. The dence and fatality of lobar pneumonia, when the chemotherapeutic agents be-
41
WHITE BLOOD CELLS defend the body against invading staph. by metabolic products of virulent staphylococci which survive
ylococci by engulfing them. At left a cell has ingested three staph. after being engulfed. These electron micrographs, made by Joseph
ylococci which are disintegrating (circular masses above and below R. Goodman of the Veterans Administration Hospital in Long
gray, lobed nucleus) . The cell at right, however, is being destroyed Beach, Calif., enlarge the two specimens about 13,000 diameters.
42
lL
ganizations. During the last year the
American Public Health Association,
the American Medical Association, the
o- _.-- -
American Academy of Pediatrics, the HOSPITAL A HOSPITAL B HOSPITAL C HOSPITAL D
U. S. Public Health Service, together
with the National Academy of Sciences
National Research Council, have spon RISE OF RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCI parallels increasing use of antibiotics. In 1932.
sored conferences on the problem. A 1948 at a general hospital (A) strains collected from. patients included few of the Group III
staphylococci (gray bar) and none resistant to the tetracyclines, which were not yet avail
number of state, county and municipal
able. At two other hospitals which use much antibiotic therapy, strains collected in 1953-
health departments have assigned health
1954 (B) and in 19541955 (C) were largely resistant to both penicillin (colored bar) and
officers to the specific task of dealing the tetracyclines (black bar) . The strains included many of Group III, in contrast to those
with the trouble spots in their localities. from a mental hospital (D), where patients rarely receive antibiotics. This chart is adapted
More action is needed, however, in a from a paper presented at the National Conference on Hospital-Acquired Staphylococcal
great many more communities. Disease in September, 1958, by Vernon Knight, A,thUL White and Thomas Hemmerly.
Investigators and clinicians who at
tended the conferences agreed that hos
pitals should use antibiotics with greater
discrimination, especially when consid
ered for prophylactic purposes, and re 3 ------
43
44
guide present efforts to amplify the rectly with vaccination or serum thera According to reports in the literature,
body's defense against staphylococcal in py. These organisms have become a se staphylococci under certain conditions
fection. In the prevention and therapy of rious challenge at a time when studies may have extracellular capsules. It is
pneumococcal infection, for example, we of immune relationships of infective bac worth investigating to determine wheth
know that the antibacterial antibodies teria have been allowed to lapse. Must er this capsular material might be used
play the decisive role. These have the we continue to rely, as at present, on for immunization.
power to combine specifically with the antibiotics, with all the attendant diffi
carbohydrate capsules which enclose the culties and inadequacies? It goes with hat can be done by the intelligent
parasite cells and thus prepare them for out saying that major efforts are being W public to help in this situation? The
ingestion by the white cells. Injection of devoted to countering the ever-changing hospitals are hard-pressed on many
minute amounts of pure capsular mate sensitivity and resistance of staphylo fronts. Diagnosis and treatment have
rial extracted from cultures of the invad cocci to antibiotics. been undergOing great and rapid elabo
ing strain evokes the production of the Staphylococci possess an extraordi ration, at a large increase in cost. Nurses
corresponding antibody. Similarly, the nary armamentarium of offensive factors. and, in many hospitals, interns and resi
antibody specific to a protein on the sur Disease-producing strains elaborate sev dents are in short supply. In conse
face of an important and virulent strain eral different kinds of "hemolysins," sub quence of all this most hospitals now
of streptococci provides protection stances capable of destroying the red operate in the red. The return to meticu
against this parasite. In tuberculosis, re blood cells; they also produce leucoci lous asepsis and antisepsis and the many
sistance seems to depend on an increase din, which injures the white blood cells, precautions essential to good housekeep
in the capacity of the macrophages to and hyaluronidase, an enzyme which ing in hospitals are costly in time, effort
destroy tubercle bacilli after they have can dissolve the intercellular cement of and money. More adequate financial
been ingested. Vaccination with a living the tissues to aid the spread of the in support by the public for its hospitals
but harmless strain of tubercle bacilli, vaders. And most of the staphylococci could be very helpful indeed.
the B.C.G. strain, induces a self-limiting currently causing infections produce Congress has appropriated $1 million
infection which confers immunity. The penicillinase, an enzyme which destroys for staphylococcal research through Na
E.C.G. vaccine has now been adminis penicillin. tional Institutes of Health research
tered to some 90 million persons around In addition, the strains harmful to grants, and with an appropriation of
the world. Antitoxic antibodies confer man almost all produce substances $325,000 for the current fiscal year the,
immunity to diphtheria and tetanus. called coagulases, which' interact with Public Health Service is expanding its
They can be evoked by inoculation with the blood-clotting mechanism to coagu services and investigations relating to
toxins that have been rendered harmless late plasma. One of these apparently staphylococcal disease at the Communi
by treatment with formaldehyde; these acts upon prothrombin; another, bound cable Disease Center in Georgia. Our
"toxoids" carry unchanged their capaci to the surface of the staphylococcal cell, present ignorance in this significant area
ty to elicit the specific antibodies. can react with fibrinogen to produce fi of medicine cannot, however, be dissi
Are any of these procedures applica brin. There is evidence that the posses pated in a few years by the work of a
ble to staphylococcal infection? Should sion of coagulase makes it possible for few investigators. Nor can we at this
we vaccinate with killed staphylococci, these strains to grow in human serum time predict the outcome of the extraor
staphylococcal capsular substance, cell and to survive inside rabbit white cells dinary struggle for survival of a versatile
walls, or toxoid? Can we find among after being engulfed. Coagulase produc microorganism against the efforts of an
these alternatives an effective immuniz tion thus provides a useful method for aroused medical profession. But sus
ing or therapeutic agent? We do not identifying potentially infectious strains, tained effort on a broad front will reap
know enough about how the staphylo but we do not know as yet whether the rewards measured in terms of deepening
cocci inflict injury or how the body de presence of coagulase is significant in scientific insight and of increased se
fends itself against them to proceed di- infection or merely incidental. curity of health for everyone.
45
by Jesse L. Greenstein
ere and there among the tens of to that of the earth and even smaller, must be rated a common type. Yet their
46
I \
\
I
:"
Since we could not observe black dwarfs, I
f
I
if there are any, we shall not now give .; ,
, .,
'jI
further consideration to them. In any " '>l.
case a star persists as a white dwarf for \
'\
billions of years. Its structure and condi , 1f \
\
\
,
\
tion in this phase is what interests us
,
,
, ,
"""'''''' \ ,
.'
here. '. , / \
\
t
-.
Matter at white-dwarf density is
strange to contemplate by celestial as :
-- '" '\
I
well as terrestrial standards. A star like . ---- "
the sun has an average density of almost . '-.
.......
. ...
one gram per cubic centimeter, about
the same as that of water. Astrophysicists
nonetheless find it feasible to deal with
the behavior of solar matter as if it were
a gas, with its particles free to move
about at random. At the high tempera ,_...__._...._......._....__..._._.._._--_._.- ._-----
l
,
I :--_: \
/ e ____ ;
nearly all the hydrogen atoms are ,
.---
II< t
stripped from their nuclei (protons). -.
. "'"
. :
.,;.---- '.
."''11
\
i \
\i .--- + .
'" ----.
the hydrogen atom, 10,000 times the
\ --'-.
.
diameter of its constituent particles, is - '\ >l.
./
-.
obliterated. As a result a cubic centi
\
t l ,
meter of ordinary stellar material is .- ... --
,
/I- W
I
\
."",,-
largely empty space. The tiny protons
and electrons are free to move in all di "\ /
,
. \,
.----
,1' _. \
rections and at all velocities, just as they . It' I \
\ .-
'.. .f
I
\
.. , \ --
\
I
In a white dwarf, on the other hand, '. I
- e- __ ..,. .-
.-
.,- - t
a mass on the order of the sun, equal to
. '.
332,000 earth masses, may be packed ...
'. . .-'-:
into a volume no larger than that of the -. ,.
earth, which has but one millionth the --
.
,
II-
.-
sun's volume. The density ascends to
1,000 kilograms per c.c.-more than 15
"DEGENERATE" GAS (bottom) i contrasted with "perfect" gases, made up of atoms
tons per cubic inch. Even after a white
(top) and ionized particles (center) . Space available in gas of normal pressure permits
dwarf has cooled below the temperature
random motion (broken arrows) to atoms. In an ionized gas, even at the density of a solid,
needed for ionization, the atoms remain the obliteration of the structures (shadowed arcs) of all but a few atoms opens up space
dissociated under the crushing pressure to permit random motion of electrons (black) and nuclear particles (color}. At the ex
of gravity. The particles are not yet so treme density of a degenerate gas the energy states of most electrons are prescribed at low
tightly packed, however, that their vol- momenta ( solid arrows). Only the nuclear particles and a few electrons move at random.
47
48
ERIDANI A
G
40
tz.-
U) ->-
'v
f- /'
Z ?-
.,J
::::J
(7
0'
()
'"
<t: <v
0 .z 40 ERIDANI C v,
)7
<./) p <:
<./)
-<'
<t:
v> "
.1
.01
t
1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000
RADIUS (KILOMETERS)
MASS AND RADIUS of white dwarfs show a correlation exactly dwarfs, in contrast, have smaller radii at higher mass. The smallest
opposite to that of normal "main sequence" stars (curve at right) . dwarfs have masses which are larger than that of the sun, but these
The laller show increase of radius with increase of mass. White masses are compressed into volumes smaller than that of the earth.
nosity is that hydrogen must now com from spectrographic analysis of their quence" stars [see illustration on this
prise less than .00001 of the mass of a light. Only about 80 such stars have been pagel, and on up to 10,000 times for red
dwarf star. Reactions involving heavier studied in detail. With the light-gather giants. The smallest white dwarf known
elements-such as carbon, oxygen, nitro ing power of the 200-inch Hale telescope has an estimated radius of only 2,800
gen and neon-require higher tempera on Palomar Mountain I have observed miles, much smaller than the radius of
tures than are likely to occur, though 50 white-dwarf spectra at a larger scale the earth. This is close to the theoretical
helium might react with these in large than any obtained before. minimum for a star that has exhausted
concentration at very high densities. Spectrographic analYSis establishes its hydrogen; the radius indicates a mass
However, another set of theoretical con with certainty that the white dwarfs are of 1.2 solar masses and a central density
siderations argues against the possibility dwarfs indeed. The derivation of radius of 150 tons per cubic inch.
of any energy production at all. In a nor from the spectra is somewhat indirect, One of the most important theoretical
mal star the thermonuclear reaction-rate but it is reliable. Both from photoelectric predictions is fulfilled with the finding
is regulated by feedback; with increase analysis of the color of the light and that there is no dependence of radius on
in temperature the star expands, and the study of the behavior of the absorption surface temperature. The dwarfs we
reaction rate is damped. In a degenerate lines we can determine temperature. have observed range in temperature
gas, on the other hand, pressure is un From apparent brightness and from in from 50,000 to 4,000 degrees K. The
affected by temperature. Local heating dependent measurement of distance, we hottest is a blue-white star in the earliest
would bring higher temperature and an establish the true luminosity. By combin phase of white-dwarf evolution; the
increase in the reaction rate. The star, in ing temperature and luminosity, we de coolest, a faint, reddish-white dwarf, As
consequence, would explode. We must termine radius. The results are impres plotted in the illustration on the oppo
therefore conclude that the white dwarfs sively monotonous: the well-determined site page, stars of the same radius ap
have substantially exhausted their nu radii all lie between 3,000 and 10,000 pear down the full range of temperature.
clear-energy sources. miles. The constancy of dimension is in Since their initial masses may vary, it is
Because their luminosity is so low, it contrast to the range of size in normal clear that they start with a small spread
is difficult to obtain detailed information stars, from .1 to 10 times the radius of of radii at the upper left corner of the
about other aspects of the dwarf stars the sun (430,000 miles) for "main se- chart and cool off without further gravi-
49
'e---
,
\
\ taminated picture of either of these two
\ \. \ dwarfs. As a result it is still impossible
\
, "'\ \ to measure their radii.
'\ \\ 1950 The best-known white-dwarf member
'" /\ of a multiple system belongs to a three
\ / I
V I star group: 40 Eridani. Here, fortu
'\\.\. Il nately, the distances between stars are
! wide enough so that good spectra can
'I
be obtained, and yet close enough for
l orbital motion to give reliable measure
\\\\
ments of mass. From analysis of the
spectrum, I have derived a radius of
\\ .\\
\i\ 6,500 miles, .0 16 of the solar radius;
'\ :\ '
gravitational measurements establish the
\\, 1940
',\\
mass at .45 solar mass. Calculation from
" the theoretical mass-radius relationship
\\
\.'' yields a mass of .39 solar mass, satis
j... ,
\\ , factorily close to observation. Thus, at
\\ ,,
\.... least in the case of the single star that
..\ \
\ --\-- ---.\ 1930
permits complete test by observation, the
,\ well-articulated theory of white dwarfs
\ \. \\
\ "" finds solid support.
,\. \
\ \. \
,
The spectra of the white dwarfs also
\ \. confirm in a general way the theoretical
\ \. \
prediction of their elemental composi
', \ \
.--.-\--------\ 1920 tion. One type either shows no hydro
' \ \ gen lines at all, or has hydrogen lines
\ \ \
', \ \ which indicate the presence of relatively
\
\
\ \.\ )\
\ tiny residual quantities of hydrogen.
Compared to the spectra of normal stars,
. 1910
, ..... /' \ in which hydrogen lines are universally
, \/ \
strong, this anomaly would be enough
\./\..... \
, \. \ to identify the dwarfs as a genus apart.
, \ \ The spectra of the commonest type of
', \. B
\
\
\, /i 1900
white dwarf (Type A), however, show
\.... only the residual hydrogen and no heavy
, \. / \
/ \
elements. Here, apparently, gravitational
, \/ ,
'.... ":-.. forces have pulled all of the heavier ele
.\
,
A \
,
ments, even helium, out of the atmos
\ phere and squeezed the hydrogen to the
surface. In dwarfs with surface tempera
\ tures below 8,000 degrees, the hydrogen
lines vanish completely, and we see only
a few lines due to metallic elements. Ross
640 is such a star [see illustration on
DOUBLESTAR SYSTEM of Sirius is composed of one of the brightest stars in the sky (A)
and a whitedwarf companion (B). Their orbits around the center of gravity of their system
page 53]; it is still hot enough to show
is shown at top. The motion of the two stars and of the center of gravity of their system with hydrogen lines if any hydrogen were
respect to the earth is indicated by the broken lines rnnning diagonally up this diagram. present. In general the spectra of white
50
1996 1955
1 995 1957
1 994
1960
1 993
1963
1 992 1 966
1969
1991
1972
1989
1 975
1 988
1 986 1 978
1984 1 982
DWARF ST AR IN SIRIUS traces the orbit shown here with respect 'made it impossible to secure spectrographic images uncontaminated
to the large primary star of this double-star system_ The dates give by the light flooding from the 100-times brighter primary star. As
the location of the dwarf in its orbit through the second half of this the dwarf star approaches the apogee of its orbit during the next 20
century. Its close approach to the primary star in recent years has years, it may be possible for astronomers to secure better spectra.
C
E ---)
B
TRIPLE-STAR SYSTEM in constellation Eridanus is composed of gram. The relative diameters of the three stars are shown across the
a bright primary normal star (A), a faint late-type star (C) and bottom of diagram, star A (at left) having a radius _9 that of our
a white dwarf (B), which appear in the relative positions, but not sun; star C (second from left) having a radius .4 that of the sun;
to the scale, indicated by the small spheres at the top of this dia- and the dwarf having a radius .017 that of the sun, or 7,000 miles.
51
t='
z
w
U
5 -r----------4_--+_--
z
o 10 -r--------+_--_r--
i=
C>
O<
o
15 ----4_--+_----
(/)
co
20 --------
ANOMALOUS SPECTRUM of a white dwarf shows no absorption ciated with any familiar elements or compounds. The spectrum has
lines, but does show diffuse bands of absorption at points not asso- here been analyzed by a sensitive photoelectric device which meas-
dwarfs reflect little of the regular corre ance of lines at very high pressure more ued ejection of hot material. WZ Sagit
lation between line characteristics and understandable. Such broadening of tae demonstrates one, though not the
temperature found in normal stars_ The lines is caused by random electric fields only, process by which stars may lose
varied compositions of their atmospheres and by collisions between charged par their mass and make the transition to
therefore may be taken as evidence of ticles. In the van Maanen 2 spectrum the final stage in their history.
their evolutionary history. From the Volker Weidemann of the Bundesanstalt As living things live and die in count
spectrum of Ross 640 we can deduce in Braunschweig, who has been working less ways, so stars have many possible
that this star and other stars like it turned with us on a grant from the Air Force evolutionary histories and deaths. When
to synthesizing heavy elements from he Office of Scientific Research, has found we have learned to read the spectra of
lium after exhausting their hydrogen. lines of iron, magnesium and cal white dwarfs better, we may see what
The redder and still fainter star called cium broadened in a way that indicates paths they have traveled. Their faint
van Maanen 2 (VMa2) is the coolest so a rate of particle collision 10,000 times light may give us evidence which will
far subjected to detailed spectrographic that observed in the sun. He estimates a show what processes went on during ages
analysis. Its peculiar spectrum [see illus pressure of 2,000 atmospheres in this pe past in their thermonuclear furnaces.
tmtion on opposite pagel indicates that culiar atmosphere-dense enough for A white dwarf takes a long time dying.
this star began as a metal-poor member some molecules to form. But though Its light bespeaks the slow leakage of
of the long-lived, stable Population II metal lines may be thus broadened, it is heat from its interior down the tempera
family. Since its present low luminosity surprising that they should disappear en ture gradient set up by the conductive
gives this star an age of four billion years tirely, as they do in the six spectra that opacity of the degenerate gas. The ther
in the white-dwarf phase alone, van show no lines at all. mal energy is contained only in the non
Maanen 2 must have lived out its entire To compound the mystery we have degenerate nuclei and the few electrons
life as a brilliant star before the sun and come upon several spectra with diffuse, above the Fermi threshold. Though the
the earth were formed. In a still fainter, shallow bands that cannot be related to initial temperature may be high, this
cooler and more ancient star, no lines any established laboratory spectral line; thermal energy is all that is available
have yet been detected with certainty. the photoelectric tracing of a plate made throughout the entire dying stage. But
for one of these is shown at the top of as the star cools and its luminosity fades,
spectrum without absorption lines tnese two pages. These bands may orig the temperature gradient also declines.
A might seem to be of academic inter in-ate from molecules or unstable free The dissipation of energy therewith
est to astrophysicists, who employ these radicals under unusual conditions of slows down, and the time scale of evolu
lines as the tools of their trade. But we temperature and pressure. How atoms tion toward lower luminosity is greatly
have spent many nights observing and behave in the strange environment of extended. According to Martin Schwarz
many months of analysis to establish the the white-dwarf atmosphere is not yet schild of the Princeton Observatory, a
real absence of lines in six white-dwarf known. white dwarf composed mainly of helium
spectra. Subjected to the most sensitive Our generation has seen at least one takes three billion years to cool from its
photoelectric inspection yet possible, the star arrive at the end of the evolutionary initial blue-white stage down to a sur
plates show no line, band or absorption road and become a white dwarf. The face temperature of 7,000 degrees in the
depression as deep as 5 per cent. There recurrent nova, WZ Sagittae, which ex yellow-white stage. From yellow down
are a number of possible explanations. ploded in 1913, exploded again in 1946, to the 4,000 degrees of the faintest
Perhaps the most satisfactory will be brightening about 1,000 times. Its known red-white dwarf, it takes another
found upon closer inspection of lines that brightness is now about .0 1 that of the five billion years. But 4,000 degrees is
do appear in other white-dwarf spectra. sun, and its spectrum resembles that of still red-hot. From red to infrared, the
The extreme broadening and attenuation white dwarfs in everything but the pres star will fade over fantastic spans of
of the hydrogen lines in some spectra ence of superposed emission lines. These time, large compared to any present es
helps to make the complete disappear- lines are presumably due to the contin- timate of the age of our galaxy.
52
41 35 4475
ures the density of the photographic plate from point to point. Only to the eye on the spectrographic plate. The absorption bands may
the deep absorption band at 4135 angstroms wavelength is visible be due to presence of elements or free radicals nnder high pressure.
The fall in temperature brings the de O n the one-way track described here, long ago have disappeared. Probably no
generate gas phase ever nearer to the all stars eventually fade to extinction. star will be visible, except for an occa
sllrface. The nondegenerate electrons be How will the sky look after our sun's sional fflint, red normal main-sequence
come scarcer and, at a very low tempera eolution is complete, and our dead star that passes by chance near our dy
ture, even the nuclei become degenerate. planets circulate about a dying star? In ing system; such stars are so faint that
When all the nuclear particles and elec about seven billion years the sun will be a their nuclear energy suffices for thou
trons have occupied the lowest possible hot and very blue-white dwarf, too small sands of billions of years. Although the
energy states, radiation ceases and the to show a disk to the unaided eye on formerly bright stars will have become
star becomes a giant "molecule." This earth. The earth's temperature will be white dwarfs, they will all be too faint
is the end of the irreversible process of about 300 degrees below zero Fahren to be seen, and black night will reign
evolution-proof of the fourth law of heit. The sky at night will no longer be supreme. Yet close to one of the faint
thermodynamics. There are, however, no filled with stars, since star formation will red stars life might exist on other
black dwarfs in our galaxy; it is as yet have ended, and the high-luminosity planets, in forms and for ages unimagi
too young. stars that comprise our constellations will nable to us.
Bpn He HZ 29
B He l157331
A H 197030
As H l53281
G Fe,Ca + VMa 2
DWARF STAR SPECTRA of various types (identified by initials identified by their code numbers at right. The spectrum at bottom
at far left) show absorption lines for only a few elements (identi is the reference spectrum of helium and hydrogen. Absorption lines
fied by initials in second column at left). The individual stars are of Type A dwarfs are characteristically diffuse and broadened.
53
hen we think of the circulatory larger blood vessels are merely secondary circulation begins. The arterioles in turn
54
55
he capillary bed, unlike muscle or tors suggested that although the endo
T liver or kidney, cannot be removed thelium of the capillaries was not true
from an experimental animal and studied muscle, it could nonetheless contract.
as an intact unit outside the body of the Indeed, it was demonstrated that in
animal. By their very nature the capil many lower animals blood vessels con
laries are interwoven with other tissues. sisting only of endothelium contract and
It is possible, however, to examine the relax in a regular rhythm. However, con
capillary bed in a living animal. For tractile movements of this kind have not
example, one can open the abdomen of been observed in mammals.
an anesthetized rat and carefully expose Another explanation was advanced by
a thin sheet of mesentery: the tissue that Charles Rouget, a French histologist. He
attaches the intestine to the wall of the had discovered peculiar star-shaped
abdominal cavity. In this transparent cells, each of which was wrapped around
sheet the capillary bed is displayed in a capillary, and he assumed that they
almost diagrammatic form. were primitive muscle cells which
The tube of a capillary is made of a opened and closed the capillaries. Many
single layer of flat cells resembling ir investigators agreed with him, among
regular stones fitted together in a smooth them the Danish physiologist August
pavement. The wall of the tube is so thin Krogh, who in 1920 won a Nobel prize
that even when it is viewed edge-on at a for his work on the capillary system. It
magnification of 1,000 diameters it is was not possible, however, to prove or
visible only as a line. When the wall is disprove the contractile function of the
magnified in the electron microscope, it Rouget cells by simple observation.
may be seen that the wall is less than
.0001 inch thick. This so-called endo here the matter rested until methods
thelium not only forms the walls of the T were developed for performing mi
capillaries but also lines the larger blood crosurgical operations on single cells
vessels and the heart, so that all the [see "Microsurgery," by M. J. Kopac;
blood in the body is contained in a sin SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, October, 1950].
gle envelope. Now it was possible to probe the cell
In a large blood vessel the tube of with extremely fine needles, pipettes and
endothelium is sheathed in fibrous tis electrodes. Microsurgery established that
sue interwoven with muscle. The fibrous in mammals neither the capillary endo
tissue imparts to the vessel a certain thelium nor the Rouget cells could con
amount of elasticity. The muscle is of trol the circulation by contraction. The
the "smooth" type, characterized by its endothelium did not contract when it
ability to contract slowly and sustain its was stimulated by a microneedle, or by
CAPILLARIES contraction. The muscle cells are long the application with a micropipette of
OF BODY AND ORGANS and tapered at both ends; they coil substances that cause larger blood ves
around the vessel. In the tiny arterioles, sels to contract. When one of the star
in fact, a single muscle cell may wrap shaped Rouget cells was stimulated, it
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM is schematically around the vessel two or three times. became thicker but did not occlude
outlined. The blood is pumped by the right When the muscle contracts, the bore of the capillary. When the same stimulus
heart through the pulmonary artery into the
the vessel narrows; when the muscle re ws applied to the recognizable muscle
capillaries of the lungs. It returns from the
laxes, the bore widens. cell of an arteriole, on the other hand,
lungs through the pulmonary vein to the
left heart, which pumps it through the ar
The muscular sheath of the larger the cell contracted and the arteriole was
teries to the capillaries of the internal or blood vessels does not continue into the narrowed.
gans and of the rest of the body. It finally re capillary bed. Yet as early as the latter The microsurgical experiments estab
turns to the right heart through the veins. part of the 19th-century experimental lished an even more significant fact: not
56
PLASMA LAYER
BlOODSTRfA41
II\;
1tO
o
-z.
CAPILLARY WALL
SMALL VEIN
MESENTERY of a rat is photographed at various maguifications photomicrograph at top is 100 diameters; of the photomicrograph
to show the characteristic structures of the iuicrocirculation. The second from top, 200 diameters; of the third photomicrograph,
drawings at right label the structures. The magnification of the 1,000 diameters; of the photomicrograph at bottom, 200 diameters.
57
MUSCLE FIBER is richly supplied with capillaries. Lying atop parallel to the fibrils which make up the fiber. The vessels which
this dissected muscle fiber are two blood vessels, the smaller of cut across two .or more capillaries are thoroughfare channels. The
which is an artery and the larger a vein. Most of the capillaries run system is shown in cross section at the right end of the drawing.
58
endothelial cells sheathed in a single layer of muscle cells. The in fibrous tissue. The wall of a vein consists of endothelial cells
wall of a capillary consists only of a single layer of endothelial sheathed in fibrous tissue and a thin layer of muscle cells. Thus
cells. The wall of a venule consists of endothelial cells sheathed a layer of endothelial cells lines the entire circnlatory system.
physiological unit with two specialized not only cause the vessels to constrict the blood vessels lose their tone and the
components. One component is the and dilate but also keep the muscle cells circulation collapses.
thoroughfare channel, into which blood in a state of partial contraction. This Another substance of profound impor
flows from the arteriole. The other is the muscle "tone" maintains the elasticity of tance to the circulatory system is epi
true capillaries, which form a secondary the vessels, which assists the heart in nephrine, which is secreted by the core
network connected to the thoroughfare maintaining the blood pressure. The op of the adrenal gland (as distinct from
channel. The precapillary sphincters eration of the system as a whole is super its cortex). Epinephrine is one of two
along the channel open and close pe vised by special regulatory centers in principal members of a family of sub
riodically, irrigating first one part of the the brain, working in collaboration with stances called amines; the other princi
capillary network, then another part. sensory monitoring stations strategically pal member is norepinephrine, which is
When the sphincters are closed, the located in important vessels. released both by the adrenal gland and
blood is restricted to the thoroughfare In the capillary bed, on the other by the endings of nerves in the muscles.
channel in its movement toward the ve hand, the role of the nervous system is All the amines cause the contraction of
nous system. much less significant. Most of the muscle the muscle cells of the blood vessels,
The structure of the physiological unit cells in the capillary bed have no direct with the exception of certain vessels
varies from one tissue to another in ac nerve connections at all. A further cir such as the coronary arteries of the heart.
cOl'dance with the characteristic needs cumstance sets the response of the mi Also liberated at the nerve endings is
of the tissues. For example, striated mus croscopic vessels apart from that of the acetylcholine, the effect of which is di
cle, which unlike the smooth muscle of larger vessels. Whereas the muscle cells rectly opposite that of the amines: it
the blood vessels and other organs con of the large vessels are isolated from the causes muscle cells to relax.
tracts rapidly and is under voluntary surrounding tissues in the thick walls of Many workers have suggested that it
control, requires over 10 times more the vessels, the muscle cells of the arte is norepinephrine and acetylcholine
blood when it is active than when it is rioles and the thoroughfare channels are which control the flow of blood through
at rest. To meet this wide range of needs immersed in the environment of the very the small vessels. Our own work at the
each thoroughfare channel in striated tissues which they supply with blood. New York University-Bellevue Medical
muscle gives rise to as many as 20 or 3 0 This feature introduces another chemi Center leads us to conclude that such an
true capillaries. Glandular tissues, on the cal regulatory mechanism: the continu explanation is too simple. The mecha
other hand, require only a steady trickle ous presence of substances liberated nism could not by itself account for the
of blood, and each of their thoroughfare locally by the tissue cells. As a conse behavior of the small vessels.
channels may give rise to as few as one quence the contraction and relaxation In our view the function of the mus
or two capillaries. In the skin, which of muscle cells in the microcirculation cle cells of the small vessels is regulated
shields the body from its outer environ are under the joint control of messenger not only by substances that directly
ment, there are special shunts through substances in the blood and speCific cause them to contract and relax, but
which blood can pass directly from the chemical products of tissue metabolism. also by other substances that simply
arteries to the veins with minimum loss modify the capacity of the cells to react
of heat. Still other tissues require spe he chemical substances that influ to stimuli and do work. It is known that
cialized capillary beds. The capillary T ence the function of the blood-vessel a wide variety of substances extracted
beds of all the tissues, however, have muscle cells comprise a subtly orches from tissues cause the small vessels
the same basic feature: a central channel trated system which is still imperfectly to dilate. We postulate that when the
whose muscle cells control the flow of understood. Among the more important metabolism of tissue cells is accelerated,
blood into the true capillaries. messengers are those released into the the cells produce substances of this sort.
But what controls the muscle cells? To bloodstream by the cortex of the adrenal When such substances accumulate in the
answer this question we must draw a gland. These corticosteroids are esse
. ntial vicinity of a precapillary sphincter, they
distinction between the control of the to all cells in the body, notably main depress the capacity of its muscle cells
larger blood vessels and the contro} of taining the cells' internal balance of to respond to stimuli. As a result the
'
the microcirculation. The muscle cells of water and salts. (They have also been sphincter relaxes, and blood flows from
the arteries and veins are made to con used with spectacular results in the the thoroughfare channel into the capil
tract and relax by two agencies: (1) the treatment of degenerative diseases such lary which nourishes the tissue.
nervous system and (2) chemical "mes as arthritis.) When the corticosteroids The reaction limits itself, because the
sengers" in the blood. These influences are deficient or absent, the muscles of blood flow increases to the point where
59
60
x-ray film is getting ... a device with enormous potentialities for inventiveness
They transduce
We make Kodak Ektron Detectors like these for trans Eastman Kodak Company, Special Products Division,
ducing a visible or infrared pattern into electrical terms. Rochester 4, N. Y. It describes what spectral sensi
The darker material is photoconductive lead sulfide or tivities and time constants can be selected and very,
lead selenide; the electrodes (actually evaporated gold) very briefly summarizes the circuitry considerations-a
appear grey here. Since we can lay down the photosensi little rough, perhaps, for persons with casual interest
tive material in any configuration, enormous poten in this sort of thing. It does tell enough to place an
tialities for inventiveness present themselves. Whether order for breadboarding purposes or a request
you seize them is entirely up to you. We offer a pam for quotation.
phlet, "Kodak Ektron Detectors." You get it by writing
T
Hayes "Nitro
G e n ." T h i s received the Enrico Fermi and sciences, 32 per cent; the social sciences,
unique combi
nation of sta- Atoms for Peace awards, each of 4 pei cent.
tionary retort and cyclical pro which is larger than a Nobel prize. The
grammed dryer has cleared the way Atomic Energy Commission bestowed Scientific Ambassadors
for production of 99.99% pure inert
gas at approximately 20c per thou the Fermi award (a medal and $50,000)
on Eugene P. Wigner, who is Thomas D. he Department of State has an-
T nounced
sand cubic feet.
of low cost
The immediate benefits Jones Professor of Mathematical Physics resumption of its scien
nitrogen as a protective heat treat
at Princeton University. Wigner, who tific-attache program, which it had
ing atmosphere were revealed in ini
tial metallurgical applications. For was responsible for the design of the first abandoned in 1956. Two scientists will
example, test bars of Type 8 6 7 0 atomic pile, was cited for his contribu be dispatched to each of nine em
Carbon Steel were subjected to rou
tine hardening under (I) nitrogen,
tion to physics and reactor development. bassies: Bonn, London, Moscow, New
(2) dissociated ammonia, and (3) The $75,000 Atoms for Peace award, Delhi, Paris, Rome, Stockholm, Tokyo
endothermic gas atmospheres - each financed by the Ford Motor Company, and one South American capital, proba
test followed by routine oil quench
and tempering. Hardness results went to George Charles de Hevesy, pro bly Rio de Janeiro. Their primary duties
from these tests proved identical .. . fessor at the Research Institute for Or will be to advise U. S. ambassadors on
but a substantial boost in toughness ganic Chemistry in Stockholm. He was scientific matters and to establish con
showed up in the bars treated under
. nitrogen. The nitrogen atmosphere honored for his pioneer work on the use tacts with foreign scientists. They will
;:' produced 100% greater toughness, of isotopes as tracers in chemistry, biolo also evaluate scientific research in the
, according to a transverse break test. : gy' and medicine. countries where they are stationed.
\ "j
:; Safety alone makes nitrogen worthy -:; The State Department has had some
oJ of careful consideration. If this non- 3::
: combustible gas can be produced effi- , Federal Science Support difficulty in recruiting men for the jobs.
:;! ciently and economically (and we're In November, 1957, President Eisen
Z doing it!),
Hayes Research and t hower proposed renewing the attache
Development it upport for research and development
:
Engineers believe its
potential - in heat treating and in S will this year amount to almost 5 per program and also filling the post of State
a/her "blanketing" opera/ions - is
' \'===
cent of the Federal budget, according to Department scientific advisor, which
virtually unlimited. For further de- I
the National Science Foundation's an had been vacant since 1953. Two months
I!lD!I.iii
tails on the new
"Nitro-Gen"... nual estimate. Federal expenditures for later the post was filled by Wallace R.
_ now being dem- Brode, formerly associate director of the
J, onstrated in our these purposes have been climbing
steadily from $3,031 million in the fiscal National Bureau of Standards. Since
J
lab ...request
, technical data. year 1957 to $3,435 million in 1958, then Brode has spent much of his time
11
C ", , \ and to an estimated $3,732 million in persuading scientists to accept the two
\=-- ' - year attache appointments. In the first
1959.
The pattern of spending has changed 10 months only six men had been hired.
c. I. HAYES, INC. little from year to year. With the figures
835 WElliNGTON AVE. CRANSTON 10, R, I. for the fiscal year 1958 almost complete, Carbon 14 in Fallout
the report estimates that the Depart
Whatever the job, it pays to see HAYES
lor metallurgical guidance, laboratory
ment of Defense and the Atomic Energy T inus Pauling of the California Insti
facilities, furnaces, atmosphere genera Commission disbursed 83 per cent of the L tute of Technology has calculated
tors, gas and fluid dryers. total. Almost all the rest was spent by that radioactive carbon 14 generated in
62
Perennial Wheat
Vacuum Equipment Division
ter 35 years of experimentation U. S. F. J. STOKES CORPORATION
STOKES
Department of Agriculture plant 5500 Tabor Road, Philadelphia 20, Pa.
breeders appear to be on the verge of
63
64
65
Paralytic Partnership
MATHEMATICIANS
are invited to join the Lincoln Laboratory
S evere outbreaks of paralytic polio
myelitis may be due not to the polio
myelitis virus alone but to a combinatioll
scientists and engineers whose ideas have of two viruses. Experimental evidence
contributed to new concepts in the field of that a group of the so-called Coxsackie
electronic air defense. viruses intensify the damage done by
polio viruses is reported by Gilbert Dall
A b r o c h u r e d e s c ri bi n g t h e fo l lowing dorf and Heribert Weigand of the New
York State Department of Health.
Laboratory programs will be forwarded
They inoculated young monkeys first
upon request. with a weakened polio virus, then five
days later with viruses of Coxsackie
HEAVY RADARS Group A. With few exceptions the ani
mals became paralyzed. In contrast, ani
MEMORY DEVICES
mals that they had inoculated twice with
TRANSISTORIZED DIGITAL COMPUTERS the same virus were not seriously af
fected, although some developed minor
SCATTER COMMUNICATIONS
lesions of the spinal cord.
SOLID STATE Writing in The Joumal of Experimen
AEW (air-borne early warning) tal Medicine, Dalldorf and Weigand
speculate whether paralytic poliomyeLL
SAGE (semi-automatic ground environment) might not be the cumulative effect 01
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS repeated, though minor, virus infections,
each of which destroys a number of motor
In certain of these programs, positions of signifi cells. They point out that other investi
gators have observed that paralytic polio
cant professional scope and responsibility are open
epidemics are frequently associated with
to men and women with superior qualifications.
widespread Coxsackie A infection. On
the other hand, when Coxsackie viruses
of Group B are prevalent, polio is seldom
Research and Development paralytic. Presumably this is because
Coxsackie B and polio viruses somehow
interfere and tend to cancel out. The
MIT different strains of polio virus interfere
with one another in the same way.
Dalldorf and Weigand urge more
LI NCOLN LABORAT ORY study of the interrelationships of the po
BOX 1 8 lio, Coxsackie and other viruses that
LEXINGTON 73, MASSACHUSETTS lodge in the intestinal tract. Many of the
mysteries of polio epidemiology, they
suggest, might be cleared up if medical
workers knew more about how these
66
rate illustration shows a permanent sat weather prediction, etc. Three such sta
.....,A needs key men to augment
ellite (center) being constructed in orbit tions, properly placed, could blanket the
a broad research program in missile
around the earth. It generates its own entire world with nearly perfect TV guidance and space technology. As de
heat and electricity from solar rays. transmission. signer and developer of all-inertial navi
Basic vegetation (such as algae) for Atomic rocket vehicles with prefabri gation systems for TITAN and ATLAS
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grown in hydroponic tubes in upper vide building materials for the station, atmosphere where creative talents can
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67
68
Deepview Microscope
Workhorse Accelerators
69
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70
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71
SUNNYVALE, PALO ALTO, VAN NUYS. SANTA CRUZ, SANTA MARIA. CALIFORNIA
Clay pigeons that fly faster than sound-that's a nutshell It can operate at all required altitudes, speeds and ranges.
description of the new low-cost target drones developed Bendix target drones realize small diameter, and hence
by Bendix Systems Division. low cost, by means of the Bendix Lens, a small plastic
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74
by R. E. Peierls
ver since 1930, when the discovery in corrections for the complications vVe must allow not only for the attrac
pound nuclei, like the deuteron, which formulated as the laws of "quantum group of orbits is called a shell.
contains only one proton and one neu mechanics," or "wave mechanics," which When the atomic nucleus first became
tron, such equations can be written gave us complete command over the an object of serious study, the nature of
down and solved without difficulty. theory of the atom. the difficulties was rather different. The
However, for more complicated struc The third step, of finding a simplified general laws of dynamics did not seem
tures this head-on attack becomes much model for discussing the atom, also to require further revision; the laws of
harder and soon exceeds the capacity proved relatively easy. In working out quantum mechanics which had been dis
even of modern electronic computers. the possible orbits of a single electron covered in atomic physics seemed quite
We are like men who encounter for under the attraction of a proton, as in adequate for the nuclear domain. In
the first time a complicated machine, and the hydrogen atom, Bohr found that one deed, we have not yet found any evi
who try to analyze its operation. If we could account for the behavior of a more dence in the behavior of nuclei which
attempt, without any guidance, to puz complex atom by assuming that each of would suggest that these laws might be
zle out the interplay of all the parts of the its electrons moved in such an orbit. The in error. Thus the second step in our list
machine, we should soon lose ourselves larger the number of electrons in an presented no problem.
in a maze. Instead, we first try to ascer atom, however, the more distinct orbits
tain the major features of the machine's they occupy; this is a consequence of the The Nuclear Forces
operation. We then devise a model "exclusion principle" discovered by
which resembles the real thing in these Wolfgang Pauli, which limits the num On the other hand the first step-the
features, yet is simple enough to be ber of electrons that can travel in a determination of the forces between the
analyzed. Then, of course, we must put given orbit. particles-proved to be a very difficult
75
----------------------- - -------------- -
----- -
,
\
'.
\ \
CHARGE EXCHANGE in the nucleus is schematically depicted. in half the cases (left.) the neutron continues forward. In the other
When protons ( black balls) are struck by fast neutrons (red balls), half (right), the proton exchanges its charge with the neutron.
problem. Even today, after some 25 ratory experiments. The only possible proach. The difficulties arise chiefly from
years of intense study, we cannot claim way of studying these forces is to ob the greater strength of the nuclear
to have a complete answer, but we have serve the behavior of nuclei, or to bom forces, as compared to electric forces,
by now at least a fair knowledge of what bard hydrogen or other nuclei with fast which makes their mathematical analysis
the forces are like. protons or neutrons under circumstances much more difficult.
They cannot be electric in origin. The in which the effect of really close en Thus the best source of information
only electric charges found in the nu counters can show up. about the forces still lies in direct ex
cleus are the positive charges of the pro What makes this task harder is that periments. These require collisions at
tons, and like charges repel each other; the nature of nuclear forces, unlike the high energies-much higher than the
thus electric forces cannot be responsible simple inverse-square law of electric or energies of particles inside ordinary nu
for holding a nucleus together. More gravitational forces, is rather compli clei. The reason for this is the wave as
over, electric forces are much too weak. cated. If the law of nuclear forces were pect of particles, which is an essential
We know that the energy of attraction simple, a few observations might suffice feature of quantum mechanics. Slow
of two unlike charges (i.e., the work we to guess its general form. But all simple particles are associated with waves of
have to do to pull them apart) varies guesses based on a few experiments have long wavelength, and collisions involv
inversely as their distance. The attrac been disproved by later experiments. ing such slow particles do not provide
tive energy of an electron and a proton We are obliged to reconstruct the law much information about the finer fea
in the hydrogen atom is a few electron of nuclear forces laboriously from the tures of the forces at work between them,
volts (ev), and since the diameter of the various pieces of evidence we can ex just as in looking through a microscope
hydrogen atom is 20,000 times larger tract from the experiments. at a dust particle with a diameter less
than that of the smallest nucleus we Ultimately we hope to be able to de than a wavelength of light we see only
should expect electric .energies in the rive the law of the forces from more a general blur which does not reveal the
nucleus to amount to some tens of thou basic principles, just as we can derive shape or nature of the particle. To have
sands of electron volts. Actually the the inverse-square law of electric forces particles of sufficiently short wavelength
forces inside a nucleus run to many mil from the basic laws of electromagne one must raise their energy to a few
lion electron volts (mev). It follows that tism. A beginning was made by the hundred mev. The most reliable infor
nuclear forces are vastly stronger than Japanese physicist Hideki Yukawa, who mation on nuclear forces has therefore
electric forces. used the analogy with electromagnetic become available only in the last few
It is also clear that these strong forces radiation to point out that nuclear forces years, as a consequence of the develop
act only over extremely short distances. must be related to a new form of radia ment of accelerating machines which
The pioneer work of Rutherford on the tion which could carry charged particles produce clean beams of protons, neu
passage of charged particles through weighing a few hundred times more than trons, or electrons with such energies.
matter showed that, even in encounters the electron. His prediction was con This need for high-energy beams is en
in which a charged particle approaches firmed by the discovery of the so-called tirely similar to the situation in atomic
a nucleus to a distance of a few times pi meson. His picture of the mechanism physics, where detailed pictures of the
the nuclear diameter, the only noticeable underlying the nuclear forces has been structure of atoms require the use of x
force is the electric one. We know to qualitatively confirmed by many obser ray or electron beams of several thou
day that nuclear forces between two par vations, and has been a useful guide in sand ev-much greater than the energies
ticles are quite negligible if the distance our thinking about the forces. But it has of the electrons inside the atoms, whose
between the particles is more than, say, not yet been possible to use his idea for wavelength is comparable to the atomic
four fermis. (The fermi, named for the a reliable and accurate derivation of the diameter. The complexity of the results
late Enrico Fermi, is a convenient unit law of the forces because of the mathe has also made it necessary to call on the
of distance for the nucleus. The di matical problems which stand in the services of fast electronic computers for
ameter of a heavy nucleus is some 15 way. We do not know today whether a disentangling the observations.
fermis; the diameter of the hydrogen correct solution of the equations em I shall not attempt in this article to
atom, about 100,000 fermis.) It is not bodying Yukawa's idea would yield the give anything like a complete specifica
surprising, therefore, that earlier physi right forces, or whether there is some tion of the nuclear forces, but shall stress
cists did not meet nuclear forces in labo- thing basically wrong with this ap- only those features whlch are of impor-
76
tance for what follows. We have already showed that in most cases either the interaction of two particles upon the
noted that the forces must be strong and neutron or the proton tended to go for direction of their orbit with respect to
of short range. Since they hold the dif ward with almost the same speed and their spin. When the two particles spin
ferent particles together, they must on direction with which the neutron had on their axes in the same direction as that
balance be attractive. At the same time arrived. Since it is hard to deflect such in which they revolve about each other,
they cannot be entirely attractive, since fast particles from their path, this indi the attraction between them is stronger;
otherwise heavy nuclei would "collapse." cates that the incident neutron had con when they spin in the opposite direction
By collapse we mean a state of affairs in tinued almost in a straight line, but that from that in which they revolve, the at
which all the particles in a nucleus are in half the collisions it had changed its traction is weaker. There is some evi
so close together that each one is within nature and become a proton, leaving a dence for such a spin-orbit force in ex
the range of the attractive force of every neutron behind. periments on nuclear collisions, but there
other. In that case the attractive energy However, the experiment also showed is still some room for controversy in the
acting on each particle would grow with that only one half of the force was of interpretation of these experiments.
the total number of particles present, the exchange type; the other half (cor Our present knowledge of the nuclear
and the volume occupied by the whole responding to the neutrons still moving forces, while still incomplete, is suffi
nucleus would be the same no matter forward after collision) was an "ordi cient to discuss the behavior of nuclei
how many particles were in it. This is nary" force. This is not enough to yield and the collisions between them. At this
not found in reality. The energy per par the required saturation, and some other point we meet the need for the third
ticle is roughly the same for all nuclei, factor must be involved. The second fac step in our general program, namely a
light or heavy, and the volume of nuclei tor tending toward saturation is almost simple model in terms of which we may
increases with the number of particles in certainly a reversal of the direction of approach the dynamical problem of the
them. the nuclear forces at short distances, so motion of the 16 particles in the oxygen
that, as two particles approach each nucleus, or the 208 particles in the most
The Exchange Forces other, the attraction changes to repul stable lead nucleus.
sion. This concept of "repulsive cores"
This behavior, which indicates a lim in the forces is familiar in the behavior Models of the Nucleus
ited attraction, is usually called "satura of atoms. When atoms form chemical
tion" of the nuclear forces. There are compounds, or liquid or solid substances, The selection of a suitable model is
two particularly plausible ideas to ac they are held together by attractive not at all straightforward. Not that there
count for this saturation. One was sug forces; but each atom has a fairly defi is a shortage of suggestions. In fact the
gested by the German physicist Werner nite size, and when two atoms come into trouble in the recent past has been a sur
Heisenberg, who was one of the founders actual contact, their attraction changes feit of different models, each of them
of quantum mechanics. He postulated into repulsion. We may liken this be successful in explaining the behavior of
that at least part of the nuclear forces havior to that of two rubber balls tied nuclei in some situations, and each in
between a neutron and a proton involves together with a rubber band. There is an apparent contradiction with other suc
an exchange of their position, so that attraction between the balls, but there cessful models or with our ideas about
after an encounter' between them the is also a contact force which prevents nuclear forces. In the past few years
neutron would tend to follow what had the centers of the balls from approach great progress has been made in bringing
been the path of the proton, and vice ing each other closer than one diameter. some order into this confusion and in
versa. The exchange occurs readily only Shortly after the theoretical need for understanding the justification for each
if the two move in very similar orbits, such a repulsive core in the nuclear of the models in the domain to which it
and, since the Pauli exclusion principle forces had become clear, experiments on is properly applied. I shall attempt to
allows only a limited number of particles collisions between fast particles indeed explain briefly some of the ideas behind
to follow the same orbit, such exchange showed direct evidence for these repul these developments.
forces would expose each particle to a sive forces. The most obvious idea was to use the
strong attraction only from a few others. Among other features of the nucleus shell model, which had been so success
The bombardment of protons with fast I should mention the "spin-orbit" force, ful in dealing with the atom. In fact, the
neutrons confirmed this idea, because it that is, the dependence of the mutual first attempts to set up such a shell model
77
NUCLEAR FORCES' are dependent on the distance between parti If they are a certain distance a part, they attract each other (center).
cles. If the particles are very close, they repel each other (left). If they are farther apart, they have little effect on each other (right).
78
79
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UJ UJ
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LOW-ENERGY ORBITS in the shell model of the nucleus may each be occupied by only
two neutrons (colored balls) and two protons (black balls). In the normal state of affairs
(left) the low-energy orbits are filled; the particles cannot gain or lose energy, and thus
cannot change their orbits. A bombarding particle (upper right) has energy to spare; thus
precision
workshop-inom j niature
it can exchange energy with a particle in nucleus and move it to orbit of higher energy.
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UNIMAT
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from the beam of bombarding neutrons again the uncertainty principle, we know
[see "A Model of the Nucleus," by that in talking about a short time inter
Victor F. Weisskopf and E. P. Rosen val we must not try to specify the energy
baum; SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Decem too accurately. We should therefore
ber, 1955J. How can we understand the think not of neutrons with a well-defined
MANUFACTURERS developing new prod
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particle motion in view of the Bohr ar ing in energy by an amount that is
mock-up shop. No need to waste big,
expensive-to-run machinery on tooling gument? greater the shorter the time in which
small parts. ENGINEERS and DESIGNERS The answer to this question has been they are likely to be involved in colli
supplement their sketches and blueprints given in essence by Weisskopf. It may sions inside the nucleus. Experiments
with machined-to-scale models anybody be expressed by considering the time often make use of such mixed beams, if
can "read." TECHNICIANS in research labs sequence of events. To be sure, the bom the experimenter does not take trouble
turn out machine work with amazingly barding particle is likely to be disturbed to select the neutron energies accurate
small tolerances, down to .0004 - of - an from its path by collisions, but this will ly. If we have data with accurate energy
inch! Hundreds" of efficiency - minded
take a little time. So for a short time it selection we should lump together the
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o
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Attachments and accessories that turn Unimat into a UJ
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80
ways be many of them within the energy weaker and more diffuse. The fact that the effect of the exclusion principle. We
range we use. The result we get in this they are found to be pronounced and have seen that this cuts down the rate
way will reHect the number and strength distinct shows that the particle has a fair of collisions in a normal nucleus dras
of the resonances within the selected chance of completing at least one revo tically. In the impact problems where
range. But we may now think of these lution in its orbit. In this respect we see there is more energy to spare, the colli
results also as determined by the first that the extreme form of Bohr's liquid sions are more frequent, because there
short time interval of the event, and as drop model, or our simple picture of are more orbits available that are not
the neutron pursues a regular orbit dur golf balls, exaggerates the situation. But already occupied, but the prohibition is
ing this short time interval the results we have succeeded in reconciling Bohr's still partly effective and the collision rate
now should reHect the behavior of such explanation of the many sharp reso is still a good deal less than that sug
regular orbits. This therefore leads us nances in terms of the many-body as- gested by the picture of golf balls, for
.
directly to the picture of the optical pects of the problem, with the super which all quantum effects, including the
model, which has neutrons traveling in imposed structure of giant resonances, exclusion principle, are of no impor
regular orbits. The absorption which was which characterize the early stages of tance.
allowed for in Weisskopf's optical model the process. A picture thus emerges in which the
merely reHects the fact that the particles It remains to account for the quanti various, apparently contradictory, mod
do not stay on such a regular orbit for tative features of the optical model-and els of the nucleus are seen as consistent
ever, but are sooner or later removed in particular for the long time a particle parts of a whole, each appropriate for
from it by collisions with other particles. can stay in its orbit before being thrown answering certain questions about the
The strength of this absorption is thus out of it by a close encounter with an behavior of nuclei. There are prolillems
related to the rate at which collisions other particle-in terms of the basic for which yet other models have to be
occur inside the nucleus. If they are forces. A promising attack on this prob used, including the important "collective
very frequent, so that the particle covers lem is now under way. The workers en model" developed by Aage Bohr and B.
only a small fraction of the nuclear diam gaged in it include G. E. Brown in the Mottelson of Copenhagen, but it would
eter before it hits something, the "giant author's group at the University of Bir exceed the scope of this article to de
resonances," which correspond to the mingham. In particular, the low rate of scribe them and show how they fit into
orbits of a single particle, will become collisions is seen to be linked again with the story.
82
TRANS-SONles T.M-
83
cordage, safety belts and many indus marked affinity for virtually every class
trial uses. ( If you should ever need an of dyestuff, and its "deep-dye" charac
industrial sling-some people do, you teristic permits dyes to penetrate deep
know-CAPROLAN's tensile strength is into the fiber itself instead of being
such that you can make one with a merely deposited on the surface.
breaking strength of 1 95 ,000 pounds . )
Text u r i z i n g . In filament yarns, a door
A lot of CAP ROLAN is going into tire is opened to fabric engineering and
cord, too, where its resistance to heat, design. Due to their parallel arrange
fatigue and shock makes driving safer. ment of filaments, CAP ROLAN heavy
And cordage manufacturers are mak yarns are especially compliant to the
ing CAPROLAN marine hawsers of n e w e r t e x t u r i z i n g p r o c e s s e s ( o ft e n
7-inch c ircumference that outperform called "bulking" ) . One of o u r statistic
8 -inch lines of conventional nylon. ally m i n d e d engineers has estimated
Dyeabi/ity. Dark areas show dye p e n etrat i n g
C A P R O l A N carp e t staple in con trost to surface But the use which best highlights the that 4 5 , 7 5 9 completely new and different
tinlln g co n v e ntional n ylon (light areas). Both
capabilities of CAP ROLAN lies in the yarns are possible, depending on varia
n ylons were dyed together in the same bath.
sphere of textiles. So here, unsuccess- tions in denier and bulking processes.
principal impurity, specified at a maxi WE'D LIKE TO TELL YO U MORE of
mum of 25 p arts per million, is normally the o u tstanding performance charac
analyzed at 5 p . p . m. teristics of CA PROLA N-and in greater
Purity shows up in a fiber as whiteness detail. Why not write us, indicating
and uniformity . But the creative proc your in terest in carpeting, upholstery,
ess is rarely easy, and a lot of sweat, cordage, tires or whatever, and telling
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84
amateur mineralogist, probing a most other water-bearing crystals it will molecular structure which explains their
NATURAL ZEOLITE CRYSTALS are found in the crevices and tals of chabazite, one of the commonest of these rare minerals. Some
cavities of volcanic rocks. Shown here are the rhombohedral crys- other varieties of zeolites have prismatic or needle-like crystals.
85
86
87
temperatures. By using more soluble ume of about 925 cubic angstroms. To are not rigid bodies. They more nearly
starting materials (a mixture of sodium gether they account for about half the resemble pulsating rubber balls. The
and aluminum oxides and freshly pre volume of a crystal [see illustmtion on pulsations of both the aperture atoms
pared silica gel) we were able to hold opposite page J. The crystals themselves and the incoming molecules combine to
down the temperature and produce crys are about 1,000th of a millimeter across. make the effective diameter of the aper
tals with a high adsorptive capacity. At We can grow them larger, but the small ture considerably larger than its "free"
first we grew them in a sort of pressure er crystals seem to sieve quite as effi diameter of 3.5 A. Moreover, the kinetic
cooker; more recently we have obtained ciently as the large ones. energy of the incoming molecules helps
good yields at atmospheric pressure. The "mesh" of a zeolite sieve of course them to "shoulder their way" through
depends not on the volume of the cavi the opening. We have found in general
y 1952
B dozen
we had produced nearly a ties but on the diameter of the apertures that at ordinary temperatures molecules
types of synthetic zeolites. which connect them. The apertures of up to .5 A. wider than the free diameter
Some were analogues of natural crystals; sodium-bearing Type A have a diameter of the aperture can pass through it easily.
others were entirely new varieties, in of 3.5 angstroms. One might expect that Larger molecules enter the crystal with
cluding a most useful new sieve we call molecules more than 3.5 A. in diameter greater and greater difficulty; molecules
Type A. This synthetic zeolite has pores would be unable to enter the crystals, 1 A. wider cannot enter at all.
of a high capacity, and apertures that but the reality is not quite so simple. We
B
can be adjusted to perform many useful find, for example, that ethane molecules, ecause heat so directly affects the be-
separations. Moreover, it withstands with a diameter of 4 A., readily pass havior of molecules, the regulation
temperatures as high as 700 degrees cen through the 3.5-A. apertures at normal of temperature gives us precise control
tigrade-hot enough to melt aluminum. temperatures; propane molecules, 4.9 A. over the sieving properties of a zeolite.
The roughly spherical cavities, some 11 in diameter, do not. The reason becomes Molecules that are no wider than the
angstroms in diameter, each have a vol- clear enough when we recall that atoms free diameter of the apertures enter the
88
crystals more readily at lower tempera nitrogen molecule, still larger, finds the single calcium ion replaces each pair of
tures. Somewhat larger bodies, however, squeeze even more difficult, and is sodium ions. With only four ions now
behave peculiarly as the temperature blocked below -120 C. [see top illustra available for six apertures, two apertures
drops. Argon, for example, shows an in tion on next page]. If we fill a zeolite will be unobstructed, and their diameter
creasing rate of adsorption down to crystal with argon or nitrogen and cool will increase to 4.2 A. We need not re
--150 degrees C., but below this tem it to -200 C., the gas will be trapped in place all 12 of the sodium ions in each
perature the rate falls sharply. Nitrogen the crystal. cavity. For some as yet unknown reason
shows a similar drop at -120 C. Oxy We can alter the "mesh" of our sieve the calcium ions first replace the block
gen, by contrast, is freely adsorbed even not only by changing its temperature ing sodium ions. Thus we find that hep
below -200 C. Evidently the effective but also by introducing different ions tane, which cannot enter the sodium
diameter of the apertures depends partly into it. In the sodium-bearing Type A form of a Type A zeolite, begins to be
on the temperature. Chilling a crystal zeolite, 12 sodium ions are associated adsorbed rapidly when only a third of
damps the vibrations of its atoms and with every cavity. Four of them take the sodium ions have been replaced.
"shrinks" the effective diameter of the positions in or near the apertures and Ion exchange and temperature, work
apertures to something approaching partially block them. Since there are six ing separately or together, can adjust the
their free diameter. Cold also cuts down apertures and only four blocking ions, it mesh of a molecular sieve to the needs of
the kinetic energy of the gas molecules. might seem that two apertures would be a particular separation problem. A od
The oxygen molecule, only .1 A. wider unobstructed. But since each aperture example of the practical application of
than the apertures, can still pass through serves two cavities, eight ions are avail this principle is the use of the calcium
freely (except, perhaps, at temperatures able for every six apertures; the free di variety of zeolite A to upgrade gasoline.
close to absolute zero) . The larger argon ameter of the apertures is thus reduced As it comes from the refinery, gasoline
atom does not have enough energy be to 3 . 5 A. If we soak the sodium-bearing consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons,
low -150 C. to squeeze through. The crystal in calcium chloride solution, a some of which ignite more readily than
89
-- ;,.
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I
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EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE on zeolite apertures is shown idly (arrows) . Nitrogen molecule (dark gray) can enter even though
schematically. At0 degrees centigrade (le/t) the oxygen (color) sodium ion partly blocks the way. Al -150 degrees C. (right)
and sodium (light gray) ions which form the aperture pulsate rap the pulsations are damped and nitrogen molecule cannot enter.
others. Hydrocarbons whose carbon iso-octane) burn less explosively and The sodium form of a Type A zeolite
atoms are arranged in straight chains thus have a higher anti-knock or "octane" will not sieve octane from iso-octane,
(for example, normal octane) tend to rating. Since the other physical and since neither molecule can enter its
ignite prematurely, producing a "knock" chemical properties of octane and iso narrow apertures. The calcium' onn ,
which cuts the efficiency of the engine octane are almost identical, they cannot however, separates the two without dif
and may even damage it. Hydrocarbons easily be separated by conventional ficulty. The long, slender molecules of
with a branching structure (for example, methods such as distillation. normal octane slip easily into the crys-
0< 0<
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-200 -150 -100 -50 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE) PRESSURE (MILLIMETERS)
ADSORPTION OF GASES by zeolites normally increases at ADSORPTION OF HYDROCARBONS by zeolites is much greater
lower temperatures, as shown by curve for oxygen. Adsorption for "unsaturated" hydrocarbons whose molecules contain double or
of nitrogen and argon drops off at -100 and -150 degrees C. triple bonds. From top to bottom the curves show adsorption (at
due to "squeeze" shown at the top of this page. Below these 150 degrees C.) of propylene, ethylene, acetylene and isobutylene
temperatures, gas already in cavities is trapped (broken lines). (unsaturated) and propane, ethane and methane (saturated).
90
make it!
Precision calibration of the dip Cell Flaw Transmitter - a Foxboro development which
has impraved processing accuracy in mare than 60,000 installations.
2. S E R V 0 - M E C H A N I S M S A N D
ELECTRO-MAGNETICS Requires engi
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and application of magamp inductors and
transformers.
tals, while the wider, branching mole ties. The crystals have a particularly
cules of iso-octane cannot [see illustra C_PO.ATIO"
strong affinity for water molecules, and
tion above J. Eventually, of course, the will adsorb them in preference to any
9851 S. Sepulveda Blvd.
Los Angeles 45, Calif.
crystals become saturated with normal other substance. The structure of the
DIVISIONS,
octane, but they can be quickly re water molecule is asymmetrical: the two Angeles
facturing-LoS
.
AIRe search Manu
generated by a stream of hot gas. positively charged hydrogen atoms are h Manufacturin .
g-PhoenIX
AiResearc
ustrial
AiResearch Ind
z eolite
both attached to the same side of the plY
Air Up
molecular sieves can not only Air Cruisers
negatively charged oxygen atom. This Aero "Engin
eering
separate molecules of different sizes; "polar" structure gives the molecule a AiResearch
they can also segregate molecules of the partial positive charge on one side and
same size but different electrical proper- a partial negative charge on the other,
92
sealed in nuclear reactors and is also finding many other uses in industries with spot cooling problems.
Compressed air enters the vortex chamber pictured here and spins rapidly
down an attached tube. Pressure and temperature differences build up, forcing cold air out one end
and hot air out the other ...another Garrett contribution to industrial progress.
...HE CORPORA....ON
93
B
:yet measures only ten inches
fully extended and six inches y choosing appropriate species of
when closed. Four to five fig.
ure accuracy can be relied zeolites, matching their ionic con
on. It is indispensable to the
scientist. research worker and tent to the needs of a particular separa
student.. Administrath'e statT
and business men wIll find it
of tremendous value for a
tion problem and juggling the tempera
host of estimating and check
ing calculations.
ture of the operation, we are developing
The GAll-FIELD Slide Rule
sobes multIplication, division.
a variety of new industrial sieving tech
Slide Rule Open
p e r c e n t a g e c a l c u l a t i o n and
gives 5 place logarithms.
niques. For example, we can now em
Gives Graphic Picture of Your Operations
Spotlighted by Color You ma y use it for 30 days and if you ploy zeolites as "carriers" for certain
'* Facts at a glance - Saves Time, Saves are not satisfied repac:k and mail it back. catalysts which were previously unusa
Money, Prevents Errors
What our users soy: ble because of their high volatility. By
* Simple to operate - Type or Write on "It does all you claim-four
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out eyestrain or magnifiers,
* Ideal for Production, Traffic, Inventory, Half an hour's study is ample can use them to facilitate chemical reac
for its use." A.E.n.
Scheduling, Sales, Etc.
"I use the Calculator for all tions without losing them in the process.
* Made of Metal. Compact and Attractive. my slide rule work and need
the extra digit which normal Zeolite adsorption may prove to be a
Over 300,000 in Use slides rules cannot give. I had
safe method of disposing of radioactive
$4950
to get. one of my customers a
GARFIELD Slide Rule last.
'
Complete price including cards month, after using mine in his wastes and ensuring that they do not
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office." E. & G. H. Textile
I
24PAGE BOOKLET NO. C400 Manufacturers. Slide Rule Closed
contaminate water supplies or vegeta
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tion. But even if zeolites had no practical
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94
opportunities to Scientific
GENERAL ELECTRIC
They work directly with the scientists from the Army Ordnance
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Dr. Adolf H. Knothe of Dr. Wernher von Braun's business data processing.
staff discusses a problem with Dr. Helmut
Sassenfeld and Mr. William D. Smythe of the G.E. is now inviting inquiries from highly qualified men
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U
ntil recently South Australia's in name, at any rate-is no more: its possible to diagnose a large group of de
Ninety Mile Desert was a scrub prosperous new residents have rechris ficiencies of soil, plants and animals. The
by wasteland of heath and euca tened it Coonalpyn Downs. infertility of the soil at Coonalpyn
lyptus thickets. Today its six million once The new fertility of Coonalpyn Downs Downs was found to arise from the ab
worthless acres are being swiftly trans was not obtained by expensive irrigation sence of an almost infinitesimal sprin
formed into bounteous pastureland. The or clearance projects. Like much of the kling of zinc and copper.
"Desert," which formerly supported one world's unproductive land, it suffered In the context of biology, zinc and
sheep per 20 acres, can now sustain 40 from an ailment subtler than lack of wa copper are numbered among the "trace
times that number. Indeed, the Desert- ter. Recent investigations have made it elements," that is, elements that com-
RECLAIMED DESERT in eastern Australia was once infertile nitrogen from the air. Shown here are sheep being mustered for
from lack of molybdenum, which plants require in order to fix shearing on the reclaimed Southern Tablelands near Canberra.
97
prise so small a part of the substance of er forms of animal life also need seven: ing measured amounts of apparently
an animal or plant that chemists of an the first five listed above plus cobalt and pure mineral salts and water, they and
earlier time, unable to measure them ex iodine. As research proceeds, these lists their successors sought to determine the
actly, could state only that they had will doubtless grow. There is already exact chemical requirements of plant
found a trace of them. Trace amounts suggestive, if not conclusive, evidence life. The need for trace elements went
of 20 to 30 elements occur in living that plants need cobalt, sodium and unnoticed, because they were unwitting
matter. Some of the elements may be vanadium, and that animals require sele ly supplied in the form of unobserved
present by accident Others-we cannot nium, bromine, barium and strontium. contaminants of the salts.
yet be sure how many-are indispensable Experiments of this kind were con
to higher organisms. Most of them ap he need of the human body for cer ducted for more than half a century be
parently contribute to the catalytic activ T tain trace elements has been known fore the "pure" mineral salts were ob
ity of particular enzymes in the chains for some 100 years. Nineteenth-century served to contain trace elements. "Vith
of molecular events that constitute the French physicians found that iron thera out these hidden elements the plants
processes of life. The trace elements, py remedied the "green sickness" (ane could not have lived. While the trace
along with the vitamins, are often called mia) of adolescent girls; the French elements had escaped detection by
"micronutrients." . investigator Eusebe Gris as.certained that chemists, they were easily found and
The study of trace elements promises plants grown in a medium free of iron utilized by the plants growing in cul
rich rewards for the agriculture of the were yellow and stunted. The careful ture solution.
future. The world's food-producing ca observations of A. Chatin, another Animal experiments similarly over
pacity is already sorely taxed by the French worker, disclosed the connection looked the trace elements, which con
explosive multiplication of the human between goiter and lack of environmen taminated not only the mineral content
species. Yet it seems likely that hundreds tal iodine. Thus iron and iodine were the of "pure" diets, but were also present in
of millions of acres are now kept from first trace elements to be identified. the crude vitamin supplements which
productivity by nothing more than the' Many years passed, however, before in the animals needed for growth. After it
easily remedied lack of trace elements. vestigators traced these elements to the was recognized that trace elements
The reclamation of Coonalpyn Downs metabolic system: oxidative enzymes in might be essential to life, new tech
is today being repeated in many parts of the case of iron, and the thyroid hormone niques were developed which made it
Australia; tomorrow the same methods thyroxine in the case of iodine. possible to control their content in both
may be ameliorating trace-element defi Not until this century was it known plant and animal nutrients. The present
ciencies in other underdeveloped regions that organisms require trace elements list of vital elements is the work of the
of our planet. other than iron and iodine. As early as past 35 years. New methods of purifying
The trace elements now recognized as 1860 the German workers W. Knop and the diet of experimental animali, devel
essential to plant life are seven in num J. von Sachs were able to raise green oped particularly at the University of
ber: iron, manganese, copper, zinc, plants in artificial media without soil or Wisconsin,. showed that mammals re
molybdenum, boron and chlorine. High- organic matter of any kind. By supply- quire copper, manganese and zinc. The
98
latest addition to the list of elements treated with a tiny but vital dose of trace of the island of Tasmania. The whole of
needed by plants is chlorine, which is elements. the podsolic belt receives more than 20
acquired largely from the air-a discov Copper, zinc and molybdenum are the inches of rainfall per year, and most of
ery made possible by a new technique, elements that cropland and pasture it can be sown to pasture if treated with
developed at the University of Califor most often lack. Copper and cobalt are a molybdenum-superphosphate fertiliz
nia, for eliminating trace elements from those most generally needed for the er. This is rapidly being done.
experimental atmospheres. health and productivity of sheep and The lack of molybdenum in Australian
cattle. At Coonalpyn Downs the sowing soils was discovered only in 1942. It
n our country-Australia-more than of seven pounds per acre of zinc sulfate works in an unusual way on the affected
I 400 million acres of adequately wa and seven pounds of copper sulfate plants. Symptoms of molybdenum defi
tered land lie undeveloped, much of it made the difference between infertility ciency were observed in plants in the
for lack of the trace elements required and fertility. More recently workers of laboratory before any attempt was made
by farm crops and animals. To appre the Western Australia Department of to diagnose the infertility of podsolic
ciate the significance of this fact for Agriculture have found that traces of soils. But the laboratory symptoms were
Australia, one must compare the enor zinc and copper, together with super quite unlike those observed in the plants
mous figure of 400 million acres with phosphate, provide the key to the devel of podsolic pastures. The first clue to
our 22 million acres of cropland, 27 mil opment of the three-million-acre Esper what was wrong with the pastures was
lion acres of forest and 28 million acres ance Plain, near the southwest corner of gained when they were found to respond
of improved pasture. Suppose that we the continent. This area now bears noth well to treatment with wood-ash, lime or
eliminate 25 per cent of the 400 million ing but harsh native scrub; agriculturists other alkaline matter. At first it was
acres as unsuitable for agriculture or have always thought it worthless despite thought that the lime aided pasture
needed for urban development. That still its adequate rainfall. Very likely the en growth by counteracting phosphate fixa
leaves 300 million acres of potentially tire region will soon contribute to Aus tion in the soil. Experiments disproved
useful land-more than four times the tralia's food-producing capacity. this theory, however, and the search con
present acreage! This area may ultimate While copper and zinc deficiencies tinued. Finally it was observed that
ly be of enormous importance not only to occur in southern and western Australia, clover grown on the podsolic soils re
Australia but to a world hard-pressed the eastern part of the continent suffers sponded spectacularly to molybdenum.
for food. Of course most of the land mostly from a lack of molybdenum. Now it has been discovered that plants
needs the benefit of routine agricultural About a third of the so-called podsolic of many species all over the world grow
measures, such as treatment with super soils in eastern Australia is more or less faster in soils to which molybdenum has
phosphate and tne planting of nitrogen deficient in the metal. The podsolic soils been added.
accumulating legumes. But the fact stretch for 1,000 miles along the east But why did the molybdenum-defi
remains that much of it would have to coast, reaching more than 150 miles in cient pasture plants not resemble those
remain forever in the category of "in land into Victoria, New South Wales grown in the laboratory? The reason is
herently infertile" land unless it is and Queensland. They also cover much that the lack of molybdenum in the soil
99
10
20
30
40 TA MA N
COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA has been scene of pioneer spectively, the zinc- and cop perdeficient Ninety Mile Desert (now
efforts to amend traceelement deficiencies, which occur in the Coonalpyn Downs) and a similar area, the Esperance Plain. The
areas hatched in color. Areas A and B (black hatching) are, re- broken colored lines define areas of equal average rainfall per
100
ANE o ewes have malformed brains and spinal gineering staff. Areas of par
cords. The condition is completely pre ticular interest are space kinet
vented by the addition of copper to the ics and the defining and analyz
ing of problems relative to
pasturage, by salt licks or by drenching
celestial mechanics. Observa
the pregnant ewes with a solution of a
------------_.l , tory experience is required.
'O--___.. 30 copper salt.
I
Calves born on such land rarely suf Programs at the Missile and
-- fer from symptoms as severe as those Space Vehicle Department are
/I
tions in complete confidence to:
ened their heart muscles that any mo
--I
mentary stress can kill them. This dis
ease, too, can be prevented. We should Mr. R. L. Eddy
(; add that in all cases the copper not only Dept. 7041
I ------
prevents the specific ailment but mark Professional Placement
<
----f--
I! ---- .40
edly improves the over-all health and
I I productivity of the flock or herd. GENERAL ELECTRIC
I
I /
I
Some parts of southern Australia have
MISSILE AND SPACE VEHICLE DEPT.
I
suffered from a deficiency of both cop
/
160
per and cobalt so severe that sheep and
3198 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia 4, Pa.
cattle could not survive unless they were
regularly transferred to a healthier area.
This problem has also been solved, with
year. Deficient areas total about 400 million
acres, three fourths of which (three times the result that several hundred thousand
the now productive area) may be reclaimed . acres of well-nigh valueless land have
101
been transformed into thriving commu other element. Accordingly they frac-. lasts for months, and sometimes for
nities. It has recently been found that tionated one of the compounds and years. It is possible that this novel tech
the cobalt requirements of a ruminant tested its constituent elements separate nique can be used with other trace ele
stem from a unique symbiosis of the ly. It at once became clear that cobalt ments.
animal and the vitamin-producing mi was the eHective substance. Soil from New interest in cobalt was aroused 10
croorganisms in its gut. For this reason the sick pastures and from the livers of years a"go by the discovery in England
the cobalt deficiency and its cure merit diseased animals were found to be ab and the U. S. that the element appears
special attention. normally low in cobalt. An exceedingly in the molecule of vitamin B- 12. Within
small amount of cobalt is needed by ru three years workers at Cornell University
1'he fact that cobalt is essential to minants: less than a tenth of their cop and in Australia had demonstrated that
. life was first discovered in 1935 by per requirement. A sheep needs only a vitamin B-12 injections swiftly secured
Australian workers. Their observation tenth of a milligram of cobalt per day; the remission of cobalt deficiency symp
emerged from the study of a peculiar cattle must have five to 10 times as much. toms. Ruminants, they found, derive
and highly localized disease. In some A single ounce of cobalt will sustain their natural supply of the vitamin en
parts of southern and western Australia, nearly 800 sheep or 80 cattle for a year! tirely from the microorganisms in their
animals from seemingly healthy pastures While this investigation was proceed gut. The microorganisms must have a
weakened and died, apparently of star ing, investigators in southern Australia, steady supply of cobalt for their synthe
vation. Nw Zealand also suHered from working on a similar disease of sheep, sis of the vitamin. It would be more ac
this disease: workers there attributed it arrived independently at the same dis curate to call cobalt deficiency a nutri
to deficiency of iron, h.wing observed covery. These workers found that cobalt tional disease of the microorganisms,
that the malady did not aHect animals is ineHective if injected with a needle; rather than of their animal host.
dosed with crude iron compounds. it must be taken by mouth. To obviate
This explanation did not satisfy stu the need for repeated oral doses, they any chemical reactions in plants and
dents of the problem in western Austra invented an ingenious cobalt "bullet" M animals are now known to require
lia. The eHect of various iron compounds four to five grams of cobalt oxide mixed the presence of a trace element. But it
seemed unrelated to their iron content; with clay and baked into a small, heavy is difficult to connect these reactions in
moreover, the doses needed were suspi slug. Placed in the sheep's throat with cells and tissues with the outward symp
ciously large. Perhaps, these workers a special gun, the bullet lodges in the toms of trace-element deficiency. Boron
thought, the eHectiveness of the com upper alimentary canal, where it yields deficiency, for example, profoundly in
pounds was due not to iron but to some a steadv supply of cobalt. One bullet hibits the growth of plants. Yet we know
102
POPPER THAT'S A STOPPER can find glass answers to one of your the following: windows for high-tempera
materials or component problems by ture applications, windows [or hot cells,
It has been pointed out to us that every
coming to Corning. and the optical components for ultra
day the world survives, fewer are the
You can get a head start by perusing violet instruments.
chances that anything is the most, the
"This Is Glass," a 54-page, well-illus All the facts are now available in spec
biggest, the only, or the first.
trated primer. And/or ask for Bulletin sheet form. Check the coupon.
But this corn popper is a first - to the
best of our knowledge. B-83, a detailing of mechanical, thermal,
electrical, and chemical properties for NEW-CELLULAR CERAMICS
three of Corning's most popular types of Now, for the first time, from Corning's
glass. Use the coupon. Cercor process, you can get thin-walled
cellular ceramics.
PURITY-KEY TO FUSED These cellular ceramics are lightweight,
SILICA'S VERSATILITY resist oxidation, and have an extremely
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What material would you pick if you had
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the problem of accurate spectrum trans
mission, growing high-purity crystals, or
building a component that would not
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The answer: Corning's 100% Fused
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This machine pops corn with hot air other, specialized tasks. And the key to
and all the action takes place before this material's versatility is its extreme
your eyes. purity.
But that's putting the cart before the Capacity to stand up to high tempera
horse, because it was quite a number of tures, coupled with optical properties
moons ago when the designers at Electri that yield excellent schlieren or shadow The material used to make these
objects has 1500 square feet of surface
Cooker Division of General Foods were graph quality, makes fused silica a natural
area per cubic foot. Individual wall thick
at the idea-developing stage. for installation in wind tunnels for design
ness averages only 0.005 inch; weight is
They wanted a new way of popping ing supersonic aircraft and misiles.
only 30 pounds per cubic foot.
corn. And they wanted to boost sales by
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tures up to 1800F. with virtually no
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to Corning. perature you don't have to worry about
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And Corning in turn came up with a
To provide additional strength, a
number of key components made from a
PYREX brand glass. Included are a 17- ceramic coating can be bonded to the
inch display dome, 13-inch lamp chim exterior of most cellular forms.
ney, and an 8-inch chamber for storing The composition of the Cercor mate
unpopped corn. rials may be changed to provide desired
physical and chemical properties, and
Optical purity and a high saftening point
further development is expected to result
(1585 C.) make Corning's 100% fused
in a broadening of potential configura
Silic useful in wind tunnel windows.
tions and product shapes.
Fused Silica also is used in ultrasonic Suggested uses so far include structures
?
delay lines, eing well suited for handling for use in gaseous heat exchangers, cata
delays rangmg from 10 to 15,000 micro lyst supports, burner plates, column
seconds. More: You'll find this material packing, and acoustical filtering, flow
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resistance, low dielectric loss, and low rials in high-temperature applications.
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Uses (other than ultrasonic delay lines published bulletin detailing all pertinent
Why a PYREX brand glass? Because you
and windows for wind tunnels) include data and characteristics.
can use it at elevated temperatures with
out worrying about thermal shock. (For
_
C O RNING MEANS R ES EA R CH IN GLASS
example, PYREX brand glass No. 7740
has a linear coefficient of expansion of
32.5 x 10-7 in./in. between 0and 300 C.) CORNING GLASS WORKS 49 Crystal Street, Corning, N.Y.
103
I!I"AD'AT'Ollr
significance ...therefore from the air, or to plants that obtain fessional advancement for qualified elec.
tronic engineers wtih ideas and energy.
an area of critical interest their nitrogen from the soil as ammonia. Write today for complete details on oppor
at Stromberg-Carlson. Zinc also plays a part in enzymes, tunities available.
write
normal life span.
Investigators at the University of Lon
don have established a suggestive con
nection between lack of copper and
ataxia. or poor coordination, in newborn
lambs. The ataxia of the lambs is caused
by underdevelopment of the myelin, or
fatty outer coating of the nerve fibers, in
their brains and spinal cords, and this
in turn is due to a lack of the phospho
lipids of which myelin is largely com
posed. The lambs' tissues require copper
to catalyze a crucial stage in the syn
thesis of the phospholipids.
10 alamos
chemical health of our crops, our stock
and our land may have immense import
H;UIf!oratory
for the future of man. As population
Of 'H' pressure mounts, we will have to evolve
lOS ALAMOS. NEW MEXICO
ever faster-growing and higher-yielding
strains of domestic plants and animals.
Will the quality of our food keep pace
with its quantity? That may well de
EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN PHYSICS. CHEMISTRY. pend upon how carefully we monitor its
106
Solution
Yes, get in touch with the Pfizer Chemical Sales Division, if you
are considering an aerosol pharmaceutical product. Initial experi
ments with nitrogen propelled vitamin preparations also show
(you spray it) promise. Or, if your topical plans include polyvinyl components,
the non-toxic Pfizer Citroflex plasticizers may help you. For any
problem which might be solved by a high quality organic chemical,
think of Pfizer first. Chas. Pfizer & Co., Inc., Chemical Sales Division,
630 Flushing Ave., Brooklyn 6, N. Y_
107
for your of any linear variable whose values change over a wide range
Particularly suitable to the measurement of forces in conjunction with
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wind tunnels. Wrile for Inslrumenlalion Dolo Sheel 10.0IB.
requirements
... with these
You get the advantages of ElectroniK slight variations in temperatures of small objects through radi
ation pyrametry. WrUe for Inslrumenlation Dolo Sheet 10.0-B.
Honey",ell
H
MONUWHl
Elee/,oniK EXTENDED RANGE INDICATOR-Incorporates extended
scale and automatic range changing, serves in same applications as
Extended Range Recorder. Resolution greater than one part in
five thousand can be obtained, with use of a linear scale. As many as
10 ranges available. Write for Insfrumenlalion Data Sheet 10.0-3.
by Knut Schmidt-Nielsen
the writers of stories about cast fate, which causes diarrhea. Most air living young in the water, have given
PETREL EJECTS DROPLETS of solution produced by its salt from the tip of the beak. The petrel, however, remains in the air
gland through a pair of tubes atop its beak, as shown in this high almost continuously and has apparently evolved this "water pistol"
speed photograph. The salt-gland secretions of most birds drip mechanism as a means of eliminating the fluid while in flight.
109
110
\
\
\
\
\ SECRETORY TUBULES
I
I
I
I
I
/
/
/
/
/
./
...--
--------
CENTRAL
CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
'
CENTRAL CANAL
c
lobes contains several thousand branching tubules which radiale of mammals, facilitates the transfer of salt from the blood to the
from a central duct like the hairs of a houle brush. Enlargement tubule. The tubule wall, only one cell thick, consists of rings of
of a single tubule (c) reveals that it is surrounded by capillaries five to seven wedgeshaped cells. These rings, stacked one on top of
in which blood flows counter to the flow of salt secretion in the another, encircle a small hole, or lumen, through which the salty
tubule. This countercurrent flow, which also occurs in the kidneys secretion flows from the tubule into the central canal of the lobe.
III
112
nostrils, were it not for the water-pistol PHYSICIST . . . PhD in physics with experience in the Atomic Field desirable, but
function of the tubes. not essential; or BS degree with 5 years experience in the nuclear field ORSOPT
or nuclear engineering background acceptable.
Our studies so far have demonstrated
the existence of the salt gland in the SCIENTIST . . . PhD in physics or related fields. Must have the type of personality that
herring gull, black-backed gull, common lends itself to LRMD work and in addition possess a high degree of creative ability.
tern, black skimmer, guillemot, Louisi SENIOR SCIENTIST . . . PhD physicist or mathematician with an unusual degree of
ana heron, little blue heron, double alertness and initiative. MS in physics or mathematics with several years experience
crested cormorant, brown pelican, gan in either reactor calculations or critical experimentation.
Westinghouse
sea birds to eliminate salt and live with
out fresh water.
The discovery of the salt gland in sea
birds prompted us to look for a similar FIRST IN ATOMIC PoWER.
113
.
A
\ \.
LOCATION OF SALT GLAND (color) varies in different species has grooves along its upper beak which keep the fluid from drip
of marine birds and reptiles. In the gull (A) the gland's secretions ping into its pouch; the petrel(e) ejects the fluid through tubu
emerge from the nostril and drip from the beak; in the cormorant (E) the gland opens at the hack corner of
lar nostrils. In the turtle
(D) the fluid flows along the roof of the mouth. The pelican (8) the eye; in the marine iguana (F) it opens into the nasal cavity.
1 14
-1--
-=m
RADAR DATA HANDLING ASW
THE MAGNAVOX CO . DEPT. 28 . Government and Industrial Division FORT WAYNE, IND.
115
116
Avco
Address all inquiries to:
Dr. R. W. Johnston,
Scientific and Technical Relations,
AVlo Research and Advonced Development Division,
201 lowell Street, Wilmington, Mossochusetts
1 17
1 18
This photomicrograph (at left) of an etched silicon studies in Advanced Airborne Electronics Systems,
crystal is used in the study of semiconductor materials. Space Vehicles, Plastics, Nuclear Electronics, Global and
Impurities introduced into crystals such as this form Spatial Communications Systems, Ballistic Missiles ...
junctions for semiconductor devices. and many more. Hughes in Fullerton is developing radar
In the fast-growing semiconductor industry, Hughes antennas which position beams in space by electronic
Products, the commercial activity of Hughes, is leading rather than mechanical means.
the field. Its programs include basic research on semi The diversity and advanced nature of Hughes projects
conductor surfaces; alloying and diffusion techniques; provides an ideal environment for the engineer or phys
and materials characterization studies to determine the icist interested in advancing his professional status.
electrical effects of imperfections and impurities.
In addition, Hughes Products is developing new semi
conductor devices such as parametric amplifiers, high Newly institllted prograllls at HI/ghes have created illllllediate
frequency performance diodes, and improved types of openings Jor engineers experienced in the Jollowing areas:
silicon transistors_ New techniques are being devised for Semiconductors Communications
casting silicon into various configurations. Also under Microwave & Storage Tubes Circuit Design
way is the development of new intermetallic compounds Field Engineering Systems Analysis
Microwaves Reliability Engineering
for use in semiconductor devices.'
Digital Computer Engr. Radar
Other activities of Hughes provide similarly. stimu
Write in confidence, to Mr. Phil N. Scheid,
lating outlets for creative engineering. The Hughes
Hughes General Offices, Bldg. 6-H 1, Culver City, California.
Research & Development Laboratories are conducting
,1958, H. A. C.
:
I
HUGHES I
:
I I
L ___________________________
119
120
by Fay-Cooper Cole
T
" hiS is Clarence Darrow, " said of the 1920s. It was a time of uncertain the Chattanooga papers carried the sto
the voice at the other end of the ty, unrest and repression. We had just ry. Soon it was spread across the nation.
wire, "I suppose you have been emerged from a world war. Old stand The Fundamentalists were quick to re
reading the papers, so you know Bryan ards were badly shaken; the young were alize the opportunity to dramatize their
and his outfit are prosecuting that young labeled "the lost generation "; intolerance battle against evolution. Bryan and his
fellow Scopes. Well, Malone, Colby and was rampant. The Ku Klux Klan was on associates offered their services to the
I have put ourselves in a mess by offer the march, not only in the South but in Prosecution. They were accepted. Here
ing to defend. We don't know much the North as well. In many towns in was big news.
about evolution. We don't know whom Illinois, Indiana and other parts of the At this point, it happened, three law
to call as witnesses. But we do know we Midwest, staid business men-even mem yers met in New York City for a confer
are fighting your battle for academic bers of the clergy-put on "white night ence on some business matters. They
freedom. We need the help of you fel ies " and burned fiery crosses to put the were Clarence Darrow, controversialist
lows at the University, so I am asking Negro, the Jew, the Catholic and the im and defender of unpopular causes; Bain
three of you to come to my office to help migrant "in their places." The Funda bridge Colby, an eminent corporation
lay plans. " mentalists, under the leadership of Wil lawyer and, like Bryan, a former Secre
That afternoon in Darrow's office liam Jennings Bryan, had organized in tary of State; and Dudley Field Malone,
three of us from the University of Chi some 20 states and were putting pressure a leading Catholic layman and a fashion
cago-Horatio Hackett Newman, pro on all institutions of learning to curb the able barrister. Their conversation turned
fessor of biology; Shailer Mathews, dean teaching of science, particularly evolu to the Tennessee situation. One said: "It
of the Divinity School; and I-met to tion, which they considered in contra is a shame. That poor teacher, who prob
outline the strategy for what turned out diction to the Bible. Prohibitive bills had ably doesn't know what it is all about, is
to be one of the most publicized trials been passed in Tennessee and Missis to be sacrificed by the Fundamentalists."
of the century. The Scopes trial proved sippi and were pending in six other Another said: "Someone ought to do
also to be a historic occasion in the cause states. something about it. " The third replied:
of popular understanding of science. A Then came the great opportunity. In "Why don't we?" Through the American
century ago the educated world was the little town of Dayton the high Civil Liberties Union they offered to
shaken by the discoveries of Charles school science teacher and football defend young Scopes. Their offer was
Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, and coach, 24-year-old John Thomas Scopes, accepted.
the evidence they presented for the evo found himself engaged in a discussion of This was real news! Bryan, three
lution of life on this planet. In 1959, as the new law with George W. Rappelyea, times candidate for the presidency of
we celebrate the centenary of the Origin a young mining engineer and superin the U. S., the great Fundamentalist
of Species, few informed persons, if tendent of the local coal mines. Scopes leader and orator, on one side. On the
any, question the theory of evolution. expressed bewilderment that the state other, three of the nation's most famous
However, the century has witnessed should supply him with a textbook that lawyers, including Darrow, master jury
several attempts to stiBe investigation presented the theory of evolution, yet pleader. The papers were full of the
and outlaw the teaching of the theory. make him a lawbreaker if he taught the story.
The best known of these was the Scopes theory. Rappelyea agreed that it was a
trial, held in Dayton, Tenn., in 1925. crazy law and clearly unconstitutional. his was the background of Darrow's
The trial resulted in an immense revival Then suddenly he asked: "Why don't I T call to me and of our meeting at his
of public interest in Darwin and in evo have you arrested for teaching evolution office in Chicago early in the summer of
lution; there has been no comparable from that text and bring the whole thing 1925. By telephone, wire and letter we
effort since then to suppress this advance to an end?" Scopes replied: "Fair proceeded to assemble a panel of expert
in man's understanding of himself and enough. " witnesses: scientists to testify on the
the world he lives in. Scopes was duly arrested. But neither theory of evolution and theologians to
To understand the trial and what lay of the principals had any idea of what give evidence on the history and inter
back of it, one must recall the climate they were starting. Within a few hours pretation of the Bible. In addition to
121
Newman, Mathews and myself, our When I reached town, I took care not examination. But he did bring out the
panel finally included Kirtley Mather, to associate myself at once with the De fact that 11 jurors were Fundamentalist
professor of geology at Harvard; Jacob fense group, and was able to wander church members.All admitted that they
G. Lipman, director of the New Jersey about for a time listening to the talk of knew little about science or evolution.
Agricultural Experiment Station at Rut the local people.For the most part they One said that the only Darwin he had
gers University; W. C. Curtis, professor were extremely partisan to the Funda ever heard about ran a local notion
of zoology at the University of Missouri; mentalist cause. But they were appre store.One could not read or write.
Wilbur Nelson, state geologist of Ten hensive of the famous Darrow, and they The events of Sunday provided us
nessee; Maynard Metcalf, professor of were not yet aware of his plan to present with an interesting insight into the local
zoology at Johns Hopkins University; expert testimony on evolution and the climate of opinion.Charles Francis Pot
Charles Judd, head of the University scriptures. ter, a liberal Unitarian minister and
of Chicago School of Education; and That evening I joined the group at writer who had been invited to conduct
Rabbi Herman Rosenwasser of San the "haunted house " and there met services at the Methodist-Episcopal
Francisco, a noted Hebrew scholar.All young Scopes for the first time. He was church, was barred from the pulpit by
of us, along with our counsel, undertook a fine, clean-cut young man, a little shy the parishioners. Meanwhile Bryan ad
to go to Dayton at our own expense and and apparently overwhelmed by the dressed an overflow house at the South
to serve without fee. controversy he had stirred up. He ex ern Methodist church. That afternoon,
The trial was scheduled for Friday, pressed amazement that famous lawyers in an open courtyard in the center of
July 10. But long before that date the like Darrow, Colby, Malone and Arthur town, Bryan talked to an immense audi
town was crowded with newspapermen, Garfield Hays (counsel to the American ence. He said he welcomed the oppor
Fundamentalist supporters and others Civil Liberties Union) should come to tunity to bring "this slimy thing, evolu
who were just curious.No one was will his defense, and that a group of well tion, out of the darkness.... Now the
ing to house "the heretics, " that is, the known scientists should join them. facts of religion and evolution would
scientific witnesses and defense attor Little happened on the first day of meet at last in a duel to the death." It
neys. So an old "haunted house " on a the trial beyond the selection of the jury. was a fine example of Bryan's oratory,
hill overlooking the town was fitted out A panel was offered, and Darrow ac and it swept the crowd.
as a dormitory. cepted it without change after a casual The court opened on Monday with a
122
prayer in which a local clergyman urged reserved until its witnesses had been that in the U. S. there are over 500
God to preserve his sacred word against heard, Judge John T. Raulston ordered churches and sects which differ over
attack. It was a scarcely veiled plea to the argument to proceed. On motion of certain passages of the-Bible. If the law
the jury. the Prosecution, he sent the jury from were to prevail, Scopes would have to
The Defense filed a motion to quash the courtroom.Apparently the introduc be familiar with the whole Bible and all
the indictment on the ground that the tion of scientific witnesses had taken its interpretations; among all the war
act violated the Constitution of the State Bryan and his associates by surprise. ring sects,he would have to know which
of Tennessee and Section I of the Four Their ultimate response to our efforts to one was right in order not to commit a
teenth Amendment of the Constitution argue the underlying issues of the case crime.
of the United States, which extends the was to lose them the trial in the minds Darrow said: "Your Honor,my client
Bill of Rights to limit action by the gov of the American people. is here because ignorance and bigotry
ernments of the states. The Defense ar That afternoon Darrow pressed for are rampant,and that is a mighty strong
gued further that the indictment 'was dismissal with an eloquent attack on combination. ... If today you can make
contrary to a U. S. Supreme Court de ignorance and bigotry. Coatless in the teaching of evolution in the public
cision which says: "The law knows no sweltering courtroom, tugging at his schools a ci-ime,tomorrow you can make
heresy, and is committed to the support suspenders, he paced up and down,fir it a crime to teach it in the private
of no dogma, nor to the establishment ing shot after shot at the Prosecution. schools. At the next session of the Legis
of any sect." In support of this attack on He stressed the danger to freedom of lature you can ban books and news
the indictment, the Defense declared press, church and school if men like papers. You can set Catholic against
that it "wished to offer the testimony of Bryan could impose their opinions and Protestant, and Protestant against Prot
scientists and biblical scholars. These interpretations on the law of the land. estant, when you try to foist your own
expert witnesses,the Defense contended, "The fires of bigotry and hate are being religion upon the minds of men. If you
would show that there was no necessary lighted," he said. "This is as bold an can do the one, you can do the other.
conflict between evolution and Christi attempt to destroy learning as was ever After a while,Your Honor,we will find
anity. made in the Middle Ages. . . . The ourselves marching backward to the
Though the Defense. asked that judg statute says you cannot teach anything glorious days of the 16th century when
ment on its motion to dismiss should be in conflict with the Bible." He argued bigos lighted the fagots to burn men
123
SCOPES AND FRIENDS reenacted the scene in the local drug Leaning over his shoulder is George W. Rappelyea, the mining en
store which led to the trial. Scopes is seated second from left. gineer whose complaint tested the Tennessee antievolution law_
124
I
enlightenment to the human mind."
The speech made a profound impres
sion.Townspeople agreed that anything
might happen with that man Darrow
around.Judge Raulston adjourned court
until Wednesday in order that he might
consider the motion to quash.
That night, as we gathered in our
I
haunted house for a conference, a ter IIIII
rific storm swept the town.When a bril
liant flash of lightning struck nearby,
11 1 1
Darrow said: "Boys, if lightning strikes
this house tonight ... 1"
UI
Tuesday was a quiet day. At Rappel
yea's office, where he had been invited
to take advantage of the secretarial fa
cilities, Potter found that the stenogra
pher would not take dictation from any
Unitarian minister. Rappelyea himself
was arrested three times for speeding in
the course of his service to us as guide
and chauffeur. We were besieged by
Holy Rollers, who came in from the
hills to convert us. We also had to pro
tect ourselves from a supporter. H. L.
Mencken had come to town. His vitri
olic articles so antagonized the people
we wanted most to reach that we had
to persuade him to leave the scene. VARIED
After the jury was sworn in on
Wednesday,the Court ruled against the ENGINEERING ASSIGNMENTS
Defense motion to quash the indictment.
STIMULATE INTEREST ON
The law, said Judge Raulston, did not
deprive anyone of speech, thought or RCA PROJECT BMEWS
opinion,for no one need accept employ
ment in Tennessee. He ruled the law Positions with RCA's project for the new Ballistic Missile Early Warning
constitutional,saying that the public has System involve a broad range of duties. BMEWS problems demand
the right to say, by legislative act or new, adventurous approaches. Your headquarters will be in New
referendum, whether Latin, chemistry Jersey at a location suburban to Philadelphia. You'll have the oppor
or astronomy might be taught in its tunity to demonstrate the feasibility of your engineering planning
schools. under actual environmental conditions in the Far North. Additional
The Prosecution then called the coun compensation for Far North trips. BMEWS' challenge requires ex
ty superintendent of schools, the heads perience in: Heavy Ground Radar Systems, Digital Computer Systems,
of the school board and seven students. Communications Systems, Data Handling.
All testified to what Scopes had taught.
Broad and liberal RCA benefits program to build security for you
Darrow limited his cross-examination to
and your family. Work with the very latest in facilities and equipment.
establishing simply that the State had
Every opportunity for progress in an RCA career.
furnished the textbook. After offering
the King James version of the Bible as
an exhibit,the Prosecution rested.
The first witness for the defense was
TO ARRANGE CONFIDENTIAL INTERVIEW
Maynard Metcalf. A recognized scien
Please send complete resume to:
tist, he was also an eminent Congrega
tional layman and teacher of one of the Mr. Robert Vincent
largest Bible classes in the country. RCA, Dept. BM-l A
Darrow established his competence as a 1809 Bannard Street, Riverton, N.J.
witness, then asked a question on evolu
tion.The Prosecution at once challenged
..
the testimony as irrelevant; according to
them the only question was: Did Scopes
violate the law? RADIO CORPORATION 0' AMERICA
The judge agreed to hear arguments
on this pOint the next day.Meanwhile he
excused the jury, with instructions not
125
DARROW reads his daily mail in the courtroom. He had achieved V. Debs in 1894, and of Nathan Leopold and Richard Loeb in 1924_
fame largely through his defense of the Socialist leader Eugene Sixtyeight at the time of the Scopes trial, he lived until1938.
126
toward Bryan and pointing his Hnger, ELECTRONICS: Guidance, Radar, Countermeasures. Computers, Telemetry
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127
128
129
130
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13 1
W
hen young Theseus entered the decorating the interior of a cathedral
Cretan labyrinth at Knossos in with maze mosaics was not adopted in
search of the dreaded Minotaur, England. It was a common English prac
he unwound a silken cord given him by tice, however, to cut mazes in the turf
The command "Up periscope" Ariadne so that he could find his way outside the church, where they were
brings into play the subma out .again. Architectural labyrinths of traversed as part of a religious rituaL
riners' visual link with the this sortbuildings with intricate pas These "quaint mazes in the wanton
world above the surface of the sageways designed to bewilder the un green," as Shakespeare called them,
sea. These complex, highly initiatedwere not uncommon in the flourished in England until the 18th cen
precise instruments perform ancient world. Herodotus describes an tury. Garden mazes made of high hedges
their vital viewing and sight Egyptian labyrinth that contained 3,000 and intended solely for amusement be
ing functions in all kinds of chambers. Coins of Knossos bore a sim came fashionable during the late Renais
weather and under widely va ple maze design, and more complicated sance. In England the most popular of
rying light conditions. Almost maze patterns appeared on Roman pave the hedge mazes, through which con
all U.S. submarines including ments and on the robes of early Roman fused tourists still wind their way, was
those of the atomic fleet are emperors. Throughout the Middle Ages designed in 1690 for the Hampton Court
equipped with periscopes de the walls and floors of many cathedrals Palace of William of Orange. The pres
signed and manufactured by in Continental Europe were decorated ent plan of the maze is reproduced at
Kollmorgen. with similar designs. the bottom of this page.
. This is a specialized field of In England the most famous architec The only hedge maze of historic sig
endeavor so is the develop tural labyrinth was Rosamond's Bower. nificance in the U. S. was one con
ment of nuclear hot cell view It was reportedly built in a park at structed earl/in the 19th century by the
ing systems, bunker periscope Woodstock in the 12th century by King Harmonists, a German Protestant sect
systems, inspection and align Henry II, who sought to conceal his mis which settled at Harmony, Ind. (The
ment instruments and much tress, Rosamond the Fair, from his wife, town is now called New Harmony, the
of our other work. Eleanor of Aquitaine. Using Ariadne's name given it in 1826 by the Scottish.
string technique, goes the tale, Eleanor socialist Robert Owen, who established
We offer the services of a
found her way to the center of the bow a Utopian colony there.) The Harmony
completely integrated design
er, where she forced the unhappy Rosa labyrinth, like the medieval church
and manufacturing facility for
mond to drink poison. The story caught mazes, symbolized the snakelike twists
solving problems in remote
the fancy of many writersnotably of sin and the difficulty of keeping on
viewing, inspection, measure
Joseph Addison, who wrote an opera the true path. It was restored in 1941.
ment and photography of ob
about it, and Algernon Charles Swin- Unfortunately no record of the original
je c t s a n d p r o c e s s e s u n d e r
adverse conditions. A new
brochure describes our fields
of interest and the facilities
with which we work. You may
have a copy by writing Dept.
191.
KOLLMOR.GEN
.
optical corporation
NORTHAMPTON. MASSACHUSETTS
132
Investigate the many career opportunities available in exciting new foelds at IBM.
International Bttsiness Machines Corporation, Dept. 659A, 590 Madison Aventte, New York 22, New York
I
t--
--
~
A "simply connected" maze (left) alld a "multiply connected" one (right)
plan had survived, so the restoration was is multiply connected, but its two closed
ls
electrochemicc:x
made in an entirely new pattern. loops do not surround the goal. The
ebnd
. iUs of the fir
From the mathematical standpoint a hand-on-wall technique will therefore
. . 9 maze is a problem in topology, If its carry you to the goal and back, but one
plan is drawn on a sheet of rubber, the corridor will be missed entirely.
correct path from entrance to goal is a Is there a mechanical procedure-an
New booklet on topological invariant which remains cor algorithm, to use a mathematical term
134
Mathematicians, Physicists and Engineers with experience or Those who have professional questions or desire additional in
strong interest in Operations Research on large-scale automated formation are invited to write Dr. William Karush, Head of the
systems will be interested in the major expansion program at SDC Operations Research Group. Address System Development
System Development Corporation. Corporation, 2420 Colorado Avenue, Santa Monica, California.
SDC's projects are concerned primarily with man-machine rela
"A Theorem in Convex Programming:' A paper by Dr. Karush
tionships in automated systems in a number of fields, including
is available upon request. Address inquiries to Dr. William
air operations. The application of new and advanced digital Karush at System Development Corporation.
computer techniques is particularly important in optimizing
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136
rn LITTON INDUSTRIES
can go without retracking. Each erased
edge can now be added to this path, Electronic Equipments Division
whenever the fly reaches it, simply by
traversing it back and forth. The five
erased edges, each gone over twice, add
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35. The Christmas message conveyed by
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137
energy, whereas the chemist is satisfied the two. If the accelerating electrode is
with a more diffuse beam in which the made positive and the source is either a
energy of the particles varies consider filament, a radioactive or photoelectric
ably. Since the targets irradiated by the surface, or even a sharp point of metal,
chemist are usually rather thick, it is al the resulting beam will be composed of
Conducted by C. L. Stong most impossible to provide all sections electrons. If the accelerating electrode
of the irradiated material with electrons is made negative and a tiny amount of
of uniform energy even if this were de hydrogen is admitted to the tube, the
he particle accelerator has about sirable. Fortunately it is usually satisfac gas will ionize and the beam will con
138
/,
trodes and pick up charge from the sur
rounding air until electrical equilibrium to McLeod
is established between the air and the gau'ge
rings. In larger tubes, fixed resistors are
Io
substituted for the corona pOints. This,
however, is not necessary in machines 1j copPer tube
operating at 500,000 volts or less. vacuu m . pumps
"The upper end of the accelerator is
closed by a window of aluminum foil
through which the beam passes into the
air. To prevent the foil from rupturing
under atmospheric pressure, it is sup
ported by an aluminum grid made of
quarter-inch aluminum plate. The plate powey to fIlament
is drilled with 37 holes 3/16 of an inch
in diameter and arranged in a hexagonal
pattern [see illustration on page 141]. An electrostatic particle accelerator with a Van de GraafJ generator as its power supply
139
140
do"ed-end
mercury
manometer
1Miii:"'igen. iiijI
ilifi,UIM,hijl\'@fu@@'!
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This valuable 3S-page book
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With artiAcial satellites already launched and space
travel almost a reality, astronomy has become todoy's
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scope is a relaxing diversion for father and son Qlike.
UNITRON's handbook contains full-page illustrated
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Content. include-
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142
Q. Dr. Fo.ke, I have heard If sold Q. Why I, that, Dr. Fo.ke? Aren't Q. Can a material, man work ef.
,ha' 'he Alreraft Nudear Propulsion these problems slmlla, to those al 'e.llvely at ANP without previous
Program adds a new dimension '0 ready solved fo, marine nudea, training In nudeonles?
ma,erials te.hno/ogy.Do you agree? propulsion?
A. Certainly. All the orthodox skills
of the metallurgist, ceramist or
A. Strictly speaking, Mr. Walsh, re A. In the ANP program weight and chemical engineer are called into
actor development for any applica size are severely limiting factors. p l a y here. T h e Aircraft Nuclear
tion may be said to do this, since Here we are dealing with a small, PropUlsion Department will provide
materials must be selected for their high aensity reactor a small fraction necessary training and informatioll
nuclear as well as their physical of the size and weight of the sub in nucleonics.
properties. marine reactor. To jam high energy
Q. What you've just told me, Dr.
For some applications we look for into small volume requires the de
locke, , certainly can discern the
high neutron absorption cross sec velopment of high temperatures.
.hallenge to the materials man that
tions; for others, low capture cross Generally the higher the reactor
you have here. I suppose you are
sections. exit-air temperature, the better the
working wit" alloys of some of the
For example, the material selected overall performance of the power
more exotic metals so much discussed
for the ",od.rator must be capable plant.
in the latest te.hnl.al literature?
of slowing down the neutrons pro The crux of the problem here is
duced by fission to thermal energy, the fact that common materials de A. Security limitations forbid my
about 1140 ev from their original sired for some parts of the reactor naming specific materials on which
energy of several million ev with a for nuclear considerations, cannot we are concentrating our investiga.
minimum loss of neutrons by para operate at the maximum tempera' tions at this time. We have, however,
sitic capture. Control rods on the ture of the over-all system. made considerable progress, though
other hand, must have high capture These charts, prepared for a re a great deal of work remains to be
cross section for neutrons. cent paper will give you a better done before our first high perform
In practically all material applica conception of the materials problem. ance nuclear power aircraft makes
tions for the nuclear power plant for Fig. 1 summarizes the general re its maiden flight.
aircraft which we are developing quirements. Figs. 2, 3 and 4 review One of our principal problems is to
h e r e, however, we h a v e a high a few of the basic physical proper be sure we have people with the re
temperature problem of dimensions ties of each of 11 metals selected for quired technical competence and spe
unique in materials technology. discussion. cific abilities to function effectively.
!
Moderator
slow neutrons 2. Re 84.0 2. Re 5756 2. HI h.c.p. b.c.c.3020'F
L,w Low
to thermal
3. Ta 21.3 3. Ta 5426 3. Ti h.c. p. b. c.c. 1620'F
effectively.
4.W 19.2 4.Mo 4752 4. Zr h.c.p. b.c. c. 1584'F
Control High
5. U 7.68 5. Cb 4474 5. Th f.c.c. b. c.c. 2426'F
Shield
6. Th 7.4 .6. HI 4032 6. W b.C.c. NONE
(l)Ability to
a. Gamma High(l)
attenuate y. 7. Ti 5.6 7. V. 3452 7. Ta b.c.c. NONE (known)
(2)Ability to 8. V 5.1 8. Zr 3375 8. Mo b. c.c. NONE
b. Neutron High(2) L,w absorb with- 9. Mo 2.5 9. Th 3308 9. Cb b. c.c. NONE
out producing
10. Cb 1.1 10. Ti 3020 10. V b. c.c. NONE
y.
11. Zr 0.18 11. U 2071 11. U ortho tetra InO'F: b . c. c . 1427'F
- . . .-
' "'-
FIG. I
FIG. 2 FIG. J FIG. 4
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143
M
THE LOS ANGELES DIVISION OF
then compressing it by a column of mer tried salad oil and olive oil. These are
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I&,
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144
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McLeod gauge for measuring low pressure in the VlICLIlUIt syst em
146
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1 48
the problem has usually been mishan abortion except when it is necessary "to
dled. Ignorance, hypocrisy and inhu preserve the life of the woman." Six
by James R Newman manity have presided in judgment over states permit a therapeutic abortion "to
it. Because a frank admission of the save the life of the unborn child" ( what
dimensions of the problem might force ever this absurd phrase may mean ) ; in
ABORTION IN THE UNITED STATES, edited remedial action which would provoke only two states is abortion permitted "to
by Mary Steichen Calderone. Hoeber intense religiOUS and social opposition, preserve the health of the woman." Un
Harper ( $5.50 ) . politicians, physicians, public health der the hodgepodge of statutes the phy
officials and others who make rules and sician's position is perilous and uncer
ortion is an ancient practice, but opinion are wont to pretend that the tain. It is not easy in most cases to prove
even in antiquity it provoked practice is negligible. They are aided conclusively that the life of the woman
sharp differences of opinion. in this courageous stand by the general depends on the abortion; moreover, in
Plato, in the Republic, approved abor lack of knowledge in the matter. It is some jurisdictions a physician on trial for
tion to prevent the birth of incestuous true, to be sure, that except for limited having performed an illegal abortion has
offspring; Aristotle, always a practical samples reliable statistics do not exist. to plead necessity as an affirmative de
fellow, looked upon it as a useful Mal Nevertheless it is clear, on the basis of a fense, and thus the burden of proof is on
thusian governor. The Hippocratic oath, mass of data, that an enormous number him and not on the prosecution. Power
on the other hand, contains the words "I of abortions-running into the millions ful social disapproval operates further to
will not give to a woman a pessary to are performed annually the world over. narrow the statutory restrictions . Some
produce abortion"; Seneca and Cicero We are faced, therefore, with a matter hospitals are unwilling to permit use of
condemned abortion on ethical grounds ; of the highest medical and social impor their facilities even for abortions sanc
and the Justinian Code prohibited it. tance : a disease of society, the more seri tioned by law. In many states a woman
There seems little doubt, however, that ous because many communities refuse to with serious heart disease is not entitled
in the Roman Empire and the Hellenistic recognize it and do nothing to eliminate to have her pregnancy interrupted .
world abortion was, as one authority has its causes and mitigate its effects. Though the child of a woman who in
stated, "very common among the upper This challenging and engrossing book early pregnancy contracts German
classes ." The Christian Church took a is evidence that there are men and wom measles has about a 20-per-cent chance
stern stand against this "pagan attitude," en who recognize the nature and scope of being born blind, mentally retarded or
and pronounced abortion a sin. In many of the problem and are working to otherwise affected, the woman cannot
states the law followed church doctrine bring it into the open. In 1 955 a confer claim the right to a therapeutic abortion.
and made the sin a crime. But in Anglo ence on abortion, sponsored by the The law is not merely, as Mr. Bumble
Saxon law abortion was considered "an Planned Parenthood Federation of said, "a ass"; it is much worse, In
ecclesiastical offens only." America, was held at Arden House in the U. S . neither rape nor incest, even
Abortion is today a world problem . Harriman, N.Y., and at the New York if the victim is a very young girl,
Surveys and studies by individuals and Academy of M edicine. The participants, is ground for abortion. Social disgrace
by UNESCO show the practice to be including leading gynecologists, psychi or poverty or any other humanitarian
widespread in, among others, the Scan atrists, social workers, lawyers and pub reason receives no consideration what
dinavian countries, Finland, Germany, lic health officials, discussed such topics ever. And as regards the extraordi
the U . S . S . R . , Japan, Mexico, Puerto Rico, as the incidence of abortion, methods nary attitude of the law toward the il
Latin America and the U. S. George used in illegal abortion, causes of death legitimate child, nothing is more cogent
Devereux's book, A S tudy of AbOltion in due to abortion, the psychiatric and legal than the view of Iwan Bloch, expressed
PTimitive Societies, which covers some aspects of abortion. A report on the dis in his famous book The Sexual Life of
400 preindustrial societies as well as cussions, together with a concluding Our Time. The State, he said, considers
20 historical and modern nations, con statement which summarizes the facts as sacred the life of the child before it is
cludes that abortion "is an absolutely and makes recommendations, is given in born and punishes anyone who interferes
universal phenomenon." this volume. I cannot emphaSize too with its preservation, but then considers
The problem has grown with the strongly the value of the material as a the same child a bastard as soon as it is
growth of population. Poverty, ill health, social document. born and for the rest of its life.
vanity, social customs, aversion to pain The primary concern of the confer Since it is extremely difficult to ob
are familiar reasons for resorting to abor ence was with abortion in the U. S. It is tain a "therapeutic abortion," the illegal
tion; other factors are the "urban middle a shocking picture. One has only to look practice flourishes. When people want
class attitude toward illegitimacy," in at it from the legal side to understand something badly enough they will have
adequate sex education, prohibitions why. it, regardless of the law. The unmarried
against birth control. In most societies Of the 49 states, all but six prohibit pregnant woman has the desperate
149
1958 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
choice of suicide, of bearing and raising him, or even to admit that he had sent
J& GrOWE;:adilY
an illegitimate child, or of going to an Timanus a single patient. ) M any other
abortionist. The married pregnant wom personal estimates of illegal abortions
an who does not want to bear her child were given by individual participants in
may be less desperate, but she too is usu the conference. The statistics committee
BEl
fiiilTlnl\ll,." in the Researc.h ally beset with anxieties and confused as did not feel that these furnished the
center of the World to what course to follow. One of the par basis for an exact figure for the total
ticipants in the conference, C. Lottrell population ; however, the members were
AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH tion which epitomizes the hypocrisy of cannot legislate the practice out of ex
the medical profession's stand on abor istence, it is folly to keep on the books
1200 JEFFERSON HIGHWAY tion. In the 20-year period during which laws which do not receive public sanc
ARLINGTON 2. VA. he had operated as an abortionist, he tion and observance. The constitutional
Tomorrow's Reality ;s had served 353 doctors ; yet of this en amendment that prohibited liquor is an
Today's Science at CEIR tire group of estimable men, not one was example of an unpopular and unenforce
willing to come forward and testify for able law which led to evils vastly greater
150
Y455. REALM OF THE NEBULAE, E. Hubble. EasilY Y394. FADS & FALLACIES IN THE NAME OF
Y456. THEORY OF PROPE RTIES OF METALS & Y465. HOAXES, C. MacDougall. Professor of Journalism
ALLOYS. N. F. Mott, H. Jones. Relation of chemical to per set! at Northwestern co\'ers 350 hoaxes in science, art, journal
ism, history, etc. Delightful reading, full of information.
other properties. 339pO. Paperbd. $1.85
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Y451. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. F. R. Moulton. you in colloquial language. By far the most useful set Paperbd. $1.75
Rigorous detailed acct., with 222 problems to be solved. for travel, wonderful as a refresher, as a supplement Y367. 101 PUZZLES IN THOUGHT & LOGIC. C.
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duction via the modern phrase method. It presents ability to reason clearly. 128 pP. Solutions.
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making papers reproduced in facsimile; 29 in English. TRIBUNE. Wonderful gift for a friend travelling Y473. AMUSEMENTS IN MATHEMATICS, H. Dude
rest in French, German, Italian. 440PD. 1st book IlUbIi abroad, or for a beginner. Not a closeout or a mark ney. More than 350 puzzles in all aspects of recreational
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liography of 1186 references. Total of 906pp. (When l"avorite intro. to Schroeder, Whitehead, Russell sys
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151
1lT"
through sponsorship of state health and noted at the conference that among the
welfare departments. Models for such uneducated it is still not rare to find wom
centers are to be found in the Scandina en who do not connect pregnancy with
vian countries. Clinics in Norway, Den sexual intercourse. It is not surprising,
152
missioners on Uniform State Laws, the beauty, and color even the natives say it was made from a rainbow? (And that costs here are so
low yOll can not only reach it but also stay a while for hardly more than you'd spend at a resort in
American Law Institute and the Coun the U.S.?)
Do you know where to find the world's best mountain hideaways or its most dazzling surf-washed
cil of State Governments should frame a coastal resorts, where even today you can live for a song?
model law to replace existing statutes. Do you know where it costs less to spend a while, the surroundings are pleasant, and the climate
well nigh perfect in such places as Mexico, the "Vest Indies, Peru, France, along the r[editerranean,
Again it is to the Scandinavian countries
and in the world's other low cost wonderlands?
that one must turn for instruction on Or if you've thought of more distant places, do you know which of the Soutb Sea Islands are as
sensible abortion laws . The statute unspoiled today as in Conrad's day? Or which is the one spot world travelers caB the most beautiful
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153
CURTISS"WRIGHT
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154
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157
MILITARY
ages . For every period he gives a con
E NTURY OF ARWIN,
A CS . A. Barnett. DHarvard University
edited by vincing picture, supported by the ar
chaeological Rnds and related informa
Press ( $5.75 ) . The articles in this com tion, of what life was like : food-gather
SYSTEM S
memorative volume are well above the ing, homes, tribal customs, tools, weap
usual wafHes that contributors resusci ons and armor, battle tactics, clothing
tate for such occasions. There are good and jewelry, religious beliefs and burial
pieces by C. H . Waddington, Theodosius p
practices, shi building, explorations,
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Romer, Gavin de Beer, W. E . Le Gros lustrated, this work by an imaginative
Clark, Barnett, C. M. Yonge and others . scholar is one of the happiest contribu
The book as a whole offers a remarkable tions to archaeology in some time .
FORMI NG IN
conspectus not only of the theory of evo
O W ORK IN THE V INEYARD OF S UR-
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to other Relds and his influence on social
T GERY : T HE R EMINISCENCES OF J .
thought and ethics. - C OLLINS WARREN, edited by Edward D .
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T HE TRAVELS OF WILLIAM B ARTRAM,
edited by Francis Harper. Yale Uni
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OPENINGS
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FOR
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electronic e ngineers natural-h:story scenes that Bartram de
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physicists ing eloquence" ( Carlyle's comment in
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ing ahead with the myriad problems of our
To o b tain information on engineer
challenging proj ect.
openings writ e A . J. Crawford, Per
A s systems manager we are charged with the sonnel Manager. A resume of yOU?'
development and production of a world-wide education and expe1'ience is essential.
electronic control system whiCh will transmit, An interview will be armng e d at yOU?'
process and d i splay i nformation requ i red i n convenience.
1 59
of fallout and radioactive wastes on the ALLEN. HOWARD. INC . . ..... . .................. .. . .. .... .. . .. . ... 1 56
life of the sea. It is perhaps worth re Agenc y : Scheel A d v e r t i s i n g Agc n c y , I n c .
en9neerens.s
issue of a 1936 sociological study of kin
, , BEN DIX COMPUTER DIVISION OF BENDIX
ship in primitive Polynesia, out of print AVIATION CORPORATION... 30
Agen c y : T h e Shaw Company
for many years, regarded as one of the
founding works of modern social anthro BOEING AI RPLANE COMPANY ... .. 1 3 1
Agen c y : C a l k i n s & Holden
W e g o t t h i s s k e t c h of t h e new
est s u bspec i e s of homo sa p i e n s
pology. BRITISH I N DUSTRI ES CORPORATION . . . ... ... . . 1 36
Agen c y : The Zlowe Company
BEHAVIOR AND PSYCHOLOGICAL M A K :
from a fe l l ow w h o d o e s n ' t l o o k
BU LOVA WATCH COMPANY. B ULOVA RE
SEARCH AND DEVELOPM ENT LABORA
ESSAYS M OTIVATION AND LEARKING,
l i ke t h i s a n y m o r e . W e offered
h i m a c h a n ce to do i n terest i ng,
IN TORIES. I NC..... 38
Agen c y : D u n c a n Brooks, I n c .
by Edward Chace Tolman. University of
c re a t i ve work in the m i s s i l e
California Press ( $ 1 .95 ) . A collection of CONVAI RASTRONAUTICS. A D IVISION OF
a n d space f i e l d , a n d c u re d h i m
19 essays published over a 35-year pe GENERAL DYNAM ICS CORPORATION
of a m a l a d y t h a t h a s struck Back Cover
riod by a leading psychologist. Included Agell c y : L e n n e n & Newell I n c .
too m a n y good e ng i n e e rs.
is his well-known "Cognitive M aps in COPPER & BRASS RESEARCH ASSOCIATIO N .
If you k n ow a nyone who h a s
Rats and M en." Paperback. THE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 6 . 37
j o b p ro b l e m s w h i c h m a ke h i m Agcll c y : J. M. H i ckerson I n c .
ects in t h e Ast r i o n i c s f i e l d . If
and clearly written, and with such in CURTlSSWRIGHT CORPORATION ... . . . . . . . . . . . 1 54
Agen c y : B u rke D o w l i n g A d allls, I IH " .
yo u r f r i e n d - o r you you rse l f for
telligent understanding of a beginner's
that matter - wou l d l i ke to d o
dead ends and perplexities, that it de DATASYNC. A DIVISION OF BERN DTBACH.
serves at least a listing in these columns. 1 28
i m po r t a n t w o r k on a d v a n ce d
A McN;lIgh";;;"." in";::"
l y : Van d e r B o o m , H u n t ,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ( $9.75 ) . A ELECTRODATA DIVISION. BU RROUGHS COR
ma i l to Astri o n ics Division,
PORATION . . . . 2 5 . 1 62 . .. ...
1 60
OF ADVE RTISERS
I N G AND OPTICAL DIVISION.. . 81
IN DEX
Agenc y : G. M. Basford Company
FAI RCH I LD ENG I N E AND AI RPLA N E COR JACK & HEI NTZ, INC ....................... . . ................ 19 RADIATION, I NC.... .. . 1 05
PORATlON, ASTRION ICS DiViSiON ... ... . . . . . . 1 60 Agenc y : Fuller & Smith & Ross I n c . Agen c y : Charles F. Fry Advertising Associates, I n c .
GEN ERAL ELECTRIC CO., M I SSILE AND LITTON INDUSTRIES, I NC., ELECTRONIC 63
SPACE VEH ICLE DEPARTM ENT .. .. .. . ..... .. EQU I P M ENTS DIVISION. . ......... ............ 1 37
Agcnc y : T h e A i t k i n K y n c t l C o . , I n c .
GEN ERAL ELECTRIC COM PANY, XRAY DE LOCKHEED M ISSI L E SYSTEMS DIVISION,
PARTM ENT : CORPORATlON . n , 73
;
Agenc y : The Humrill Company I n c .
E ..
GEN ERAL M I LLS, I NC., I N DUSTRIAL GROUP LOS ALAMOS SCI ENTIFIC LABORATORY OF Agenc y : Strom berger, L a V e n e . M c Kenzie :
Agency : K n o x Reeves Advertising, I n c . 15, 16, 17 THE U N IVERSITY O F CALI FORN I A. ............... 106
Advertising
Agenc y : W a r d H i c k s Advertising
NA O CS R O
.
Inc.
H EWLETTPACKARD COM PANy .......................... 8 NORTH AM ERICAN AVIATION, I NC. THE VARIAN ASSOCIATES, TUBE DiViSiON ... ,........
LOS ANGELES DiViSiON ..................... :............
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. ... 35
Agency : L. C. Cole C o m p a n y - I n c . 1 44 Agenc y : Boland Associates
TION ...... ... . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . 20 NORTON COM PANY, ELECTROCHEM ICAL WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORPORATION,
.. . .. .
DIVISION . ... ... . . . ..
.. . .. .. .
HUGHES AI RCRAFT COM PANY . .. . . . 1 1 8 , 1 1 9 Agenc y : James Thomas Chirurg Company 113
161
Readers interested in further reading can Chemical SOciety, Vol. 78, No.
23, pages 5,963-5, 976.
on the subiects covered by articles in this
issue may find the lists below helpful.
TRACE-ELEMENT DESERTS
outstanding financial rewards and WHITE DWARFS. Evry Schatzman. In Nielsen and Humio Osaki in Biologi
personal satisfactions today! This is terscience,1958. cal Bulletin, Vol. 115, pages 162-171;
the fascinating field of electronic data October,1958.
processing systems, where dynamic
advances are being made by the THE MICROCIRCULATION SALT GLANDS IN MARINE REPTILES.
ElectroData Division of Burroughs OF THE BLOOD Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and Ragnar
Corporation. Here in a Southern Fange in Nature, Vol. 182, No. 783-
California setting, as well as in other
THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 785; September 20, 1958.
areas of the country, our creative
staff deals with the marketing CAPILLARIES. August Krogh. Yale
challenge of today's EDP systems and University Press, 1929. A WITNESS AT THE SCOPES TRIAL
gives direction to the electronic
GENERAL PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE
equipment of the future. Sense the
challenge? It can be yours. We have BEHAVIOR OF THE MICROCIRCULATION. SIX DAYS OR FOREVER. Ray Ginger.
openings of major responsibility B. W. Zweifach in The American Beacon Press,1958.
for people who have grown with the
Journal of Medicine, Vol. 23, No. 5,
data processing field-who thoroughly
understand computers and their pages 684-696; November,1957. MATHEMATICAL GAMES
application to scientific and THE ROLE OF MEDIATORS IN THE IN
business problems: FLAMMATORY TISSUE RESPONSE. W. A MACHINE WITH INSIGHT. J. A. Deutsch
Mathematicians, Applied Scientists, Feldberg in International Archives of in The Quarterly Journal of Experi
Product Planning and Applications
Allergy and Applied Immunology, mental Psychology, Vol. 6, Part I,
Analysts, Applied Programmers,
and others who are specialists in this Vol. 8,No. 1-2, pages 15-31; 1956. pages 6-11; February, 1954.
growing field. For complete details, MAZES AND LABYRINTHS. W. H. Mat
contact your local ElectroData district thews. Longmans, Green and Com
THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS
or regional office-or write to
Professional Personnel Director in
pany,1922.
Pasadena, address below; A MODEL OF THE NUCLEUS. V. F.Weiss
kopf and E. P. Rosenbaum in Scien THE AMATEUR SCIENTIST
tific American, Vol. 193,No. 6,pages
84-91; December,1955. MODERN PHYSICAL LABORATORY PRAC
THE STRUCTURE OF THE NUCLEUS. Maria TICE. John Strong, with H. Victor
G. Mayer in SCientific American, Vol. Neher, Albert E. Whitford, C. Haw
184,No.3,pages 22-34; March,1951. ley Cartwright and Roger Hayward.
Blackie and Son,Ltd., 1938.
MOLECULAR SIEVES VACUUM EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUES.
Burroughs Corporation
ElECTRODATA DIVISIO N
Edited by A. Guthrie and R. K. Wak
. p A SADE N A, C AL I FOR N I A ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF MINERALS. W. erling. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
"NEW DIMENSIONS/in .leclronics and dot. procwin! 1)'JIe.... L. Bragg. Cornell University Press, 1949.
1937. VACUUM TECHNIQUE. Arnold L. Rei
CRYSTALLINE ZEOLITES. 1: THE PROPER- mann. Chapman and Hall,Ltd.,1952.
162
UNDAMPED DAMPED
LJ:]
Qe O 92 -0.95 Q 0 34 - 064
Steam volume fraction recording during undamped and damped natural circulation
C;(z7.
contract with the United States Atomic Energy Commission.
PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL OFFICE
P.O. BOX 299H4 LEMONT, ILLINOIS
computers
To the engineer pursuing a career, Link Aviation, Inc. offers a way oflife ...
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Academically, Link provides opportunity for study under regular
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Write to Mr. H. A. Larko, Link Aviation, Inc., P. O. Box 1318 Palo Alto, California
A subsidiary of
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LINK AVIATION, INC.
Equipment
Corporation 10--------;;;;;=1.
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