ReferenceThe Complete Idiot 039 S Guide To American Literature PDF

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THECOMPLETEIDIOT'SREFERENCECARD
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AmericanLiterature
byLaurieE.Rozakis,Ph.D.
ADivisionofMacmillanGeneralReference
APearsonEducationMacmillanCompany
1633Broadway,NewYork,NY100196785
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Copyright1999byLaurieE.Rozakis
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CONTENTSATAGLANCE
Part1:ANewLand,aNewLiterature(16071840) 1
1 3
AmericatheBeautifulandTalented
FindoutwhatmakesAmericanliteraturesospecialandrevered,andlearn
thetermsweusetoanalyzeliterature.
2 13
IntheBeginning:America'sFirstWriters(16071750)
ExploreAmerica'sfirstwritersWilliamBradford,AnneBradstreet,
EdwardTaylor,CottonMather,andJohnSmithanddiscovertherootsof
Puritanism.
3 25
Don'tTreadonMe:TheRevolutionaryPeriod(17501800)
ReadexcerptsfromAbigailAdams'letters,HectorSt.Jeande
Cr&gravevecoeur'sessays,BenjaminFranklin'sautobiographyand
almanac,ThomasJefferson'sDeclarationofIndependence,andThomas
Paine'sfierypamphletstoseehowAmericanliteraturedeveloped.
4 39
TheBigDaddyofAmericanLiterature:
WashingtonIrving(17891851)
DiscoverhowIrvingprovedthatmemorablefictioncouldbesetinAmerica
withAmerican"types."
5 49
FatheroftheAmericanNovel:JamesFenimore
Cooper(17891851)
LearnthatCoopercreatedthefirstAmericanadventurestory,thefirst
Americannovelofmanners,andthefirstAmericannovelofthesea.
6 61
LifeontheLedge:EdgarAllanPoe(18091849)
SeehowPoecreatedthemodernshortstory,thedetectivestory,landmark
literarycriticism,andsomesizzlingpoetry.
Part2:TheNewEnglandRenaissance(18401855) 75
7 77
TheSageofConcord:RalphWaldoEmerson(18031882)
LearnwhyEmersonisthekeyintellectualandphilosophicalvoiceof19th
centuryAmericaandseewhatTranscendentalismwasallabout.
8 87
NatureBoy:HenryDavidThoreau(18171862)
TakeatriptoWaldenPondanddiscoverhowThoreaucreatedWalden,a
guidebookforlife,and"CivilDisobedience,"theprimerfornonviolent
protest.
Pagev
9 95
NatetheGreat:NathanielHawthorne(18041864)
SeehowHawthornecorneredthemarketonsinandguilt,especiallyas
revealedinhismasterpiece,TheScarletLetter.
10 107
JustDon'tCallMeHermie:HermanMelville(18191891)
Readaboutthatwhaleofatale,MobyDick,andseewhyHermanMeville
isrankedasoneofAmerica'stopnovelists,eventhoughfewofhis
contemporariesrecognizedhisgeniuswhenhewasalive.
Part3:TheWarBetweenTheStates(18551865) 117
11 119
TheLittleWomanWhoStartedThisGreatBigWar:
HarrietBeecherStowe(18111896)FindoutwhyUncleTom'sCabinwas
themostinfluentialbookofthe19thcentury.
12 129
RebelwithaCause:FrederickDouglass(18171895)
LearnaboutFrederickDouglass'lifeandautobiography,TheLifeandTimes
ofFrederickDouglass,aclassictestamenttocourage.
13 137
ThatBarbaricYawp:WaltWhitman(18191892)
SeehowWaltWhitmancreatednewpoeticformsandsubjectstofashiona
distinctlyAmericanidiom.
14 149
TheBigMamaofAmericanLiterature:EmilyDickinson(18301886)
LearnwhyEmilyDickinsonisconsideredtheMotherofmodernAmerican
poetrybyreadingandanalyzingsomeofherpoems.
Part4:RealismandTheFrontier(18651915) 161
15 163
SamuelClemens:A.K.A.MarkTwain(18351910)
EnjoythewritingofSamuelLanghorneClemens("MarkTwain"),
America'sgreatesthumorist.
16 179
LifeIsShortandThenYouDie:StephenCrane(18711900)
SlashandburnwithStephenCrane,theNaturalistwhoattacked
patriotism,nationalism,individualism,andorganizedreligiontoconfront
themeaninglessoftheworld.
17 193
ThreeonaMatch:TheNaturalistsJackLondon,FrankNorris,andTheodore
Dreiser(18901925)
Lookthroughsomedecidedlynotrosecoloredglassestoseetheworldas
thesethreeNaturalistsdidadogeatdogexistence,markedbysurvivalof
thefittest.
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18 207
ColorMyWorld:TheLocalColorists(18651930)
Tour19thcenturyAmericawiththeregionalwritersBretHarte,Mary
WilkinsFreeman,SarahOrneJewett,KateChopin,CharlottePerkins
Gilman,andWillaCather.
19 219
LifestylesoftheRichandFamous:EdithWharton
andHenryJames
Learnaboutthesetwoelegantwriterswhoprobedtheinterplayofemotion
inasocietythatcensuredfreeexpression.
Part5:ModernLiterature(19151945) 229
20 231
Macho,MachoMan:ErnestHemingway(18991961)
Readaboutoneofthetoweringfiguresof20thcenturyliterature,aman
whoselifewasasinfluentialashiswriting.
21 247
PartyHearty:F.ScottFitzgerald(18961940)
JointhefunasFitzgeralddancesanddrinksthenightaway,andstill
managestowriteaclassicortwo(untilthepartycrashes).
22 261
MintJuleps,Moonlight,andMadness:
WilliamFaulkner(18971962)
SeehowAmerica'sforemostSouthernwriterconstructedhisownsetting.
23 271
ThreeBigDeals:EzraPound,T.S.Eliot,andJohnSteinbeck
Findouthowthetwomostinfluentialmodernpoetschangedthelandscape
of20thcenturyAmericanliterature.Andlet'snotforgetoneofAmerica's
mostfamousnovelists,JohnSteinbeck.
24 289
APackofPoets(19001960)
DiscoverthepoemsofRobertFrost,e.e.cummings,EdwinArlington
Robinson,CarlSandburg,EdgarLeeMasters,andVachelLindsay.
25 303
TheHarlemRenaissance(19151929)
LearnabouttheculturalrebirthofAfricanAmericanliteraturethroughthe
writingofRichardWright,LangstonHughes,CounteCullen,ZoraNeale
Hurston,JeanToomer,andClaudeMcKay.
26 315
CultFigures(1945Present)
SeehowtheBeatwriters,theConfessionalpoets,andnovelistandshort
storywriterJ.D.Salingerreflectedthehiddenanguishofthe1950s.
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27 329
HorrorandHumor(19301960)
ExplorethedarkandlightsidesofAmericanliteraturethroughthe
macabrestoriesofFlanneryO'Connorandthewittytalesofhumorists
JamesThurberandDorothyParker.
Part6:ContemporaryLiterature(1946Present)
28 341
JewishAmericanLiterature
SaulBellow,EricaJong,NormanMailer,BernardMalamud,Isaac
BashevisSinger,PhilipRoth,andElieWieselaretheheadlinershere.
29 353
ContemporaryAfricanAmericanLiterature
thegiantsofmodemAfricanAmericanliterature:RalphEllison,fames
Baldwin,GwendolynBrooks,MayaAngelou,ToniMorrison,AliceWalker,
andJamaicaKincaid.
30 365
ModernCanadianLiterature
It'snosurprisethatacountrythisbigproducessomanygreatwriters!
SurveyCanada'srichliteraryheritage,includingthewritingofStephen
Leacock,AlfredPurdy,PierreBerton,MavisGallant,MargaretLaurence,
MordecaiRichler,AliceMunro,MargaretAtwood,andMichaelOndaatje.
31 377
NativeAmerican,LatinoAmerican,andAsianAmericanLiterature
SampleourculturalrichnessintheworksofN.ScottMomaday,William
LeastHeatMoon,LeslieMormonSilko,LouiseErdrich,RichardRodriguez,
DeniseChavez,JuliaAlvarez,SandraCisneros,MaxineHongKingston,
andAmyTan.
32 389
NewFrontiers
SeehowJohnCheever,JohnUpdike,TrumanCapote,MaryGordon,
StephenKing,andJoyceCarolOateshavereshapedAmericanliterature.
Appendixes
A 401
TheAuthorsandTheirMostFamousWorks
B 417
AdditionalReading
C 445
Timeline
Index 459
Pageviii
CONTENTS
Part1:ANewLand,aNewLiterature(16071840) 1
1 3
What'sSoAmericanAboutAmericanLiterature? 4
Copycats 4
StakingOurClaim 5
SingularSensation 6
WriteAway 6
ArmchairTraveler 7
FutureShock 7
WordstotheWise 8
TypesofProse 9
TypesofPoetry 10
TermsUsedtoAnalyzeProse 10
TermsUsedtoAnalyzePoetry 11
ShareandShareAlike 12
2 13
SaintsandStrangers 14
FireandIce:ThePuritans 15
TheDevilMadeMeDoIt 15
WilliamBradford(15901657) 16
The''MayflowerCompact" 16
HistoryofPlymouthPlantation 17
AnneBradstreet(16121672) 17
LoveMeTender,LoveMeTrue 18
HomeSweetHome 19
EdwardTaylor(16451729) 19
CottonMather(16631728) 20
WitchyWomen 20
SpinDoctors 21
JohnSmith(15801631) 22
IGetAround 22
TooCloseforComfort 22
3 25

TheDreamTeam 26
RemembertheLadies 26
SpecialDelivery 27
J.HectorSt.JeandeCrevecoeur(17351813) 27
Pageix
BenjaminFranklin(17061790) 28
BBBBenny 29
DearDiary 30
WordstotheWise:PoorRichard'sAlmanac 30
ThomasJefferson(17431826) 31
TakeThat,YouTyrant 32
FromthePenoftheMaster 36
ThomasPaine(17371809) 36
ARoyalPaine 36
ToArms! 37
The(Cultural)StateoftheUnion 37
4 39
TheBigDaddyofAmericanLiterature:WashingtonIrving(17891851)
AlwaysaBridesmaid,NeveraBride 40
ADeclarationofIndependence 41
TopoftheCharts 42
SettingUpShop 42
TheBigKahuna 43
PumpkinHead 44
FrightNight 44
HeadsUp 45
TheBigSleep 45
Bowling,Anyone? 46
BornintheUSA 46
GoingtotheDevil 47
BeamMeDown,Scotty 47
WhatBecomesaLegendMost? 48
5 49
FatheroftheAmericanNovel:JamesFenimoreCooper(17891851)
GreenAcresIsthePlaceforMe 50
SixDays,SevenNights 51
DownfortheCount 51
AnythingYouCanDo,ICanDoBetter 52
ScottFree 52
TheUglyAmerican 52
BumppandGrind 53
MyHero:TheLastoftheMohicans 54
WhatIDidoverMySummerVacation 55
HawkeyeandChingachgook'sExcellentAdventure 55
SoWhyNotJustWatchtheMovie? 56
SonofaBestseller:TheDeerslayer 56
Lights!Camera!Action! 57
TruthorConsequences 58
Pagex
SoWhat'sItAllAbout? 58
TheBrokenTwigSeries 58
6 61
ARockyStart 62
BeatIttoBeantown 62
GettingtheShortEndoftheStick 62
TheSorrowandthePity 63
GreatBallsofFire 64
FortheBirds:TheRaven 65
ThePhilosophyofComposition 67
AnnabelLee 68
TheCaskofAmontillado 70
Poe'sSingleEffect 70
NoMoreMr.NiceGuy 71
GiltTrip:TheGoldBug 71
DickLit 72
Part2:TheNewEnglandRenaissance(18401855) 75
7 77
Transcendentalism 78
MakingtheAList 78
Philosophy101 79
Where'sWaldo? 80
Nature 80
TheAmericanScholar 81
DivinitySchoolAddress 82
TheFameGame 83
SelfReliance 83
HymnSungattheCompletionoftheConcordMonument,April19, 84
1836
MasterofHisDomain 85
8 87
OhHenry! 88
ATravelGuidefortheMind:Walden 89
Hello,ICametoSay 89
ICannotStay 90
CreamoftheCrop 90
ImitationIstheSincerestFormofFlattery 91
OntheDutyofCivilDisobedience 91
TheLastStraw 92
PowertothePeople 93
Pagexi
9 95
BeginattheVeryBeginning 96
DoingHardTime 96
RevengeIsSweet 97
GimmeanA 98
TheYoungandtheRestless 99
What'sLoveGottoDowithIt? 100
A'sNotforApple"inThisTown 101
YouPlay,YouPay 102
RomancingtheNovel 103
Short,butNotSweet:Hawthorne'sStories 103
AWalkontheWildSide 104
ShadesofGray 105
10 107
ManOverboard 108
ClubMed,Circa1800 108
TheManWhoHadLivedAmongtheCannibals 108
AllWashedUp 109
NotSoFast 110
AWhaleofaTale:MobyDick 110
CruisingforaBruising 111
JustWhenYouThoughtItWasSafetoGoBackintotheWater 112
SwimmingwiththeFishes 113
LifeBeforeXerox:BartlebytheScrivener 113
GoodHelpIsHardtoFind 114
TheDeadEndKid 114
Part3:TheWarBetweentheStates(18551865) 117
11 119
TheLittleWomanWhoStartedThisGreatBigWar:HarrietBeecherStowe
(18111896)
TheBeecherPreachers 120
WhatIDidForLove 120
TheTrafficinHumanFlesh 121
ThePriceofFame 122
UncleTom'sCabin:LifeAmongtheLowly 123
ThatPeculiarInstitution 123
TooLittle,TooLate 125
TheMediumIstheMessage 125
TheMightyMite 126
Pagexii
12 129
BoundandDetermined 129
PitytheChildren 130
CastingBreadupontheWaters 130
TheManwiththeIronHeart 132
LetFreedomRing 133
TrueGrit 134
WorkingWithoutaNet 135
13 137
LettingItAllHangOut 138
SoulMan 139
ISingtheBodyElectric 140
BlackWidowBlues:ANoiselessPatientSpider 142
WhenLilacsLastintheDooryardBloom'd 143
AsidefromThat,Mrs.Lincoln,HowDidYouLikethePlay? 143
WithMaliceTowardNone,WithCharityTowardAll 144
OutoftheCradle,EndlesslyRocking 145
AdvertisementsforMyself 146
14 149
WithoutFeathers 150
TheBelleofAmherst 150
DoingHardTime 151
WriteAway 151
NotWaving,ButDrowning 154
RemembranceofFlingsPast? 154
ASnakeintheGrass 156
ADatewithDestiny 158
SpeakingofDeath 159
Part4:RealismandtheFrontier(18651915) 161
15 163
FunandGames 164
EvertheTwainShallMeet 165
"TheCelebratedJumpingFrogofCalaverasCounty" 167
TheSituation 168
TheSetup 169
TheSting 169
HoptoIt 171
Pagexiii
TheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn 171
DoAsISay,NotAsIDo 173
HuckandJim 174
LightOutfortheTerritoryAheadoftheRest 175
MarkMyWords 176
Mr.ClemensandMarkTwain 177
16 179
EvenStephen 180
TheMarchofTime 181
TheMotherofism:Realism 181
TheSonofism:Naturalism 182
OnlytheGoodDieYoung:Maggie:AGirloftheStreets 183
AbookofFirsts 184
TrappedLikeaRat 185
TheRedBadgeofCourage 185
Who'sWho 186
You'reintheArmyNow 186
BeAllThatYouCanBe 187
SoWhatDidYouDointheWar,Daddy? 187
TheOpenBoat 188
Who'sWho 189
CruisetoNowhere 189
WhenYouShouldHaveTakentheBus 190
RubaDubDub:FourMeninaTub 191
17 193
ThreeonaMatch:TheNaturalistsJackLondon,FrankNorris,andTheodore
Dreiser(18901925)
TheLawoftheClaw:Naturalism 194
It'saHardKnockLife 195
WalktheWalkandTalktheTalk 196
PairOffandSquareOff:RealistsVersusNaturalists 197
JackLondon(1871916) 197
TheCalloftheWild 198
LeaderoftheWild 198
It'saDogEatDogWorld 200
ToBuildaFire 200
FrankNorris(18701902) 201
War,What'sItGoodFor?(HowAboutaNovelorTwo?) 202
"TheLiteratureofChambermaids" 202
MCTeague,aStoryofSanFranscisco 202
NoTeddyBar:TheodoreDreiser(18711945) 203
AnAmericanTragedy 204
Pagexiv
18 207
ColorMyWorld:TheLocalColorists
InLivingColor 208
BreHarte(18361902) 208
TheOutcastsofPokerFlat 209
PaintbyNumber 209
MaryWilkinsFreeman(18521930) 209
SarahOrneJewett(18491909) 210
GoingtotheBirds:"TheWhiteHeron" 211
RealitiyCheck 212
DownintheBayou:KateChopin(18511904) 212
TheAwakening 213
Who'sWhoinTheAwakening 213
NotFreetoBeYouandMe 213
CharlottePerkinsGilman(18601935) 214
InLiteratureasinLife:TheYellowWallpapaer 215
SomeDaysItJustDosen'tPaytoTellItLikeItIs 216
PrairieTales:WillaCather(18731947) 216
19 219
LifestylesoftheRichandFamous:EdithWhartonand
HenryJames
HighSociety:EdithWharton(18621937) 219
KnowYourPlace 220
TheInsideView 221
BirdsinGildedCages 221
LessIsMore 221
TopDrawer 222
EthanForme 222
HenryJames(18431916) 224
CultreVulture 225
Phase1:International 225
Phase2:Experimental 226
Phase3:Major 226
BetYouCan'tReadJustOne 227
EdieandHank 228
Part5:ModernLiterature(19151945) 229
20 231
HuntandPeck 232
TheWartoEndAllWars 233
HomeNotSoSweetHome 234
FromtheCityofLightstotheCityofLit 234
LearningtheTrade 235
Pagexv
AShootingStar 236
TradeInTime 236
LionsandTigersandBulls,OhMy! 237
WarCanBeFun 237
DeathintheAfternoon 239
LessIsMore 239
Hemingway'sCode 240
TheSunAlsoRises 241
Who'sWhoinTheSunAlsoRises 242
TheOneThatGotAway:TheOldManandtheSea 243
TheFickleFingerofFame 245
21 247
GreatScott! 248
BelleoftheBall 249
ParadiseWon 249
TheBeautifulandtheDamned 250
ParadiseLost 251
TheCrackUp 252
LoveAmongtheRuins 252
SnatchingVictoryformtheJawsofDefeat 252
TheJazzAge:"TheGreatest,GaudiestSpreeinHistory" 253
TheGreatGatsby 255
Who'sWhointheGreatGatsby 255
Ain'tWeGotFun? 256
LettheGoodTimesRoll 257
WhenYouWishUponaStar 258
Daisy,Daisy,GiveMeYourAnswer,Do 258
AGreatNovel 259
22 261
MintJuleps,Moonlight,andMadness:
WilliamFaulkner(18771962)
Southerhcomfort 262
BreakOut 262
TakeaMeeting 263
MyWorld,andWelcometoIt 263
PushingtheEnvelope:Faulkner'sStyle 265
ShrinkLit:Faulkner'sTopTen 265
TheSoundandtheFury 266
Section1:April7,1928 267
Section2:June2,1910 268
Pagexvi
23 271
PoundCake 272
HowtoWinFriendsandInfluencePeople 272
I'veLookedatLovefromBothSidesNow 273
MakeItNew! 273
Imagism 273
Cantos 274
PoundofFlesh 275
T.S.Eliot(18881965) 276
TheLoveSongofJ.AlfredPrufrock 277
AllDressedUpandNoWheretoGo 278
TheWasteLand 279
PartI:BurialoftheDead 280
PartII:AGameofChees 280
PartIII:TheFireSermon 280
PartIV:DeathbyWater 281
PartV:WhattheThunderSaid 281
BigManonCampus 281
JohnSteinbeck(19021968) 282
CaliforniaDreamin' 282
FameandFortune 283
TheGrapesofWrath 284
Who'sWhoinTheGrapesofWrath 285
California,HereICome 286
24 289
RobertFrost(18741963) 289
FrostythePoet 290
SoundofSense 291
TheRoadNotTaken 292
StoppingbyWoodsonaSnowyEvening 292
e(dward).e(stlin).cummings(18941962) 293
SomewhereIhavenevertravelled,gladlybeyond 294
sincefeelingisfirst 295
Here'stoYou,Mr.Robinson:EdwinArlinigtonRobinson18691935) 296
TheChicagoPoets:CarlSandburg,EdgarLeeMasters,andVachel 297
Lindsay
CarlSandburg(18781967) 298
EdgarLeeMasters(18681950) 299
VachelLindsay(18791931) 300
Pagexvii
25 303
ThePlacetoBe 304
RichardWright(19081960) 305
BehindtheEightBall 306
BetterRedThanDead? 306
ParlezVousEquality? 307
NativeSon 308
BookOne:Fear 308
BookTwo:Flight 308
BookThree:Fate 309
CrimeandPunishment 309
LangstonHughes(19021967) 310
CounteCullen(19031946) 311
ZoraNealeHurston(18911960) 311
JeanToomer(18941967) 312
ClaudeMcKay(18901948) 313
AdditionalVoices 313
26 315
TheBeatGoesOn 316
BeatIt 316
RunningonEmpty 316
WilliamS.Burroughs(19141997) 317
JackKerouac(19221969) 318
AllenGinsberg(19261997) 319
"Howl" 319
TheFamily 321
MoreThanINeededtoKnow 321
SylviaPlath(19321963) 322
DaddyDearest 322
ThePerfectChild 322
AnneSexton(19201974) 323
RobertLowell(19171977) 324
J.D.Salinger(b.1919) 325
KvetcherintheRye 325
HideandSeek 326
TheCatcherintheRye 326
27 329
FlanneryO'Connor(19251964) 330
PeacocksandPain 330
DefenderoftheFaith 331
MakeMeLaugh,MakeMeCry 332
Pagexviii
JamesThurber(18941961) 332
FablesforOurTime 333
TheSecretLifeofWalterMitty 334
DorothyParker(18931967) 335
LegendsofLaughter 336
Part6:ContemporaryLiterature(1946Present) 339
28 341
Gentleman'sAgreement 342
SaulBellow(b.1915) 343
EricaJong(b.1942) 344
NormanMailer(b.1923) 345
BernardMalamud(19141986) 347
PhilipRoth(b.1933) 347
IsaacBashevisSinger(19041991) 348
TheLandofMilkandHoney 349
ElieWiesel(b.1928) 350
29 353
IHaveADream 354
BlackPower 354
TheCivilRightsMovement 354
RalphEllison(19141994) 355
EbonyandIvory 355
InvisibleMan 355
GwendolynBrooks(b.1917) 357
JamesBaldwin(19241987) 358
MayaAngelou(b.1928) 359
ToniMorrison(b.1931) 360
NovelIdeas 360
TheBestandtheBrightest 361
AliceWalker(b.1944) 361
JamaicaKincaid(b.1949) 362
30 365
OCanada! 366
TheConfederatePoets 366
EarlyNovelists 367
StephenLeacock(18691944) 368
BetweentheWars 368
AlfredPurdy(b.1918) 369
PierreBerton(b.1920) 370
MavisGallant(b.1922) 371
MargaretLaurence(19261987) 371
Pagexix
MordecaiRichler(b.1931) 372
AliceMunro(b.1931) 373
MargaretAtwood(b.1939) 373
MichaelOndaatje(b.1943) 374
31 377
ModernNativeAmericanWriters 378
NatacheeScottMomaday(b.1934) 379
WilliamLeastHeatMoon(b.1940) 380
LeslieMarmonSilko(b.1948) 380
LouiseErdrich(b.1954) 381
Today'sLatinoAmericanWriters 382
RichardRodriguez(b.1946) 382
DeniseChvez(b.1948) 383
JuliaAlvarez(b.1950) 384
SandraCisneros(b.1954) 385
ContemporaryAsianAmericanWriters 385
MaxineHongKingston(b.1940) 386
AmyTan(b.1952) 387
32 389
NewFrontiers
JohnCheever(19121982) 390
JohnUpdike(b.1932) 390
Here'sJohnny! 391
BunnyHop 391
TrumanCapote(19241984) 392
Fame,Fortune,andFriends 393
TheNonfictionNovel 394
MaryGordon(b.1948) 395
FinalPayments 396
ReligiousRite 396
StephenKing(b.1947) 396
KingMe 397
FrightNight 398
JoyceCarolOates(b.1938) 398
Appendixes
A 401
TheAuthorsandTheirMostFamousWorks
B 417
AdditionalReading
C 445
Timeline
Index 459
Pagexx
FOREWARD
Forbetterorworse,theliteraturethatinfluencedmemostasareader,writer,andplayerinthegreathumannarrativehasalwaysbeenAmericanthedomesticstuff.
I'mnotsurewhyitshouldbethatway.Maybebecause,comparedtothepartsoftheworldthatturnedouttheBible,Beowulf,andtheKamaSutra,we'restillsuch
ayoungsocietythateverystorytoldintheUnitedStatesisn'tmerelyastory,butanotherstabatournoisy,ongoingnationalstruggletofigureoutwhoweare.
Thenagain,maybeit'sbecause,especiallyinthoseyearsbeforemulticulturalismwentmainstream,weweregiventheimpressioningradeschoolthatthehomegrown
crop(alongwiththemajorBritishimports,ofcourse)madeupthebulkofthestuffworthreadingsomethingthatnowstrikesmeasaboutasduplicitousandamusing
anideaastryingtopassoffketchupasavegetableinpublicschoollunches.(Nottomalignketchup,ofcourse.)
Whatevertherealreason,I,likealotofpeoplewhogrowupandbecomepublishedauthors,wasasolitaryadolescentwhoreadtoomuch(andyes,inasuburban
worlddominatedbyTVandsports,suchathingreallydidseempossible,andfaintlysuspect).
Now,asanyonewhoreadtoomuchasasolitaryadolescentwilltellyou,charactersonapagecanhaveawayofbecomingmorerealthantherealpeoplearound
youoratleastofshapingyourworldviewinvastdisproportiontothosewithwhomyouexistdailyinthreedimensionality.Intenthgrade,Ineverhadareallife
friendwhounderstoodmyloathingforbourgeoisconformityandblithehypocrisybetterthanmysoulmateHoldenCaulfield.Itdidn'tmatterthatHoldenwas,inthe
end,justacollectionofwordsonapageifanything,neverhavingmethimmadeitalltheeasierformetopretendthatJ.D.Salingerhadprophesiedmycomingthat,
indeed,IwasthereallifeHoldenCaulfield,completewithabadattitudeandearflappedhuntingcap,andthatTheCatcherintheRyehadbeenwrittenexpressly
forortome.
AndasforthatallimportantadolescentmatterofcoolnesssufficeittosayIformedmywholeteenageidentityasmuchonnovelsasIdidonmusic,movies,or
clothes.Howelse,beforeIdiscoveredColePorterorManRay,couldIhaveyearnedtorelivetheimpudentexcessesofthe1920swithoutJayGatsbyandhis
countlesssilkshirts?WhywouldIeverhavelongedtosomedayliveinGreenwichVillageifithadn'tbeenforthedropdeadhipworldevokedbyJackKerouacand
JamesBaldwin,AllenGinsburgandGregoryCorsoallofwhomIknewintimatelylongbeforeI'devenseenmyfirstJacksonPollockorheardmyfirstCharlie
Parker?Novelsweren'tjustschoolbagballast,timekillers,orsobermoralitytalestheywereindispensableguidestothelifewelllived,evenifitwasstillafarcry
frommyown.
Fictionisjustthatfiction,madeupstuffandyetI,asadangerouslycuriousteenagerwho'dhardlybeenanywhere,metanyone,ordoneanything,calledonits
raucouscastofmadeupcharacterstolightapathformethroughthesocalled''realworld,"which
Pagexxi
alwaysseemedmorecoherentlyillustratedthroughnovelsthanthroughnewspapersortheTVnews.Tenyearsandperhapsasmidgeofexperiencelater,IthinkI
cansafelysaymyfellowtravelerslightedmeareliable,instructive,andcompanionablepaththroughthedarkbramblesofmyyouth.
AllthefriendsofmyyouthandmanynewonesarehereinthisterrificbookthatmakesbrowsingyourwaythroughafewcenturiesofgreatAmericanstorytelling
assensational,entertaining,andjustplainFUNastheoriginalstorytellersmeantittobenomatterhowsuccessfullycertainteachersinyourpast(orpresent)might
haveconvincedyouotherwise.Whetheryou'regettingreacquaintedwiththesecharactersormeetingthemforthefirsttime,you'llprobablyagreetothis:Withas
diverseacastasHuckandJimScarlettandRhettLewis'BabbittandUpdike'sRabbittheHardyBoysandHollyGolightlyBooRadleyandBiggerThomasand
oh,howthelistgoeson!AlltheyhaveincommonistheirAmericanness.ButinacountrywhoseBigStoryisreallyjustagloriouslymessyscrapbookofsmaller,
overlappingstorieswell,that'sactuallysayingquitealot.
TIMOTHYMURPHY
TIMOTHYMURPHYISANOVELIST,FREELANCEWRITER,ANDEDITOR.HISBOOKSINCLUDETHENOVELSGETTINGOFF
CLEAN(ST.MARTIN'S1997)ANDTHEBREEDERSBOX(LITTLE,BROWNUK,1998),ASWELLASTHENONFICTIONWORKA
LITERARYBOOKOFDAYS(CROWN,1994).HELIVESINNEWYORKCITY.
Pagexxii
INTRODUCTION
It'sFridaynightandyou'reinthemoodforrealbook.Yoursouliscryingoutforanovelwithsomemeatonitsbones.You'vereadtoomuchschlocklately.It'stime
forabookthatwillsticktoyourribs,abookthateveryoneelseseemstohavealreadyread,abookthathasweightandsignificance.
SoyouheaddowntothelocallibraryorbookstoreandscantheAmericanLiteraturesection.Whatshouldyouchoose?Tomakesureyoucoverallthebases,you
pickoutanarmloadoftitlesyoudimlyrememberfromyourhighschoolAmericanEnglishclass.
Flashforwardtwomonths.Thebooksremainwhereyouplunkedthemdownthatnight,allunread.(Thedustonthestackisprettyimpressive,though.)
Timepasses.Alotoftime.Youknowit'salloverwhenyoufindyourselfunpluggingyourphoneforthePlanetoftheApesfilmmarathon.Youfeelcheapinthe
morning.
OrmaybethedateofyourdreamsbelieveshislifechangedforeverwhenhereadLeavesofGrass.So,toalignyourselfmorefullywiththisdreamboat'ssoul,you
decidetosuckuptheworksofWaltWhitman.YoucouldspendaweekinthelibrarytryingtofigureoutwhatWaltwassaying.Or,youcouldspendanhourwith
TheCompleteIdiot'sGuidetoAmericanLiteratureandusetherestofyourtimeimpressingtheloveofyourlifewithyourknowledgeofWhitmanandhispoetry.
Havingwashboardabsandabodyfatcountlowerthantheinflationratewillgetyouonlysofarinlife.YoualsoneedtoknowthebasicsofAmericanliteratureto
haveawellroundededucation.That'swhyyouboughtthisbook.
ReadingeveryAmericannovelinthelibraryisn'ttheanswer.WadingthroughstudyguidesisaboutasexcitingaswatchingrerunsofGilligan'sIslandorGreen
Acres.Besides,youwantmorethanasurfaceskimyouwanttheinsideskinnyfromanexpert.
Youknowyouneedto:
FindoutwhichAmericanbooks,novels,andshortstoriesareconsideredthemostimportantandwhy.
GetthegistofkeyworksinAmericanliterature,includingtheplot,characters,andthemes.
Evaluateeachauthor'sreputationandfindouthowtheauthorsstandinrelationtoeachother.
Understandthemajorliterarymovements,suchasrealism,romanticism,andtranscendentalism.
Learnabouteachauthor'slifeandtimes.
Readexcerptsfromtheoriginalworks.
Pagexxiii
WhatYou'llLearninThisBook
SuccessconsciousAmericansunderstandtheimportanceofknowingtheircountry'sliterature.Youknowthatifyouwanttogetaheadinalmostanybusinessor
profession,youmusthaveasolidgroundinginthemajorwritersandnovels,thepeopleandbooksthateveryonequotesanddiscusses.That'swhatthisbookcanhelp
youachieve.
You'lllearnthatAmericanliteratureisnotamysteriousentitythatonlyahandfulofpeopleunderstandandknow.
Rather,afteryoufinishthisbook,you'llcomeawaywithahandleonthemajorthemesandcrucialconnectionsthatmakegreatAmericanliteraturegreat.You'lllearn
whatallthefussisaboutandyou'llappreciatethewonderfulwriterswhoformouruniqueliteraryheritage.
ThisbookisdividedintosixsectionsthatteachyouallaboutAmericanliterature.You'llsoonunderstandwhycertainwritersandbooksarerankedattheverytop.
Mostofall,you'llfinishthisbookconvincedthatAmericanliteratureisnotonlyusefulandimportantbutalsoenjoyableevenfun.Here'swhatyou'llfindineach
section:
Part1,"ANewLand,aNewLiterature(16071840)",introducesthewriterswholaidthefoundationofAmericanliterature:thePuritansWilliamBradford,Anne
Bradstreet,EdwardTaylor,CottonMather,andthedecidedlyunPuritanadventurerJohnSmith.
NextcomesalookattheliteratureoftheRevolutionaryPeriod,includingAbigailAdams'letters,J.HectorSt.JohndeCrvecoeur'sessays,BenjaminFranklin's
AutobiographyandPoorRichard'sAlmanac,ThomasJefferson'sDeclarationofIndependence,andThomasPaine'sincendiarypamphlets.
Thenyou'lllearnhowWashingtonIrvingandJamesFenimoreCooperputEngland'sisolatedcolony(that'sus!)ontheinternationalliterarymap.Part1concludeswith
adiscussionofEdgarAllanPoe.You'lllearnthatheinventedthemodernshortstory,detectivestory,andhorrortale.Bytheendofthissection,you'llunderstandhow
Americastartedforminganationalliteraryandpoliticalidentity.
Part2,"TheNewEnglandRenaissance(18401855),"probesoneofthemostfertiletimesinAmericanletters.You'llreadallaboutthetranscendentalists,
philosophicalidealistswhobelievedthatthehumanmindwastheultimatesourceofallknowledgeandthateachpersonmustbetruetohisorheruniqueinspiration.
You'lldelveintothelifeandaccomplishmentsofRalphWaldoEmerson,HenryDavidThoreau,NathanielHawthorne,andHermanMelville.
Part3,"TheWarBetweentheStates(18551865),"exploresthewritingthatcamefromAmerica'smostpainfulanddivisiveperiod.You'llseehowHarriet
BeecherStowehelpedcatapultAmericaintotheCivilWarwithherpolemicnovel,UncleTom'sCabin,howformerslaveFrederickDouglassworkedfor
abolitionism,andhowWaltWhitmanandEmilyDickinsonrevolutionizedAmericanpoetry.
Pagexxiv
Part4,"RealismandtheFrontier(18651915),"traceshowAmericatransformedfromanagriculturalbackwaterintoanindustrialnation.You'llfindouthowthe
bestnovelsoftheperiod,includingStephenCrane'sMaggie:AGirloftheStreets,JackLondon'sMartinEden,andTheodoreDreiser'sAnAmericanTragedy,
depictthedamagethateconomicforcesandalienationwreakontheweakorvulnerable.Andyou'llseehowthesurvivors,likeTwain'sHuckFinn,madeitthrough
luck,pluck,andstrength.TherearealsochaptersonHenryJames,EdithWharton,andthesocalled"localcolorists."
Part5,"ModernLiterature(19151945),"explainshowWorldWarI,theGreatDepression,andWorldWarIIsignificantlychangedthetoneofAmerican
literature.ThoseliterarygiantsErnestHemingway,F.ScottFitzgerald,JohnSteinbeck,andWilliamFaulknerareincludedhere.You'llalsolearnaboutthestartling
literaryinnovationsthattookplaceduringthistime,includingthestreamofconsciousnesstechnique,whichpushedtheenvelopeofwrittenexpression.Atthesame
time,theAfricanAmericanwritersoftheHarlemRenaissanceburstforthwithanextraordinaryoutpouringofcreativity.Weendonalaugh,withajollysectiononthe
humoristsoftheera.
Part6,"ContemporaryLiterature(1946Present),"probeswhat'shappeningtodayinAmericanliterature.Together,we'llsurveythetremendousdiversityof
currentwriting,focusingonthewritingofJohnCheever,JohnUpdike,TrumanCapote,MaryGordon,StephenKing,andJoyceCarolOates.Butlotsofotherheavy
hittersaretouchedon,too,includingJoanDidionandJohnIrving.
Lastly,there'satimelineofkeyliterary,social,andpoliticaleventsalistofimportantAmericanwritersandtheirmainworksandabibliography,withcriticalstudies
andWebsiteswhereyoucangetevenmoreinformationaboutAmericanliteratureandthewriterscoveredinthisbook.
MoreforYourMoney!
Inadditiontoalltheexplanationandteaching,thisbookcontainsothertypesofinformationtomakeiteveneasierforyoutolearnaboutAmericanliterature.Here's
howyoucanrecognizethesefeatures:
Pagexxv
SpecialThanks
"Themoralisthattheflowerofartbloomsonlywherethesoilisdeep,thatittakesagreatdealofhistorytoproducealittleliterature,thatitneedsacomplexsocialmachineryto
setawriterinmotion."
HenryJames
MythankstoallthewonderfulpeopleatAlphaBookswhohavehelpedmyartflowerbyprovidingdeepsoilandagreatdealofencouragement.Myspecialthanks
especiallytoKathyNebenhaus,GaryKrebs,RichardFox,andAmyZavatto.IntheIndianaoffice,MikeThomashasofferedhisvaluableassistancetimeandtime
again.I'mveryfortunatetobeworkingwithsuchclever,capable,andcaringpeople.
Pagexxvi
Dedication:
ToBarbaraandDennisBengels,Elizabeth,Emily,Jessica,andMelinda.Barbara,youare
oneofthefinestteachersIhaveinsomanyways.ThewholeBengelsclanarebe
lovedandcherishedfriendsoftheRozakis.Weareblessedtohaveyouinourlives.
Trademarks
Alltermsmentionedinthisbookthatareknowntobeoraresuspectedofbeingtrademarksorservicemarkshavebeenappropriatelycapitalized.AlphaBooksand
MacmillanGeneralReferencecannotattesttotheaccuracyofthisinformation.Useofaterminthisbookshouldnotberegardedasaffectingthevalidityofany
trademarkorservicemark.
Page1
PART1
ANEWLAND,ANEWLITERATURE(16071840)
"OurFatherswereEnglishmenwhichcameoverthisgreatocean,andwerereadytoperishinthiswilderness."
WilliamBradford,OfPlymouthPlantation
OurjourneyopenswithalookatthewriterswholaidthefoundationofAmericanliterature:thePuritansWilliamBradford,AnneBradstreet,EdwardTaylor,Cotton
Mather,andthedecidedlyunPuritanadventurerJohnSmith.
NextcomesalookattheliteratureoftheRevolutionaryPeriod,includingAbigailAdams'letters,J.HectorSt.JohndeCrvecoeur'sessays,BenjaminFranklin's
AutobiographyandPoorRichard'sAlmanac,ThomasJefferson'sDeclarationofIndependence,andThomasPaine'sincendiarypamphlets.Bytheendofthischapter,
you'llunderstandhowAmericabeganforminganationalidentity.
Chapter4explorestheBigDaddyofAmericanLiterature,WashingtonIrving,andshowsyouhowheputusontheliterarymap.InChapter5,you'lldiscoverhow
JamesFenimoreCooperdidthesamefortheAmericannovel.Part1concludeswithadiscussionofEdgarAllanPoe.You'lllearnthatheinventedthemodernshort
story,detectivestory,andhorrortale.
Bytheendofthe19thcentury,AmericawaswellonherwaytorealAmericanliterature.
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Chapter1
"Literaturemustspringfromanimpressionorperceptionpressingenoughtohavemadethewriterwrite.Itshouldmagnetizetheimaginationandgivepleasure."
novelistElizabethBowen
WereadAmericanliteratureforanumberofreasons.First,greatbooksshapeourgoalsandvaluesbyclarifyingourownidentities,especiallyouridentitiesas
Americans.Further,readingAmericanliteratureenablesustodevelopperspectivesoneventsoccurringbothlocallyandglobally.Lastbutcertainlynotleast,literature
isoneoftheshapinginfluencesoflife.
Literaturestimulatesourimagination.Byincreasingourcapacitytoimagine,greatliteraturemakesourliveslarger.Greatwritingbecomesthevoicethatisgreatwithin
us.WhyAmericanliterature?Becauseitisgrandandbecauseitisournationalvoice.
Inthischapter,you'llprobethecharacteristicsofAmericanliterature,especiallywhatmakesitdifferentfromtheliteratureofallothernations.You'lllearnwhy
Americanliteratureisimportanttoyou,especiallyaswemoveintothe21stcentury.Finally,you'lllookatthetermsyouneedtoknowtounderstandanddiscuss
literaturewithintelligenceanddiscernment.
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What'sSoAmericanAboutAmericanLiterature?
"Believeme,myfriends,thatmen,notverymuchinferiortoShakespeare,arethisdaybeingbornonthebanksoftheOhio.Andthedaywillcomewhenyoushallsay,'Whoreadsa
bookbyanEnglishmanthatismodern?'"
HermanMelville,1850
Inthelate1700s,aFrenchmapmakernamedJ.HectorSt.JohndeCrvecoeurcametoAmericatofindoutwhatmadethewildnewcountrysodifferentfromhis
seasoned,civilizedFrance.Crvecoeurlikedwhathesawsomuchthathesettledinforthelonghaul,becominganalfalfafarmerinNewYork.
Afteryearsofcloseobservation,CrvecoeurwasabletodefinetheoddnewcreaturecalledanAmerican.You'llfindhisdefinitioninChapter3,"Don'tTreadonMe:
TheRevolutionaryPeriod(17501800)."CrvecoeurwouldhavefounditmuchhardertodefineAmericanliterature,however,becauseitwasstillinthemakingin
hislifetime.Duringthe18thcentury,AmericanliteraturewasapaleimitationofitsBritishmodel.
Copycats
"Noauthor,withoutatrial,canconceiveofthedifficultyofwritingaromanceaboutacountrywherethereisnoshadow,noantiquity,nomystery,nopicturesqueandgloomy
wrong,noranythingbutacommonplaceprosperityinbroadandsimpledaylight,asishappilythecasewithmydearnativeland."
NathanielHawthorne,1850s
Fornearly200years,AmericanreadershadlookedtoEurope,mainlyGreatBritain,formostoftheirreadingmaterial(otherthanBibles,almanacs,newspapers,and
magazines).TheScottishwriterRobertBurnsandtheEnglishwritersSirWalterScott,Lord
Page5
Byron,PercyByssheShelley,andJohnKeatsheldswayintheNewWorld.Shakespearewasstillahit,too.Asawriterofthetimecommented,''Thereishardlya
pioneer'shutthatdoesnotcontainafewoddvolumesofShakespeare."
Bytheearly19thcentury,readersonthissideoftheoceanhungeredfora"nationalliterature."ThismeantwritingthatreliedonuniquelyAmericanthemes,avoiding
theslavishimitationsofEuropeanstylesthathadpreviouslyguidedtheworldofAmericanletters.TwoNewYorkersWashingtonIrvingandJamesFenimore
Cooperwereamongtheearliesthomegrownwordsmithsofnote.Eachwriteradaptedtheflavorofthetimestothecircumstancesofthenewlybornfrontiernation.
StakingOurClaim
"Wehaveitinourpowertobegintheworldoveragain.Asituation,similartothepresent,hathnotappearedsincethedaysofNoahuntilnow.Thebirthdayofanewworldisat
hand."
ThomasPaine'sCommonSense
IrvingandCooperlivedinNewYorkandsomadethatstatethenation'sfirstliterarycapital,butintruthexcitingnewwritersflourishedallacrossAmerica.For
example,NewEnglandwouldgiverisetothetranscendentalwriters,suchasRalphWaldoEmerson,whodefinedAmericanpoetry.Hisverse,celebratingordinary
experienceratherthanepicthemes,wasmoreconcernedwithfactthaneloquence.
Meanwhile,EmilyDickinson,hidinginherroominAmherst,Massachusetts,waswritingpoetryonthethemesofdeath,immortality,andthepurposeoflife.Herrich
visualimagery,uniquestyle,andunusualmetaphorspavedthewayformodernAmericanpoetry.
NathanielHawthornecreated"allegoriesoftheheart,"suchashisfamousnovelTheScarletLetter.WorkingfromtheheritageofhisPuritanancestors,Hawthorne
raisedsinandguilttoanartform.Thisstrainoffault,intermixedwiththePuritanselfdenialandsenseofmoralsuperiority,haspermeatedAmericanliteratureever
since.Noothernationalliteratureshowsthisdualheritage.Americahasothergreatnovelsaswell.
InTheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn,MarkTwaincreatedamythictaleofdeath,rebirth,freedom,andhumanbondageasanemblemfortheuniversalthemesof
institutionalizedinjusticeandsocial
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bondage.Besidesachievingtheseloftyaims,however,TwainalsocapturedthediversedialectsofAmericanEnglish.Heunerringlyrecreatedtherhythms,
vocabulary,andtoneofregionalspeechtosetAmericanliteratureoffevenfurtherfromEuropean,Asian,andAfricanwriting.
SingularSensation
"Itooamnotabittamed,Itooamuntranslatable,Isoundmybarbaricyawpovertheroofsoftheworld."
WaltWhitman,"SongofMyself"
America'sculturalindependencedidnotcomeeasilybutitdidcome,andtheworldhasneverbeenthesame.America'sliteraturerevealsourculturalandethnic
richness.Itcapturesouruniquehistoryandexperiences.Ourpoets,playwrights,novelists,andessayistsexpressourspecialvoice,differentfromanyvoiceonearth.
Someofourclassics,suchasHenryDavidThoreau'sWalden,provideablueprintforAmericanliving.Waldenisalayman'sguideforlivinganhonorable,wholesome
life.Otherseminalworks,suchasJohnSteinbeck'sTheGrapesofWrath,revealedthedespairatdarkperiodsinournationalhistory.Andstillothers,suchasUpton
Sinclair'sTheJungle,effectedgreatsocialchange.ButeveryclassicAmericanworkofliteraturechallengesourwayofthinkingandopensnewvistasontotheworld.
WriteAway
AmericaisacountrythatseemstohavewrittenitselfintoexistencefirstbyEuropeanspersuadingotherEuropeanstoinvestinatripacrosstheAtlantic,thenby
thesesameexplorerstryingtopersuadewhomevertheybroughttostay,andthenbystill
Page7
otherswritingbacktoEuropeinvitingmorepeopletojointhem.And,ofcourse,alittlelaterthanthat,thestorywasrevisedbyAfricansbroughthereasslaves.Even
morerecently,theNativeAmericanstoriesthatwerealreadyhere(beforeAmericawas"discovered")havebecomepartofourliteraryconsciousness.
IfthewritingofThomasJefferson,AbrahamLincoln,andMartinLutherKingamplydemonstratesthepreviouslyunimaginedliterarypowerofthepoliticaldocument,
JamesFenimoreCooper,HarrietBeecherStowe,andRalphEllisonequallydemonstratetheovertlypoliticalpowerofAmericanliterature.Theresultisafascinating
mixofnationalandpoliticalideologythathasinfluencedreadersaroundtheworld.Literaturecanofferusevenmore,however.
ArmchairTraveler
"Iknowwhatthepsychologistssay,thatafellowcan'tcomprehendaconditionthathehasneverexperiencedOfcourse,Ihaveneverbeeninabattle,butIbelievethatIgotmy
senseoftherageofconflictonthefootballfield,orelsefightingisahereditaryinstinct,andIwroteintuitively."
StephenCrane
LiteratureallowsreaderstotraversetherealmsofAmericanculturewithoutmovingfromtheirchairs.Americanbooks,shortstories,andpoemsprovidearich
accountofthenation'sbeautyandbounty.
LivinginAmerica,it'sdifficulttoimaginetheimpactourliteraturehasonothernations.ABritishwriternamedEricGlasgowtracedtheeffectAmericanliteraturehad
onhislifeinalookbacktohisexperiencesstudyingAmericanliteratureinCambridgeUniversityduringWorldWarII.WiththeBritishprofessorsawayatthefront,
theuniversitiesimportedAmericanteachers.GlasgowthushadthechancetostudyAmericanliteraturewithAmericanteachersallwithouteverleavingEngland.
"America'sbooksandnovelsproviderichaccountsofAmerica'sbountyanditspeople'srenownedwayoflife,"henotesinthearticle"MyAmericanDreams."
Americanliteratureisclearlyimportantintermsofunderstandingthepast,butit'sequallyimportanttothefuture.ReadontofindoutwhyweneedAmericanliterature
morethaneverasweapproachthemillennium.
FutureShock
Ourworldischanginginexcitingandfrighteningways.The21stcenturypromisestobringradicalchangesinthewaywework,live,andeventhink.Checkout
thesenumbers:
OnedailyeditionoftheNewYorkTimescontainsmoreinformationthananeducated16thcenturypersonassimilatedinhisentirelifetime.
Moreinformationhasbeenproducedinthelast50yearsthanintheprevious5,000.
Page8
Theamountofinformationavailabledoubleseveryfiveyears.Bytheyear2000,theamountofinformationavailablewilldoubleinlessthantwoyears.
Itmightseemthateveryonewillbesobusycopingwiththeinformationdelugethatnoonewillhavetimefornovels,shortstories,orpoems.Notso,asarecent
announcementofthe100bestEnglishlanguagenovelsofthe20thcenturyreveals.
WhenRandomHousereleaseditslist,peoplewereinanuproar.Andnotjustteachers,scholars,andprofessors.Thelistwasthetalkofthetown,frombarstolate
nighttalkshows.Therewasconsiderableskepticism,ifnotoutrighthostility,aboutthechoicestheRandomHouseeditorsmade.Somepeoplenotedtheabsenceof
AfricanAmericanorCanadianauthors,thescarcityofwomen,andthepredominanceofolderwritersoveryoungones.Othersquestionedthemethodsusedtoselect
the"winners."
Theoutcrywassogreatthatanumberofimportantnewspapersinvitedreaderstosubmittheirownchoicesforthebestnovelsofthe20thcentury.Anavalancheof
GreatAmericanNovelnominationspouredin,includingGonewiththeWind,LookHomewardAngel,ToKillaMockingbird,ATreeGrowsinBrooklyn,East
ofEden,TheSource,TheStand,OneFlewOvertheCuckoo'sNest,Gravity'sRainbow,TheMalteseFalcon,andOntheRoad.
ThisincidentjustgoestoshowthatgreatAmericanliteraturewillbeasimportantinthe21stcenturyasitistoday,ifnotmoreso,becauseitprovidesthemoral
touchstoneweneedtostaygroundedinanageofdizzyingchange.
WordstotheWise
Computermavenschataboutbitsandbytesprintershavehighlapfoliosandprepressblues.Inthesameway,literaturehasitsownjargonthewordsandphrases
weusetotalkaboutwhatwe'rereading.Thetermliterature,forexample,referstothewholeenchilada,becauseit'stheumbrellatermweusetorefertoatypeofart
expressedinwriting.Literatureincludespoetry,fiction,nonfiction,anddrama.
Whenwenarrowitdownanotch,wegetgenreatermthatreferstoamajorliterarycategory.Thethreeprimarygenresareprose,poetry,anddrama:
Proseisallwrittenworkthatisnotpoetry,drama,orsong.Articles,autobiographies,biographies,novels,essays,andeditorialsareprose.
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Poetryisatypeofliteratureinwhichwordsareselectedandstrungtogetherfortheirbeauty,sound,andpowertoexpressfeelings.
Dramaisapieceofliteratureintendedtobeperformedinfrontofanaudience.Theactorstellthestorythroughtheirwordsandactions.
Likepeople,prosecomesindifferentshapesandsizes.Herearesomeniftytypesofproseyou'llsoonbeseeing.
TypesofProse
Autobiography:Aperson'sstoryofhisorherownlife.
Biography:Astoryaboutaperson'slife,writtenbyanotherperson.
Essay:Abriefwritingonaparticularsubjectoridea.
Fable:Ashort,easytoreadstorythatteachesalessonaboutpeople.Fablesoftenfeatureanimalsthattalkandactlikepeople.(Weusetheword
personificationwhenreferringtothistechnique.)
Fiction:Writing,suchasnovelsandshortstories,thattellsaboutimaginaryeventsandcharacters.Fictionthatseemsverysimilartoreallifeiscalledrealistic
fiction.
Folktale:Astorythathasbeenhandeddownfromgenerationtogeneration,suchasafable,fairytale,legend,talltale,ormyth.
Legend:Astorythatexplainshoworwhysomethinginnatureoriginated.Legendsaresometimesbasedonhistoricalfacts,buttheyoftencontainexaggerated
detailsandcharacters.
Humor:Partsofastorythatareamusing.Humorcanbecreatedthroughsarcasm,wordplay,irony,andexaggeration.
Memoir:Afirstpersonwritingaboutanevent.
Myth:Astoryfromancientdaysthatexplainscertainaspectsoflifeandnature.
Novel:Alongworkoffictionwithonemainplotandseveralsubplots.
Shortstory:Narrativeprosefiction,shorterthananovel,whichfocusesonasinglecharacterandasingleevent.Mostshortstoriescanbereadinonesittingand
conveyasingleoverallimpression.
Talltale:Afolktalethatexaggeratesthemaineventsorthecharacters'abilities.Talltalescamefromtheoraltradition,aspioneerssittingaroundthecampfiresat
nighttriedtotopeachother'soutrageousstories.
Let'snotforgetaboutpoetry!Whatfollowsarethemostcommontypesofpoetry.Knowingthesecategoriescanhelpyourecognizethedifferentpoemsyou'llread
andanalyzelaterinthisbook.
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TypesofPoetry
Ballad:Astorytoldinsongform.Sinceballadswerepasseddownbywordofmouthfrompersontoperson,thewordsaresimpleandhaveastrongbeat.Ballads
oftentellstoriesaboutadventureandlove.
Lyricpoem:Brief,musicalpoemsthatconveyaspeaker'sfeelings.Waybackwhen,peoplesanglyricsastheyplayedstringlikeinstrumentscalledlyres.
Narrativepoem:Astoryinpoeticform.Aswithanarrativestory,anarrativepoemhasaplot,characters,andtheme.
Sonnet:A14linepoemwithasetrhythmandrhymescheme.
Sincethisbookfocusesonproseandpoetry,whynotreviewsomeofthekeytermsyou'llencounterasweworkourwaythroughournationalliterature?We'llstart
withtermsusedtodescribeprose.
TermsUsedtoAnalyzeProse
Antagonist:Theforceorpersoninconflictwiththemaincharacter(theprotagonist)inaworkofliterature.Anantagonistcanbeanothercharacter,aforceof
nature,society,orsomethingwithintheprotagonist.
Conflict:Astruggleorfight.Conflictmakesastoryinterestingbecausereaderswanttofindouttheoutcome.
Plot:Thearrangementofeventsinaworkofliterature.Theexpositionintroducesthecharacters,setting,andconflict.Therisingactionbuildstheconflictand
developsthecharacters.Theclimaxshowsthehighestpointoftheaction,andthedenouementresolvesthestoryandtiesupallthelooseends.
Pointofview:Thepositionfromwhichastoryistold.Inthefirstpersonpointofview,thenarratorisoneofthecharactersinthestory.Inthethirdperson
omniscientpointofview,thenarratorlooksthroughtheeyesofallthecharactersandisallknowing.Inthethirdpersonlimitedpointofview,thenarratortellsthe
storythroughtheeyesofonlyonecharacter.
Protagonist:Themaincharacterinaworkofliterature,usuallythehero.
Flashback:Ascenethatbreaksintothestorytoshowanearlierpartoftheaction,fillinmissinginformation,explainthecharacters'actions,andadvancetheplot.
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Foreshadowing:Cluesthathintatwhatwillhappenlateroninthestory.Foreshadowingcreatessuspenseandlinksrelateddetails.
Hereareahandfulofthemostcommontermsusedtodescribepoetry.Learningthesetermscanhelpyouunderstandandappreciatewhatyouread.
TermsUsedtoAnalyzePoetry
Blankverse:Unrhymedpoetry.Blankverseispopularwithpoets,becauseitcapturesthenaturalrhythmofspeech.
Foot:Agroupofstressedandunstressedsyllablesinalineofpoetry.
Freeverse:Poetrythatdoesnothavearegularbeat,rhyme,orlinelength.WaltWhitmanwrotefreeverse.
Meter:Thebeatorrhythmofapoem,createdbyapatternofstressedandunstressedsyllables.
Refrain:Alineoragroupoflinesrepeatedattheendofapoemorsong.Refrainsreinforcethemainpointandcreatemusicaleffects.
Rhyme:Therepeateduseofidenticalornearlyidenticalsounds.Poetsuserhymetocreateamusicalsound,meaning,andstructure.
Rhymescheme:Aregularpatternofwordsthatendwiththesamesound.
Rhythm:Apatternofstressedandunstressedsyllablesthatcreateabeat,asinmusic.
Scan:Theprocessofreadingapoemtofigureoutitsmeter(patternofstressedandunstressedsyllables).
Stanza:Agroupoflinesinapoem.Linesofpoemsaregroupedintostanzas,justassentencesofprosearegroupedintoparagraphs.
Verse:Astanza.
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ShareandShareAlike
Here'salistoftermsusedtodescribebothpoetryandprose.Thesetermsaresohandythatbothgenresusethem!
Allusion:Areferencetoawellknownplace,event,person,workofart,orotherworkofliterature.Allusionsenrichastoryorpoembysuggestingpowerfuland
excitingcomparisons.
Image:Awordthatappealstooneormoreofourfivesenses:sight,sound,taste,touch,orsmell.
Irony:Whentheoppositeofwhatisexpectedoccurs.
Mood(oratmosphere):Thestrongfeelingcreatedwithinaliterarywork.
Speaker:Thepersonalitythewriterassumeswhentellingastory.
Style:Anauthor'sdistinctivewayofwriting.Styleincludeswordchoice,sentencelengthandstructure,figuresofspeech,andtone.
Suspense:Thefeelingoftensionoranticipationcreatedinawork.
Symbol:Aperson,place,orobjectthatrepresentsanabstractidea.Adovemaysymbolizepece,forexample,orarosemaysymbolizelove.
Theme:Thework'smainideaageneralstatementaboutlife.Thethemecanbestatedoutrightinthework,orreaderscaninferitfromdetails.
Tone:Thewriter'sattitudetowardhisorhersubjectmatter(cheerful,bitter,enthusiastic,frightened).
Page13
Chapter2
SherlockHolmesandWatsonwerecampingintheforest.Theyhadgonetobedandwerelyingbeneaththenightsky.Holmessaid,"Watson,lookup.Whatdoyou
see?"
"Iseethousandsofstars,"Watsonreplied.
"Andwhatdoesthatmeantoyou?"Holmesasked.
"Isupposeitmeansthatofalltheplanetsintheuniverse,wearetrulyfortunatetobehereonEarth.Weshouldstruggleeverydaytobeworthyofourblessings.What
doesitmeantoyou,Holmes?"
"Tome,itmeanssomeonehasstolenourtent,"Holmesreplied.
RealitywasjustascrystalcleartothePuritans.Asyou'lldiscoverinthischapter,thefamousPuritanwritersWilliamBradford,AnneBradstreet,CottonMather,and
Page14
EdwardTayloralsosawGod'shandineverysingleaspectoflife.AndthenwehavefeistyJohnSmith,buthe'sawholedifferentballofwax.Let'sseewhatour
literaturewaslikewhenwewerethenewkidsontheblock.
SaintsandStrangers
Thedata:Late16thcenturytoearly17thcentury
Theplace:England
Thetimeswerereligiousandangry.KingHenryVIIIhadsplitwiththeCatholicChurchoverthestickyissueofdivorcinghiswifeandmarryingahandfulofother
women(oneatatime,ofcourse).Thekinglycreatorofserialmonogamypromptlyestablishedhisownchurch,theChurchofEngland(alsocalledtheAnglican
Church),withhimselfandallfuturekingsasitsleader.Bytheearly1600s,mostEnglishmenandwomenbelongedtotheChurchofEngland.Exceptfortheissuesof
controlandleadership,theCatholicChurchandtheChurchofEnglandwereprettymuchalikealthoughtheyhatedandpersecutedeachother.
AsmallgroupofAnglicansfeltthatHenryjusthadn'tgonefarenoughwhenheoutlawedtheCatholicChurch.Sincetheywantedto"purify"theAnglicanChurchofall
tracesofRomanCatholicism,theyweregenerallyreferredtoas"Puritans."Theycalledthemselves"Saints."Somepeoplecalledthem"Separatists."Othersjustcalled
themtroublemakers.
KingJamesIwasveryclearonthispoint:AttendtheChurchofEnglandortakeupresidenceinthelocaljail.ToescapelifeintheBigHouse,someoftheSeparatists
headedtoHolland.AfterreadingJohnSmith'sactionpackedADescriptionofNewEngland(moreonthislater),theSeparatistPilgrimsboardedtheMayflowerfor
NewEnglandin1620.(TheywereactuallyheadedforVirginia,buttheyhitsomekillerheadwinds.)Ofthe102peopleonboardtheMayflower,abouthalfwere
calledSaintsandtheotherhalfwerecalledStrangers.TheStrangersweremainlyoutforadventure,whiletheSaintswereouttoescapehanging.
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FireandIce:ThePuritans
''InAdam'sFall,wesinnedall."
BayPsalmBook
OncetheylandedinAmericaandgotsettled,thePilgrimsdevelopedtheirNewWorldvision:TheyweresoldiersinthewaragainstSatantheArchEnemywho
plannedtoruinthekingdomofGodonearth(thePlymouthcolony)bysowingdiscordamongthosewhoprofessedtobeChristians.
SincevirtuallyallearlyAmericanliteraturewassteepedinPuritanism,you'llneedaprimerontheirbeliefs.Andhereitis:
Puritanism:SinandGuilt101
1.Totaldepravity:ThroughAdam'sfall,everyhumanisbornsinful.Thisistheconceptof"originalsin"
2.Thedoctrineofelection:GodwouldfreelychoosethoseHewouldsaveandthoseHewoulddamneternally.Nooneknowsiftheyaredamnedorsaved.
3.Predestination:Onlyafewareselectedforsalvation.
4.Limitedatonement:Jesusdiedforthechosenonly,notforeveryone.
5.Irresistiblegrace:God'sgraceisfreelygiven.Itcannotbeearnedordenied.
6.Perseveranceofthe"Saints":ThoseelectedbyGodhavefullpowertointerpretthewillofGod.Thismeanttheyfreelytoldothershowtolivetheirlives.(The
Saintsweretheelecttheydidnothavetobeministers.)
Nowyouknowwhereallthatbaggageyoucarryaroundcomesfrom!Puritanismisstillintheair,anindeliblepartofAmericanculture.TheingrainedAmericansense
ofresponsibility,moralsuperiority,andnaggingguiltallcomefromourPuritanheritage.Socleanyourroom,finisheverythingonyourplate,andcallyourmother
already.
TheDevilMadeMeDoIt
"Osinner!Considerthefearfuldangeryouarein:itisagreatfurnaceofwrath,awideandbottomlesspit,fullofthefireofwrath,thatyouareheldoverinthehandofthatGod,
whosewrathisprovokedandincensedasmuchagainstyou,asagainstmanyofthedamnedinHell.Youhangbyaslenderthread,withtheflamesofdivinewrathflashingaboutit,
andreadyeverymomenttosingeit,andburnitasunderandyouhavenothingtoinduceGodtospareyouonemoment."
JonathanEdwards,170358,fromhissermon
SinnersintheHandsofanAngryGod"
Page16
IntheblackandwhiteworldofthePuritan,writinghadaclearpurpose:ToglorifyGod.Thismeansthatyou'renowgoingtolearnabout:
Sermons
Religiouspoems
Religioustracts
InterpretationofGod'sdoingsonEarth
Diariesandjournalsaboutreligiousexperiences
WilliamBradford(15901657)
WilliamBradfordwasthefirstleaderofPlymouthColony.And,apparently,adarngoodgovernorashewasreelectedtotheposition30times.Bradfordepitomizes
thedeterminationandselfsacrificethatcometomindwhenweimaginethesternandstifflystarchedblackcladPilgrimsgatheredaroundthatfirstThanksgivingtable,
withthestalwartandfriendlyNativeAmericanshoveringdimlyinthebackground.
TheMayflowerCompact
Bradfordisalsofamousforbeingoneoftheauthorsandsignersofthe"MayflowerCompact"(1620),whichwasthePilgrims'constitution.Thedocumentshapedthe
politics,religion,andsocialbehaviorofthefirstsettlers.Iteventuallyinfluencedtheshape,style,andcontentoftheU.S.Constitutionaswell.It'sshort,soI'lllaythe
wholethingonyou:
MayflowerCompact
"InthenameofGod,Amen.We,whosenamesareunderwritten,theLoyalSubjectsofourdreadSovereignLordKingJames,bytheGraceofGod,ofGreatBritain,France,and
Ireland,King,DefenderoftheFaith,&etc.HavingundertakenfortheGloryofGod,andtheadvancementoftheChristianFaith,andtheHonourofourKingandCountry,a
VoyagetoplantthefirstColonyinthenorthernpartsofVirginiadobythesePresents,solemnlyandmutuallyinthePresenceofGodandoneanother,covenantandcombine
ourselvestogetherinacivilbodypolitick,forourbetterorderingandpreservation,andoftheendsaforesaid:andbyvirtuehereofdoenact,constitute,andframesuchjustand
equallaws,ordinances,acts,constitutions,andoffices,fromtimetotime,asshallbethoughtmostmeetandconvenientofthegeneralgoodoftheColonyuntowhichwepromise
allduesubmissionandobedience.InwitnesswhereofwehavehereuntosubscribedournamesatCapeCod,theeleventhofNovember,inthereignofourSovereignLordKing
JamesofEngland,France,andIreland,theeighteenth,andofScotland,thefiftyfourth.AnnoDomini1620."
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HistoryofPlymouthPlantation
Bradford'sgreatestcontributiontoearlywritingishisHistoryofPlymouthPlantation,16201647.Notpublisheduntil1856,Bradford'sjournalsrecounthisvoyage
totheNewWorld,thefoundingofPlymouthPlantation,andthePilgrims'experiencesduringtheearlyyearsofthecolony'sexistence.TheHistoryofPlymouth
PlantationcontainsthefamousstoryofthefirstThanksgiving.
ThefollowinganecdotefromtheHistoryofPlymouthPlantationillustratesBradford'sdeep,unswervingPuritanbeliefs.Init,herecountsthefateofablasphemous
sailorduringtheMayflower'svoyagetoAmerica:
"AndImaynotomithereaspecialworkofGod'sprovidence.Therewasaproudandveryprofaneyoungman,oneoftheseamen,ofalusty[strong],ablebody,
whichmadehimthemorehaughtyhewouldalwaysbecontemning[condemning]thepoorpeopleintheirsicknessandcursingthemdailywithgrievousexecrations
anddidnotlet[hesitate]totellthemthathehopedtohelptocasthalfofthemoverboardbeforetheycametotheirjourney'send,andtomakemerrywithwhatthey
hadandifhewerebyanygentlyreproved,hewouldcurseandswearmostbitterly.ButitpleasedGodbeforetheycamehalfseasover,tosmitethisyoungmanwith
agrievousdisease,ofwhichhediedinadesperatemanner,andsowashimselfthefirstthatwasthrownoverboard.Thushiscurseslightonhisownhead,anditwas
anastonishmenttoallhisfellowsfortheynotedittobethejusthandofGoduponhim."
AnneBradstreet(16121672)
AnneBradstreetisassuredliteraryimmortalityasAmerica'sfirstpublishedpoet.Bradstreet'sTheTenthMuseLatelySprungUpinAmericawaspublishedin
Londonin1650.Bradstreetdidn'tknowthebookwasbeingpublished:HerbrotherinlawtookittoEnglandtobesetintypeasasurprise.Don'tyouwishyouhad
inlawslikethat?
Page18
Despitecriticismfromanumberofmenwhoclaimedthatawoman'shand"fitsaneedlebetter"thanapen,historyhasjudgedBradstreettobeagood(ifnotgreat)
poetwhosestruggleswiththedifficultiesoflifeonthefrontierandwiththePuritanfaithputapersonalfaceonafascinatingperiodinAmericanliteraryhistory.Likethe
otherPuritans,Bradstreetbelievedsheshouldleadalifeguidedbytheprinciplesofgrace,plainness,anddivinemission.
InEngland,Bradstreetandherfamilyhadenjoyedtheadvantagesofwealth.Bradstreetwasfondoflearning,andwhenshewasaboutsevenyearsold,severaltutors
werehiredtoteachherdancing,music,andlanguages,amongothersubjects.Whenshewas16,AnnemarriedSimonBradstreet,thesonofaPuritanminister.
Atage18,Bradstreet'sfamilywasamongthehundredsofEnglishPuritanswhosailedforAmerica.Anne'shouseholdwasinfluentialinthenewland:BothAnne's
father,ThomasDudley,andherhusband,Simon,wereactiveinthegovernmentalaffairsofMassachusettsBayColonybothservedseveraltermsasgovernorofthe
colony.
LoveMeTender,LoveMeTrue
AllofBradstreet'spoetryisinfusedwithPuritanismnonetheless,muchofitshowsherveryrealpassionforherhusband.Awellknownexampleofherpoetry
follows.NoticehowherloveshinesthroughthePuritanoverlay:
"ToMyDearandLovingHusband"
Ifevertwowereone,thensurelywe.
Ifevermanwerelov'dbywife,thenthee
Ifeverwifewashappyinaman,
Comparewithmeyewomenifyecan.
IprizethylovemorethanwholeMinesofgold,
OralltherichesthattheEastdothhold.
Myloveissuchthatriverscannotquench,
Noroughtbutlovefromthee,giverecompense.
ThyloveissuchIcannowayrepay,
Theheavensrewardtheemanifold,Ipray.
Thenwhilewelive,inlovelet'ssopersevere,
Thatwhenwelivenomore,wemayliveever.
Inadditiontotheloveforherhusband,thepoemconveysthePuritanideathatheavenisaparadiseandthattheElectarerewardedintheafterlife.
Page19
HomeSweetHome
SomeofBradstreet'spoemswerewrittenasprayersinthemidstoftheeventsofheractivefamilylife,butmanycameoutofthepainofbeingasettlerinawildnew
land.Suchisthecasewith"VersesUpontheBurningofOurHouse,July10,1666,"writtenwhenherhouseburnedtotheground.Theendingshowsherfirmfaithin
God:
VersesUpontheBurningofOurHouse,July10,1666"
Thouhastanhouseonhigherect,
Fram'dbythatmightyArchitect,
Withgloryrichlyfurnished,Standspermanentthoughthisbefled.
It'spurchased,andpaidfortoo
Byhimwhohathenoughtodo.
APricesovastasisunknown,
Yet,byhisGift,ismadethineown.
There'swealthenough,Ineednomore
FarewellmySelf,farewellmyStore.
TheworldnolongerletmeLove,
MyhopeandTreasureliesAbove.
Themessage:Thepaltrytreasuresofthisworlddon'tamounttoahillofbeanswhencomparedtoGod'streasuresinheaven.Now,there'sahouse.
EdwardTaylor(16451729)
TheministerEdwardTaylorisconsideredtobethefinestPuritanwriter,handsdown.ButsinceTaylorconsideredhispoetryaformofpersonalreligiousworship,he
allowedonlytwostanzasfromoneofhispoemstobepublishedduringhislifetime.Asaresult,fewpeopleknewabouthisworkuntilitwaspublishedin1939,more
thantwocenturiesafterhisdeath.
Page20
Taylor'spoetrycapturestheattitudesofthesecondgenerationPuritansinitsemphasisonselfexamination,particularlyinanindividual'srelationstoGod.Hispoetryis
markedbyconceits,whichareelaborateandunusualcomparisonsbetweentwostartlinglydifferentsubjects.Taylor'spoetryisimportanttodaychieflyforitsinfluence
onT.S.Eliot,EzraPound,andtheothermodern"metaphysical"poetswhopickeduponhisconceits.SeeChapter23,"ThreeBigDeals:EzraPound(18851972)
T.S.Eliot(18881965),andJohnSteinbeck(190268).
Here'sthefirststanzafromTaylor'swellknownpoem"Huswifery,"whichexpressesthepoet'swishtoserveandpraiseGod.Theconceitofaspinningwheelshows
thespeaker'sdesiretobepartofGod'splanadevicethroughwhichthe"material"ofGodistransmitted.
"Huswifery"
"Makeme,0lord.Thyspinningwheelcomplete.
Thyholywordmydistaff[staff]makeforme.
Makemineaffections[emotions]Thyswiftflyersneat
AndmakemysoulThyholyspooletobe.
MyconversationmaketobeThyreel
AndreeltheyamthereonspunofThywheel."
CottonMather(16631728)
AmemberofthepowerfulMatherfamily,CottonMatherproducedmorethan450volumesofwrittenwork.Yes,youreadthatright,themanwrote450plusbooks.
MatherwasclearlyatypeApersonality:HeenteredHarvardatage12andreceivedhisbachelor'sdegreewhenhewas15.Hegothismaster'sdegreejustthree
yearslater.
AlthoughMather'swritingisdidactic,moralistic,andfilledwithreferencestotheBible,itrevealsimportantinformationonthehistoryandsocietyofhistime,especially
theattitudetowardwitches.Mather'sbestknownworkistheMagnaliaChristiAmericana(1702),whichgivesaninsightintohisviewsonPuritansociety.
APuritanminister,MatherismostfamousforbeingthescribeattheSalemwitchcrafttrials.CottonandhisfatherIncreasehelpedstiruptheSalemwitchcrafttrials
withtheirinflammatorywritings.
WitchyWomen
"AndwehavenowwithHorrorseentheDiscoveryofsuchaWitchcraft!AnArmyofDevilsishorriblybrokeinuponourEnglishSettlements:andtheHousesoftheGoodPeople
therearefill'dwiththedolefulShrieksoftheChildrenandServants."
CottonMather
DuringPuritantimes(andbefore),thewholeworldbelievedinwitchestherewasnothingnewaboutthat.In1515alone,morethan500"witches"wereburnedat
thestakeinEurope.Inthecolonies,menandwomenwereroutinelyhangedordrownedforbeingwitches,butwhathappenedinSalem,Massachusetts,in1692was
differentfromtheusualenchantedentertainment.
Page21
ItallbeganwhenahandfuloflittlegirlsandtheirWestIndianservantTitubaconjuredsomespiritstowhileawaythelongwinterevenings.TheReverendSamuel
Parris,thefatherofoneofthegirls,becamealarmedespeciallywhenthegirlsbeganbarkinglikedogs,cryingoutspirits,(claimingtoseespirits)andhavingfits
duringtheSundaychurchservices.
Beforeyoucouldtwitchyournoseandsay,"Oh,Darren,"Salemwentmadwithwitchfever.Thegirlsmayhavebeenpretendingatthestartofthehysteria,butbyits
tragicculmination,theyseemedasconvincedaseveryoneelsethatthewitcheswerereal.Morethan100peopleweretriedaswitches19peopleandtwodogswere
puttodeath.
SpinDoctors
InpartbecauseoftheSalemwitchcrafttrialsandprobablybecauseofallthatheavyblackclothing,thePuritanshavegottenabumraptoday.Wetendtothinkof
themasnarrowminded,bigoted,judgmental,selfrighteous,andhypocritical.That'snotthewholepicture.
ThePuritanstriedtodorightinwhattheysawasanevilworld.TheyleftEuropebecausetheydidn'twanttheirchildrenseducedbyanevilsocietybutsociety
followedthemtotheNewWorld.Theproblemforpeoplewhowereutterlyconvincedthattheyknewtheultimatetruthwashowtodealwithrealitywhenthe"truth"
seemeduntrue.Thewitchcraftissuewasarealproblem.Howcouldgoodwomen,uprightwomen,moralwivesandmothers,besecretwitches?Dittoonthe
persecutionandexpulsionofscoresofdissenters.Whydidn'ttheyseethelight?
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Let'snotbequitesoharshonthePuritans.Afterall,oursocietyhasinheritedquiteabitoftheirbigotry,harshness,andsanctimoniousness.Wealsohavetheir
determination,strengthofpurpose,andstrongwill.It'sourlegacy,folks.
JohnSmith(15801631)
AnenemycalledJohnSmith"AnAmbityousunworthyandvaynegloriousfellowe,"andhewasn'taloneinhisopinion.
HalfwaythroughthevoyagetoJamestown,thecaptainclappedSmithintocustodyandaccusedhimofconcealinganintendedmutiny.Atthenextstop,thecaptain
offeredtohangSmith,andactuallygotasfarashammeringtogetherthegallows.BeforehisfellowsettlersthrewhimoutofVirginia32monthslater,theywouldagain
proposetostretchSmith'sneck,banishhim,andevenmurderhim.
Inhis51years,Smithwasacompilerandwriterofexuberanttravelers'tales,anexplorer,amapmaker,ageographer,asoldier,agovernor,atrader,asailor,an
admiral,andtheeditorofaseaman'shandbook.Hewasalsofamouslycommandingandcrotchety.
IGetAround
Enormouslyenergetic,Smith'sadventuresandtravelstouchedEurope,Africa,andAmerica,andmatchedtheboldestexploitsoffearlessknights.Smith'sadmirers
creditedhimwithalmostsinglehandedlypreservingthefirstEnglishVirginiansfromtheravagesoftheirownslothaswellasfromthehostilityoftheirnativeneighbors.
Exceptforhispen,chaptersofAmerica'searliesthistorywouldbelost,sincemuchofwhatweknowaboutJamestowncomesfromhim.Asanassemblerofother
men'saccountsandawriterofhisown,Smithisresponsibleforfiveswashbucklingdescriptionsofthecolonyanditsstruggles.Heproducedsevenothervolumesand
helpedbringtothepressastillstunningmapofVirginia.
TooCloseforComfort
Smith'stripdowntheChickahominyRivergaverisetothefamousPocahontaslegend.Smithmadehiswayfirstinabargeandtheninacanoe,scatteringhiscompany
inhiswake.Indianwomenambushedtwoindiscreetsoldiers,whilebraveskilledathirdwho
Page23
guardedthecanoe.MarchedtoPowhatan,the"emperor"oftheTidewatertribes,Smithwaspromisedhisfreedominfourdays.AshetolditinhisGenerallHistorie,
however,thenextdayhewassummonedtoPowhatan'shouse.Smith'saccount:
"AthisentrancebeforetheKing,allthepeoplegaveagreatshout[A]longconsultationwasheld,buttheconclusionwas,twogreatstoneswerebroughtbefore
Powhatan:thenasmanyascouldlaidhandsonhim,draggedhimtothem,andthereonlaidhishead,andbeingreadywiththeirclubs,tobeatouthisbrains,
PocahontastheKing'sdearestdaughter,whennoentreatywouldprevail,gothisheadinherarms,andlaidherownuponhistosavehimfromdeath."
PowhatandecidedhewouldinsteadregardSmithasason,makehimatributarywerowanceheadmenwerecalledandbestowonhimaterritoryjustdownriver.
Remember,however,thatSmithwrotethisaccountofhisadventures.Nofool,Smithenlargedthestory,makingitmoredramaticandspicinguphisroleinevents.
Smithaddedthelittleextrasparklethatcreatedanirrestiblestory.PeoplebackinEnglandreadSmith'saccount,passeditaroundtotheirfriends,andamythwas
born.
ItwasanoddlyassortedgroupthatestablishedthefoundationsofAmericanliterature:thePuritanswiththeirpreoccupationwithsinandsalvationandtheSouthern
Planterswiththeirtalesofwildadventure.Indeed,muchoftheliteraturethatthecolonistsreadwasnotproducedinthecoloniesatallcamefromEurope.Yetby
1750therewereclearbeginningsofanAmericanliterature,anauthenticvoicethatwouldonedaybehonoredthroughouttheEnglishspeakingworld.
Page25
Chapter3
LiketheirPuritancounterparts,educatedmen(andevenafewwomen)wholivedin18thcenturyAmericadidagreatdealofwriting.Unliketheprivatesoulsearching
ofthePuritans,however,muchofthewritingproducedfrom17501800wasintendedforapublicaudience.AlmostallthewritingproducedinAmericaduringthis
timewasinfluencedbytherevolutionaryspirit,theflavorofthenewnation.
Inthischapter,you'llreadaboutthelivesandcareersoftheinfluentialAmericanwritersofthecolonialperiod:JohnandAbigailAdams,J.HectorSt.Jeande
Crvecoeur,BenjaminFranklin,ThomasJefferson,andThomasPaine.I'veincludedkeyexcerptsfromtheirwork,too,soyou'llbetterunderstandhowtheirwords
shapedtheAmericanconsciousness.
Page26
TheDreamTeam
JohnAdams(17351826)definitelyhadthepowercareerinthefamilyhewasnotonlythefirstvicepresidentoftheUnitedStatesanditssecondpresident,buthe
wasalsoamemberoftheFirstandSecondContinentalCongresses,helpeddrafttheDeclarationofIndependence,andservedwithBenjaminFranklinasadiplomatic
representativeinEurope.However,itwashiswife,AbigailAdams,whomadeagreatermarkonearlyAmericanletters.
RemembertheLadies
Bornin1744inMassachusetts,AbigailAdamshadnoformalschooling.Buthercuriosityspurredherkeenintelligence,andsheavidlyreadallthebooksshecould
theBible,history,sermons,philosophy,essays,andpoetry.AdamswouldbecomeoneofthemostwellreadwomeninAmericaandamongthemostinfluential
womenofherday.
BythetimeAbigailwas17yearsold,sheand26yearoldJohnwereexchangingloveletters.Theymarriedtwoyearslater.Makinghistorykeepsyouontheroada
greatdeal,soAbbyhadsometimeonherhandswhileJohnwasoffestablishinganewnation.Sheuseditwell.Asidefromtheusualfemaledutiesraisingafuture
president(JohnQuincyAdams)andallthatshecampaignedforwomen'srightsinaseriesofbrilliantletters.OnMarch31,1776,sheurgedCongress:
''RemembertheLadies,andbemoregenerousandfavorabletothemthanyourancestors.DonotputsuchunlimitedpowerintothehandsofHusbands.Rememberall
Menwouldbetyrantsiftheycould.IfparticularcareandattentionisnotpaidtotheLadies,wearedeterminedtofomentaRebellion,andwillnotholdourselves
boundbyanyLawsinwhichwehavenovoice,orRepresentation."
Herrational,measuredtonebeliedastronganduniquemessageforitsday.
Page27
SpecialDelivery
Abigailknewthatshewasrangingfaroutsidetheconventionalroleforwomeninherday.WritingtohermotheronFebruary3,1815,Abigailexplained:
"Ithinksometimes,mydearMother,thatyoumustsmileatmywarmthinpolitics,butwhentheinterestsofourCountryareatstake,Ifeeltoowarmlyconcernedto
standassilentspectatorofthescene,andIgenerallywritewhatisuppermostinmythoughts."
ManyofAbigailAdams'slettersstillexist,informinganddelightingreaderstodaywhileprovidingrichcluestothepast.Readingthem,welearnaboutcustoms,habits,
anddaytodayfamilylifeofcolonialtimes.Herwordshelpusbetterunderstandthehistoryofournation.
J.HectorSt.JeandeCrvecoeur(17351813)
AFrenchmanwhospentmorethanhalfhislifeintheNewWorld,CrvecoeurcontributedtwoimportantconceptstotheAmericanconsciousness:
TheAmericanAdamtheideathatthereissomethingdifferent,unique,special,ornewaboutthesepeoplecalled"Americans."
ThemeltingpotthatAmerica'suniqueidentitytranscendsethnic,cultural,orreligiousbackgrounds.
Page28
BothideashavehadastrongimpactonAmericanculture.Here'showCrvecoeurhimselfphraseditinLettersfromanAmericanFarmer:
FromLetterIII:WhatisanAmerican?
"WhatthenistheAmerican,thisnewman?HeiseitheranEuropean,orthedescendantofanEuropean,hencethatstrangemixtureofblood,whichyouwillfindinnoother
country.IcouldpointouttoyouafamilywhosegrandfatherwasanEnglishman,whosewifewasDutch,whosesonmarriedaFrenchwoman,andwhosepresentfoursons
havenowfourwivesofdifferentnations.HeisanAmerican,wholeavingbehindhimallhisancientprejudicesandmanners,receivesnewonesfromthenewmodeoflifehehas
embraced,thenewgovernmentheobeys,andthenewrankheholds.HebecomesanAmericanbybeingreceivedinthebroadlapofourgreatAlmaMater.Hereindividualsof
allnationsaremeltedintoanewraceofmen,whoselaborsandposteritywillonedaycausegreatchangesintheworld.Americansarethewesternpilgrims,whoarecarrying
alongwiththemthatgreatmassofarts,sciences,vigor,andindustrywhichbeganlongsinceintheeasttheywillfinishthegreatcircle.TheAmericanswereoncescattered
alloverEuropeheretheyareincorporatedintooneofthefinestsystemsofpopulationwhichhaseverappeared,andwhichwillhereafterbecomedistinctbythepowerofthe
differentclimatestheyinhabit.TheAmericanoughtthereforetolovethiscountrymuchbetterthanthatwhereineitherheorhisforefatherswereborn.Heretherewardsofhis
industryfollowwithequalstepstheprogressofhislaborhislaborisfoundedonthebasisofnature,selfinterestcanitwantastrongerallurement?"
Formanyyears,CrvecoeurwasthemostwidelyreadcommentatoronAmericanlife.Hisreputationwasfurtherincreasedinthe1920swhenabundleofhis
unpublishedEnglishessayswasdiscoveredinanatticinFrance.ThesewerebroughtoutasSketchesofEighteenthCenturyAmerica,orMoreLettersfroman
AmericanFarmer(1925).AndthenwehaveBenFranklin,whodidn'tsomuchcommentontheAmericancharacterashelpcreateit!
BenjaminFranklin(17061790)
WhichofthefollowinginventionsarecreditedtoBenFranklin?
Bifocals
TheFranklinstove
Thefirstflexibleurinarycatheter
Thearmonica(amusicalinstrument)
Watertightbulkheadsforships
Thelightningrod
Swimmingfins
Theonearmeddeskchair
Thefirstfireinsurancecompany
Thefirstodometer
Page29
Thelongarm(atooltoreachhighbooks)
DaylightSavingTime
Yup,Franklininventedthemallandmore.Healsofoundedthefirstpubliclibrary,thefirstcityhospital,andtheUniversityofPennsylvania.AnAmericaninventor,
printer,politician,diplomat,andscientist,BenjaminFranklinisalsooneofourgreatestcolonialwriters.
BBBBenny
Thefifteenthof17children,BenjaminFranklinwasbornandraisedinPhiladelphia,Pa.Heleftschoolat10.Twoyearslater,hewasapprenticedtohisbrother
James,aprinter.Hatingthework,Franklinstayedfiveyearsoutofcourtesy(andlaw)andthenhittheroad,goingfirsttoNewYorkandthentoPhiladelphia.
Afteranumberofhardyears,Franklinsetupaprintingshop,married,andbecameactiveincommunityaffairs.WiseinvestmentsenabledFranklintoretirewhenhe
was44yearsoldanddevotehistimetoinventingandexperimenting.HisfindingsestablishedhimastheleadingscientistintheWesternHemisphere.
It'sonlynaturalthatamanofFranklin'stalentshouldbesoughtoutforpublicservice.By1770,hewasthechiefspokesmanforthecoloniesin1757,hewaselected
totheSecondContinentalCongress.Laterthatyear,hewasappointedcommissionertoFrance.Franklin'simmensepopularityhelpedthecoloniesgainthesupportof
FranceandSpain,thedecisivefactorinourvictoryintheAmericanRevolution.Eventhoughhewasinhiseightiesbythen,Franklinservedaspresidentofthe
CommonwealthofPennsylvaniaandasamemberoftheConstitutionalConvention.
BenjaminFranklin.
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DearDiary
AlthoughFranklinneverconsideredhimselfaseriouswriter,hisAutobiographyisconsideredamongthegreatestautobiographiesproducedinColonialAmericaand
oneofthegreatestautobiographiesoftheworld.ThefollowingwellknownexcerptdescribesFranklin'sarrivalinPhiladelphia:
"ThenIwalkedupthestreet,gazingabouttillnearthemarkethouseImetaboywithbread.Ihadmademanyamealonbread,and,inquiringwherehegotit,Iwent
immediatelytothebaker'shedirectedmeto,inSecondStreet,andaskedforbiscuit,intendingsuchaswehadinBostonbutthey,itseems,werenotmadeinPhiladelphia.
ThenIaskedforathreepennyloaf,andwastoldtheyhadnonesuch.Sonotconsideringorknowingthedifferenceofmoney,andthegreatercheapnessnorthenamesofhis
bread,Imadehimgivemethreepennyworthofanysort.
Hegaveme,accordingly,threegreatpuffyrolls.Iwassurpriz'datthequantity,buttookit,and,havingnoroominmypockets,walk'doffwitharollundereacharm,and
eatingtheother.ThusIwentupMarketstreetasfarasFourthstreet,passingbythedoorofMr.Read,myfuturewife'sfatherwhenshe,standingatthedoor,sawme,and
thoughtImade,asIcertainlydid,amostawkward,ridiculousappearance.
ThenIturnedandwentdownChestnutstreetandpartofWalnutstreet,eatingmyrollalltheway,and,corninground,foundmyselfagainatMarketstreetwharf,nearthe
boatIcamein,towhichIwentforadraughtoftheriverwaterand,beingfilledwithoneofmyrolls,gavetheothertwotoawomanandherchildthatcamedowntheriverin
theboatwithus,andwerewaitingtogofarther.
Thusrefreshed,Iwalkedagainupthestreet."
WordstotheWise:PoorRichard'sAlmanac
"Alittleneglectmaybreedmischief:
forwantofanailtheshoewaslost
forwantofashoethehorsewaslost
forwantofahorsetheriderwaslost.
Forwantofariderthebattlewaslost
BenjaminFranklin
From17321757,FranklinpublishedPoorRichard'sAlmanac,oneofhismostsuccessfulbooks.Inadditiontoadviceoncrops,thetide,anddandruff,heoffered
aphorismsthathavesincebecomeanindeliblepartoftheAmericanconsciousness.
Herearesomeofhisnowfamiliarwordstoliveby:
"Earlytobed,earlytorise,makesamanhealthy,wealthyandwise."
"Godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves."
"Littlestrokesfellgreatoaks."
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"Threemaykeepasecretiftwoofthemaredead."
"Wherethere'smarriagewithoutlove,therewillbelovewithoutmarriage."
"Therewillbesleepingenoughinthegrave."
"Neverleavethattilltomorrowwhichyoucandotoday."
"Foolsmakefeasts,andwisemeneatthem."
"Thesleepingfoxcatchesnopoultry."
"Therearenogainswithoutpains."
"Hethatlivesuponhopewilldiefasting."
"Fishandvisitorssmellinthreedays."
NootherAmericanbetterembodiedthepromiseofAmericathanBenjaminFranklin.Throughhardwork,dedication,andingenuity,Franklinwasabletoriseoutof
povertytobecomewealthy,famous,andinfluential.Althoughhehadlittleformaleducation,Franklinmadesignificantcontributionstomanyfields,includingliterature,
science,education,diplomacy,andphilosophy.
ThomasJefferson(17431826)
Speakingofhisfamousgrandfather,namesakegrandsonThomasJeffersonRandolphrecalledthat:
"Mr.Jefferson'shair,whenyoung,wasofareddishcastsandyasheadvancedinyearshiseye,hazelMr.Jefferson'sstaturewascommandingsixfeettwoandahalf
inchesinheight,wellformed,indicatingstrength,activity,androbusthealthhiscarriageerectstepfirmandelastic,whichhepreservedtohisdeathhistemper,naturally
strong,underperfectcontrolhiscouragecoolandimpassiveitwasremarkedofhimthatheneverabandonedaplan,aprinciple,orafriend."
ThethirdpresidentoftheUnitedStates,the"SageofMonticello"wasalsoadiplomat,anarchitect,amusician,ascientistandinventor,astrongsupporterofreligious
freedom,andanearlyadvocateofpubliceducation.HewasalsooneofAmerica'sfinestwriters.
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TakeThat,YouTyrant
DraftedbyJeffersonbetweenJune11andJune28,1776,theDeclarationofIndependenceisatonceAmerica'smostcherishedsymboloflibertyandJefferson's
mostenduringmonument.Inringinglanguage,JeffersonexpressedtheAmericandeterminationtobefree.Sinceyouprobablyhaven'treadtheDeclarationsinceMiss
Schimmeldorf'sfourthgradeclass,whynottakeanotherlookatitnow?
"TheunanimousDeclarationofthethirteenunitedStatesofAmerica,
WhenintheCourseofhumanevents,itbecomesnecessaryforonepeopletodissolvethepoliticalbandswhichhaveconnectedthemwithanother,andtoassumeamongthe
powersoftheearth,theseparateandequalstationtowhichtheLawsofNatureandofNature'sGodentitlethem,adecentrespecttotheopinionsofmankindrequiresthat
theyshoulddeclarethecauseswhichimpelthemtotheseparation.
Weholdthesetruthstobeselfevident,thatallmenarecreatedequal,thattheyareendowedbytheirCreatorwithcertainunalienableRights,thatamongtheseareLife,
LibertyandthepursuitofHappiness.Thattosecuretheserights,GovernmentsareinstitutedamongMen,derivingtheirjustpowersfromtheconsentofthegoverned,That
wheneveranyFormofGovernmentbecomesdestructiveoftheseends,itistheRightofthePeopletoalterortoabolishit,andtoinstitutenewGovernment,layingits
foundationonsuchprinciplesandorganizingitspowersinsuchform,astothemshallseemmostlikelytoeffecttheirSafetyandHappiness.Prudence,indeed,willdictatethat
Governmentslongestablishedshouldnotbechangedforlightandtransientcausesandaccordinglyallexperiencehathshewn,thatmankindaremoredisposedtosuffer,
whileevilsaresufferable,thantorightthemselvesbyabolishingtheformstowhichtheyareaccustomed.Butwhenalongtrainofabusesandusurpations,pursuinginvariably
thesameObjectevincesadesigntoreducethemunderabsoluteDespotism,itistheirright,itistheirduty,tothrowoffsuchGovernment,andtoprovidenewGuardsfortheir
futuresecurity.SuchhasbeenthepatientsufferanceoftheseColoniesandsuchisnowthenecessitywhichconstrainsthemtoaltertheirformerSystemsofGovernment.The
historyofthepresentKingofGreatBritainisahistoryofrepeatedinjuriesandusurpations,allhavingindirectobjecttheestablishmentofanabsoluteTyrannyoverthese
States.Toprovethis,letFactsbesubmittedtoacandidworld.
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HehasrefusedhisAssenttoLaws,themostwholesomeandnecessaryforthepublicgood.
HehasforbiddenhisGovernorstopassLawsofimmediateandpressingimportance,unlesssuspendedintheiroperationtillhisAssentshouldbeobtainedandwhenso
suspended,hehasutterlyneglectedtoattendtothem.
HehasrefusedtopassotherLawsfortheaccommodationoflargedistrictsofpeople,unlessthosepeoplewouldrelinquishtherightofRepresentationintheLegislature,a
rightinestimabletothemandformidabletotyrantsonly.
Hehascalledtogetherlegislativebodiesatplacesunusual,uncomfortable,anddistantfromthedepositoryoftheirpublicRecords,forthesolepurposeoffatiguingtheminto
compliancewithhismeasures.
HehasdissolvedRepresentativeHousesrepeatedly,foropposingwithmanlyfirmnesshisinvasionsontherightsofthepeople.
Hehasrefusedforalongtime,aftersuchdissolutions,tocauseotherstobeelectedwherebytheLegislativepowers,incapableofAnnihilation,havereturnedtothePeopleat
largefortheirexercisetheStateremaininginthemeantimeexposedtoallthedangersofinvasionfromwithout,andconvulsionswithin.
HehasendeavoredtopreventthepopulationoftheseStatesforthatpurposeobstructingtheLawsforNaturalizationofForeignersrefusingtopassotherstoencouragetheir
migrationshither,andraisingtheconditionsofnewAppropriationsofLands.
HehasobstructedtheAdministrationofJustice,byrefusinghisAssenttoLawsforestablishingJudiciarypowers.
HehasmadeJudgesdependentonhisWillalone,forthetenureoftheiroffices,andtheamountandpaymentoftheirsalaries.
HehaserectedamultitudeofNewOffices,andsenthitherswarmsofOfficerstoharassourpeople,andeatouttheirsubstance.
Hehaskeptamongus,intimesofpeace,StandingArmieswithouttheConsentofourlegislatures.
HehasaffectedtorendertheMilitaryindependentofandsuperiortotheCivilpower.
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Hehascombinedwithotherstosubjectustoajurisdictionforeigntoourconstitution,andunacknowledgedbyourlawsgivinghisAssenttotheirActsofpretended
Legislation:
ForQuarteringlargebodiesofarmedtroopsamongus:
Forprotectingthem,byamockTrial,frompunishmentforanyMurderswhichtheyshouldcommitontheInhabitantsoftheseStates:
ForcuttingoffourTradewithallpartsoftheworld:
ForimposingTaxesonuswithoutourConsent:
Fordeprivingusinmanycases,ofthebenefitsofTrialbyJury:
FortransportingusbeyondSeastobetriedforpretendedoffenses:
ForabolishingthefreeSystemofEnglishLawsinaneighboringProvince,establishingthereinanArbitrarygovernment,andenlargingitsBoundariessoastorenderitat
onceanexampleandfitinstrumentforintroducingthesameabsoluteruleintotheseColonies:
FortakingawayourCharters,abolishingourmostvaluableLaws,andalteringfundamentallytheFormsofourGovernments:
ForsuspendingourownLegislatures,anddeclaringthemselvesinvestedwithpowertolegislateforusinallcaseswhatsoever.
HehasabdicatedGovernmenthere,bydeclaringusoutofhisProtectionandwagingWaragainstus.
Hehasplunderedourseas,ravagedourCoasts,burntourtowns,anddestroyedthelivesofourpeople.
HeisatthistimetransportinglargeArmiesofforeignMercenariestocompletetheworksofdeath,desolationandtyranny,alreadybegunwithcircumstancesofCruelty&
perfidyscarcelyparalleledinthemostbarbarousages,andtotallyunworthytheHeadofacivilizednation.
HehasconstrainedourfellowCitizenstakenCaptiveonthehighSeastobearArmsagainsttheirCountry,tobecometheexecutionersoftheirfriendsandBrethren,ortofall
themselvesbytheirHands.
Hehasexciteddomesticinsurrectionsamongstus,andhasendeavoredtobringontheinhabitantsofourfrontiers,themercilessIndianSavages,whoseknownruleofwarfare,
isanundistinguisheddestructionofallages,sexesandconditions.
IneverystageoftheseOppressionsWehavePetitionedforRedressinthemosthumbleterms:OurrepeatedPetitionshavebeenansweredonlybyrepeatedinjury.APrince
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whosecharacteristhusmarkedbyeveryactwhichmaydefineaTyrant,isunfittobetherulerofafreepeople.
NorhaveWebeenwantinginattentionstoourBritishbrethren.Wehavewarnedthemfromtimetotimeofattemptsbytheirlegislaturetoextendanunwarrantable
jurisdictionoverus.Wehaveremindedthemofthecircumstancesofouremigrationandsettlementhere.Wehaveappealedtotheirnativejusticeandmagnanimity,andwe
haveconjuredthembythetiesofourcommonkindredtodisavowtheseusurpations,which,wouldinevitablyinterruptourconnectionsandcorrespondence.Theytoohave
beendeaftothevoiceofjusticeandofconsanguinity.Wemust,therefore,acquiesceinthenecessity,whichdenouncesourSeparation,andholdthem,asweholdtherestof
mankind,EnemiesinWar,inPeaceFriends.
We,therefore,theRepresentativesoftheunitedStatesofAmerica,inGeneralCongress,Assembled,appealingtotheSupremeJudgeoftheworldfortherectitudeof
ourintentions,do,intheName,andbyAuthorityofthegoodPeopleoftheseColonies,solemnlypublishanddeclare,ThattheseUnitedColoniesare,andofRight
oughttobeFreeandIndependentStatesthattheyareAbsolvedfromallAllegiancetotheBritishCrown,andthatallpoliticalconnectionbetweenthemandtheState
ofGreatBritain,isandoughttobetotallydissolvedandthatasFreeandIndependentStates,theyhavefullPowertolevyWar,concludePeace,contractAlliances,
establishCommerce,andtodoallotherActsandThingswhichIndependentStatesmayofrightdo.Andforthe
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supportofthisDeclaration,withafirmrelianceontheprotectionofdivineProvidence,wemutuallypledgetoeachotherourLives,ourFortunesandoursacred
Honor.''
FromthePenoftheMaster
JeffersontookBenjaminFranklin'swords,"RebelliontotyrantsisobediencetoGod,"toheart.Infact,thisideaiswovenintothefabricoftheDeclarationof
Independence.Butit'snotjustJefferson'scontentthatmakestheDeclarationofIndependencesomoving,it'salsohisstyle.Thestylisticelementsthatmakethe
Declarationsuchasuccessfuldocumentare
Parallelstructure(therepeateduseofphrases,clauses,orsentencesthataresimilarinstructure)
Rhythm
Forcefulanddirectlanguage
Loadedwords(wordsthatcarrystrongemotionalovertones),suchastyranny,liberty,justice,andhonor.
ThomasPaine(17371809)
Ahumblecorsetmakerturnedgrocer,Painedidn'tmakeittoourshoresuntilhewas37yearsold.HispassagewaspaidbyBenFranklin,whocalledPainean
"ingenious,worthyyoungman."Franklin'sinvestmentinPainepaidoff:InAmerica,Painequicklycameintohisownasapamphleteer.
Paine'sfirstpamphlet,CommonSense,appearedinJanuary1776,atimewhenmostAmericansstillhopedthequarrelwithEnglandcouldberesolvedamicably.
CommonSensesold500,000copiesandiscreditedwithgettingthecoloniststoseethe"advantage,necessity,andobligation"ofbreakingwithBritain.Itwas
followedbyaseriesofpamphlets,collectivelycalledAnAmericanCrisis.
ARoyalPaine
HopingthatPaine'swordswouldinspirehissoldierstofightwithpassion,GeorgeWashingtonorderedPaine'spamphletsreadaloudtohistroopsafewdaysbefore
Page37
theycrossedtheDelawareRivertoattacktheBritishatTrenton.Thepamphletswereread,thesoldiersfoughtlikepitbulls,andtheensuingvictorymarkedaturning
pointinthewar.
ThefollowingexcerptfromPaine'smostfamouspamphlet,CommonSense,hasbecomepartofournationalfabric:
"THESEARETHETIMESTHATTRYMEN'SSOULS.Thesummersoldierandthesunshinepatriotwill,inthiscrisis,shrinkfromtheserviceoftheircountrybuthethatstands
itnow,deservestheloveandthanksofmanandwoman.Tyranny,likehell,isnoteasilyconqueredyetwehavethisconsolationwithus,thatthehardertheconflict,themore
gloriousthetriumph.Whatweobtaintoocheap,weesteemtoolightly:itisdearnessonlythatgiveseverythingitsvalue.Heavenknowshowtoputaproperpriceuponits
goodsanditwouldbestrangeindeedifsocelestialanarticleasFREEDOMshouldnotbehighlyrated.Britain,withanarmytoenforcehertyranny,hasdeclaredthatshe
hasaright(notonlytoTAX)but"toBINDusinALLCASESWHATSOEVER,"andifbeingboundinthatmanner,isnotslavery,thenistherenotsuchathingasslaveryupon
earth.EventheexpressionisimpiousforsounlimitedapowercanbelongonlytoGod."
December23,1776
ToArms!
NotallAmericancolonistssupportedsuccessionfromEngland.AmericanToriesweresopassionateintheirsupportofGreatBritainthatmorethan55,000ofthem
enlistedintheBritisharmyintheRevolutionaryWar!
HencetheneedforPaine'srhetoric.Here'swhyhiswritingworkedsowell:
Heappealedtoemotionaswellasreason.
Hecontrastedweak,selfcenteredpeoplewithcourageouspatriots.
HeusedloadedlanguagetoemphasizeBritishtyranny.
Heincludedhisownviewofthevalidityofthecause.
HepledgedGod'ssupport.
The(Cultural)StateoftheUnion
Asyou'veprobablygatheredbynow,itwasaturbulenteraandatimeofaction.ButthelegacyoftheRevolutionaryerawasculturalaswellaspolitical.Guidedby
herwriters,Americawasbuildingaculturalidentity.Forexample,
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TheaterswerebuiltfromNewYorktoCharleston,Virginia.
AnumberofnewcollegeswerebuiltaftertheRevolutionaryWar,especiallyintheSouth.
Paintingflourished:JohnSingletonCopley,GilbertStuart,JohnTrumbull,andCharlesWillsonPealeweretheleadingartistsoftheirtime.
Nonetheless,therewerenotyetanyAmericannovelsorplaysofimportance,andthemodernshortstoryhadyettobeinvented.However,therawmaterialsfora
greatnationalliteraturewereathand,waitingtobeused.AsAmericastoodpoisedonthebrinkofastunningterritorialandpopulationexplosion,Americanliterature
wouldsoonburstforthwithapowerthatwouldhaveastonishedeventhemostfarsightedfoundersofAmerica.
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Chapter4
TheBigDaddyofAmericanLiterature:Washingtonlrving(17891851)
Question:Whatdothefollowingpeoplehaveincommon?
GeoffreyCrayon
JonathanOldstyle,Gent.
AnthonyEvergreen,Gent.
DiedrichKnickerbocker
Answer:They'reallthesamemanWashingtonIrving,theFatherofAmericanLiterature.Irvingwas50yearsoldbeforehisrealnameappearedonanyofhis
books,butyoureallycan'tblamehimbeforeIrvingcamealong,noselfrespectingwriterwouldeveradmitthathewasanAmerican.Whytheshameaboutbeingan
Americanwriter?That'soneofthethingsyou'lllearninthischapter.
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You'llalsofindoutallaboutIrving'sthreemostfamousstories:"TheLegendofSleepyHollow,""RipVanWinkle,"and"TheDevilandTomWalker."Bytheendof
thechapter,you'llunderstandexactlywhatIrvingdidtoputAmericaontheinternationalliterarymap.
AlwaysaBridesmaid,NeveraBride
"Inthefourquartersoftheglobe,whoreadsanAmericanbook,orgoestoanAmericanplay,orlooksatanAmericanpictureorstatue?"
WashingtonIrving
In1820,theBritishwriterSydneySmithtauntedAmericanswiththisviciousjabattheirprovincialism.Lettherebenomistakethejibecutdeeplybecauseitwastrue.
Intheearly1800s,Americawasstillasleepylittlebackwater,devoidofrealculture.Ourtastesinbooks,music,andfashionwereallshapedbyEurope,andaspiring
Americanwriterswouldhavebeenwelladvisednottogiveuptheirdayjobs.Asyoureadinpreviouschapters,manyimportantfiguresoftheEarlyNationalperiod
wereoutstandingwriters,butnonemadeliteraturehisprofession.Jefferson,forinstance,wasastatesmanFranklin,aprinter,statesman,andinventor.Intheearly
1800s,AmericansalreadyhadMomandapplepie,butstillnorealAmericanliterature.
Further,untiltheendofthecentury,AmericanprintersroutinelystoletheworkofEnglishwriters,payingnothing,nada,andzipforbooksbythelikesofCharles
DickensandSirWalterScott.AmericanreaderslovedthesituationbecausetheycouldgetthebestBritishbooksverycheaply,butAmericanwriterssuffered:Ifthey
weretoreceiveroyalties,theirbookshadtosellat
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higherpricesthanBritishnovels.Itwasnotuntil1891thataninternationalcopyrightlawwasenforcedonbothsidesoftheAtlantic.
Before1891,Americanwritersofthetimejustcouldn'tmakethecutwithbookbuyers.Tothisday,booksfromscoresofwritersfromtheEarlyNationalperiodare
asdeadasdisco:CharlesBrockdenBrown,JamesPaulding,FitzGreenHalleck,CarolineKirkland,andN.P.Willisallfelltotheliterarywayside.Thenalongcame
WashingtonIrving.
ADeclarationofIndependence
WashingtonIrvingwasborninNewYorkCityonApril8,1783,thelastof11children.(Nowyouknowhowpeoplespenttheirnightsbeforetelevision.)Likemost
famouswriters,hewasjudgedacementheadasachild,butitwasplainearlyonthatthekidunderstoodhowtoplaythegame:Irvingwroteclassmates'compositions
inexchangeformathassignments.
WhenIrvingwas14yearsold,hetriedtorunawaytosea,havingspentayearsleepingonthefloorandeatingslimysaltporkinpreparation.Hisplanswerethwarted
byhisparents,andIrvingwasforcedtostayinschooluntilhewas16andthensenttostudylaw.
In1804,Irving,sufferingfromaboutoftuberculosis,embarkedonatwoyeartourofEuropeinhopesofacure.Thechangeinscenery,itwasfelt,wouldstrengthen
him.Onhisreturn,Irvingpassedthebarexamin1806andservedinaminorcapacityatformervicepresidentAaronBurr'strial.
Aroundthesametime,Washington'sbrotherWilliamfoundedasatiricalmagazinecalledSalmagundi(aspicyhash)andenlistedhisbabybrother'shelpinfillingthe
pages.Vowingto"instructtheyoung,reformtheold,correctthetown,andcastigate
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theage,"thebrotherstooktheirworkseriously.Whennotplayingleapfrogintheofficeorhoistingafewinthelocaltavern,theyevenwrotealittle.Whentheyfinished
makingfunofeveryonetheyknew,thedynamicduosuspendedpublication,andIrvingwasonceagainonhisown.Themagazinehadlastedayear,from18071808.
TopoftheCharts
In1809,Irvingcreatedhisfirstgreattriumph,AHistoryofNewYork,awickedlyfunnyspoofofvariouswellknownfigures,includingthenPresidentThomas
Jefferson.Irvinglaunchedthebookinoneofthecleveresthoaxesinpublishinghistory:
First,theEveningPostnotedthedisappearanceof"asmallelderlygentlemanbythenameofKnickerbocker,"addingthattherewere"somereasonsforbelievingthat
heisnotentirelyinhisrightmind."Threemonthslater,anotherarticlerevealedthatKnickerbocker'slandlordhadfounda"verycuriouskindofwrittenbook"inhis
rooms,whichheintendedtoselltopaythebackrent.Atlastthebookappeared,creditedto"DiedrichKnickerbocker."
BegunasaparodyofaNewYorkguidebook,IrvingendedbywritingacomichistoryofNewYorkunderDutchauthority.Factisinterspersedwithexaggeration,
burlesque,andbitingsarcasm.AHistory'scombinationofmocksolemnityandextravagantirreverencelaidthefoundationofstyleformanysubsequentAmerican
humorists,notablyMarkTwainandWillRogers.AHistoryofNewYorkmadeIrvingacelebrityonbothsidesoftheAtlantic.
Nonetheless,itstilldidn'tdawnonIrvingthathewastheRealThing,aGenuineTalent.Asaresult,hespentthenext10yearstoilingawayatthefamilyhardware
business,travelling,andeditingabiuthereandthere.Whenthefamilybusinesswentbellyupin1818,Irvingfinallyturnedtohispentomakeabuck.Luckyforus.
SettingUpShop
UsingoldGermanfolktalesashisbase,Irvingcreatedaseriesofremarkablestories.In1820hepublishedhisfirstgroundbreakingcollection,TheSketchBookof
GeoffreyCrayon,Gent,underthepennameGeoffreyCrayon.Twostoriesinparticular,"RipVanWinkle"and"TheLegendofSleepyHollow,"catapultedhimto
fame.
Irving'snexttwobooks,BracebridgeHall(1822)andTalesofaTraveler(1824),weresavagedbythecritics.Irvingthentriedhishandatbiographyandhistory.
HeacceptedaninvitationtojointheAmericanlegationinSpainandproducedanumberoffinebooksthere,includingHistoryoftheLifeandVoyagesofColumbus
(1828)andTheAlhambra(1832).Thelatterwasnicknamed"theSpanishSketchBook."
WhileinSpain,Irvingmademanydevotedfriends.Thiswasn'tunusualforIrving,sincehistalentforfriendshipwasequaltohistalentforwriting.
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Aftera17yearabsence,IrvingreturnedtoNewYorkin1832.Severalyearslater,Irvingsetdownrootswhenhepurchasedandrefurbishedacharminghousecalled
SunnysidenearTarrytown,NewYork.Lifestylesoftherichandfamousgetoldfast,however,soin1842IrvingacceptedanappointmentasministertoSpain.Upon
hisreturntoAmericain1846,theFatherofAmericanLiteraturewroteabiographyoftheFatherofhisCountry,GeorgeWashington.Irvingdiedjustafterfinishingthe
lastvolume,onNovember28,1859.
TheBigKahuna
Yearsbeforehisdeath,IrvingwasacknowledgedforputtingAmericanliteratureonthemap.Hewasamasterofstyleaswellassubstance.Here'salittleproof:
BothHenryWadsworthLongfellowandNathanielHawthornewereinspiredbyIrving'sSketchBook,andtheirwritingowesmuchtohisinfluence.
HermanMelvillepaidhomagetoIrving'sgeniusinhispoem"RipVanWinkle'sLilacs."
Inanumberofpublicspeeches,thebestsellingBritishauthorsCharlesDickensandSirWalterScottacknowledgedtheirdebttoIrving'swriting.
Page44
Fromliving,MarkTwainlearnedhowtouserealisticdetailsofrurallifeinAmerica.
The"localcolor"schooloffiction(describedindetailinChapter18,"ColorMyWorld:TheLocalColorists18651930")gotitsstartwithIrving.
Whenhewasnotbusyinspiringwritersbyhiswork,Irvingwashelpingtheminperson:Generoustoyoungerwritersallhislife,IrvingpromotedHermanMelvilleand
WilliamCullenBryant,amongothers.
Bythe1850s,therewasanelusivequalityintheairaboutthecountry'snewliteraturethatwasunmistakablyAmerican.NotonlywereIrving'sstoriessetonAmerican
soil,buttheyspoketotheAmericansoul:RipVanWinklecapturedtheAmericantraumaofdealingwithrapidchangeandrepeatedphysicaluprooting.Ripalso
helpedAmericansovercomeasenseofunderachievementandfailure.Hissuccessatlivinghislifeonhisowntermsbecameamodelforourown.EvenIrving,a
masterpatriot,couldnothaveimaginedthatonedayAmericawouldbetheleaderofthefreeworld.
Let'slookatliving'smostfamousstories,startingwith"TheLegendofSleepyHollow."
PumpkinHead
IcabodCrane,themaincharacterin"TheLegendofSleepyHollow,"is
"tall,butexceedinglylank,withnarrowshoulder,longarmsandlegs,handsthatdangledamileoutofhissleeves,feetthatmighthaveservedforshovels,andhiswhole
framemostlooselyhungtogether.Hisheadwassmall,andflatattop,withhugeears,largegreenglassyeyes,andalongsnipenose,sothatitmighthavebeenmistakenfora
weathercockpercheduponaspindleneck,totellwhichwaythewindblew.Toseehimstridingalongtheprofileofahillonawindyday,withhisclothesbaggingand
flutteringabouthim,onemighthavemistakenhimforthegenius[image]offaminedescendingupontheearth,orsomescarecrowelopedfromacornfield."
Nowmeettherestofthegang
Gunpowder:Icabod'sborrowedbagofboneshorse.
KatrinaVanTassel:Arosycheekedrusticheiress.
MynheerVanTassel:Katrina'sfather,acolonialDaddyWarbucks.
TheHeadlessHorseman:ThelegendaryHudsonValleyghost,supposedlyofaHessiancavalrymanwhoseheadhadbeenshotoffbyacannonball.
AbrahamVanBrunt(BromBones):Theleadingmanofthecrowd,inlovewithKatrina.
FrightNight
ThefolkswhoinhabitSleepyHollowbelievetheirvillageisbewitched.TheprimaryghostistheHeadlessHorseman,rumoredtobeaHessiansoldierwhohadlosthis
noggintoastraycannonball.
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IcabodCranearrivesintowntobecomethelocalschoolmasterforthevillagechildren.Aswasthecustombackthen,Icabodboardswitheachofhispupilsfora
weekatatime.IcabodmeetsKatrinaVanTassel,alookerwhosesubstantialphysicalcharmsareaugmentedbyherfather'ssubstantialbankaccount.ButAbraham
(Brom)VanBrunt,an18thcenturystudalsoinlovewithKatrina,makesaformidablerivalforpoor,gauntIcabod.Sinceitwastackyinthe18thcenturytophysically
assaultaschoolteacher,Bromresortstoplayingpracticaljokesonhisrival.
TheentirevillageisinvitedtoapartyatMynheerVanTassel'sprosperousfarm.IcabodhasawonderfultimedancingwithKatrina,tellingghoststories,andeating
himselfintoastupor.
HeadsUp
Thenightisdarkandscary.Onhiswayhome,Icabodisshadowedbytheheadlesshorseman.Icabodracesforthechurchbridge,wherelegendhasitthatthespecter
willvanishinaflashoffireandbrimstone:
"'IfIcanbutreachthatbridge,'Icabodthinks,'Iamsafe.'"
Butthecreaturebreakswithtraditionandthrowshisheadattheterrifiedschoolmaster:
"Icabodendeavoredtododgethehorriblemissile,buttoolate.Itencounteredhiscraniumwithatremendouscrashhetumbledheadlongintothedust,andGunpowder,the
blacksteed,andthegoblinrider,passedbylikeawhirlwind."
ThenextmorningashatteredpumpkinisfoundnearthebridgewithIcabod'shorsegrazingnearbybutIcabodhimselfisneverseenagain.Accordingtotradition,
BromBones"alwaysburstintoaheartylaughatthementionofthepumpkinwhichledsometosuspectthatheknewmoreaboutthematterthanhechosetotell."
TheBigSleep
"RipVanWinkle,"whichIrvingpublishedin1819,hasbecomeanAmericanlegend,inlargepartbecauseofitsmaincharacter."ThegreaterrorinRip'scomposition
wasaninsuperableaversiontoallkindsofprofitablelabor,"thenarratornotes.OK,sotheguywasn'taballofambition,butdogsandkidslikedhim.Adescendentof
anoldandhardworkingDutchfamily,hefallsasleepintheCatskillMountainsfor20years.
Here'stherestofthegang:
DameVanWinkle:Rip'stemperamentalwifenowonderthemanheadedforthehills.
Wolf:Rip'spooch.
JudithVanWinkle:Rip'sdaughter.
HendrickHudson:Leaderofthelittlepeoplewhovisitonceayeartoparty.
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Bowling,Anyone?
GoodhumoredRipVanWinkle,akindofNormPetersonoftheCatskillset,preferstowarmthebarstoolatthevillageinnratherthanwork.Althoughveryadeptat
dodginghiswife'smessages,occasionallyRipslipsupandDameVanWinklecomesafterhiminperson.Whenheglimpsesherformidablefists,Ripheadsforthehills.
There,hecanrelaxinpeace.
Onenightonthewayhomefromhismountainrefuge,RipisaccostedbyHendrickHudson,astrangelittlemaninoldfashionedclothingwhoaskshimtohelpcarrya
kegofliquortothetopofthemountain,whereRipfindsabandoflittlemenplayingninepins.Ourherotakesafewsnortsfromthecaskand,likesportsfansthe
worldover,fallsasleepwatchingthegame.
WhenRipawakens,thelittlemenhavedisappeared,hisgunisrusty,andhisdogisgone.Ripreturnstotown,butnooneseemstoknowwhoheis,andhishomelies
inruins.Tohisastonishment,Riprealizesthathehasbeenasleepfor20years.Whenhelearnsthathiswifehasdied,Ripbreathesasignofreliefandliveshappily
everafter,regalingthelocalswithhisstrangetaleofHenrickHudsonandthelittlemenplayingninepins.
BornintheUSA
''WhenIfirstwrote'TheLegendofRipVanWinkle,'"Irvingsaid,"mythoughtshadbeenforsometimeturnedtowardgivingacolorofromanceandtraditionto
interestingpointsofournationalscenerywhichisso
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generallydeficientinourcountry."IrvingsucceededsowellincreatingagenuineAmericantalethattranslatorshavealwayshadahardtimewiththestory.
Whyis"RipVanWinkle"suchaseminalAmericanstory?
ThankstoIrving
Henpeckedhusbands,overbearingwives,andmysteriousapparitionshavebecomestandardfictionalelementsinAmericanliterature.
Thelaidbackantiherobalancesthedour,Puritanicalhero.
RipVanWinklemarksthebeginningofthe"localcolor"schoolofwriting,inwhichauthorsusevividdetailstorecreateaspecificplace.
GoingtotheDevil
"TheDevilandTomWalker,"fromIrving'sTalesofaTraveler,isbasedonaGermanfolktaleaboutamanwhosellshissoultothedevil.Irvingmadethetale
distinctlyAmericanbyswitchingthesettingtoNewEnglandin1727,atthetimethatthePuritanbeliefthatlifeshouldbedevotedtoGodwasbeingreplacedby
materialism.
Thestoryhasonlythreecharacters:
TomWalker:MakesDickens'sScroogelooklikeahumanitarian.
Mrs.Walker:Adragonwithattitude.
TheDevil:Adevilofafellow.
BeamMeDown,Scotty
It's1727.AfewmilesfromBoston,Mr.andMrs.TomWalkerliveinweddedmisery.Mrs.Walkerisashrewwho'snotaboveaimingtheplatesandherrighthook
atherhubby.ButTom'snoprize,eitherhe'satleastasmiserlyandviciousashisspouse.
OnedayTomtakesashortcutthroughaswampandaccidentallyuncoversaskull.Suddenly,alargesootymanappearsandordersTomtoleavehisproperty.Tom
refusestobeintimidatedandquicklyrealizesthathe'sshootingthebreezewiththedevilhimself.Havinglivedsolongwithhisstrongwilledwife,Tomfindsthedevil
pleasantcompanyandtheystrikeadeal:TomwillhelpthedevilinexchangeforthetreasureofafamouspiratenamedKidd.
Tomfoolishlytellshismissusabouthisstrangeencounterofthedevilishkind,andMrs.Walkersetsouttovisitthedevilandgetacutoftheaction.Thedevilwon't
deal,soshereturnswiththefamily'ssilverasabribe.Severalnightspass,andMrs.Walkerdoesn'treturn.Tomgrowsincreasinglyuneasywhenherealizesthatthe
silverisalsomissing.Apracticalman,hedecides,"Letusgetholdoftheproperty,andweshallendeavortodowithoutthewoman."
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Searchingthewoods,hefindsnothingbutherheartandlivertiedinherapron.Tomconsoleshimselfforthelossofhissilverwiththecheerfulnewsthathehaslosthis
wifeaswell.Tomthendoesthedevil'sworkasamoneylender,gleefullyforeclosinganddispossessing.
Happyyearspass.Sensingtheendisnear,Tomembracesreligionasashieldtodamnation.Thisworksoutwelluntilheshoutsout,"ThedeviltakemeifIhavemade
afarthing(cent)."Thedevil,anobligingsort,callsinhischit.
WhatBecomesaLegendMost?
"TheDevilandTomWalker"satirizedhypocriticalPuritanswhousedtheirsocialstandinginthecommunitytoamasswealth.AswithallofIrving'sbeststories,"The
DevilandTomWalker"startsoffgentlyhumorousandbuildstoafearfulclimax.Irving'suseofGothicpropsthedevil,thedankforest,thegrislymurderina
bucolicAmericansettingcreatesauniquelyAmericanslantonthesupernatural.
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Chapter5
FatheroftheAmericanNovel:JamesFenimoreCooper(17891851)
Onhisdeathbed,Cooperbeggedhisfamilynottoallowanyaccountofhislifetobepublished.NodoubtCooperfearedthatposteritymightnotoverlookhis
insufferablesnobbery,litigiousnature,andgeneralcrankinesswhenpraisinghisgenius.
Duringhislonglife,CoopermanagedtoinsultanastonishinglywiderangeofpeopleonbothsidesoftheAtlantic.ArrivinginLondon,forexample,heannouncedthat
themajesticThamesriverwas"astreamoftrivialexpanse."Athomehespenthisnonwritingtimesuingandslanderinghisneighbors.Hewas,asthe20thcentury
BritishwriterD.H.Lawrenceputit,"Agentlemanintheworstsense."
Readontofindouthowthisfirstclasscrankbecameafirstclasswriter,creatingthefirstAmericanadventurestory,thefirstAmericannovelofmanners,andthefirst
Americannovelofthesea.Thankstoalltheseaccomplishments,CooperbecamethefirstsuccessfulAmericannovelist.
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ThefatheroftheAmericannovel.
GreenAcresisthePlaceforMe
WhenCooperwasalittlemorethanayearold,hisaffableandastutefathermovedhisconsiderablebroodfromBurlington,NewJersey,totheshoresofOstego
LakeincentralNewYork.Flatlyrefusingtoleavecivilizationforthewilderness,Mrs.Coopercommittedherselftoherarmchair.Mr.Cooperhoistedher,armchair
andall,intothewagonandheadednorth.WilliamCoopersettledhiswife,herarmchair,andtheirsevenchildrenonmorethanamillionacres.Withcharacteristic
familymodesty,henamedhisspreadCooperstown.
Althoughawealthycountrysquireofthefirstorder,Cooperseniorhadthecommontouch,settlingargumentswithfriendlywrestlingmatchesandspreadingaroundthe
beerinlieuofcash.Underhisfather'sgoodnaturedguidance,youngCooperflourished.
Cooperwassuchanoutstandingstudent,infact,thatheenteredYaleUniversityin1803,whenhewasonly13yearsold.Althoughhewasa"fine,sparkling"lad,as
oneofhisprofessorsnoted,youngCooperwasnotaboveplayingaprankortwo.Schoolofficialsturnedthe
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othercheekwhenCooperblewoffaclassmate'sdoorwithgunpowder.Theywereabletoforgivethehugedebtsheranupinfashionableshops,too.Theydidhavea
bitofaproblemignoringthedonkeythatCoopertaughttositontheprofessor'schairthatstuntlandedhimonthestreet.Hehadnochoicebuttoreturntothe
familymansion.
SixDays,SevenNights
Correctlysurmisingthathewasalittlelaxinthedisciplinedepartment,Cooper'sfatherdecidedthathisyoungestsonneededafirmerhand,andsopromptlysenthim
offtosea.InOctober1806,CoopersetsailaboardtheStirling,asmallmerchantshipboundoutofNewYorkforEngland.Theycarriedaloadofflour.
Barely17yearsold,Coopertookhisplaceonthedecknexttokindlyoldsaltsscreamingwithdeliriumtremensintheendstagesofalcoholism.Thevoyagewas
uneventfultheusualpursuitbyaheavilyarmedpirateship,attemptedimpressmentbytheBritishNavy,andvariousmenoverboard.Twoyearslater,Cooperhad
learnedtheropeswellenoughtogethismidshipman'scertificate,signedbyThomasJefferson.
Cooperwashottocheckoutthebeachesandnightlifeinthewarmerclimates,andsowasbitterlydisappointedwhenhewasassignedtoaninactivebombketchlaid
upforrepairsinNewYorkHarbor.Thingsgotevenworsewithhisnextassignment:Oswego,afrontiervillageinLakeOntario,200milesfromthesea.
DownfortheCount
Fateintervened,andCooperabandonedhisfirstlove,thesea,forhissecond,SusanDeLancey,anheiresswhowaswinsomeaswellaswealthy.Duringtheir
courtship,Cooper'sfatherdied,leavingJamestheenormoussumof$50,000andashareinthe$750,00estate.JamesandSusanmarriedin1811,onlyafterhe
promisedtogiveuphisnavalcareer.
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Atfirstthemarriagewashappyaswellasprosperous,producingfourdaughters.ButinthedepressionfollowingtheWarof1812,theCooperfamilyfortune
collapsed.Tomakemattersworse,Cooper'sfiveprofligatebrothersdiedbetween1813and1819,leavingCoopertosupporttheirlargefamilies.Astheheadofthe
household,hebeggedandborrowedinavainattempttokeeptheclanafloat.
AnythingYouCanDo,ICanDoBetter
AccordingtotheCooperfamilylegend,in1821,JameswasreadinganewnovelfromEnglandwhenhethrewitasideandexclaimed,"Icouldwriteabetterbook
thanthatmyself!"WifeSusanchallengedhimtomakegoodofhisboastneveronetoturndownadare,thefollowingyearheproducedPrecaution,anovelabout
highsociety.
Thecriticsweren'tbowledover.TheyrealizedthatthenovelwaslittlemorethananotherechoofEnglishfiction,andadulloneatthat.Undaunted,Coopertriedagain.
Thistimehestruckpaydirt,producingtwoundeniablyAmericannovels:TheSpy(1821),thefirstimportanthistoricalromanceoftheAmericanRevolution,andThe
Pioneers,astoryofthefrontier.ThePioneers(1823)wasarunawaybestsellermorethan3,500copiesflewofftheshelvestheverydayitwasprinted.And
Cooperwasjustgettingstarted.
ScottFree
NextCooperchurnedoutThePilot,thefirstofhis11influentialnovelsofthesea.Thisonefinallyimpressedthecritics,atoughlotingeneral.Theygavehimthe
highestpraisetheyhad,callinghim"theAmericanScott,"comparinghisthrillingyarnstotheequallyspellbindingstoriesofEngland'sSirWalterScott.Althoughneither
writerlikedthecomparison,itdidmovethemerchandise.Cooper'smoneyproblemswereover.
TheUglyAmerican
In1826,Cooperaddedthe"Fenimore"tohisnametohonorhismother'sfamily,setoffforEuropewithhisclan,andsetupshopforthenextsevenyears.Inaddition
toseeingthesights,Cooperalienatedmostofthecivilizedworldandwroteaseriesofgoodnovels.TheseincludedThePrairie(1827)andNotionsofthe
Americans(1828).Anequalopportunityscold,hespreadaroundhisbadcheerfewpeopleorplacescould
Page53
complainthattheyhadbeenoverlookedbyhiscontentiousnature.Hewasespeciallyfondofsuinghisfriendsandneighborsandinsultingeverythingfromtheir
appearancetotheirbehavior.Inaddition,hewasespeciallyvainabouthiswriting,feelingitwasvastlysuperiortoeveryoneelse's.
Ofcourse,Cooper'senemiesstruckbackwithavengeance.Inanattempttodefendhimselffrompersonalattacksbythepressandpublic,CooperpublishedA
LettertoHisCountrymen.Nodicethisonlyaddedfueltothefire.
WhenCooperreturnedtoAmerica,hecontinuedtowriteandarouseevenmorebadfeelings.Troublestartedfromthemomenthegotofftheboat:Herefusedto
attendadinnerplannedinhishonor.Healsobeganaseriesoflawsuitsagainsthisneighborsforpicnickingonhisland.Hisawesomeliteraryproductivityandlitigation
continuedunabatedthroughtheyears,ashewroteandsueduntilhecouldnolongerholdapen.Alltold,Cooperbroughtapproximately40libelsuits,winningabout
onethirdofthem.
Cooperdiedin1851.Hisreputationdeclinedintheendofthe19thcentury,butrevivedinthe1920s.Today,hisworkcontinuestobeastrongpresenceinAmerican
fiction.
BumppandGrind
Althoughhewrotebothtalesoftheseaandnovelsofmanners,Cooper'sfamerestslargelyonTheLeatherstockingTales,aseriesoffivenovelsaboutthe
frontiersman,NattyBumppo.Here'salistofthem:
ThePioneers(1823)
TheLastoftheMohicans(1826)
ThePrairie(1827)
ThePathfinder(1840)
TheDeerslayer(1841)
EachofthefivenovelstracesaphaseinthelifeandtimesofNattyBumppo,thelastactionherooftheNewWorld.RaisedbyNativeAmericans,Bumppoisadeer
cladSuperman,fasterthanaspeedingbullet,morepowerfulthanalocomotive,andabletoracewalk50mileswithoutstoppingtotakeabreath.Healsohasanice
bodyandgreathair.ButIdigress.
Sincethebookswerewrittenoutofchronologicalorder,here'sacribsheetyoucanusetokeepthe"Nattys"straight.
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Title DateofPublication DateofAction Name Age
ThePioneers 1823 1793 Nattyor 70s

Leatherstocking
TheLastofthe 1826 1757 Hawkeye mid30s

Mohicans
ThePrairie 1827 1804 TheTrapperorThe late70sto

OldMan mid80s
ThePathfinder 1840 1759 Pathfinder late30s
TheDeerslayer 1841 1740s Deerslayer mid20s
MyHero:TheLastoftheMohicans
America'smostfamousfictionalfrontiersman,NattyBumppo,stands"aboutsixfeetinhismoccasins"andhasa"comparativelylightandslender"muscularbody.
Althoughnothandsome,he'sknownfortruth,justice,andtheAmericanway.HewaseducatedbytheDelawareIndians,whogavehimhisname(Hawkeye)because
ofhis"quickeye"inspottingadeerandhis"actyvefoot"inchasingit.
Meettheentiregang:
NattyBumppo(Hawkeye):Thelong,leanhunkstraightoutofthepagesofFieldandStream.
Chingachgook:ThecourageousandloyalMohicanchief:Hawkeye'smainman.
Uncas:ThelastoftheMohicans,Chingachgook'sson,whofallsforCora,andsheforhim.
MajorDuncanHeyward:Likenearlyallthemeninthisbook,he'shandsome,intelligent,andbrave.
Magua:Thehandsome,intelligent,brave,HuronchiefwhoseeksrevengeonColonelMunrobyturninghisfeistydaughterCoraintoaservilesquaw.
CoraMunro:ThedarkhaireddaughterofColonelMunro,equallyhandywithaflintlockandafryingpan.
AliceMunro:Cora'shalfsister,ablondbabewhoclingslikeacheapsuit.She'sDuncan'sbeloved.
ColonelMunro:TheEnglishgeneralinchargeofdefendingFortWilliams.HeeventuallyisforcedtosurrendertheForttotheFrenchwhenbackuptroopscannot
providemilitarysupport.
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DavidGamut:Theonlywussofthegroup,asingingteacher.
TheMarquisdeMontcalm:TheenterprisingFrenchgeneralwhocapturesFortWilliamHenryandallowstheHuronstomassacretheEnglish.
GeneralWebb:FortEdward'sincompetentcommander.
WhatIDidoverMySummerVacation
Time:1757
Place:NearLakeGeorge,inNewYorkColony,duringthewarbetweentheBritishandtheFrench
Whenthenovelopens,CoraandAlice,thetwobeautifuldaughtersofColonelMunro,commanderofFortWilliamHenry,aretrekkingthroughthewildernesstoward
theirfather'sheadquarters.TheyareaccompaniedbyMajorDuncanHeyward,ayoungBritishofficerfromVirginia,andDavidGamut,aConnecticutsingingmaster.
Theirguidethrough
thewoodsisatreacherousHuronIndiannamedMagua,whoclaimsthatheknowstheshortcuttotheirdestination.Hawkeye(a.k.a.NattyBumppo,a.k.a
Leatherstocking)andhistwoDelawareIndianfriendsChingachgookandhissonUncasjointhegroupandcasuallymentionthatMaguahasbeenleadingthemina
circle.
Realizingthatthejigisup,Maguaheadsforthehills.HostileHuronwarriorsattack.Wildpursuit!Hairbreadthescape!
HawkeyeandChingachgook'sExcellentAdventure
UnderHawkeye'sguidance,thegoodguyshideinacave.Theirammunitionallusedup,CoratakeschargeandinsiststhatHawkeyeandhistwoIndianfriends
escapeandseekhelp.MajorHeywardandDavidremainbehind.WithOurHerogone,Maguaandhismencapturethegoodguysandgals.Coraispromptlytiedto
astakeinpreparationfortorture.
Hawykeyecomestotherescue!HeblaststheIndianswithhistrustyrifle(called"Killdeer")andsavestheday.Inthemelee,Maguaescapes.Thegang(Hawkeye,
Chingachgook,Cora,Uncas,Alice,David,andDuncan)passthroughtheFrenchforttogettoFortWilliam.Aguardstopsthemandquestionsthem,butDuncan
foolsthembyreplyinginFrenchthattheyarefriendsoftheFrenchcrown.Theguardbuystheirruse,andthenChingachgookgoesbacktoscalptheguard.
TheEnglishsurrenderthefort,andmorethan2,000IroquoisIndians(a.k.a.Hurons)massacrethewomenandchildrenofthedefeatedgarrison.MaguagrabsAlice
andCoraandheadsforthehills.Hawkeyeandhisbuddiessetofftorescuethem.
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HawkeyeandhisbuddiesreachtheHuroncampandmeetDavidthesingingmaster,whoreportsthatAliceisintheHuroncampnearbyandCoraiswithatribeof
DelawareIndianssomedistanceaway.AidedbyHawkeye,DuncansaveshisAlice,whoheisinlovewith.
TheDelawares,ledbyUncas,Hawkeye,andChingachgook,defeattheIroquois,butCoraisfatallystabbedbyaHuron,andMaguakillsUncas.Hawkeyeandhis
noblesidekick,Chingachgook,surviveforthesequel.
SoWhyNotJustWatchtheMovie?
Invariably,TheLastoftheMohicanshasspawnedanumberoffilmversions.Itsmostrecentincarnation(1992,TwentiethCenturyFox)transformsthejolly
adventuretaleintoajollygoodromance.DanielDayLewisplaysHawkeyeandromanceshisCora,MadeleineStowe,amidlotsofbloodandscenery.It'savery
goodhairdayinthisversion.Mypersonalfavoriteisstillthe1936versionstarringRandolphScottasHawkeyeandBinnieBarnesasthevirginalAlice.Ithaslots
morebloodandthunder.Withtwogoodfilmedversionstopickfrom(andseveralnotsogoodones),whysliponthereadingglassesandopenthebook?Here's
why:
Thenovel,unlikethemovieversions,showshowCooperinterpretstheAmericanexperienceandelevatesittoepiclevel.
Inthebook,Unca'sdeathillustratesthetragedyoftheNativeAmericanencounterwithwhitecivilization.
Cooper'scharactersshowthequalitiesthatdefineAmerica:bravery,selfreliance,democracy.
Thenovelbetterillustratesthetruegrandeurofthefrontier.
Thebookischeaperthanamovieticketandlessfatteningthanallthatbutteredpopcorn.
SonofaBestseller:TheDeerslayer
Paradoxically,inthelastoftheLeatherstockingnovels,NattyBumppoistheyoungest:Whenwefirstmeethiminthisbook,he'sabout23yearsold.Here'sthewhole
cast:
NattyBumppo(herecalledDeerslayer):
Chingachgook:Thetrustedsidekick.
HurryHarryMarch:Agreedyfrontiersman.He'dmakeagoodinsidetradernowadays.
TomHutter:Yohohoandabottleofrumformerpirate,currenttrapper.
JudithHutter:Tom'sdaughterandbabeorama.
HettyHutter:Judith'ssister,agirlwithsuchChristiansimplicitythatsheaweseventheNativeAmericansintograntinghersafepassage.(She'salsoonetacoshort
ofacombinationplate.)
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Histho!HistorWahta!Wah:Chingachgook'ssignificantother,she'scalledbyeithername.
CaptainWarley:Thecavalrymantotherescue.
Rivernoak:TheenemyIroquoischief,fiercebuthonorable.
Lights!Camera!Action!
Time:1740s
Place:ThenorthernNewYorkColony
ThenovelopenswithDeerslayer(NattyBumppo)andHurryHarrytravelingtomeetChingachgookatLakeGlimmerglass,locatedinthenorthernpartoftheNew
YorkColony.AtMuskratCastle(nearaBritishfort),HurryputsthemovesonJudith,butshe'sgotathingforaBritishofficer.Ofcourse,thisisanono,sincethe
Britsaretheenemy.
AgainstDeerslayer'swishes,HurryHarryandHutterwanttoharvestsomeNativeAmericanscalpsforwhichtheyhopetobegivenabounty(money)bythecolony
andforwhichtheyareunsuccessful.ThetwowhitemenarecapturedbytheMingos(a.k.a.HuronsorIroquois),whichservesthemright.Deerslayercoolshisheels
waitingforChingachgook,who'stryingtorescueHistfromtheenemyIroquois.DeerslayermeetswiththeIroquoischiefRivernoaktoransomHurryHarryand
Hutter.Thatevening,HutterandHurryareexchangedforaransomofivorychessmen.
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WhenDeerslayerandHHreachGimmerglass,theyfindthattheMingoshavealreadyarrivedatthescene.DeerslayerracesofftohelpChingachgookrescueHist.
Aftersomerunningaround,theirquestissuccessful,whichnaturallygetstheMingosseriouslyannoyed.Tomaketheirangerquiteclear,theMingostakeNatty
prisoner.HutterandHHarerecapturedwhileseekingscalpsandinadeliciousbitofirony,Hutterhimselfisscalpedandshufflesoffthismortalcoil.
TruthorConsequences
Fromoldletters,JudithlearnsthatDaddyDearestwasnotDaddyDearestafterall,butratherareformedpiratewhomtheirmothermarriedafterbeingdesertedby
thefatherofJudithandHetty.Settingthelettersaside,JudithputsthemovesonDeerslayer,buthedoesn'ttakethebait.
DeerslayerrejoinstheIroquoisandispromptlytorturedbytomahawks,knives,andrifles.Chingachgookcomestotherescue!
Thecavalrythundersdownthehill,stirsupalotofdust,andmassacresalltheIndians.Hettyiswoundedanddies.
JudithhotfootsittomerryoldEnglandasamistressofaBritishofficerwhoseducesher.
Fifteenyearslater,DeerslayerandChingachgookreturntoGlimmerglasstofindthecastleinruins.
SoWhat'sItAllAbout?
TheDeerslayerisanedgeofyourseatadventuretale.It'salsogotaheavymessage:NattyBumppobecomestherepresentativeheroofaculturethatblends
qualitiestheEuropeansbroughttotheNewWorldwithqualitiesofthefrontier.Withoutthismessage,thenovelwouldruntheriskofbeingjustanotherwonderfully
divertingwildride.
Judithisthemodelforthefallenwoman.Cooper'sinfluencewasstrong:JudithcomesbackasthestraightAstudentHesterPrynneinNathanielHawthorne'sThe
ScarletLetterandlaterasCharlotteStant,theruthlessadventuressinHenryJames'TheGoldenBowl.
TheBrokenTwigSeries
''CooperisthegreatestartistinthedomainofromanticfictionyetproducedinAmerica."[Britishnovelist]WilkieCollins
"Oneoftheverygreatestcharactersinfiction,NattyBumppo"ProfessorBranderMatthews
"Thedefectsinboththesetalesarecomparativelyslight.Theywerepureworksofart."ProfessorLounsbury
Page59
Sothejury'sinorisit?
Inhisfamousessay."FenimoreCooper'sLiteraryOffenses,"MarkTrain(SamuelClemens)assertsthatCooper'swritinghassomedefects.Well,maybemorethan
some."InoneplaceinDeerslayer,andintherestrictedplaceoftwothirdsofapage.Cooperhasscored114offensesagainstliteraryartoutofapossible115.It
breakstherecord,"Twainclaims.
HerearefiveofCooper'smajorliteraryoffenses,accordingtoTwain:
1."Theyrequirethepersonagesinataleshallbealive,exceptinthecaseofcorpses,andthatalwaysthereadershallbeabletotellthecorpsesfromtheothers.But
thisdetailhasbeenoverlookedintheDeerslayertale."
2."Usetherightword,notitssecondcousin."
3."Thatataleshallaccomplishsomethingandarrivesomewhere.ButtheDeerslayertaleaccomplishednothingandarrivesintheair."
4."Theyrequirethattheepisodesofataleshallbenecessarypartsofthetale,andshallhelptodevelopit.ButastheDeerslayertaleisnotatale,andaccomplishes
nothingandarrivesnowhere,theepisodeshavenorightfulplaceinthework,sincetherewasnothingforthemtodevelop."
5."Theyrequirethatcrassstupiditiesshallnotbeplayeduponthereaderas'thecraftofthewoodsman,thedelicateartoftheforest,'byeithertheauthororthe
peopleinthetale.ButthisruleispersistentlyviolatedintheDeerslayertale.
WhileCooper'snovelisticshortcomingsareclearawkward,stiltedlanguageillogicalplots,andlameattemptsathumorsoarehisveryrealachievements.Cooper
openedupnewAmericanscenesandthemesforfiction.Hespreadtheword,too,byestablishingtheBreadandCheeseClub,wherehebecamethecenterofagroup
ofinfluentialwritersandartists.WhatWashingtonIrvingdidfortheshortstory,JamesFenimoreCooperdidforthenovel.HeputAmericaontheworldliterarymap,
gentlereader.
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Chapter6
EdgarAllanPoeisdead.HediedinBaltimorethedaybeforeyesterday.Thisannouncementwillstartlemany,butfewwillbegrievedbyit.Thepoetwasknown,personallyorby
reputation,inallthiscountryhehadreadersinEngland,andinseveralofthestatesofContinentalEuropebuthehadfewornofriendsandtheregretsforhisdeathwillbe
suggestedprincipallybytheconsiderationthatinhimliteraryarthaslostoneofitsmostbrilliantbuterraticstars.
TheNewYorkTribune,October9,1849
SowroteEdgarAllanPoe'ssupposed"friend"andliteraryexecutor,RufusWilmotGriswold.
Inthischapter,you'llfindouthowtheoriginalhardluckkidmanagedtocreatethemodeshortstory,thedetectivestory,andwritesomelandmarkpoetrydespite
beingdealtareallybadhandinthegameoflife.
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ARockyStart
PoewasborntotwostrugglingactorswholivedinaBostonapartmentsosmalltheyhadtogointothehalltochangetheirminds.Povertyaside,Poedidn'thavea
goodstart:HismotherdiedoftuberculosisandhisfatherofalcoholismbeforePoewasoutofdiapers.TheorphanwasthenadoptedbyJohnandFrancesAllanof
Richmond,Virginia.Johnwasaprosperousmerchant.
Francesbondedimmediatelywiththelad,butJohnkepthisdistance.Nonetheless,JohngaveEdgarthefinesteducation,sendinghimtotopnotchschoolsinAmerica
andEurope.Edgarexcelledatbothsportsandstudies.Eventhoughhewasviciouslytauntedbecauseofhislowlybirth,hemadeanumberofclosefriends.
Whenhewas17,PoeenrolledintheUniversityofVirginia.Withinadayofhisarrival,Poemanagedtogambleawayhisentireterm'sallowance.Justafewmonths
later,heowed$2,500ingamblingdebts.TheskillPoelackedincardshemorethanmadeupwithindrinking,andhemanagedtostaydrunkfortheentiresemester.
Astonishingly,heacedhisclasses,earningtheUniversity'shighestdistinction.
UnimpressedwithEdgar'sextracurricularactivities,JohnAllanyankedhisdrunkencardsharpsonoutofcollegefasterthanyoucansay"Deal'emandpourmeastiff
one."Soonafter,EdgarlefthomeforBoston.
BeatIttoBeantown
BostonwasthenAmerica'scenterofpublishing,andPoewasdeterminedtowritetheGreatAmericanNovelorSomething.Athisownexpense,Poepublished
TamerlaneandOtherPoems.Sincehedidn'thaveawholelotofsparechange,only50copieswereprinted.Unfortunately,thebookdidn'tevenmakearipplein
theliterarypond.Desperate,PoeenlistedintheArmy.Hewas18yearsold.
Althoughhedidwellsoldiering,Poesoonrealizedthathewasnotcutfromkhaki.Logicdemandedadifferenttack,soPoedecidedtoenterWestPoint.ItwasJuly
1830.Withinsixmonths,Poeknewhehadmadeabadcareermove.Aftergettinghimselfcourtmartialedforhisdrinkingandgambling,PoeheadedfortheBig
Apple,wherehemanagedtogetabookofpoemspublishedatsomeoneelse'sexpense.Likehispreviousattempt,thisbooksunkasfastastheTitanic.Hetookoff
toBaltimoretocontinuewritingstories.
GettingtheShortEndoftheStick
Aftermonthsoflivinginastyletowhichnoonewouldliketobecomeaccustomed,Poewon$50andsomerecognitionforhispoetry.Healsofellinlovewithhis
preteencousinVirginia.Virginiawaspale,darkhaired,andasdumbastoast.In1835,whenPoewas26,hemarriedVirginia,whohadjustturned13.
Meanwhile,JohnAllanhaddied,leavingPoecompletelyoutofhiswill.FortherestofPoe'slife,hisfamily(nowincludingVirginia'smotheraswellashischildbride)
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shuttledbackandforthamongNewYork,Philadelphia,Baltimore,andRichmond,survivingmainlyonbreadandmolassesasPoetriedtomakeitasawriter.His
astonishingtalentsecuredhimanumberofjobsasaneditorandcriticformagazinesandnewspapershisequallyastonishinginabilitytoholdhisboozegothimfired
fromthemall.
TheSorrowandthePity
ThatPoemanagedtowriteanythingatallisastoundingthathewrotesomuchofsuchvalueisnothingshortofremarkable.Poelookedsobadwhenhepersonally
submittedthemanuscriptof"TheRaven"toGraham'sMagazinethateventhoughtheeditorsrejectedthepoem,theytookupacollectionof$15togivehim(he
eventuallygot$10for"TheRaven"fromtheNewYorkMirror.)
Virginia'sdeathfromtuberculosisin1847sentPoeintoadrunkentailspin.Twoyearslater,Poedecidedtotrydryingoutforawhile,buthisgoodintentionslasted
onlyafewhours.Hefelloffthewagonwithsucharesoundingcrashthathediedthreedayslater,inthegutter.Hisbodywasn'tclaimedforseveraldays.
"Thisdeathwasasuicide,"FrenchpoetCharlesBaudelaireremarked,"asuicidepreparedforalongtime."
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GreatBallsofFire
Giventhecircumstancesofhislife,it'snotastonishingthatPoemanagedtoscrewupfrombeyondthegrave.Themanheappointedhisliteraryexecutor,Rufus
Griswold,wroteaviciousobit,claimingthatPoehadbeenexpelledfromcollege,committedplagiarism,anddrunkhimselftodeath.
Poe'sgeniuswasnevertangiblyrewardedinhislifetime.Infact,hewasbarelytoleratedbytheliteraryestablishment.Forexample:
UneasywithPoe'sstronguseofrhythm,thefamous19thcenturyphilosopherRalphWaldoEmersondubbedhim"theJingleMan."
NovelistHenryJamesthoughtanenthusiasmforPoewas"themarkofadecidedlyprimitivestageofreflection."
PoetT.S.EliotsaidPoe'sintellectwasthatofa"highlygiftedyoungpersonbeforepuberty."
WriterJamesRussellLowellcharacterizedPoeas"threefifthsgeniusandtwofifthssheerfudge."
"Tome,Poe'sproseisunreadablelikeJaneAusten's,"MarkTwainsaid."No,thereisadifference.Icouldreadhisproseonsalary,butnotJane's."
Slamsaside,nootherAmericanwriter,withthepossibleexceptionofMarkTwain,hasbeenasinfluentialasPoeontheAmericanconsciousness,especiallyinhisuse
ofthesupernatural,strongrhythm,andstrikingimages.HerearejustafewofthewriterswhomPoehasinfluenced:
NewEnglandpoetE.A.Robinson
NovelistFrankNorris
NovelistTheodoreDreiser
SouthernwriterWilliamFaulkner
BritishmysterywriterSirArthurConanDoyle
IrishplaywrightandcriticGeorgeBernardShaw
HorrormasterStephenKing
WelikePoeforhiswhizbangpoemssuchas"TheRaven,""Ulalume,"and"TheBells,''andhishorrortales,including"TheBlackCat,""TheFalloftheHouseof
Usher,""ThePitandthePendulum,"and"TheTellTaleHeart."Scholarscelebratehisliterarycriticism(thebulkofhiswriting),includinghistakenoprisonersreviews
andhisruminationsonwriting.
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EventhoughPoemarriedjailbaitandingestedeverycontrolledsubstanceshortofplutonium,hestillfoundtimetocreatethemodernshortstoryandthedetective
story,andwrotesomeniftypoetry.
FortheBirds:TheRaven
TheRaven
Onceuponamidnightdreary,whileIpondered,weakandweary,
Overmanyaquaintandcuriousvolumeofforgottenlore,
WhileInodded,nearlynapping,suddenlytherecameatapping,
Asofsomeonegentlyrapping,rappingatmychamberdoor.
'Tissomevisitor,'Imuttered,'tappingatmychamberdoor
Onlythisandnothingmore.'
Ah,distinctlyIrememberitwasinthebleakDecember,
Andeachseparatedyingemberwroughtitsghostuponthefloor.
EagerlyIwishedthemorrowvainlyIhadsoughttoborrow
FrommybookssurceaseofsorrowsorrowforthelostLenore
FortherareandradiantmaidenwhomtheangelsnameLenore
Namelesshereforevermore.
"TheRaven"isaballadof18sixlinestanzasthat'saboutassubtleasPamelaAnderson.Astheseopeningtwostanzashint,"TheRaven"describesthenightmarish
storyofayoungmanmourningthedeathofhisbeloved(Lenore).Ashemourns,he'sdrivenmadbyaraven.Thebirdisnomotormouthallitcansayis
"Nevermore"soweknowthenarratorhasadiceygriponrealitytobeginwith.Betyou'resurprised.Buthey,we'reinPoecountrynow.
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Here'sthebreakdown:
Stanzas1to7describetheeeriesettingandthenarrator'sshakygriponreality.
Stanzas8to11showthenarratorchattingupthebird,butallthebirdsaysis"Nevermore."
Stanzas12to13revealhowthenarratortreatsthebirdlikeafeatheredOuijaboard,bombardingitwithquestions.
Stanza14to18buildtotheclimax.Ashisfrenzymounts,thenarratorasksthebirdifLenorewillreturn.Thebirdrepliesonly,"Nevermore."Thenarratorthen
demandsthatthebirdleave,ourfeatheredfriendrefusestobudge,andthenarratorslipsoffthetrack.
Here'sthelaststanza.Tryreadingthisonelateatnight
AndtheRaven,neverflitting,stillissitting,stillissitting
OnthepallidbustofPallasjustabovemychamberdoor
Andhiseyeshavealltheseemingofademonthatisdreaming,
Andthelamplighto'erhimstreamingthrowshisshadowonthefloor
Andmysoulfromoutthatshadowthatliesfloatingonthefloor
Shallbeliftednevermore!
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Thedramaticjuxtapositionoftheblackbirdperchedonthewhitebust,centraltotheplayoflightandshadow,helpsthepoemmovetoitsfrenziedclimax,the
speaker'soverwhelmingsorrowandinsanedesperation.
ThePhilosophyofComposition
"TheRaven"isPoe'smostfamouspoembecauseheimmortalizeditscreationinthepivotalessay"ThePhilosophyofComposition."Insodoing,hesettheground
rulesfor19thcenturypoetry.
Poe'sessayexplainshowthepoem'ssubjectandmoodareunderscoredbyitsrhythmandrhymes.ItalsospellsoutPoe'sbeliefthatapoem'sbeautyisanendunto
itself.
Poe'srulesareclear:
1.Firstcomestheeffect:
"IprefercommencingwiththeconsiderationofaneffectIsaytomyself,inthefirstplace,"Oftheinnumerableeffects,orimpressions,ofwhichtheheart,theintellect,or(more
generally)thesoulissusceptible,whatoneshallI,onthepresentoccasion,select?"
2.Thenwegetlength:
"Theinitialconsiderationwasthatofextent.Ifanyliteraryworkistoolongtobereadatonesitting,wemustbecontenttodispensewiththeimmenselyimportanteffectderivable
fromunityofimpressionfor,iftwosittingsberequired,theaffairsoftheworldinterfere,andeverythingliketotalityisatoncedestroyedIreachedatoncewhatIconceived
theproperlengthformyintendedpoemalengthofaboutonehundredlines.Itis,infact,ahundredandeight."
3.Nextcomesimpression:
"Mynextthoughtconcernedthechoiceofanimpression,oreffect,tobeconveyedThatpleasurewhichisatoncethemostintense,themostelevating,andthemostpureis,I
believe,foundinthecontemplationofthebeautiful."
4.Thentone:
"Mynextquestionreferredtothetoneofitshighestmanifestationandallexperiencehasshownthatthistoneisoneofsadness.Beautyofwhateverkindinitssupreme
developmentinvariablyexcitesthesensitivesoultotears.Melancholyisthusthemostlegitimateofallthepoeticaltones."
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5.Finally,thesubject:
"Now,neverlosingsightoftheobjectIaskedmyself"Ofallmelancholytopicswhat,accordingtotheuniversalunderstandingofmankind,isthemostmelancholy?"Death,
wastheobviousreply."Andwhen,"Isaid,"isthismostmelancholyoftopicsmostpoetical?"FromwhatIhavealreadyexplainedatsomelengththeanswerherealsois
obvious''WhenitmostcloselyalliesitselftoBeauty:thedeaththenofabeautifulwomanisunquestionablythemostpoeticaltopicintheworld,andequallyisitbeyonddoubt
thatthelipsbestsuitedforsuchtopicarethoseofabereavedlover."
Theidealpoem,therefore,hasasingleeffect,canbereadinonesitting,concernsthecontemplationofthebeautiful,issad,anddealswiththedeathofabeautiful
woman.Let'sseehowPoeputtheorytopracticeinanotherofhiswellknownpoems,"AnnabelLee."
AnnabelLee
"AnnabelLee"tellstheusualPoestoryboylovesgirl,girldies,boyspendseverynightinatomblyingnexttoherdeadbody.Keepinmind,GentleReader,thatthis
girlhasbeendeadforyears(manyandmanyayearago,infact).Youcaninterpretthispoemaseitheranadmirabletestimonytoeverlastingloveortherhyming
ravingsofapsychopath.Here'sthepoem:Judgeforyourself.
AnnabelLee
Itwasmanyandmanyayearago,
Inakingdombythesea,
Thatamaidentherelivedwhomyoumayknow
BythenameofAnnabelLee
Andthismaidenshelivedwithnootherthought
Thantoloveandbelovedbyme.
Iwasachildandshewasachild,
Inthiskingdombythesea
Butwelovedwithalovethatwasmorethanlove
IandmyAnnabelLee
Withalovethatthewingedseraphsofheaven
Covetedherandme.
Andthiswasthereasonthat,longago,
Inthiskingdombythesea,
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Awindblewoutofacloud,chilling
MybeautifulAnnabelLee
Sothatherhighbornkinsmencame
Andboreherawayfromme,
Toshutherupinasepulchre,
Inthiskingdombythesea.
Theangels,nothalfsohappyinheaven,
Wentenvyingherandme
Yes!thatwasthereason(asallmenknow,
Inthiskingdombythesea)
Thatthewindcameoutofthecloudbynight,
ChillingandkillingmyAnnabelLee.
Butourloveitwasstrongerbyfarthanthelove
Ofthosewhowereolderthanwe
Ofmanyfarwiserthanwe
Andneithertheangelsinheavenabove,
Northedemonsdownunderthesea,
Caneverdissevermysoulfromthesoul
OfthebeautifulAnnabelLee.
Forthemoonneverbeams,withoutbringingmedreams
OfthebeautifulAnnabelLee
AndthestarsneverrisebutIfeelthebrighteyes
OfthebeautifulAnnabelLee
Andso,allthenighttide,Iliedownbytheside
Ofmydarlingmydarlingmylifeandmybride,
Inhersepulchretherebythesea,
Inhertombbythesoundingsea.
"AnnabelLee"isfamousforitshauntingrhythmsandlullingrepetition.Therhymescapturethecadenceoftheocean.Noticehowtherepetitionof"sea,""Lee,"and
"me"inducesleepbetterthanamugofhotmilk.Linessuchas''Butwelovedwithalovethatwasmorethanlove"createadreamyfeelingwiththeglidingconsonants
m,n,l,ands.
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"AnnabelLee"alsofitsPoe'sstandardsforasuccessfulpoem,asthefollowingchartshows:
Rule Example
Singleeffect Lossandsadness.
Readinonesitting Youjustdid.
Contemplationofbeauty Theirrarelove.
Melancholytone Boy,isiteversad.
Deathofabeautifulwoman "ChillingandkillingmyAnnabelLee."
EdgarAllanPoe'spoetrywasenoughtoputhimontheliterarylandscape,buthealsowroteextraordinaryandimportantshortstories.Let'sseehowPoe'sshort
storieshelpedcreatewhatweknowas"AmericanLiterature."
TheCaskofAmontillado
"ThethousandinjuriesofFortunatoIhadborneasIbestcould,butwhenheventureduponinsultIvowedrevenge.You,whosowellknowthenatureofmysoul,will
notsuppose,however,thatIgaveutterancetoathreat.AtlengthIwouldbeavengedthiswasapointdefinitivelysettledbuttheverydefinitivenesswithwhichit
wasresolvedprecludedtheideaofrisk.Imustnotonlypunishbutpunishwithimpunity.Awrongisunredressedwhenretributionovertakesitsredresser.Itisequally
unredressedwhentheavengerfailstomakehimselffeltassuchtohimwhohasdonethewrong."
What'sthecrime?What'sthedifference?InaPoestory,it'sthemadnessthatmatters.Andalongwiththemadness,readersgetagenerousdollopofwhiteknuckle
suspenseandsomegorgeouswriting.Howdoeshedoit?
Poe'sSingleEffect
Bystrivingforasingleeffect,everycharacter,detail,andincidentinthestoryhelpscreatethemood."Inthewholecomposition"Poewrotein"ThePhilosophyof
Composition,""thereshouldbenowordwritten,ofwhichthetendency,directorindirect,isnottothepreestablisheddesign.''Andithastohappenfromthevery
beginningofthestory.Poeasserted:Ifawriter's"veryinitialsentencetendnottotheoutbringingofthiseffect,thenhehasfailedinhisfirststep."
Morethananyotherwriter,Poeisresponsiblefortheemergenceoftheshortstoryasapopularandrespectedliteraryform.Poewasthefirstwritertoclassifyand
definetheshortstoryasadistinctliterarygenreandarguethattheshortstorydeservesthesamestatusasthepoemandthenovel.Asyoureadthefollowingexcerpt
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from"TheCaskofAmontillado,"seehowPoeinstantlyplungesusintotheterrifyingmindofamadman.
NoMoreMr.NiceGuy
"Itwasaboutdusk,oneeveningduringthesuprememadnessofthecarnivalseason,thatIencounteredmyfriend.Heaccostedmewithexcessivewarmth,forhehadbeen
drinkingmuch
Isaidtohim'MydearFortunato,youareluckilymet.Howremarkablywellyouarelookingtoday.ButIhavereceivedapipeofwhatpassesforAmontillado[atypeof
sherry],andIhavemydoubts.'
'How?'saidhe,'Amontillado?Apipe?Impossible!Andinthemiddleofthecarnival!'"
Toachievehisrevenge,MontressortrickshisenemyFortunatointoawinecellarbyplayingonhisvanityabouthisknowledgeoffinesherry.Thestorystartsthis
way
Drunkasaskunk,FortunatofallsforthebaitandfollowsMontressorintothewinecellar/catacomb.Montressorlureshimdeeperanddeeperintothedampcavern.
Whentheyreachtheendofthetunnel,MontressorspringsforwardandchainsFortunatotothegranite.Fortunatoistooastoundedtoresist.Inaflash,Montressor
hasuncoveredthepileofstoneandmortarhehadconvenientlystashedthereearlierandwithchillingindustrywallshisfriendin.
BythetimeMontressorbuildsthesecondtier,Fortunatoismoaningbythefourth,he'sscreamingandclankinghischains.Nonetheless,Montressorkeepsworking.
Bymidnight,he'sjustaboutfinished.Rightbeforehelaysthelastbricktoentombhis"friend"alive,Fortunatoscreamsout,"FortheloveofGod,Montressor!"
"Yes,"Montressorreplies,''fortheloveofGod!"
Thestoryends
"Ihastenedtomakeanendofmylabor.IforcedthelaststoneintoitspositionIplastereditup.AgainstthenewmasonryIreerectedtheoldrampartofbones.Forthehalfof
acenturynomortalhasdisturbedthem.Inpacerequiescat!['Mayherestinpeace!']"
Poedidn'tstopthere.RememberthatPoeinventedthemysterystorygenre,too.Readontofindouthow.
GiltTrip:TheGoldBug
ThestorytakesplaceontheimaginarySullivan'sIsland.Whilelookingforentomologicalspecimens,WilliamLegrandfindsanentirelynewinsect,agoldbug.When
he
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getshome,Legranddrawsapictureofthebugforhisfriend,thenarrator,toexamine.Whenhisfriendmocksthedrawingasresemblingaskull,Legrandtakes
anotherlook,pales,andshovesthesketchinhiswallet.Amonthlater,Jupiter,Legrand'sservant,visitsthenarratorwiththenewsthathismasterhasgone'roundthe
bend.
Carryingthegoldbug,which,itwasdiscovered,actuallyexisted,thenarratoraccompaniesLegrandandJupiter(hey,someonehastotellthestory)aroundtheisland
insearchoftheplacewhereLegrandorginallyfoundthegoldbug.Atthispoint,thegoldbugseemssanerthanLegrand.Thingsdon'tgetmuchbetterwhenLegrand
suddenlyordersJupitertoclimbagianttuliptree.
Neartheendoftheseventhbranchofthetree,Jupiterfindsahumanskull.
OnLegrand'sorders,Jupiterdropsthegoldbugthroughtheskull'slefteyesocket.Aftercompletingaseriesoffeverishmeasurements,Legrandbeginstodig.Voil!
Atreasurechest!
Legrandthenexplainshowhesolvedthemystery,foundthetreasure,andlivedhappilyeverafter,evenwithouthisCaptainAmericamagicdecoderring.(You'llhave
toreadthestoryyourselftofindoutthedetails!)
DickLit
Thegenerallackoflivingentombments,screamingmaniacs,andbloodylimbsin"TheGoldBug"isratherstrange,whenyouconsiderwhotheauthoris.Therearen't
anychains,decayingmansions,orthunderstorms,either.WasPoefinallytakingtherightmedication?Nope.Instead,hewasinventingawholenewgenre:the
detectivestory.Hewas34yearsold.
"TheGoldBug,"oneofPoe'sbestknownstories,belongstoasmallgroupofstorieshedubbed"talesofratiocination,"storiesinwhichlogicisusedtosolvea
mystery.Otherexamplesinclude
"MurdersintheRueMorgue"
"TheMysteryofMarieRog[ct]et"
"ThePurloinedLetter"
ThesestoriesdifferfromPoe'shorrortalesintwokeyways:languageandplot.Here'sacribsheet:
Element DetectiveStories HorrorTales
Language Unemotionalandrational Emotional,shrill
Plot Actioninfirstpart Buildstoclimax
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PART2
THENEWENGLANDRENAISSANCE(18401855)
"WhenNaturehasworktobedone,shecreatesageniustodoit."
RalphWaldoEmerson,Nature
Elaboratetheorieshavebeendevisedtoexplainwhysuddenburstsofcreativityoccuratcertainplacesandtimes.InNewEnglandfrom1840to1855,agroupof
writersmadeanastonishingcontributiontoAmericanletters.Theirnamesloomlargeonournationalconsciousness:RalphWaldoEmerson,HenryDavidThoreau,
NathanielHawthorne,andHermanMelville.
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Chapter7
Howmanyofthesequotationshaveyouheard?
"Theonlywaytohaveafriendistobeone."Emerson
"Tobegreatistobemisunderstood."Emerson
"Lifeonlyavails,notthehavinglived."Emerson
"Thatgovernmentisbestwhichgovernsnotatall."Thoreau
"Ifamandoesnotkeeppacewithhiscompanions,perhapsitisbecausehehearsadifferentdrummer.Lethimsteptothemusicwhichhehears,however
measuredorfaraway."Thoreau
"Themassofmenleadlivesofquietdesperation."Thoreau
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RalphWaldoEmersonandHenryDavidThoreaucontributedmorethansoundbitestoournationalconsciousness.Theycreatedanewphilosophy,
transcendentalism,whichisresponsibleforAmerica'ssturdyoptimismanddeterminedselfreliance.AddThoreau'sguidebookforlife,Walden,andhishandbook
forrebellion,"CivilDisobedience,"andyou'vegotagiantstepforwardforAmericanculture.Inthischapter,you'lllearnallaboutEmerson.I'vesavedhismainman
Henryforthenextchapter.
Transcendentalism
"Therearealwaystwoparties:theestablishmentandthemovement."
fromNature
Thehooplaovertranscendentalismstartedaround1820,whenagroupofyoungUnitarianministersbecameagitatedthatthepartylinehadbecometoorationaland
lackedtheessentialsofareligiousexperienceintuition,emotion,andmystery.
Transcendentalismdidn'tdevelopinavacuumasimilarphilosophicalmovementcalledromanticismhadalreadyoccurredinEnglandandGermany.TheRomantic
movementsupportedindividualworth,thegoodnessofhumanity,thegloryofcommunionwithnature,andindividualfreedomofexpression.Thisappealedto
AmericansbeginningtochafeattherestrictionsofanalreadydecliningPuritanism.
MakingtheAList
LikeWoodstock,the1969musiclovein,theTranscendentalmovementwasbrief,messy,andinfluentialoutofproportiontoitssize.TheTranscendentalparty
kickedoffin1836withtheformationoftheTranscendentalClubinBoston.Thecorememberswere
WriterRalphWaldoEmerson
Writer/naturalistHenryDavidThoreau
FeministwriterandlecturerMargaretFuller
UnitarianpreacherandsocialreformerTheodoreParker
EducatorBronsonAlcott
Philosopher,minister,andauthorWilliamElleryChanning
GeorgeRipley,Unitarianminister,leaderofthetranscendentalists,andcontributortoTheDial
ElizabethPalmerPeabody,publisherofTheDial
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Thegrouppublishedaslendermagazine,TheDial,andsomeofthemembersgotalittlerchummieratBrookFarm,acommunethatsetthepaceforthecoeddorms
tofollow.
Philosophy101
Sowhatistranscendentalism?Afloorwax?Abreathmint?Alaxative?Actually,it'saphilosophy.HerearetheBigThreebeliefsofthetranscendentalists:
1.There'sadirectconnectionor"correspondence"betweentheuniverseandtheindividualsoul.Asaresult,Natureiswhereit'sat.Natureisthegospelofthenew
faith.AsEmersonwroteinhis"DivinitySchoolAddress,"
Thefirstintimeandthefirstinimportanceoftheinfluencesuponthemindisthatofnature.Everyday,thesunand,aftersunset,nightandherstars.Everthewindsblowever
thegrassgrows.Everyday,menandwomen,conversing,beholdingandbeholden.Thescholarisheofallmenwhomthisspectaclemostengages.Hemustsettleitsvalueinhis
mind.Whatisnaturetohim?Thereisneverabeginning,thereisneveranend,totheinexplicablecontinuityofthiswebofGod,butalwayscircularpowerreturninginto
itself.Thereinitresembleshisownspirit,whosebeginning,whoseending,henevercanfindsoentire,soboundless.And,infine,theancientprecept,"Knowthyself,"andthe
modemprecept,"Studynature,"becomeatlastonemaxim.
2.Bycontemplatingobjectsinnature,peoplecantranscendtheworldanddiscoverunionwiththeOverSoul(alsoknownastheIdealorSupremeMind)thatunites
usall.
AsEmersonsaidinNature,
thecurrentsoftheUniversalBeingcirculatethroughme,
IampartorparcelofGod.
3.Followyourownintuitionandownbeliefs,howeverdivergentfromthesocialnormtheymaybe.Sinceallpeopleareinherentlygood,themantraran,the
individual'sintuitiveresponsetoanygivensituationwillbetherightthingtodo.Here'swherewegetourrobuststrainofselfreliance.AsEmersonsaid(yes,alsoin
Nature),
"Ifthesinglemanplanthimselfindomitablyonhisinstincts,andthereabide,thehugeworldwillcomeroundtohim."
Thetranscendentalistswereanequalopportunitygroup.Sowhatifsomeadherentssawtranscendentalismasasinglemindedcommitmenttoimprovethelotofthe
poorandoppressed?Nottoworryinthetranscendentalists'democracyofintellect,youcouldinterpretthemovementanywayyouwanted.Emersonevenhada
sloganforit:
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"Afoolishconsistencyisthehobgoblinoflittleminds,adoredbylittlestatesmanandphilosophersanddivines."
SinceEmersongotthetranscendentalballrollingandall,let'stakealookattheinsideskinnyonthistremendouslyinfluentialpoet/philosopher.
Where'sWaldo?
"Nothinggreatwaseverachievedwithoutenthusiasm."
from"Circles"
Happilymarried,kindtodogsandkids,thekindofguyyou'dcalltohelpyouunclogthestormdrains,Emersonledatotallyuprightandconventionallife.
Nevertheless,thisquiet,conventionalmanespousedideasthatwereneithercautiousnorconventional.EveryAmericanwriterofEmerson'seraandeveryAmerican
writertofollowhadtocometotermswithEmerson'sbeliefthatknowledgeoffundamentalrealitywasderivedthroughintuitionratherthanthroughsensory
experience.
Onthelowendofthescale,HermanMelvillemockedEmersoninhisnovelTheConfidenceManasaphilosophicalfraudontheotherhand,Thoreau,Walt
Whitman,andEmilyDickinsonworshippedhimasafountofinspiration.Sowhowasthisman?Whatforcesshapedhislife?
Emersonwaseightyearsoldwhenhisfather,aUnitarianminister,died.DeterminedthatherfoursonswouldattendHarvard,thewidowEmersontookinboardersto
makethetuitionmoney.
EmersongotintoandthroughHarvarddespitenotbeingthestrongeststudent(theyclearlyhadn'tinventedtheSATsyet),earningadegreeindivinity.Emerson
celebratedhisordinationatage26in1829bymarryinghissweetie,EllenTucker.Theywerebyallaccountsawellmatchedpair.Unfortunately,Ellendiedof
tuberculosislessthantwoyearslater.Griefstricken,EmersonturnedinhiscassockandsetoffforEurope.
Nature
"HeisgreatwhoiswhatheisfromNature,andwhoneverremindsusofothers."
fromNature
Whenalegacyfromhiswife'sestategrantedhimfinancialfreedom,EmersonreturnedtoConcord,MassachusettsfromEurope.In1834hemarriedLydiaJackson
andstartedwriting.
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Hisfirstwork,Nature,didlittletoestablishhisliteraryreputationatfirst,atleastinpartbecauseEmersonpublisheditanonymously.Thepublicationdidbecomethe
unofficialmanifestooftheTranscendentalClub,foundedin1836,whichkickedofftheTranscendentalpartyandeventuallytransformedtheAmericanidentity.
ThislongessayisEmerson'sI'mokayyou'reokayhymntoindividualism,inwhichheexplainshowNature'sgreenbreastcanrestoreourconfidenceandreleaseour
powers,asreligiononcedid.Thebasicconcept:NatureisGod'sworkmadevisibletohumanity."ThewholeofNatureisametaphorofthehumanmind,"hewrote.
"Therelationbetweenthemindandmatterisnotfanciedbysomepoets,butstandsinthewillofGod,andsoisfreetobeknownbyallmen."
InEmerson'sownwords:
"Crossingabarecommon,insnowpuddles,attwilight,underacloudedsky,withouthavinginmythoughtsanyoccurrenceofspecialgoodfortune,Ihaveenjoyedaperfect
exhilaration.Iamgladtothebrinkoffear.Inthewoodstoo,amancastsoffhisyears,asthesnakehisslough,andatwhatperiodsoeveroflife,isalwaysachild.Inthewoods,is
perpetualyouth.WithintheseplantationsofGod,adecorumandsanctityreign,aperennialfestivalisdressed,andtheguestseesnothowheshouldtireoftheminathousand
years.Inthewoods,wereturntoreasonandfaith.ThereIfeelthatnothingcanbefallmeinlife,nodisgrace,nocalamity,(leavingmemyeyes,)whichnaturecannotrepair.
Standingonthebareground,myheadbathedbytheblitheair,andupliftedintoinfinitespace,allmeanegotismvanishes."
"IbecomeatransparenteyeballIamnothingIseeallthecurrentsoftheUniversalBeingcirculatethroughmeIampartorparticleofGod.Thenameofthenearestfriend
soundsthenforeignandaccidental:tobebrothers,tobeacquaintances,masterorservant,isthenatrifleandadisturbance.Iamtheloverofuncontainedandimmortalbeauty.
Inthewilderness,Ifindsomethingmoredearandconnatethaninstreetsorvillages.Inthetranquillandscape,andespeciallyinthedistantlineofthehorizon,manbeholds
somewhatasbeautifulashisownnature."
EmersonconcludedthatthewaytoGod'struthisbycommunicatingwithnature,notthroughreason.Thisworksespeciallywellifyoufailedgeometrybutacedearthscience.
TheAmericanScholar
Emerson's1837speechtoPhiBetaKappaatHarvard,"TheAmericanScholar,"expressedthepracticalaspectsoftranscendentalism.Thespeechmadeahuge
splashfromtheverystart.OliverWendellHolmes,noslouchwithapenhimself,calledthespeech"ourintellectualDeclarationofIndependence,"whichisprecisely
whatEmersonhadinmind.
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ItwasacallforAmericanintellectualstotrusttheirindividualityandactasnoblerepresentativestotheworld.ItseffectwasnotunlikethatofGoddeliveringthe
tabletstoMoses,onlythesetabletshelpedestablishanationalconsciousness,notareligion.
Inhisspeech,EmersonproddedthestudentstobecomemoreconfidentintheirabilitiesandtotakeprideinAmericanism:"Wehavelistenedtoolongtothecourtly
musesofEuropeWewillwalkonourownfeet,wewillworkwithourownhands,wewillspeakourownminds."
Themaininfluencesonthescholar'seducationarenature,books,andaction,Emersondeclared.Scholarswhoarefreeandbravewillberewardedamplytheirminds
willbealteredbythetruthstheydiscover.
DivinitySchoolAddress
Inthisoration,Emersondeclaredthattruereligionresideswithintheindividual,notinChristianityorinthechurch.Emersonsaid,"It[thetruth]cannotbereceivedat
secondhand.Trulyspeaking,itisnotinstruction,butprovocation,thatIcanreceivefromanothersoul."
AccordingtoEmerson,sinceeveryonehasequalaccesstotheDivineSpirit,allthatpeopleneedinordertovalidatereligioustruthistheirinnerexperience.Here's
howEmersonputit:
"Meantime,whilstthedoorsofthetemplestandopen,nightandday,beforeeveryman,andtheoraclesofthistruthceasenever,itisguardedbyonestemconditionthis,
namelyitisanintuition.Itcannotbereceivedatsecondhand.Trulyspeaking,itisnotinstruction,butprovocation,thatIcanreceivefromanothersoul.Whathe
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announces,Imustfindtrueinme,orwhollyrejectandonhisword,orashissecond,behewhohemay,Icanacceptnothing.''
Notsurprisingly,thisdidn'tsitwellwithaflockoffreshlymintedministerswhohadjustspentthebestyearsoftheirliveslockedinastuffyclassroomlearningtheology.Emerson
wasbrandedaninfidelandbarredfromspeakingathisalmamaterfor30years.
TheFameGame
"Tobegreatistobemisunderstood."
from"SelfReliance"
Emerson'sfamegrewwhenEssaysbecamefamousin1841andmadehimtheunofficialprophetfromMassachusetts."SelfReliance"and"HymnSungatthe
CompletionoftheConcordMonument,April19,1836"hitthetopofthecharts,too,becausetheystruckachordinAmericanswhowereeagertoestablishtheir
nationalidentity.TranscendentalClubssprangupinNewEnglandwritersbegantoadoptEmerson'sideas.Let'slookatthesetwoworksnow.
SelfReliance
"Thereisatimeineveryman'seducationwhenhearrivesattheconvictionthatenvyisignorancethatimitationissuicide."
from"SelfReliance"
ThisessayfurtherelaboratesonthefamiliarEmersonianthesisTrustthyself(because"everyheartvibratestothatironstring"ofintuitionandconfidence).
Emersondeclared,"Whosowouldbeaman,mustbeanonconformist."Ifnaturerevealsthemoraltruthsoflife,thenpeoplemustfocusonnature,humanity,and
humanity'sattitudetowardnature.
Since"Nothingisatlastsacredbuttheintegrityofyourownmind,"peopleshould"absolveyoutoyourself,andyoushallhavethesuffrageoftheworld."Emerson
continues.
"Tobelieveyourownthought,tobelievethatwhatistrueforyouinyourprivateheartistrueforallmen,thatisgeniusAmanshouldlearntodetectandwatch
thatgleamoflightwhichflashesacrosshismindfromwithin,morethanthelusterofthefirmamentofbardsandsages.
"Thereisatimeineveryman'seducationwhenhearrivesattheconvictionthatenvyisignorancethatimitationissuicidethathemusttakehimself
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forbetterorforworseashisportionthatthoughthewideuniverseisfullofgood,nokernelofnourishingcorncancometohimbutthroughhistoilbestowedonthat
plotofgroundwhichisgiventohimtotill.Thepowerwhichresidesinhimisnewinnature,andnonebutheknowswhatthatiswhichhecando,nordoesheknow
untilhehastried
"WhatImustdoisallthatconcernsme,notwhatthepeoplethink.Thisrule,equallyarduousinactualandinintellectuallife,mayserveforthewholedistinction
betweengreatnessandmeanness.Itistheharder,becauseyouwillalwaysfindthosewhothinktheyknowwhatisyourdutybetterthanyouknowit.Itiseasyinthe
worldtoliveaftertheworld'sopinionitiseasyinsolitudetoliveafterourownbutthegreatmanishewhointhemidstofthecrowdkeepswithperfectsweetness
theindependenceofsolitude."
"SelfReliance"showsEmersonlookinginward,butmanyofhispoemsandessaysalsolookoutwardtoexplorehowTranscendentalismappliedtocurrentevents.
The"HymnSungattheCompletionoftheConcordMonument,April19,1836,"forexample,isEmerson'sreactiontoakeyeventinAmericanhistory.
HymnSungattheCompletionoftheConcordMonument,April19,1836
ThisisoneofEmerson'smostpopularpoems,probablybecauseit'sarealtoetapper.Emersonwroteitforthededicationofamonumenttothosewhofoughtatthe
BattleofConcord,soithasapredictableformat:
Opening:Whythepoemwaswritten
Middle:Commentonthepassageoftime
Close:Inspiringwordstoliveby
TakeaminutetoreadthisclassicgemofAmericanliterature:
"Bytherudebridgethatarchedtheflood,
TheirflagtoApril'sbreezeunfurled,
Hereoncetheembattledfarmersstood,
Andfiredtheshotheardroundtheworld.
Thefoelongsinceinsilenceslept
Aliketheconquerorsilentsleeps
AndTimetheruinedbridgehasswept
Downthedarkstreamwhichseawardcreeps.
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Onthisgreenbank,bythissoftstream,
Wesettodayavotivestone
Thatmemorymaytheirdeedredeem,
When,likeoursires,oursonsaregone.
Spirit,thatmadethoseheroesdare
Todie,orleavetheirchildrenfree,
BidTimeandNaturegentlyspare
Theshaftweraisetothemandthee."
EmersonwasthefirsttodefinewhatmadeAmericanpoetryAmericanitisversethatcelebratesordinaryexperienceratherthantheepicthemesofthepast.In
addition,Americanpoetryfocusesonfactsratherthaneloquence.Asaresult,thepoetofdemocracyshouldbeequalpartsprophet,oracle,visionary,andseer.
Scorningimitators,thepoetshouldcreateversethatisfreshandnew.Emersonpointedthewaytoaunique"American"voiceinpoetry,butitwasWaltWhitman
(Chapter13)whofinishedthejob.
MasterofHisDomain
"Lifeisnotsoshortbutthatthereisalwaystimeenoughforcourtesy."
from"LettersandSocialAims"
UnlikeHenryDavidThoreau,Emerson'scantankeroushomeboyandsometimehandyman,Emersonwasajovialandgenerousfellowwhoenjoyedawidecircleof
friends.Emersonwassowellliked,forexample,thatwhenhishouseburnedtothegroundin1877,hisfriendsandadmirerssenthimonanallexpensepaidvacation
toEuropeandEgypt.Thehousewasrebuiltinhisabsenceathisfriends'expense.
Emerson'smindcollapsedbeforehisbody,andhespentthelastdecadesofhislifeinbenignsenility,belovedasaprophetofindividualism,idealism,optimism,and
selfconfidence.I'lllethisownwordsstandashistestimonial:
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"Whateveryoudo,youneedcourage.Whatevercourseyoudecideupon,thereisalwayssomeonetotellyouthatyouarewrong.Therearealwaysdifficultiesarisingthattempt
youtobelieveyourcriticsareright.Tomapoutacourseofactionandfollowittoanendrequiressomeofthesamecouragethatasoldierneeds.Peacehasitsvictories,butit
takesbravemenandwomentowinthem."
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Chapter8
"Thereisnomorefatalblunderthanhewhoconsumesthegreaterpartofhislifegettinghisliving.Allgreatenterprisesareselfsupporting."
Thoreau,from"LifeWithoutPrinciple"
TohisneighborsinConcord,Massachusetts,HenryDavidThoreauwasawashout:aHarvardgraduatewhospenthisdaysloafingaround.Whenhewasn't
wanderingaimlesslythroughthewoods,however,Thoreauwashomewritingandeverynowandagain,he'dhelpoutathisfather'spencilfactory.Afterabriefstint
teaching,healsodidalittlesurveying.In1842,ThoreaumovedintoRalphWaldoEmerson'shouse,wherehestayedfortwoyears,doingoddjobstopayhisroom
andboard.
OccasionallyThoreauearnedanominalfeeforlecturinginsmalltownscharmingaudienceswithhisYankeewit,instructingthemonecology,orlecturingthemonthe
evilsofslavery.
In1849athisownexpense,Thoreauprinted1,000copiesofhisfirstbook,AWeekontheConcord,andMerrimackRivers275bookssold,whiletherestserved
asatticinsulation.Hissecondbook,Walden,didn'tmakethebestsellerlisteitherwhenitwas
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publishedin1854:Atotalofsevencopiessold,mostofthemtohismother.EvenEmerson,hisclosestfriend,thoughtThoreauwasdriftingoffcourse.(However,
Emersondidbuycopiesofbothhisbooks.)
Thoreaunevermarried,andthoughhewasbrieflyengagedtoEllenSewallin1840,heisn'tknowntohavehadaloverofeithersex.Sohowdidthisseemingne'er
dowellmanagetosnatchvictoryfromthejawsofdefeat?HowdidararelyemployedhandymanbecomeamajorplayerinAmericanliterature?Readontofindout.
OhHenry!
Thoreauwasn'tdrifting:Rather,hisentirelifewasadeliberateefforttolivepreciselythewayhewanted.Whiletheworldlivedbyonedefinitionofsuccess,Thoreau
livedbyquiteadifferentone,andhiswritingwonforitselfapermanencethatbeliedthescornofhiscontemporaries.
Thoreauactedoutthedictatesofhisconsciencewithadeterminationunsettlingtothoselivingmorecautiousandconventionallives.Forexample,whileEmersonand
mostoftheothertranscendentalistsweremumontheissueofslavery,ThoreauwashelpingrunawayslavesescapetoCanada.AndThoreauwasthefirstAmerican
writertospeakonbehalfofJohnBrown,deliveringhisfiery"PleaforCaptainJohnBrown"in1859.
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WhenThoreaudiedoftuberculosisattheageof44,hiswritinghadreceivedlittlenotice.Bythe1930s,however,ThoreauhadgainedthestatusofamajorAmerican
writerinthenextdecades,hisreputationeclipsedthatofEmerson's.
Today,Thoreauisreveredbyanastonishinglywidearrayofpeople,includingsocialandpoliticalleadersandenvironmentalists.
ATravelGuidefortheMind:Walden
"IwenttothewoodsbecauseIwishedtolivedeliberately,tofrontonlytheessentialfactsoflife,andseeifIcouldnotlearnwhatithadtoteach,andnot,whenI
cametodie,discoverthatIhadnotlivedatrueaccountofitinmynextexcursion."
From1845to1847,ThoreaulivednearWaldenPondinasmallcabinhebuilthimself.Toeachhisown,ofcourse,butwhynotjustjointheBoyScouts?Thoreau
wasveryclearonthispoint:
"Iwantedtolivedeepandsuckoutallthemarrowoflife,tolivesosturdilyandSpartanlikeastoputtoroutallthatwasnotlife,tocutabroadswathandshaveclose,todrivelife
intoacorner,andreduceittoitslowestterms,and,ifitprovedtobemean,whythentogetthewholeandgenuinemeannessofit,andpublishitsmeannesstotheworldorifit
weresublime,toknowitbyexperience,andbeabletogiveatrueaccountofitinmynextexcursion."
Waldenshowsthereaderhowtolivewiselyinaworlddesignedtomakewiselivingimpossible.Packedwithbrieffables,allegories,aphorisms,andpuns,Walden
demonstratesthathappinesscanbeyoursifyou'rewillingtothrowawaytheRolex,theArmaniwardrobe,theMercedes,andgrowyourownbeans.
Hello,ICametoSay
Neveronetooverlookachancetomakeapoint,ThoreaumovedtoWaldenPondonJuly4,1845,thedaterepresentinghispersonaldeclarationofindependence
fromsociety'snumbingmaterialism.Themoveenabledhimtocommunewithnatureanddevotemoretimetohiswriting.Thebookspansoneyearandwasfirst
publishedonAugust9,1854.
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SomebelievethatThoreauwenttoliveatWaldenPondbecausehewasahermitorarecluse,butitjustain'tso.
ThoreauwenttoWaldentoseeifhecouldlivedeliberatelyandsimply,tomakethephilosophyoftranscendentalismintoreality.Herealizedthat
"Ourlifeisfritteredawaybydetail.Anhonestmanhashardlyneedtocountmorethanhistenfingers,orinextremecaseshemayaddhistentoes,andlumptherest.Simplicity,
simplicity,simplicity!Isay,letyouraffairsbeastwoorthree,andnotahundredorathousandinsteadofamillioncounthalfadozen,andkeepyouraccountsonyour
thumbnail."
Andhemeanteverywordofit.
ICannotStay
ThoreaulivedatWaldenPondfortwoyears,twomonths,andtwodays.Theexperimentcompleted,Thoreaudecideditwastimetomoveon."Ileftthewoodsforas
goodareasonasIwentthere,"hewrote.
"PerhapsitseemedtomethatIhadseveralmorelivestolive,andcouldnotspareanymoretimeforthatone.Itisremarkablehoweasilyandinsensiblywefallintoaparticular
route,andmakeabeatentrackforourselves.IhadnotlivedthereaweekbeforemyfeetworeapathfrommydoortothepondsideandthoughitisfiveorsixyearssinceItrodit,
itisstillquitedistinct.Itistrue,Ifearthatothersmayhavefallenintoit,andsohelpedtokeepitopen.Thesurfaceoftheearthissoftandimpressionablebythefeetofmenand
sowiththepathswhichthemindtravels.Howwornanddusty,then,mustbethehighwaysoftheworld,howdeeptherutsoftraditionandconformity!Ididnotwishtotakea
cabinpassage,butrathertogobeforethemastandonthedeckoftheworld,forthereIcouldbestseethemoonlightamidthemountains."
CreamoftheCrop
WaldenisThoreau'smasterpiece,auniqueblendofnaturalobservation,socialcriticism,andphilosophicalinsight.Nowconsideredthetreasureofthetranscendental
motherlode,WaldenisalsounquestionablyoneoftheclassicsofAmericanliterature.
Forexample,in1954,theessayistandchildren'sbookwriterE.B.Whitewroteanarticleinhonorofthe100yearanniversaryofthepublicationofWalden:
"ItmayverywellbetheoddestofourdistinguishedodditiesManythinkitisasermonmanysetitdownasanattempttorearrangesocietysomethinkitanexerciseinnature
lovingsomefinditaratherirritatingcollectionofinspirationalpuffballsbyaneccentricshowoff.Ithinkitnoneofthese.Itstillseemstomethebestyouth'scompanionyet
writtenbyanAmerican,foritcarriesasolemnwarningagainstthelossofone'svaluables,itadvancesagoodargumentfortravelinglightandtryingnewadventures,itringswith
thepowerofpositiveadoration,itcontainsreligionsfeelingswithoutreligiousimages,anditsteadfastlyrefusestorecordbadnews."
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ImitationIstheSincerestFormofFlattery
DuringThoreau'slife,hiswritingswereknowntoonlyasmallgroupofpeople.Today,however,hisplaceinAmericanlettersissecure.Thoreau'saccountofhistime
atWaldenPondhasinspiredlegionsofpeopletotrytheirhandatsimplifyingtheirlivesandgettingclosetonature.AnnieDillard,forexample,spentayearinasmall
cabinonTinkerCreekinWestVirginia.ShedescribedherexperiencesinPilgrimatTinkerCreek,whichwonaPulitzerPrizein1975.
"Ipropose,"sheannouncesinthefirstchapter,"tokeepherewhatThoreaucalleda'meteorologicaljournalofthemind,'tellingsometalesanddescribingsomeofthe
sightsofthisrathertamedvalley,andexploring,infearandtrembling,someoftheunmappeddimreachesandunholyfastnessofwhichthesetalesandsightsso
dizzinglylead."
Anothercontemporarywriter,AnneMorrowLindbergh,alsofeltThoreau'ssirencalltoasimplelife.InTheGiftfromtheSea(1955),Lindberghsays,"Imeanto
liveasimplelife,tochooseanampleshellIcancarryeasilylikethehermitcrab."UnlikeDillard,however,Lindberghfoundsuchalifeimpossibleinthemodern
world."Ifindthatmyframeoflifedoesnotfostersimplicity.ThelifeIhavechosenaswifeandmotherentrainsawholecaravanofcomplicationsForlifetodayin
AmericaisbasedonthepremiseofeverwideningcirclesofcontactandcommunicationThisisnotthelifeofsimplicitybutthelifeofmultiplicitythatthewisemen
warnof.Itdoesnotbringgraceitdestroysthesoul."
OntheDutyofCivilDisobedience
From1846to1848,theUnitedStateshadanastylittlespatwithMexicoovertheboundarybetweenMexicoandTexasandMexico'sstubbornrefusaltosellus
thosesweetstates,CaliforniaandNewMexico.Thoreaustronglyobjectedtothewaronseveralfronts,nottheleastbeinghisbeliefthatPresidentJamesK.Polkhad
litthepowderkegbeforegettingCongress'approval.
In1846,thetownconstableaskedThoreautopayhispolltax.Thoreauflatoutrefusedtoanteupwhatheowed$1.50thusshowinghisdisapprovalofthewar
andtheenforcementofslaverylaws.Pushcametoshove,andThoreaulandedinjail.Thatevening,Henry'sAuntMariaThoreaupaidthebill,andThoreauwas
forcedtoleavethejoint.Enragedthathehadn'tbeenallowedtocontinuehisprotestunderlockdown,Thoreauturnedtohispen.
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TheLastStraw
Theresultwaswhathasbecomeoneofthemostimportantpoliticalessaysever,"OntheDutyofCivilDisobedience."
Inthatessay,Thoreauwrites,
"Iheartilyacceptthemotto,'Thatgovernmentisbestwhichgovernsleast'andIshouldliketoseeitacteduptomorerapidlyandsystematically.Carriedout,itfinally
amountstothis,whichalsoIbelieve'Thatgovernmentisbestwhichgovernsnotatall'andwhenmenarepreparedforit,thatwillbethekindofgovernmentwhichtheywill
have.
Governmentisatbestbutanexpedientbutmostgovernmentsareusually,andallgovernmentsaresometimes,inexpedient.Theobjectionswhichhavebeenbroughtagainsta
standingarmy,andtheyaremanyandweighty,anddeservetoprevail,mayalsoatlastbebroughtagainstastandinggovernment.Thestandingarmyisonlyanarmofthe
standinggovernment.Thegovernmentitself,whichisonlythemodewhichthepeoplehavechosentoexecutetheirwill,isequallyliabletobeabusedandpervertedbeforethe
peoplecanactthroughit.WitnessthepresentMexicanwar,theworkofcomparativelyafewindividualsusingthestandinggovernmentastheirtoolforintheoutset,the
peoplewouldnothaveconsentedtothismeasure."
Unjustlawsexistshallwebecontenttoobeythem,orshallweendeavortoamendthem,andobeythemuntilwehavesucceeded,orshallwetransgressthematonce?Ido
nothesitatetosay,thatthosewhocallthemselvesabolitionistsshouldatonceeffectivelywithdrawtheirsupport,bothinpersonandproperty,fromthegovernmentof
Massachusetts,andnotwaittilltheyconstituteamajorityofone,beforetheysuffertherighttoprevailthroughthemMoreover,anymanmorerightthanhisneighbors,
constitutesamajorityofonealready.
Afterall,thepracticalreasonwhy,whenthepowerisonceinthehandsofthepeople,amajorityarepermitted,andforalongperiodcontinue,toruleisnotbecausetheyare
mostlikelytobeintheright,norbecausethisseemsfairesttotheminority,butbecausetheyarephysicallythestrongest.Butagovernmentinwhichthemajorityruleinall
casescannotbebasedonjustice,evenasfarasmenunderstandit.Cantherenotbeagovernmentinwhichthemajoritiesdonotvirtuallydeciderightandwrong,but
conscience?inwhichmajoritiesdecideonlythosequestionstowhichtheruleofexpediencyisapplicable?Mustthecitizeneverforamoment,orintheleastdegree,resign
hisconsciencetothelegislator?Whyhaseverymanaconsciencethen?Ithinkthatweshouldbemenfirst,andsubjectsafterward.Itisnotdesirabletocultivatearespectfor
thelaw,somuchasfortheright.TheonlyobligationwhichIhavearighttoassumeistodoatanytimewhatIthinkright
Men,generally,undersuchagovernmentasthis,thinkthattheyoughttowaituntiltheyhavepersuadedthemajoritytoalterthem.Theythinkthat,iftheyshouldresist,the
remedywouldbeworsethantheevil.Butitisthefaultofthegovernmentitselfthattheremedyisworsethantheevil.Itmakesitworse.Whyisitnotmoreapttoanticipateand
provideforreform?Whydoesitnotcherishitswiseminority?Whydoesitcryandresistbeforeitishurt?Whydoesitnotencourageitscitizenstoputoutitsfaults,anddo
betterthanitwouldhavethem?WhydoesitalwayscrucifyChristandexcommunicateCopernicusandLuther,andpronounceWashingtonandFranklinrebels?"
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PowertothePeople
''CivilDisobedience"influencedsomeoftheworld'sgreatestleaders,includingMohandas"Mahatma"Gandhi,MartinLutherKing,Jr.,andNelsonMandela.Hereare
afewexamplesofThoreau'sinfluence:
In1906,MohandasGandhiadaptedThoreau'sideasoncivildisobedienceasthecoreofhiscampaignforIndianindependencefromtheBritishEmpire.
In1955,theReverendMartinLutherKing,Jr.usedThoreau'sideasoncivildisobediencetoorganizetheMontgomery,Alabama,busboycott.Fromthiscamethe
civilrightsmovementofthe1960s.The1963MarchonWashingtonalonedrew250,000participants.
TheSalvadoranpeopletransformedThoreau'sideasoncivildisobedienceintostageoccupationsandsitinsatuniversities,governmentoffices,factories,and
haciendastoachievetheircivilrights.
OpponentsoftheVietnamWaradaptedThoreau'sideasoncivildisobedienceastheyburneddraftcards,blockedinductioncenters,anddemonstrated
nonviolently.
Sincethe1970s,nonviolentcivildisobedienceactionshaveoccurredatdozensofnuclearweaponsresearchinstallations,storageareas,missilesilos,testsites,
militarybases,corporateandgovernmentoffices,andnuclearpowerplants.
Inthe1980s,NelsonMandelaledtheSouthAfricanantiapartheidmovement,usingThoreau's"CivilDisobedience"asablueprint.
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StudentactivistsinSouthAfricaincorporatedcivildisobedienceintotheirantiapartheidprotests,buildingshantytownsandstagingsitinsatadministrator'soffices.
Theireffortsresultedinthedivestmentofover130campusesandthesubsequentwithdrawalofover$4billionfromtheSouthAfricaneconomy.
Nonviolentresistancehasbeenanintegralpartofthelesbianandgaycommunitysince1987,whenACTUP(AIDSCoalitiontoUnleashPower)wasformed.
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Chapter9
"Whatdoyouthinkofmybecominganauthorandrelyingforsupportonmypen?Indeed,Ithinktheillegibilityofmyhandwritingisveryauthorlike."
NathanielHawthornealetterwrittenwhileatcollege
NathanielHawthornemanagedtoscrapeoutalivingasawriter.Alongtheway,hedidforadulterywhatPoedidfordeathandgore,Thoreaufornature,andMelville
forthesea.Obsessedwithsinandguilt,HawthornewasthefirstgreatAmericanwriterofpsychologicalfiction.
Inthischapter,you'lllearnallaboutHawthorne'slifeandinfluences.There'salsoacompletediscussionofhismasterpiece,TheScarletLetter,andanexplanationof
theliterarygenreofromance.You'llalsolearnabouthisshortstoriesbyfocusingononeofhismostfamoustales,"YoungGoodmanBrown"Bytheendofthis
chapter,you'llunderstandhowHawthorneraisedsinandguilttoanartform.
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BeginattheVeryBeginning
FellownovelistHenryJamesoncedescribedNathanielHawthorneataNewYorkdinnerpartyofliterarypeopleaslookinglike"aroguewhosuddenlyfindshimself
inacompanyofdetectives."Henrywasagoodhost,butevenhecouldn'thavemadeHawthornefeelcomfortablewithstrangers,eventhosewhopliedthesame
trade.PerhapsHawthorne'suneasinesscamefromhisfamily,whichhadmoreskeletonsthanclothingintheirclosets.
NathanielHawthorne'sfirstAmericanancestor,WilliamHathorne,wasamagistratewhooncehadaQuakerwomanpubliclywhippedinthestreets.
William'sson,JohnHathorne,inheritedhisfather'skindlytouch.Astheinfamous"HangingJudge"ofSalem,hepresidedoverthe1692witchcrafttrials,duringwhich
anaccusedwitchcursedhimwiththecry,"Godwillgiveyoubloodtodrink!"SmallwondertheHawthornsaddedawtothefamilynamecanyoublamethemfor
wantingtoputsomedistancebetweenthemselvesandtheserelatives?
Hawthorne'schildhoodwasnopicnic.WhenNathanielwasfour,hisseafaringfatherdiedwhileonavoyagetoSurinam,DutchGuinea.Thefamilylivedingenteel
poverty.However,Hawthorne'smother'sfamilycamethroughwiththetuitionforBowdoinCollege.
DoingHardTime
Aftergraduatingfromcollegein1825,Hawthornereturnedhometobecomeawriter.Assooftenhappens,famedidn'tcomequickly:IttookHawthornethreeyears
beforehepublishedhisfirstbookandathisownexpense,atthat.Theyearwas1828thebook,Fanshawe.Fanshawesankfasterthanabowlingball.Ittooknine
moreyearsforHawthornetomakeanaudiblesplashintheliteraryworld:Hiscollectionofshortstories,TwiceToldTales,turnedthetrick.
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In1837,HawthornefellforSophiaPeabody,the29yearoldgirlnextdoor.Toearnenoughmoneytomarry,hetookajobin1839attheBostonCustomHouseas
saltandcoalmeasurer,butlosthispostin1840forpoliticalreasons.
SophiadrewHawthorneintothetranscendentalmovement,andin1841heinvested$1,500intheBrookFarmUtopianCommunity,movedin,butleftdisillusioned
withinayear.
Soonafter,NathanielandSophiamarriedandmovedtoConcord.Byallaccounts,themarriagewasidyllic,andhis1846politicalappointmentassurveyoroftheport
ofSalemcementedhishappiness.It'snotsurprisingthatHawthornewasfittobetiedthreeyearslaterwhenhewasonceagainremovedfromofficeduetoachangein
politicalparties.
RevengeisSweet
ThisjoblosspromptedHawthornetoreturntowriting,startingwitharevengeessayhecalled"TheCustomHouse."Theessayaccomplishedadualpurpose:It
achievedhispoliticalrevengebydepictinghisenemiesasdotteringfools,whilealsoservingastheprologuetoTheScarletLetter.Theessaypurportstoexplainhow
thenarratorcametofindamysteriousscarletletter.HawthornewrotefeverishlyandcompletedTheScarletLetterinayear.Itwaspublishedin1850.
ThepublishingcompanyTicknor&FieldsagreedtopublishTheScarletLetterin1850,andHawthorne'spowerfulfriendsprovidedfavorablereviews.
Thenovelwasanimmediatesmash,selling4,000copiesinthefirsttendays.Whytheinstantpopularity?BecauseTheScarletLetteraddressedspiritualandmoral
issuesfromauniquelyAmericanstandpoint.(It'salsonotabadread.)In1850,adulterywasataboosubject,butbecauseHawthornehadthesupportoftheNew
Englandliteraryestablishment,thenovelwasreleasedforpublicconsumption.
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Onaroll,HawthornewroteandpublishedTheHouseoftheSevenGables(1851)andTheBlithedaleRomance(1852).Theysoldwell.Butdespitehissuccess,
Hawthornestilldidn'thaveenoughcashtogiveuphisdayjob,sowhenhiscollegebuddyFranklinPierce,PresidentoftheU.S.atthetime,offeredhimtheAmerican
consulshipinEngland,Hawthornejumped.
TheHawthornesreturnedtoAmericain1860,andourherosettoworkonanothernovel.Buthisstrengthwasbrokenbypoorhealthandhisideasjustdidn'tcome
together.Hawthornediedofaheartattackin1864whileonawalkingtourofnewHampshire.
NathanielHawthorne.
GimmeanA
TheScarletLetterisHawthorne'smasterpieceandAmerica'sfirsttruepsychologicalnovel.ThenovelrepresentstheheightofHawthorne'sliterarygeniusandhas
heldupovertimeasaclassictalewithauniversaltheme.
Asyoulearnedearlier,TheScarletLetteropenswith"TheCustomHouse"essay,whichdescribeshowHawthornefoundintheSalemCustomHouse"aragof
scarletcloth"shapedin"aletter'A.'"ItalsoexplainshowHawthornegotinformationaboutHesterPrynne,thePuritanwomanforcedtowearan"A"for''Adultery."
The"facts"aboutthe"A"areasfictionalasHesterherself,althoughhistorydoesrecordthatsomePuritansdidcarryononthesly.
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Meetthecrowd:
HesterPrynne:Theproud,regalbeautywhostandsbyhermanandlearnsthatlovedoesn'tconquerall.
RogerChillingworth:Hester'schillyburgerofahusband,whomanagestowrestdefeatfromthejawsofvictory.
TheReverendArthurDimmesdale:Hester'slover.
Pearl:TheproductofHester'shorizontalchachawithDimmesdale.
GovernorBellingman:Hisideaofasocialprogramisputtingupanewscaffold.
TheReverendMr.JohnWilson:WouldlovetoseetheInquisitioncatchoninthecolonies.
MistressHibbins:Thegovernor'ssister.She'sarealwitchnokidding.
TheYoungandtheRestless
Asthestoryopens,agroupofgossipsarehangingaroundthejail,jeeringatHesterPrynne,whohasbeenconvictedofthecrimeofadultery.Thetownspeopleare
furiousthatthecourthasbeenmercifultowardHesterinsteadofthepromisedpublichanging,shehasmerelybeencondemnedtowearascarlet"A"onherchestand
servesomejailtime.
Onthisday,HesterandherinfantPearl(livingproofofhersin)areforcedtostandonthescaffoldinshame.ThewordonthestreetisthatHesterhasbeenspared
deathonlythroughtheintercessionofherminister,theReverendDimmesdale.Hesterhasrefusedtonameherpartnerinpleasure,muchtoDimmesdale'srelief.Onthe
edgeofthecrowd,there'sanelderly,deformedmanwhomHesterrecognizesit'sherhusband!TwoyearsearlierhehadsentheralonetoAmerica,andshehas
neverseenorheardfromhimsinceuntilthismoment.
Haveatasteofthenovelforyourself.Here'showthestoryopens:
"I.ThePrisonDoor
Athrongofbeardedmen,insadcoloredgarmentsandgraysteeplecrownedhats,intermixedwithwomen,somewearinghoods,andothersbareheaded,wasassembledin
frontofawoodenedifice,thedoorofwhichwasheavilytimberedwithoak,andstuddedwithironspikes.
Thefoundersofanewcolony,whateverUtopiaofhumanvirtueandhappinesstheymightoriginallyproject,haveinvariablyrecognizeditamongtheirearliestpractical
necessitiesto
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allotaportionofthevirginsoilasacemetery,andanotherportionasthesiteofaprison.InaccordancewiththisruleitmaysafelybeassumedthattheforefathersofBoston
hadbuiltthefirstprisonhousesomewhereintheVicinityofCornhill,almostasseasonablyastheymarkedoutthefirstburialground,onIsaacJohnson'slot,andround
abouthisgrave,whichsubsequentlybecamethenucleusofallthecongregatedsepulchersintheoldchurchyardofKing'sChapel.Certainitisthat,somefifteenortwenty
yearsafterthesettlementofthetown,thewoodenjailwasalreadymarkedwithweatherstainsandotherindicationsofage,whichgaveayetdarkeraspecttoitsbeetle
browedandgloomyfront.TherustontheponderousironworkofitsoakendoorlookedmoreantiquethananythingelseintheNewWorld.Likeallthatpertainstocrime,it
seemednevertohaveknownayouthfulera.Beforethisuglyedifice,andbetweenitandthewheeltrackofthestreet,wasagrassplot,muchovergrownwithburdock,pig
weed,applepern,andsuchunsightlyvegetation,whichevidentlyfoundsomethingcongenialinthesoilthathadsoearlybornetheblackflowerofcivilizedsociety,aprison.
Butononesideoftheportal,androotedalmostatthethreshold,wasawildrosehush,covered,inthismonthofJune,withitsdelicategems,whichmightbeimaginedtooffer
theirfragranceandfragilebeautytotheprisonerashewentin,andtothecondemnedcriminalashecameforthtohisdoom,intokenthatthedeepheartofNaturecouldpity
andbekindtohim.Thisrosebush,byastrangechance,hasbeenkeptaliveinhistorybutwhetherithadmerelysurvivedoutofthesternoldwilderness,solongafterthefall
ofthegiganticpinesandoaksthatoriginallyovershadowedit,orwhether,asthereisfarauthorityforbelieving,ithadsprungupunderthefootstepsofthesaintedAnn
Hutchinsonassheenteredtheprisondoor,weshallnottakeuponustodetermine.Findingitsodirectlyonthethresholdofournarrative,whichisnowabouttoissuefrom
thatinauspiciousportal,wecouldhardlydootherwisethanpluckoneofitsflowers,andpresentittothereader.Itmayserve,letushope,tosymbolizesomesweetmoral
blossomthatmaybefoundalongthetrack,orrelievethedarkeningcloseofataleofhumanfrailtyandsorrow."
TherosebushsymbolizesHester,theonespotofgoodnessandbeautyinthebleakPuritanlandscape.
What'sLoveGottoDowithIt?
Soonafter,Hester'shusbanddemandsthatsherevealherlover'sname.Whensherefuses,hevowsrevenge.Hetakesthename"RogerChillingworth"toconcealhis
identityandswearsHestertosecrecy.HesterandherdaughterPearlmovetoanisolatedpartofthevillage,whereHesterearnstheirlivingsewing.Noonewilltalkto
her,buteveryonelinesuptobuyhergorgeouslyembroidereditems.
HesterdressesPearlinoutrageouslygorgeousclothes,aclearnosethumbatthetown.Thetownspeopleretaliatebydeclaringheranunfitmotherandplantotake
Pearlawaytoberaisedbymoresuitableguardians.DimmesdaleagainsavesthedaywithaheartfeltappealonHester'sbehalf.Hesterisallowedtokeepherchild.
SuspiciousofDimmesdale'smotives,Chillingworthclingstohimlikeacheapsuit.Dimmesdaleissoconsumedwithguiltthathebeginstophysicallydecay.Shockedat
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Dimmesdale'srapiddecline,HestertellshimChillingworth'sidentity.TheloversmakeplanstoleaveNewEnglandforOldEngland,butChillingworthgetswindof
theirplansandbookspassageonthesameboat.
A'snotforAppleinThisTown
Beforetheboatsails,Dimmesdaledeliversthegreatestsermonofhiscareer,eventhoughhelookslikeroadkill.Afterhefinishesthespeech,DimmesdalecallsHester
andPearltothescaffoldwithhim,admitshisguilt,tearsasidehisvestment,revealshischest,andfallsdowndead.What'sonhischest?Findoutforyourselfinthis
excerptfromChapterXXIII,"TheRevelationoftheScarletLetter:"
"'PeopleofNewEngland!'criedhe,withavoicethatroseoverthem,high,solemn,andmajestic,yethadalwaysatremorthroughit,andsometimesashriek,strugglingup
outofafathomlessdepthofremorseandwoe'ye,thathavelovedme!ye,thathavedeemedmeholy!beholdmehere,theonesinneroftheworld!Atlastatlast!Istand
uponthespotwhere,sevenyearssince,Ishouldhavestoodhere,withthiswoman,whosearm,morethanthelittlestrengthwherewithIhavecrepthitherward,sustainsmeat
thisdreadfulmoment,fromgrovelingdownuponmyface!Lo,thescarletletterwhichHesterwears!Yehaveallshudderedatit!Whereverherwalkhathbeenwherever,so
miserablyburdened,shemayhavehopedtofindrepose,ithathcastaluridgleamofaweandhorriblerepugnanceroundabouther.Buttherestoodoneinthemidstofyou,
atwhosebrandofsinandinfamyyehavenotshuddered!'StandanyherethatquestionGod'sjudgmentonasinner!Behold!Behold,adreadfulwitnessofit!'
Withaconvulsivemotion,hetoreawaytheministerialbandfrombeforehisbreast.Itwasrevealed!Butitwereirreverenttodescribethatrevelation.Foraninstant,thegaze
ofthehorrorstrickenmultitudewasconcentratedontheghastlymiraclewhiletheministerstood,withaflushoftriumphinhisface,asonewho,inthecrisisofacutestpain,
hadwonavictory.Then,downhesankuponthescaffold!Hesterpartlyraisedhim,andsupportedhisheadagainstherbosom."
SowhatisonDimmesdale'schest?Somepeopleswearthere'sascarlet"A"burnedintohisbreastothersdisputethis.Chillingworth,deprivedofhisraisond'etre,
dieswithintheyear.HesterandPearldisappear,butyearslaterHesterreturnsalone.ItisthoughtthatPearlhasmarriedandmovedtoEngland.Hesterlivesquietlyin
hercottageuntilherdeath.
Onceasignofshame,bytheendofthebook(andHester'ssaga),the"A"hasbecomeasymbolofmercybecauseofHester'sgooddeedsandgreatkindness.She
nursesthesick,soothesthedisconsolate,andcomfortsthelonely.Atherdeath,HesterisburiedbesideDimmesdale,theirtombstoneengravedwithan"A"
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YouPlay,YouPay
TheScarletLetterwaspraisedforits"subtleknowledgeofcharacter"and"tragicpower."NovelistHenryJames(whomyou'llmeetinChapter19),calledThe
ScarletLetter"thefinestpieceofimaginativewritingyetputforthinAmerica.''
Thenovelfocuseson,youguessedit,sinandguilt,andtheireffectontheindividualandsociety.Forthoseofyouwhohaven'ttriedontheSevenDeadlySinsforsize,
sinningisn'tassimpleasitseems:Therearesinsofpassionandthoseofprinciple.
Dimmesdaleunderstandsthedifference:"Wearenot,Hester,theworstsinnersintheworld.Thereisoneworsethaneventhepollutedpriest!Thatoldman'srevenge
hasbeenblackerthanmysin.Hehasviolated,incoldblood,thesanctityofthehumanheart."Chillingworthisthetruecriminalbecausehehasboldlygonewhereno
onebelongsheviolatesanotherperson'ssoul.
Hester,whosesinisrevealed,growsthroughhersuffering,comestotermswithherguilt,andreconcilesherselfwithGod.Incontrast,Dimmesdaleistorturedby
secretguiltandcannotmakepeacewithhimselforwithGod.Hisguiltmanifestsitselfphysically,anditkillshim.
What'sthesolutiontosecretsuffering?HawthornetellsusinChapterXXIV,"Conclusion"
"Amongmanymoralswhichpressuponusfromthepoorminister'smiserableexperience,weputonlythisintoasentence:'Betrue!Betrue!Betrue!Showfreelytotheworld,
ifnotyourworst,yetsometraitwherebytheworstmaybeinferred!'"
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ObsessedwiththePuritanpast,Hawthornedalliedwithtranscendentalism,butinsteadalliedhimselfwiththedarksideofsubjects.Asaresult,Hawthorneiscloserin
themeandtonetoHermanMelvilleandEdgarAllanPoethantoRalphWaldoEmersonandHenryDavidThoreau.
WritingofhisclosefriendHawthorne,HermanMelvillesaid,"inspiteofalltheIndiansummersunlightonthehithersideofHawthorne'ssoul,theothersidelike
thedarkhalfofthephysicalsphereisshroudedinblackness,tentimesblack."
RomancingtheNovel
SohowdoesHawthornegetawaywithalltheweirdness,likethe"A"thatappears(ordoesn'tappear)onDimmesdale'schest,andotherstrangehappenings?Easy
hedoesn'tclaimtobewritinganovel.Instead,hewrotearomance.Sowhat'sthedifference?
Bothnovelsandromancesareworksofimaginativefictionwithmultiplecharacters,butthat'swherethesimilaritiesend.Novelsarerealisticromancesaren't.Inthe
19thcentury,aromancewasaprosenarrativethattoldafictionalstorythatdealtwithitssubjectsandcharactersinasymbolic,imaginative,andnonrealisticway.
Typically,aromancedealswithplotsandpeoplethatareexotic,remoteintimeorplacefromthereader,andobviouslyimaginary.
Theromancegrantstheauthoracertainleewayformelodramaandemotionality.InhisprefacetoTheHouseoftheSevenGables,Hawthornewrote:
"WhenawritercallshisworkaRomance,itneedhardlybeobservedthathewishestoclaimacertainlatitude,bothastoitsfashionandmaterial,whichhewouldnothave
felthimselfentitledtoassume,hadheprofessedtobewritingaNovel.Thelatterformofcompositionispresumedtoaimataveryminutefidelity,notmerelytothepossible,but
totheprobableandordinarycourseofman'sexistence.Theformerhasfairlyarighttopresentthattruthundercircumstances,toagreatextent,ofthewriter'sownchoosing
orcreation."
Short,butNotSweet:Hawthorne'sStories
Today,TheScarletLetterisfirmlyenshrinedinAmerica'ssoulasaclassicofthefirstorder,butHawthorne'sshortstoriesdeservemorethanapassingnod.
Hismostfamousshortstoriesinclude
"TheArtistoftheBeautiful"
"TheBirthmark"
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"TheCelestialRailroad"
"EthanBrand"
"Feathertop:AMoralizedLegend"
"TheMinister'sBlackVeil"
"MyKinsman,MajorMolineux"
"Rappaccini'sDaughter"
"RogerMalvin'sBurial"
"YoungGoodmanBrown"
Unlikemanyofthewritersofhisday,Hawthornewasnotinterestedinsocialandworldymattersinstead,heburrowed"intothedepthsofourcommonnature,"ashe
said.Whathefoundthereoftensaddenedandevenshockedhim.Itwilldothesametoyou,as"YoungGoodmanBrown"shows.
AWalkontheWildSide
Story:YoungGoodmanBrown
Time:1600s
Place:Salem,Massachusetts
Atsunset,youngGoodmanBrownleaveshiswife,Faith,andspendsahauntingnightintheforest,whereherealizesthetown'smostrespectedmenandwomenare
secretlyinleaguewiththedevil.
Here'showthestorybegins:
"YoungGoodmanBrowncameforthatsunset,intothestreetofSalemvillage,butputhisheadback,aftercrossingthethreshold,toexchangeapartingkisswithhisyoung
wife.AndFaith,asthewifewasaptlynamed,thrustherownprettyheadintothestreet,lettingthewindplaywiththepinkribbonsofhercap,whileshecalledtoGoodman
Brown.
'Dearestheart,'whisperedshe,softlyandrathersadly,whenherlipswereclosetohisear,'pr'ythee,putoffyourjourneyuntilsunrise,andsleepinyourownbedtonight.A
lonewomanistroubledwithsuchdreamsandsuchthoughts,thatshe'safeardofherself,sometimes.Pray,tarrywithmethisnight,dearhusband,ofallnightsintheyear!'
'MyloveandmyFaith,'repliedyoungGoodmanBrown,'ofallnightsintheyear,thisonenightmustItarryawayfromthee.Myjourney,asthoucallestit,forthandback
again,mustneedsbedone'twixtnowandsunrise.What,mysweet,prettywife,dostthoudoubtmealready,andwebutthreemonthsmarried!'
'ThenGodblessyou!'saidFaith,withthepinkribbons,'andmayyoufindallwell,whenyoucomeback.'
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'Amen!'criedGoodmanBrown.'Saythyprayers,dearFaith,andgotobedatdusk,andnoharmwillcometothee.'"
Well,someharmdoesindeedcometoFaithshe'slostforever.That'sbecause"faith"operatesonasymbolicandliterallevel:"Faith"isGoodmanBrown'swifeand
"faith"isGoodmanBrown'sreligiousbelief:
"'PoorlittleFaith!'thoughthe,forhisheartsmotehim.'WhatawretchamI,toleaveheronsuchanerrand!Shetalksofdreams,too.Methought,asshespoke,therewas
troubleinherface,asifadreamhadwarnedherwhatworkistobedonetonight.But,no,no!'twouldkillhertothinkit.Wellshe'sablessedangelonearthandafterthis
onenight,I'llclingtoherskirtsandfollowhertoHeaven.'"
ShadesofGray
GoodmanBrownMr.Everymanreturnshomewithhisfaithshattered,hisbeliefingoodnessgone:
"Astern,asad,adarklymeditative,adistrustful,ifnotadesperateman,didhebecome,fromthenightofthatfearfuldream.OntheSabbathday,whenthecongregationwere
singingaholypsalm,hecouldnotlisten,becauseananthemofsinrushedloudlyuponhisear,anddrownedalltheblessedstrainOften,awakingsuddenlyatmidnight,he
shrankfromthebosomofFaith,andatmorningoreventide,whenthefamilykneltdownatprayer,hescowled,andmutteredtohimself,andgazedsternlyathiswife,and
turnedaway."
Thestory'scentralambiguityconcernstheeventsintheforest:Aretheyrealorjustadream?Hawthorneisdeliberatelyambiguous,fillingthestorywithwordssuchas
"seemed,""perhaps,"and"appeared.""YoungGoodmanBrown"canbereadseveralways.Herearethethreemostcommoninterpretations:
AnindictmentofPuritanhypocrisy
Astudyofsexualawarenessandguilt
AreenactmentofAdamandEve'stemptationbythedevil
ThisambiguityconveysHawthorne'stheme:There'snoclearcutlinebetweengoodandevil.Soundfamiliar?It'sthethemeofallhisworks,shortstoriesandnovels
alike.
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Chapter10
"HermanMelvillediedyesterdayathisresidence,104EastTwentysixthStreet,thiscity,ofheartfailure,agedseventytwo.HewastheauthorofTypee,Omoo,MobieDick,[Moby
Dick]andotherseafaringtales,writteninearlieryears.Heleavesawifeandtwodaughters,Mrs.M.B.ThomasandMissMelville."
inTheNewYorkTimes,September29,1891
OneofAmerica'sgreatestwritersarguablythegreatestratedamerethreesentencesinTheNewYorkTimeswhenhedied.
TheNewYorkHerald'sobituarygavehimevenlessspaceandtheyspelledhisnamewrong.Hislastnovel,TheConfidenceMan,hadbeenpublishedmorethan
threedecadesearlier.Byhisdeath,allhisbookswereoutofprint.Melvillewasvirtuallyforgottenbythetimehedied.
But44yearsbeforehisdeath,whenhismostfamoustale,Typee,appeared,HermanMelvillewasthebestknownwriterinAmerica.Publishersfoughtoverhim,and
editors
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consideredthemselvesfortunatetosecurehisbookstoaddtotheirlists.Whathappenedtosendhiscareerintoeclipse?Howdiditgetresuscitated?That'swhat
you'lllearninthischapter.
ManOverboard
HermanMelvillemadehisdebutAugust1,1819,thethirdchildofAllanMelvill,aprosperousimporterofelegantFrenchgoods.BothAllanandhiswife,theformer
MariaGansevoort,camefrommoneyandoftenmadetheNewYorkscene.Longoncharmbutshortonsense,Allanplunderedhisinheritancetostaveoff
bankruptcy,butby1830thetillwasempty.
CreditorsstormedthegatestwodaysafterHerman's11birthday.Bythentherewere11littleMelvills,meaninglotsofshoestobuy.Mentallyandphysicallywrecked,
Allandiedtwoyearslater.Leftinfinanciallimbo,thefamilymovedtoasmalltownnearTroy,NewYork.Eagertogetafreshstart,Mariadoctoredthefamilyname,
addinganeattheend.Withthestrokeofapen,theMevillsbecametheMelvilles.
Herman'seducationcanmostcharitablybedescribedas"uneven,"sincehewasn'tkeenonstudying.Hismothernotedinaletteratthetimethatherdarling"does
notappearsofondofhisBooksastoinjurehisHealth."Notwantingtothrowgoodmoneyafterbad,hismotheryankedhimfromschoolwhenhewasjust12years
old.Hermanthenworkedatavarietyofmenialjobstohelpfeedthefamilykitty.
Whenhewas18,Hermantriedhishandatteaching,butbetweenhisrambunctiousstudentsanddemandingmother,Hermandecideditwastimeforachange.He
signedonattheSt.Lawrence,aBritishmerchantship.Hermanmanagedtostretchhisinitialvoyageintofiveyears,buttheboatfinallydocked.Hermanheadedwest,
butthefamily'smailstillgotthrough.
In1841,inhisearly20s,HermanhandedoverresponsibilityforhismothertohisbrotherandsetsailforthePacificaboardawhalingship.
ClubMed,Circa1800
Awhaler'slifeisn'tallgunsandroses,however,soMelvilleandashipmatejumpedshipattheMarquesasIslands.Afterabriefstaywithacheerfulgroupofnatives
whoturnedouttobeacheerfulgroupofcannibals,MelvilleescapedonanAustralianwhaler,hoppingoffatTahiti.Fromthere,itwasasimplehitchtoHawaiiand
thenhome.In1844,Melvillesatdowntowriteabouthisexoticadventures.
TheManWhoHadLivedAmongtheCannibals
TypeeandOmoo,Melville'snovelsofcannibalbanquetsandnubileslavegirls,delightedreadersandreviewersalike.TheBrooklynEagle'sliterarycritic,noneother
than
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thestarofChapter12,WaltWhitman,calledOmoo"thoroughentertainment."ButMelvilleyearnedtowriteaboutmoreseriousthemesandideas.
Afewyearslater,MelvillemarriedElizabethShawandsettledinNewYorkCity.Flushwithsuccessandlove,hewroteMardi,acomplexallegoricalnovelthat
turnedoffhisfans.Insteadofcelebrating,theyclamoredforMelvilletobringbackthehulagirls.Melvilleconsented,producingRedburnandWhiteJacket.Withhis
bankbalancebackintheblack,Melvilleboughta160acreMassachusettsfarm.Despairingthathewasdoomedtoberememberedas"themanwhohadlived
amongthecannibals,"MelvillewroteMobyDick.Thiswasagreatcareermoveinthelongrunbutnotintheshortterm.
AllWashedUp
Reviewswerepoor,andMobyDickdidn'tsell.ThenovelwaspannedbyeverycriticexceptMelville'sfriendNathanielHawthorne,whocourageouslysaidthathe
likedit.Demandforthebookwasvirtuallynil,anditwasnotreprintedfor60years.
Hurtbythecriticism,Melvilleattackedthehandthatfedhimhisloyalreadingpublicinhisnextnovel,Pierre.Thefollowingreviewwastypicalofthescorn
heapeduponthenovel:
"Mr.Melvillehastothankhimselfonlyifhishorrorsandhisheroicsareflungasidebythegeneralreader,assomuchtrashbelongingtotheworstschoolofBedlamliterature
sinceheseemsnotsomuchunabletolearnasdisdainfuloflearningthecraftofanartist."
HenryF.Chorley,intheLondonAthenaeum,October25,1851
Onereviewergotrighttothepoint:"HermanMelville[is]Crazy!"heshrieked.Hisreputationindecline,Melvillesufferedabreakdown.Afterrecoveringhewrote
severalothernovels,buthiscareerwasoverasfarasthereadingpublicwasconcerned.
Hishealthandwillshattered,Melvilleneveragainventuredintotheliterarymarketplace.Tokeephisfamilysolvent,hetookajobasaNewYorkCitycustoms
inspectorforadailypayof$4.Hedetestedthejobbutworkedtherefortwodecadesuntilaninheritanceenabledhimtoretire.Melvillediedin1891inobscurity.
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NotSoFast
ThestoryofMelville'sliteraryresurrectionisoneofthestrangestinAmericanliterature.ItbeganinEnglandshortlybeforehisdeathandwasstrongenoughtogive
MelvillehopethathisworkwouldindeedhaveapermanentplaceontheGreatBooksShelf.
Therevivalgatheredsteamin1919,onthecentennialofhisbirth.Afteralaudatorybiographywaspublishedin1921,Melvillestartedmovinguptheranks.Hewas
seenasasymbolofartisticintegrityatruetalentrejectedanddestroyedbythepettymindsofhistime.Thenewmythwasitselfadistortion,ofcourse,butitwas
strongenoughtomoveMelvilleuptheliteraryranks.
Fromthe1940sto1950s,MelvilleManiareignedintheacademicworldashisnovel,stories,andpoemswerecelebrated.AlthoughMelvillehadburnedmanyofhis
letters,andhissurvivingchild,Frances,wassobitteragainstherfatherthatsherefusedtospeakabouthim,theMelvillemachinecontinuedtochurnoutbiographies,
criticalstudies,andarticles.Hebecameapopcultureiconaswell:Seafoodrestaurants,comicbooks,andcartoonsborethemarkofhisfearsomewhitewhale.
Today,Melville'sreputationisfirmlysecure.
AWhaleofaTale:MobyDick
Uponcompletinghismasterpiece,MobyDick,HermanMelvillewrotetohisfriendNathanielHawthorne,"Ihavejustwrittenaverywickedbook."
WhenMelvillebeganwritingitinMayof1850,MobyDickseemeddestinedtobeanotherrelativelysimpleadventurenarrativeinthemannerofTypeeorRedburn,
"aromanceofadventure,foundeduponcertainwildlegendsoftheSouthernSpermWhaleFisheries,andillustratedbytheauthor'sownpersonalexperience,oftwo
yearsandmore,asaharpooner,"Melvilletoldhispublisher.ThatAugust,hispublishernotedthatthestorywas"aromantic,fancifulandliteralandmostenjoyable
presentmentoftheWhaleFisherysomethingquitenew."
Melvillehadpromisedhispublisherthatthebookwouldbereadythefollowingautumn,andhedreadfullyneededthemoney.Nevertheless,hespentanentireyear
rewritingthenovel.Clearly,alongtheway,MobyDickmorphedfromastraightforwardadventurestoryintosomethingquietdifferentandbetter.
Nowlet'smeetthecrew:
CaptainAhab:Crazed,oneleggedherovillainwhosedefiantquestforrevengeonthewhaledrivesthebook.
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Ishmael:Thenarratorcompassionate,intelligent,andnothardontheeyes.
Starbuck:ThematewhofightsthedestinyAhabhascarvedoutforhim.
Stubb:JoeAverageSailornobrainsurgeon,buthandyinapinch.
Flask:Amaterialisticblockhead.
Queequeg:Ahugecannibal,handywithaharpoon.
Pip:Asmallblackmandrivenmadbywhalesinparticularandlifeingeneral.
Fedellah:Theharpoonerwhorepresentspureevil.(Healsoneededagoodorthodontist.)
CruisingforaBruising
Thenarrator,identifiedonlyasIshmael,believesthattheseaisafinemistressandsetsabouttolearnmoreofhermysteries.Thenovel'sopeningisveryfamous:
"CallmeIshmael.Someyearsagonevermindhowlongpreciselyhavinglittleornomoneyinmypurse,andnothingparticulartointerestmeonshore,IthoughtIwould
sailaboutalittleandseethewaterypartoftheworld.ItisawayIhaveofdrivingoffthespleen,andregulatingthecirculation.WheneverIfindmyselfgrowinggrimaboutthe
mouthwheneveritisadamp,drizzlyNovemberinmysoulwheneverIfindmyselfinvoluntarilypausingbeforecoffinwarehouses,andbringinguptherearofeveryfuneralI
meetandespeciallywhenevermyhyposgetsuchanupperhandofme,thatitrequiresastrongmoralprincipletopreventmefromdeliberatelysteppingintothestreet,and
methodicallyknockingpeople'shatsoffthen,IaccountithightimetogettoseaassoonasIcan.Thisismysubstituteforpistolandball."
Unfortunately,hisfirstnightinNewBedford,IshmaelendsuproomingwithaSouthSeascannibalnamedQueequeg.Thenextday,IshmaelandQueequegsignonthe
Pequod.Theyhearstrangerumorsabouttheircaptain,Ahab,whoisconfinedtohiscabinbysomevagueillness.
ThePequodsails,butit'snotuntiltheyhittheSouthSeasthatIshmaelcatchesaglimpseofAhab,hiswhitepegleganchoredinaholeinthedeck.Ahabsummonsthe
crewtothequarterdeckandexplainstheirmission:tohuntdownthegreatwhitewhaleMobyDick,whochompedoffhislegduringhislastvoyage.Ahabgivesthe
crewapeptalk:
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''Now,threetothree,yestand.Commendthemurderouschalices!Bestowthem,yewhoarenowmadepartiestothisindissolubleleagueDrink,yeharpooners!drinkand
swear,yementhatmanthedeathfulwhaleboat'sbowDeathtoMobyDick!Godhuntusall,ifwedonothuntMobyDicktohisdeath!"
WhenhehearsmoreofthestoryofAhab'spasdedeuxwiththewhale,IshmaelfindsoutthatMobyDickisawhaletobereckonedwith:
"Histhreeboatsstovearoundhim,andoarsandmenbothwhirlingintheeddiesonecaptain,seizingthelineknifefromhisbrokenprow,haddashedatthewhale,asan
Arkansasduelistathisfoe,blindlyseekingwithasixinchbladetoreachthefathomdeeplifeofthewhale.ThatcaptainwasAhab.Andthenitwas,thatsuddenlysweeping
hissickleshapedlowerjawbeneathhim,MobyDickhadreapedawayAhab'sleg,asamowerabladeofgrassinthefieldSmallreasonwastheretodoubt,then,thatever
sincethatalmostfatalencounter,Ahabhadcherishedawildvindictivenessagainstthewhale,allthemorefellforthatinhisfranticmorbidnessheatlastcametoidentifywith
him,notonlyallhisbodilywoes,butallhisintellectualandspiritualexasperations.TheWhiteWhaleswambeforehimasthemonomaniacincarnationofallthosemalicious
agencieswhichsomedeepmenfeeleatinginthem,tilltheyareleftlivingonwithhalfaheartandhalfalung."
JustWhenYouThoughtItWasSafetoGoBackintotheWater
Astheyhuntwhales,thePequodmeetswithotherships.Eachtime,Ahabasksthesamequestion:"HastseentheWhiteWhale?"Justwhenitappearsthatthewhale
mightbebeachedinBermuda,thePequodmeetstheSamuelEnderby,whosecaptainhaslosthisarmtool'Whitey.Afterafiercetyphoon,thePequodmeetsthe
Rachel,whichhasjustdonebattlewithMoby.Tensionmounts.AhabfinallysightsMobyandthebattlebegins:
"theWhiteWhalechurninghimselfintofuriousspeed,almostinaninstantasitwere,rushingamongtheboatswithopenjaws,andalashingtail,offeredappallingbattle
oneverysideandheedlessoftheironsdartedathimfromeveryboat,seemedonlyintentonannihilatingeachseparateplankofwhichthoseboatsweremade.Butskillfully
maneuvered,incessantlywheelingliketrainedchargersinthefieldtheboatsforawhileeludedhimthough,attimes,butbyaplank'sbreadthwhileallthetime,Ahab's
unearthlyslogantoreeveryothercrybuthistoshreds."
Round1:MobyDick.TheleviathanbitesAhab'srowboatinhalf.
Round2:MobyDick.Mr.BigFishsmashestwomoreboats,andFedallahisfelled.
Round3:Atie.Ahabgetsaharpoonoff,butthewhalecrushesthePequod.AhablaunchesanotherharpoonatHisWhaleness,buttheropecatchesAhabaround
theneckanddragshimintothesoup.ThePequodgoesdown,creatingavortexthatpullsdowneveryonebutIshmael,whoisrescuedbytheRachel.
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SwimmingwiththeFishes
Initsquesting,complexexaminationofrightandwrong,(whatMelvillecalls"Providence,Foreknowledge,Will,andFate"),thenoveldarestoquestionnotonlythe
natureofhumanity,butthenatureofGodaswell.Ahab,thecentralfigure,isamadmanandthemodeloftheRomanticrebel,hurlinghisdefianceintotheteethofa
vastandinscrutableuniverse.
Youcanreadthisnovelonseverallevels:
Anallegoryoftherisksintryingtosubjugatenaturetothewillofhumanity.
Arebellionagainsttheevilandchaosintheuniverse.
AmetaphorforIshmael'ssearchfortheMeaningofLife.
MobyDick,thewhale,isreadasasymbolofevil,God,oranindifferentuniverse.
LifeBeforeXerox:BartlebytheScrivener
Inthebantamclass,wehave"BartlebytheScrivener."It'sequallysymbolicbutawholelotshorterthanMobyDick.Youcanknockthisbabyoffinanhour,Scout's
honor.It'sagreatintroductiontoMelville,too.
Beforethedaysofphotocopyingmachines,allcopiesweremadebyhand.Theluckydogswhogottheseslowtrackjobswerecalledscriveners.Asthestoryopens,
asuccessfulWallStreetlawyerhashiredBartlebytocopydocumentsforhisfirm.
"AtfirstBartlebydidanextraordinaryquantityofwriting.Asiflongfamishingforsomethingtocopy,heseemedtogorgehimselfonmydocuments.Therewasnopausefor
digestion.Heranadayandnightline,copyingbysunlightandbycandlelight.Ishouldhavebeenquitedelightedwithhisapplication,hadhebeencheerfullyindustrious.
Buthewroteonsilently,palely,mechanically."
Buttwodayslater,Bartlebyrefusestoproofreadhiswork,saying,"Iwouldprefernotto."Thenarratorisspeechless:
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"Isatawhileinperfectsilence,rallyingmystunnedfaculties.Immediatelyitoccurredtomethatmyearshaddeceivedme,orBartlebyhadentirelymisunderstoodmymeaning.
IrepeatedmyrequestintheclearesttoneIcouldassume.Butinquiteasclearaonecamethepreviousreply,'Iwouldprefernotto.'
'Prefernotto,'echoedI,risinginhighexcitement,andcrossingtheroomwithastride.'Whatdoyoumean?Areyoumoonstruck?Iwantyoutohelpmecomparethissheet
heretakeit,'andIthrustittowardshim.
'Iwouldprefernotto,'saidhe.Thisisverystrange,thoughtI.Whathadonebestdo?Butmybusinesshurriedme.Iconcludedtoforgetthematterforthepresent,reservingit
formyfutureleisure."
GoodHelpisHardtoFind
Soonafter,thenarratorfindsthatBartlebyislivingintheofficeandhestillwon'tproofread.Thenarratorfireshim,buttohisutterastonishment,Bartlebyrefusesto
leavetheoffice.UnabletodislodgeBartleby,thenarratormoveshislawpracticetoanotherbuilding.ThenewtenantshaveBartlebyarrestedforvagrancyandsentto
aprisoncalled"theTombs."
ThenarratorvisitstheTombsandfindsBartlebystaringatthewall,althoughheisfreetoroamtheprisonyard.Byhisnextvisit,Bartlebyisdead.Later,thenarrator
learnsthatBartlebyhadbeenforcedoutofajobattheDeadLetterOfficethroughasuddenchangeinadministration.Thenarratorisoverwhelmed:
"Deadletters!Doesitnotsoundlikedeadmen?Conceiveamanbynatureandmisfortunepronetoapallidhopelessness,cananybusinessseemmorefittedtoheightenitthan
thatofcontinuallyhandlingthesedeadlettersandassortingthemfortheflames?Forbythecartloadtheyareannuallyburned.Sometimesfromoutthefoldedpaperthepale
clerktakesaring:thefingeritwasmeantfor,perhaps,mouldersinthegraveabanknotesentinswiftestcharity:hewhomitwouldrelieve,noreatsnorhungersanymore
pardonforthosewhodieddespairinghopeforthosewhodiedunhopinggoodtidingsforthosewhodiedstifledbyunrelievedcalamities.Onerrandsoflife,theseletters
speedtodeath.
AhBartleby!Ahhumanity!"
TheDeadEndKid
Thestorycanbereadasaparable,showinghowtheworldofcommerce,symbolizedbyWallStreet,destroysthehumanspirit.Imprisonedbyphysicalbarriers(the
city'svariouswalls)andemotionalbarriers(ameaninglessjob),Bartlebyrepresentsatragicallywastedlife.He'strappedintheDeadLetterOfficeofExistence.
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EarlycriticssawparallelsbetweenMelville'slifeandBartleby's,sincebothwerediscardedartistswalledinbyanunappreciativepublic.Thepublicwithdrewits
supportwhenMelvilleattemptedtowritesomethingmoremeaningfulthanatitillatingtraveloguethelawyerwasequallynonplussedwhenBartlebydidn'twanttobea
humanXerox.
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Page117
PART3
THEWARBETWEENTHESTATES(18551865)
"Ahousedividedagainstitselfcannotstand.Ibelievethisgovernmentcannotendurepermanentlyhalfslaveandhalffree."
AbrahamLincoln,fromhisSecondInauguralAddress
TheCivilWar(186165)betweentheindustrialNorthandtheagricultural,slaveowningSouthwasawatershedinAmericanhistory.Beforethewar,idealists
championedhumanrights,especiallyabolitionafter,Americansincreasinglyidealizedprogressandtheselfmademan.
Inthissection,you'lllearnhowHarrietBeecherStowehelpedcatapultAmericaintotheCivilWarwithherpolemicnovel,UncleTom'sCabin:LifeAmongtheLowly
You'lldiscovertheroleformerslaveFrederickDouglassplayedinhelpingtoawakenAmericanstothehorrorofslavery.Finally,you'llseehowtwoverydifferent
poets,socialWaltWhitmanandsolitaryEmilyDickinson,revolutionizedAmericanpoetry.
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Chapter11
TheLittleWomanWhoStartedThisGreatBigWar:HarrietBeecherStowe(18111896)
"AthousandlivesseemedtobeconcentratedinthatonemomenttoEliza.Herroomopenedbyasidedoortotheriver.Shecaughtherchild,andsprangdownthestepstowards
it.Inthatdizzymomentherfeettoherscarceseemedtotouchtheground,andamomentbroughthertothewater'sedge.Rightonbehindtheycameand,nervedwithstrength
suchasGodgivesonlytothedesperate,withonewildcryandflyingleap,shevaultedsheerovertheturbidcurrentbytheshore,ontotheraftoficebeyond.Itwasadesperate
leapimpossibletoanythingbutmadnessanddespair
Thehugegreenfragmentoficeonwhichshealightedpitchedandcreakedasherweightcameonit,butshestayedtherenotamoment.Withwildcriesanddesperateenergyshe
leapedtoanotherandstillanothercakestumblingleapingslippingspringingupwardsagain!Hershoesaregoneherstockingscutfromherfeetwhilebloodmarked
everystepbutshesawnothing,feltnothing,tilldimly,asinadream,shesawtheOhioside,andamanhelpingherupthebank."
fromChapter7,UncleTom'sCabin
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LikethesaintlyslaveUncleTomandviciousoverseerSimonLegree,Eliza'smadleaptofreedomovertheicefloeshasbecomepartoftheAmericanconsciousness.
AllthreeimagescomefromUncleTom'sCabin,thefirstAmericannoveltosellamillioncopies.Inthischapter,you'lllearnallaboutHarrietBeecherStowe,the
womanwhomAbrahamLincolncreditedwithstartingtheCivilWar.
TheBeecherPreachers
HarrietBeecherStowe'sfather,LymanBeecher,wasacharismaticmoverandshakerfromthehellfireanddamnationschoolofpreaching.Whennotcondemning
peopletohellforregularol'everydaysinning,Lymanwasattackingthemfordrinking,dancing,andduelingfromhispulpitinLichfield,Connecticut.Hissonswere
expectedtofollowhisfootstepsstraighttothepulpithisdaughters,tomarryintoit.Allhischildrenwereeducatedforalifeofpublicservice,definedbyhisstrict
Calvinistvalues.Lymanrecognizedthebrillianceofhisseventhchildearlyon,however."Hattieisagenius,"hesaid.Healsorecognizedthegenderbiasofhisday."I
wouldgiveahundreddollarsifshewasaboy,"headded.
StowewrestledwithreligiousdoubtsatalocalConnecticutschooluntilherearlyteenyears,whenshefullyacceptedherfather'steachings.WhenStowewas13years
old,hereldersisterCatherinestartedtheHartfordFemaleSeminary.Catherinewasassubtleasapokeintheeyewithasharpstick,andStowemeeklytoedtheline
asbothpupiland,later,teacher.
In1832,theBeecherfamilywasuprootedwhenLymanacceptedtheprestigiouspositionaspresidentoftheLaneTheologicalSeminaryinCincinnati."It'stheAthens
oftheWest,"hebraggedtohisbrood,whileStoweclaimed,"IneversawaplacesocapableofbeingrenderedaParadise."
"Porkopolis,"thenativescalledtheircity,inabackhandedjabattheslaughterhousesandmeatpackingplants.Thenicknameconvenientlyoverlookedthefrequent
choleraepidemicsandtheslavesrightacrosstheriver.
WhatIDidForLove
Catherineopenedanotherschool,draftingherobedientsisteronceagain,leavingHarrietlittletimetolearnhowtoapplylipgloss.Nonetheless,Harrietsoonmet
someonewhoappreciatedherinnerbeauty,CalvinStowe,apreacherandwidowertenyearshersenior.By1836,HarrietandCalvinfellsodeeplyinlovethatshe
wasabletooverlookhisfinancialincompetence,gluttony,andhypochondria.Calvinsoonprovedthathewasunabletomakemoney,buthesurecouldmake
childrentheyhadseven,inall.
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Calvin'ssalaryof$600ayeardidn'tbringhomeenoughbacontofeedthebrood,soHarriettookoverthebreadwinningalongwithherotherresponsibilities:
childcare,cooking,cleaning,sewing,washing,andironing.Publishershappilypaid$2apageforHarriet'scharmingstoriesofNewEnglandlife,andStowechurned
themoutasfastasherhomemadebutter.Shealsowrotepoems,travelbooks,biographicalsketches,children'sbooks,adultnovelswhateverwouldturnabuck.
TheTrafficinHumanFlesh
ThehorrorsofslaveryhadgnawedatStoweforyears.InCincinnati,sheoftencameintocontactwithfugitiveslavesbecauseKentucky,acrosstheOhioRiverfrom
Cincinnati,wasaslavestate.Inaddition,Stowe'sAuntMaryHubbardhadleftherhusband,anEnglishplantationownerinJamaica,becauseshecouldn'ttoleratehow
badlyhetreatedhisslaves.AuntMary'stalesofthecrueltyofslaverybecamepartoftheStowefamilylore.Stowe'ssisterCatherinealsosupportedantislaveryaction.
DeeplyaffectedbythepassageoftheFugitiveSlaveLaw,shewrotetoHarriet,"IwishIcouldusemypenasyoucanIwouldwritesomethingthatwouldmakethis
wholenationfeelwhatanaccursedthingslaveryis."
Stowevowedtowritesomethingandin1852,UncleTom'sCabinwaspublished.Stowelaterclaimedthatshehadn'twrittenthebook:"Godwroteit,"shesaid."I
merelywrotehisdictation."
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ThePriceofFame
UncleTom'sCabinimmediatelybrokeallsalesrecordsoftheday:Itsold3,000copiesthefirstday,10,000withinaweek,and300,000withinayear.Before1860
alone,therewere30Britisheditions,12German,fiveFrench,and23othertranslations.ThepublishergotrichtheStowesdidnot.Stunninglyineptwithmoney,
HarrietandCalvinmanagedtoletitallrunthroughtheirfingers.
ThenovelsoinflamedpopularopinionespeciallyintheSouth,ofcoursethatwhenStowemetAbrahamLincolnduringtheCivilWar,hesaid,"Sothisisthelittle
ladywhomadethisbigwar!"
BecauseshethoughtthatfewNorthernerswouldbelievehertaleifshepresentedslaveryatitscruelest,Stowehadsetoutto"showthebestsideofthething,and
somethingfaintlyapproachingtheworst."Nonetheless,thenovelwassostrongthatStowe'sownchildrensobbedwhentheyreadthefirstchapters.
FollowingthepublicationofUncleTom'sCabin,Stowebecameacelebrity,speakingagainstslaverybothinAmericaandEurope.Torefutecriticswhoarguedthat
UncleTom'sCabinwasnotauthentic,shewroteAKeytoUncleTom'sCabin,whichwaspublishedthefollowingyear.AKeycontaineddocumentedcase
histories,newspaperarticles,andlegalandscholarlytreatises.Thiswasfollowedbyasecondantislaverynovel,Dred,in1856.
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UncleTom'sCabin:LifeAmongtheLowly
UncleTom'sCabinhasacastofthousands,andsincewehaveneitherthespacenortimeforthemall,I'lljustintroducetheprimoplayersinthisepic:
UncleTom:TheChristfigurewhogetsabumrap.
SimonLegree:ThecruelestvillaininAmericanliterature.
EvaSt.Clare:Animpossiblyangelicfiveyearoldgirl.(Ifarealchildofyourseveractedthiswell,you'dcalltheXFiles!)
Mr.St.Clare:AwealthyslaveownerwhopromisesTomhisfreedombutdiesbeforehecanmakegoodonhisword.
Mrs.St.Clare:Eva'sselfish,hypochondriacmother.
Eliza:Acourageousslavewhosefierceloveforherfamilyhelpsthemovercometheirhardships.
GeorgeHarris:Eliza'shusband.Stalwartandcourageous,heheadsNorthandmakesittofreedom.
Harry(''JimCrow"):ElizaandGeorge'sbeautifulfiveyearoldson.
ArthurShelby:The"good"plantationownerandUncleTom'sowner.
Topsy:TheslavechildwhofunctionsasadramaticcontrasttoEva'sangelicgoodness.
Haley:ThevillainousSouthernslavetraderwhochasesElizaacrosstheicefloes.
Cassy:AslaveonLegree'sfarmwhoterrorizeshimwithher"voodoo."
ThatPeculiarInstitution
ThenovelopensontheShelbyplantation,afewyearsbeforetheCivilWar.Encumberedwithdebt,Shelbyisforcedtosellsomeofhisslaves.Agitated,Mrs.Shelby
groans:
"ThisisGod'scurseonslavery!"abitter,bitter,mostaccursedthing!acursetothemasterandacursetotheslave!IwasafooltothinkIcouldmakeanythinggoodoutof
suchadeadlyevil.Itisasintoholdaslaveunderlawslikeours,Ialwaysfeltitwas,IalwaysthoughtsowhenIwasagirl,IthoughtsostillmoreafterIjoinedthe
churchbutIthoughtIcouldgilditover,Ithought,bykindness,andcare,andinstruction,IcouldmaketheconditionofminebetterthanfreedomfoolthatIwas!"
Haley,thewilyslavetrader,picksUncleTom,Shelby'sfavoriteandmostloyalslave,andHarry,ahandsomelittleboy.Eliza,Harry'smother,overhearsthe
conversation,grabsherson,andflees.ThesceneshowsStowe'sabilitytocrafttearyourheartoutprose:
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"'Hush,Harry,'shesaid'mustn'tspeakloud,ortheywillhearus.AwickedmanwascomingtotakelittleHarryawayfromhismother,andcarryhim'wayoffinthedarkbut
motherwon'tlethimshe'sgoingtoputonherlittleboy'scapandcoat,andrunoffwithhim,sotheuglymancan'tcatchhim.'
Sayingthesewords,shehadtiedandbuttonedonthechild'ssimpleoutfit,and,takinghiminherarms,shewhisperedtohimtobeverystilland,openingadoorinherroom
whichledintotheouterverandah,sheglidednoiselesslyout.
Itwasasparkling,frosty,starlightnight,andthemotherwrappedtheshawlcloseroundherchild,as,perfectlyquietwithvagueterror,heclungroundherneck."
ElizatriestoconvinceUncleTomtocomewithher,butheremainsloyaltohis"Mas'r."WithHaleyinhotpursuit,ElizaescapesacrosstheOhioRiverbyleaping
acrosstheicefloes,sheandherboyareshelteredbyQuakers,andElizaisreunitedwithherhusband,George,aslavewhohadescapedfromaneighboring
plantation.SoonthefamilyisboundforCanada.
UncleTomisrewardedforhisloyaltybybeingsolddowntherivertotheignobleHaley.Duringthesteamboattrip,heisbefriendedbytheangelicEvaSt.Clare,atot
whocouldpassforShirleyTempleonProzac.Beforetheyreachport,UncleTomhassavedsweetEvafromdrowning.
Eva'sfather,Mr.St.Clare,buysTomandmakeshimthefamily'sheadcoachman.TomspendsmostofhistimewithEva,whosecharmspreadsfasterthanmonoona
college
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campus.ShealsotouchesTopsy'sheart.Evabeginstogrowmoreandmorefrail.Sensingsheisgoingtodie,Evabegsherfathertofreetheslaves,ashehadlong
promised.Evadies,andSr.Clareisdisconsolate.Hemakesplanstohonorhisdaughter'sdeathbedwish,butiskilledinabrawlbeforehesignsthepapers.Mrs.St.
Clarerecoversfromherhypochondrialongenoughtoputanothercoatofpolishonhernailsandsellmostoftheslaves.UncleTomissoldtothenotoriousSimon
Legree.
TooLittle,TooLate
Tomtriestopleasehisviciousmaster,butLegreeneverthelessflogshimuntilhepassesout.AslavenamedCassytakespityonTomandcomestohisaid.Cassytries
to"haunt"Legreeintostoppingtheabuse,butthebeatingscontinue.CassyandEmmeline,anotherslave,trytoescapebytrickingLegree,whobeatsTomtodeath
whiletryingtogetthetruthabouttherunaways.Twodayslater,GeorgeShelby(TomShelby'sson)arrivestobuyTomback,butitistoolate.Itisrevealedthat
CassyisEliza'smother,andtheyarereunitedinCanada.
Theactionwindsupquickly.Theformerslavesarereunitedwiththeirfamily.
GeorgeHarrisandhisfamilytraveltoLiberia,andShelbyfreeshisslaves.
TheMediumistheMessage
"Ihavealwaysthoughtthatallmenshouldbefreebutifanyshouldbeslaves,itshouldbefirstthosewhodesireitforthemselves,andsecondlythosewhodesireitforothers.
WheneverIhearanyonearguingforslavery,Ifeelastrongimpulsetoseeittriedonhimpersonally."
AbrahamLincolninanaddresstoanIndianaRegiment
UncleTom'sCabinsuffersfromstereotypicalcharactersandaconvolutedplot.It'snotgreatliteratureontheorderofHawthorne'sScarletLetterorMelville's
MobyDick.Butthat'sOKitwasn'tintendedtobe.UncleTom'sCabindriveshometheevilsofslavery.ThesufferingofElizaandUncleTomtouchedmany
peoplewhohadbeenunmovedbythecoldrhetoricoftheabolitionists.Here'sthemessage:
SlaveryisevilbuttheevilisinslaveryitselfandnottheSouthit'sthesystem,nottheslaveholders.
TheslaverycrisiscanonlyberesolvedbyChristianlove.UncleTomisnowregardedasasymbolofthecowardlybootlickingslavebecauseheforgivesLegree:
"Mas'r,ifyouwassick,orintrouble,ordying,andIcouldsaveye,I'dgiveyemyheart'sbloodand,iftakingeverydropofbloodinthispooroldbodywouldsave
yourprecioussoul,I'dgive'emfreely,astheLordgavehisforme."
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Inthelastchapter,Stowesmacksusupsideourheadwiththemessage.NoticehowsheurgeswhiteNorthernerstowelcomeescapedslavesandtreatthemwith
respect:
"Ontheshoresofourfreestatesareemergingthepoor,shattered,brokenremnantsoffamilies,menandwomen,escaped,bymiraculousprovidence,fromthesurgesof
slavery,feebleinknowledge,and,inmanycases,infirminmoralconstitution,fromasystemwhichconfoundsandconfuseseveryprincipleofChristianityandmorality.They
cometoseekarefugeamongyoutheycometoseekeducation,knowledge,Christianity.
Whatdoyouowetothesepoor,unfortunates,OChristians?DoesnoteveryAmericanChristianowetotheAfricanracesomeeffortatreparationforthewrongsthatthe
Americannationhasbroughtuponthem?Shallthedoorsofchurchesandschoolhousesbeshutdownuponthem?Shallstatesariseandshakethemout?ShalltheChurchof
Christhearinsilencethetauntthatisthrownatthem,andshrinkawayfromthehelplesshandthattheystretchout,andshrinkawayfromthecouragethecrueltythatwould
chasethemfromourborders?Ifitmustbeso,itwillbeamournfulspectacle.Ifitmustbeso,thecountrywillhavereasontotremble,whenitremembersthatfateofnationsis
inthehandoftheOnewhoisverypitiful,andoftendercompassion."
TheMightyMite
In1869,thescribeoftheLordonceagainfeltherselfsummonedtotakeupherpeninaholycause,thistimeindescribingthechargethatthepoetLordByronhad
hadanincestuousloveforhishalfsisterandindefendinghiswife,LadyByron,againstchargesthatshehadwrongedhim.Eventhoughalltheprincipalsweresafely
dead,theissuewasanythingbutandStowesoonfoundherselfroundlyreviledandevenbarredfromtheBritishIslesfordefaminganationalhero.Thescandal
eventuallydieddown,andStoweembarkedonaseriesofwildlysuccessfullecturetoursbeforequietlysuccumbingtooldageinher85thyear.
ThehistoricalsignificanceofStowe'santislaverywritinghastendedtodrawattentionawayfromherothernovelsandstories.HerworkisasunevenasaSan
Franciscostreet.Atitsworst,itindulgesinaromanticizedChristiansensibilitythatwaspopularinherday,butit'soutdatedtoday.
Atherbest,Stowewasanearlyandeffectiverealist.Hersettingsareoftenaccuratelydescribed,andherportraitsoflocalsociallifeshowawriterintouchwiththe
culture.
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Page129
Chapter12
"Iappearthiseveningasathiefandarobber,"announcedFrederickDouglassatanantislaverymeetingin1842."Istolethishead,theselimbs,thisbodyfrommy
master,andranoffwiththem."Withsuchpathosandoutrage,Douglassevokedthesufferingofslavery.
FrederickDouglass,anescapedslave,becameoneofthemosteffectiveoratorsofhisday,asaninfluentialnewspaperwriter,amilitantabolitionist,andafamous
diplomat.Hisautobiography,TheLifeandTimesofFrederickDouglass(1881)becameaninstantandenduringclassicstoryofcourage.Inthischapter,you'll
learnaboutoneofthetrueheroesofAmericanlifeandletters,FrederickDouglass.
BoundandDetermined
FrederickBailywasbornaslavearound1817onHolmesHillFarm,onMaryland'sEasternShore.ThoughitwasoneofthewealthiestplantationsinMaryland,
Douglasswasunimpressedwithhisbirthplace.Laterinlife,hedescribeditas"asmalldistrictofcountry,thinlypopulated,andremarkablefornothingIknowofmore
thanthewornoutsandy,desertlikeappearanceofitssoil."
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Althoughshewasliterate,Frederick'smother,HarrietBaily,workedthecornfieldssurroundingHolmesHill.Frederickknewlittleofhisfatherexceptthathewas
white.Asachild,heheardrumorsthathisfatherwasthemaster,ThomasAuld.
BecauseHarrietBailywasrequiredtoworklonghoursinthefields,Frederickwassenttolivewithhisgrandmother,BetseyBaily.BetseyBailylivedinacabinashort
distancefromthefarm.Whenhewassix,however,Frederickwasdispatchedtothemainplantation,sincehewasconsideredoldenoughtowork.
PitytheChildren
Frederickandtheothersmallchildrenwereputintoabreedingpenwithdogsandhogs.Theslavechildrenwerecalled"pigs"andfedcornmealmush,whichthey
scoopedfromthetroughwithspoonsimprovisedfromoystershellsorpiecesofoldshingles."Hethatatefastestgotmosthethatwasstrongestsecuredthebest
placeandfewleftthetroughsatisfied,"Douglassnotedinhisautobiography.
Thechildren'sonlyclothingconsistedofonelinenshirtthathungtotheirknees.Theywerenotgivenbedsorblankets:Oncoldwinternightstheywouldhuddle
togetherinthekitchenoftheAnthonyhousetokeepeachotherwarm.AsDouglassrecalled,
"Isufferedmuchfromhunger,butmuchmorefromcold.Inhottestsummerandcoldestwinter,Iwaskeptalmostnakednoshoes,nostockings,nojacket,notrousers,nothing
onbutacoarsetowlinenshirt,reachingonlytomyknees.Ihadnobed.Imusthaveperishedwithcold,butthat,thecoldestnights,Iusedtostealabagwhichwasusedfor
carryingcorntothemill.Iwouldcrawlintothisbag,andtheresleeponthecold,damp,clayfloor,withmyheadinandfeetout.Myfeethavebeensocrackedwiththefrost,
thatthepenwithwhichIamwritingmightbelaidinthegashes."
Fredericklastsawhismotherwhenhewassevenyearsold.HerememberedhismothergivingaseverescoldingtothehouseholdcookwhodislikedFrederickand
gavehimverylittlefood.Afewmonthsafterthisvisit,HarrietBailydied,butFrederickdidnotlearnofthisuntilmuchlater.
In1826,whenhewasaboutnine,FrederickwassenttolivewithHughAuld,hismaster'sbrother,whomanagedashipbuildingfirminBaltimore,Maryland.
Frederickcleanedhimselfupfortheoccasionandreceivedhisfirstpairofpants.
CastingBreadupontheWaters
Atfirst,Frederick'sonlydutiesweretorunerrandsandcarefortheAuld'sinfantson,Tommy.Frederickenjoyedtheworkandgrewtolovethechild.SophiaAuld
wasareligiouswomanandfrequentlyreadaloudfromtheBible.Frederickaskedhismistress
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toteachhimtoread,andshereadilyconsented.Hesoonlearnedthealphabetandafewsimplewords.SophiaAuldwasveryexcitedaboutFrederick'sprogressand
toldherhusbandaboutit.Furious,HughorderedSophiatostopthelessonsatonce."Ifhelearnstoread,itwillforeverunfithimtobeaslave,"Hughdeclared.
ButFrederickthirstedforknowledgeandsoonfoundawaytogetthereadinglessonshissoulcraved.Inhisownwords,
"[Imade]friendsofallthelittlewhiteboyswhomImetinthestreet.AsmanyoftheseasIcould,Iconvertedintoteachers.Withtheirkindlyaid,obtainedatdifferenttimesand
indifferentplaces,Ifinallysucceededinlearningtoread.WhenIwassentonerrands,Ialwaystookmybookwithme,andbydoingonepartofmyerrandquickly,Ifoundtime
togetalessonbeforemyreturn.Iusedalsotocarrybreadwithme,enoughofwhichwasalwaysinthehouse,andtowhichIwasalwayswelcomeforIwasmuchbetteroffin
thisregardthanmanyofthepoorwhitechildreninourneighborhood.ThisbreadIusedtobestowuponthehungrylittleurchins,who,inreturn,wouldgivemethatmore
valuablebreadofknowledge.Iamstronglytemptedtogivethenamesoftwoorthreeofthoselittleboys,asatestimonialofthegratitudeandaffectionIbearthembut
prudenceforbidsnotthatitwouldinjureme,butitmightembarrassthemforitisalmostanunpardonableoffensetoteachslavestoreadinthisChristiancountry.Itis
enoughtosayofthedearlittlefellows,thattheylivedonPhilpotStreet,verynearDurginandBailey'sshipyard.
Iusedtotalkthismatterofslaveryoverwiththem.Iwouldsometimessaytothem,IwishedIcouldbeasfreeastheywouldbewhentheygottobemen.'Youwillbefreeassoon
asyouaretwentyone,butIamaslaveforlife!HavenotIasgoodarighttobefreeasyouhave?'Thesewordsusedtotroublethemtheywouldexpressformetheliveliest
sympathy,andconsolemewiththehopethatsomethingwouldoccurbywhichImightbefree."
Throughthedailynewspaper,Douglasslearnedoftheabolitionmovement,whichfiredhisdesiretobefree.
Page132
TheManwiththeIronHeart
In1833,whenhewas15,Frederickwasshippedbacktohisformermaster,ThomasAuld.Whenherefusedtoworkwith"sufficient"speed,hewassenttoa
notorious"slavebreaker"EdwardCovey.DescribingCovey,Douglasswrote,
"Hewasacruelman,hardenedbyalonglifeofslaveholding.Hewouldattimesseemtotakegreatpleasureinwhippingaslave.Ihaveoftenbeenawakenedatthedawnof
daybythemostheartrendingshrieksofanownauntofmine,whomheusedtotieuptoajoist,andwhipuponhernakedbacktillshewasliterallycoveredwithblood.No
words,notears,noprayers,fromhisgoryvictim,seemedtomovehisironheartfromitsbloodypurpose.Theloudershescreamed,theharderhewhippedandwheretheblood
ranfastest,therehewhippedlongest.Hewouldwhiphertomakeherscream,andwhiphertomakeherhushandnotuntilovercomebyfatigue,wouldheceasetoswingthe
bloodclottedcowskin."
DouglasswasfullyawareofthepleasurethatCoveyderivedfrominflictingpain:
"BeforehecommencedwhippingAuntHester,hetookherintothekitchen,andstrippedherfromnecktowaist,leavingherneck,shoulders,andback,entirelynaked.Hethen
toldhertocrossherhands,callingheratthesametimeaddbh.Aftercrossingherhands,hetiedthemwithastrongrope,andledhertoastoolunderalargehookinthe
joist,putinforthepurpose.Hemadehergetuponthestool,andtiedherhandstothehook.Shenowstoodfairforhisinfernalpurpose.Herarmswerestretchedupattheirfull
length,sothatshestoodupontheendsofhertoes.Hethensaidtoher,'Now,youddbh,I'lllearnyouhowtodisobeymyorders!'andafterrollinguphissleeves,he
commencedtolayontheheavycowskin,andsoonthewarm,redblood(amidheartrendingshrieksfromher,andhorridoathsfromhim)camedrippingtothefloor.Iwasso
terrifiedandhorrorstrickenatthesight,thatIhidmyselfinacloset,anddarednotventureouttilllongafterthebloodytransactionwasover.Iexpecteditwouldbemyturn
next."
Withintheweek,Frederickreceivedaseriousbeatingforlettinganoxenteamrunwild.Duringthemonthstofollow,hewascontinuallywhippeduntilhebegantofeel
thathewasindeed"broken."OnonehotAugustafternoon,FrederickfoundthestrengthtorebelwhenCoveybegantyinghimtoapostinpreparationforawhipping.
"AtthatmomentfromwhencecamethespiritIdon'tknowIresolvedtofight,"hewrote."IseizedCoveyhardbythethroat,andasIdidso,Irose."
CoveyandFrederickfoughtforalmosttwohoursuntilCoveyfinallygaveup,tellingFrederickthathisbeatingwouldhavebeenlessseverehadhenotresisted."The
truthwas,"saidFrederick,"thathehadnotwhippedmeatall."
Page133
Frederickhaddiscoveredanimportanttruth:"Menarewhippedoftenistwhoarewhippedeasiest."Hewasluckyaslavecouldbekilledforresistinghismaster.But
Coveyhadareputationtoprotectanddidnotwantitknownthathecouldnotcontrola16yearoldboy.Frederickdecidedthetimehadcometoseekhisfreedom.
LetFreedomRing
OnSeptember3,1838,Frederickescapedfromslavery.Disguisedasafreesailor,hemadeittoNewYorkandfromthereusedtheUndergroundRailroadtoreach
Massachusetts.Helaterwrote,"Anewworldhadopeneduponme.Anguishandgrief,likedarknessandrain,maybedepicted,butgladnessandjoy,likethe
rainbow,defytheskillofpenorpencil."
"IhavebeenfrequentlyaskedhowIfeltwhenIfoundmyselfinafreeState.Ihaveneverbeenabletoanswerthequestionwithanysatisfactiontomyself.Itwasamomentofthe
highestexcitementIeverexperiencedInwritingtoadearfriend,immediatelyaftermyarrivalinNewYork,IsaidIfeltlikeonewhohadescapedadenofhungrylions.This
stateofmind,however,verysoonsubsidedandIwasagainseizedwithafeelingofloneliness.Iwasyetliabletobetakenback,andsubjectedtoallthetorturesofslavery.But
thelonelinessovercameme.ThereIwasinthemidstofthousands,andyetaperfectstrangerwithouthomeandwithoutfriends,inthemidstofthousandsofmyownbrethren
childrenofacommonFather,andyetIdarednottounfoldtoanyofthemmysadcondition."
OnceinMassachusetts,FrederickjoinedAnnaMurray,afreeblackwomanwhomheloved.Theyhadmetyearsagoandmaintainedtheirrelationshipthroughall
theirtroubles.ThecouplewasmarriedonSeptember15,1838.Togoalongwithhisnewlife,Frederickdecidedtochangehissurnametomakeitmoredifficultfor
slavecatcherstotracehim.HenamedhimselfafterLordJamesDouglas,thebraveoutlawedfictionalheroofSirWalter'sScott'spoem"TheLadyoftheLake."Thus,
FrederickBailybecameFrederickDouglass.
Page134
Afewmonthslater,DouglassbecamecaughtupinTheLiberator'sattacksonsouthernslaveholders.''Thepaperbecamemymeatanddrink,"wroteDouglass."My
soulwassetallonfire."In1841,DouglassspokebeforethecrowdattendingtheannualmeetingoftheMassachusettsbranchoftheAmericanAntiSlaverySociety.
WilliamLloydGarrisonimmediatelyrecognizedDouglass'potentialasaspeaker,andhiredhimtobeanagentforthesociety.Thusamediadarlingwasborn.The
personalriskforDouglasswasstaggeringnothinglikepublicitytomakerecapturemorelikelyandevenintheNorth,abolitionistswereaboutaspopularashead
lice.
TrueGrit
Introducedasa"apieceofproperty"or"agraduatefromthatpeculiarinstitution,withhisdiplomawrittenonhisback,"Douglassregaledthepublicwithstirring
recollectionsofhisyearsinslavery.Withhisflashingeyes,proudcarriage,largemassofhair,andeloquentdelivery,Douglasswasanimmediatesuccessonthelecture
circuit."Asaspeaker,hehasfewequals,"proclaimedtheConcord,Massachusetts,newspaperHeraldofFreedom.
Douglass'earlyspeechesdealtmainlywithhisownexperiences.Withdramaticeffect,hetoldofhowtheslaveownersbrutallybeatwomen,children,andtheelderly.
Hetoldaboutmasters"breeding"theirfemaleslaves.Douglasspepperedhistalkswithhumor,makinghisaudienceslaughatstoriessuchashistriumphantbeatingof
slavebreakerEdwardCovey.
In1845,Douglasssetdownthestoryofhislifeonpaper,andaclassicwasborn:NarrativeoftheLifeofFrederickDouglass,anAmericanSlave,Writtenby
Himself.Douglass'autobiographybecameabestseller.Thebookisastoryofthetriumphofdignity,courage,andselfrelianceovertheevilsofthebrutal,degrading
slavesystem.Itisasermononhowslaverycorruptsthehumanspiritandrobsbothmasterandslaveoftheirfreedom.However,Douglass'fameasanauthor
threatenedhisfreedom.FederallawsatthetimegaveThomasAuldtherighttoseizehis(thefugitiveslaveFrederickBaily)property.
WorriedabouthisfreedominAmerica,DouglasstraveledtoEnglandtospreadthewordaboutabolitionismuntiltheheatdieddown.In1846,hissupporters
purchasedhisfreedomfromThomasAuldfor$710.96.Soonafter,Douglasssailedhome,afreemanatlast.AshewrotetoWilliamLloydGarrisoninJanuary1846,
"Ibreatheandlo!Thechattelbecomesaman.Igazearoundinvainforonewhowillquestionmyequalhumanity,claimmeasaslave,oroffermeaninsult."
Page135
WorkingWithoutaNet
OnDecember3,1847,Douglassbeganhissecondcareer,whenthefirstissueofhisfourpageweeklynewspaper,theNorthStar,cameoffthepresses.Onthe
mastheadappearedthemotto,"RightisofnosexTruthisofnocolorGodistheFatherofusall,andweareallBrethren."Likeallworthycauses,theNorthStar
hemorrhagedmoney,anddespiteanamechange,thepaperlimpedalongfor17yearsbeforegaspingitslastbreath.Throughouttheseyears,Douglasscontinuedhis
workwithabolitionistsJohnBrownandSojournerTruth,amongothers.
DouglassworkedtirelesslytoensurethattheCivilWarwouldnotonlypreservetheUnion,butalsofreeallslaves.Heassistedintherecruitmentofthefirstblack
regiment,theMassachusetts54th,andhissonsLewisandCharleswereamongthefirsttoenlist.BythestartoftheCivilWar,Douglasshadbecomethemostfamous
andwellrespectedblackleaderinAmerica.HenotonlymadetheAlistforWhiteHouseparties,butwasalsoappointedaU.S.marshalandmadeRecorderof
Deedsforthedistrict.
In1889,PresidentBenjaminHarrisonappointedDouglasstheU.S.MinistertoHaiti.Inkeepingwiththerestofhisachievements,Douglassservedwithgreat
distinctionanddignity.FrederickDouglassdiedofaheartattackin1895.
Douglassremindedpeoplethatthestoryofslaverycouldnotbeeasilyforgotten,thatitmustremainforeveretchedinournationalconscience.Aftertheendofthe
CivilWar,Douglasssawhimselfasasymbolofformerslaveswhowerenotyetfullyfree,nomatterwhatwaswrittenonapieceofpaper,andspokeforthosewho
couldnot.Bornatatimewhenstrongvoicesweredesperatelyneededtocryoutforfreedom,FrederickDouglassestablishedhimselfasapowerfulspeakerforall
menandwomen.
Page136
Page137
Chapter13
"IhearAmericasinging,thevariedcarolsIhear,
Thoseofmechanics,eachonesinginghisasitshould
beblitheandstrong,
Thecarpentersinginghisashemeasureshisplankor
beam,
Themasonsinginghisashemakesreadyforwork,or
leavesoffwork,
Theboatmansingingwhatbelongstohiminhisboat,
thedeckhandsingingonthesteamboatdeck,
Theshoemakersingingashesitsonhisbench,the
hattersingingashestands,
Thewoodcutter'ssong,theploughboy'sonhiswayin
themorning,oratnoonintermissionoratsundown,
Page138
Thedelicioussingingofthemother,oroftheyoung
wifeatwork,orofthegirlsewingorwashing,
Eachsingingwhatbelongstohimorherandtonone
else,
Thedaywhatbelongstothedayatnightthepartyof
youngfellows,robust,friendly,
Singingwithopenmouthstheirstrongmelodioussongs."
from"IHearAmericaSinging"
Morethan100yearsafterhisdeath,WaltWhitmancontinuestoberelevanttothenationaldiscourse.ExhibitA:LeavesofGrass,Whitman'smasterpiece,wasone
ofBillClinton'sgiftstoMonicaLewinsky.Ifyoudon'thaveacopyoftheStarrReporthandy,don'tworryyou'llgettoreadlotsofWhitman'spoetryhere.
ThischapterexplainshowWaltWhitmancreatednewpoeticformsandsubjectstofashionadistinctlyAmericanidiom.First,you'lllearnaboutWhitman'slifeandthe
forcesthathelpedcreatehisuniquevoice.Thenyou'llreadsomeofhismostfamouspoems,includingexcerptsfrom"SongofMyself"and"ISingtheBodyElectric,"
aswellasallof"ANoiselessPatientSpider."
There'stheopeningandclosingof"WhenLilacsLastintheDooryardBloom'd."Nextcomes"OutoftheCradle,EndlesslyRocking,"apoemthatreallyrocks.
Finally,Isumitallupwithanexcerptfrom"OCaptain!MyCaptain!"Solet'sgettoit,already.
LettingItAllHangOut
"Icelebratemyself,andsingmyself,
AndwhatIassumeyoushallassume,
Foreveryatombelongingtomeasgoodbelongstoyou.
Iloafeandinvitemysoul,
Ileanandloafeatmyeaseobservingaspearof
summergrass.
Mytongue,everyatomofmyblood,form'dfromthis
soil,thisair,
Bornhereofparentsbornherefromparentsthesame,
andtheirparentsthesame,
I,nowthirtysevenyearsoldinperfecthealthbegin,
Hopingtoceasenottilldeath."
from"SongofMyself"
Tosingthesongofhimself,thesongofAmerica,Whitmancuthimselfloosefromconventionalthemes,traditionalliteraryallusions,andrhymealloftheaccepted
Page139
poeticcustomsofthe19thcentury.Thiswasn'tmuchofashocktoanyonewhohadknownWaltwhenhewasinkneepants:ItwasplainearlyonthatWalterwas
someonewhofollowedthebeatofhisowndrummer.
"Hewasaverygood,butverystrangeboy,"hismotherremarked.Oneoffivechildren(asixthdiedininfancy),Waltcategoricallyrefusedtodothefarmworkthat
wasexpectedofhim."Youarestubboner,Walt,thanaloadofbricks,"Walt'sbrotherGeorgeonceclaimed.
Nevermuchinterestedinschool,Whitmanlefttheclassroomatage11andheldanumberofMcJobsofficeboy,gofer,printer'sassistantbeforeturningto
teaching.
At17,Waltwasyoungerthansomeofthe70or80farmer'ssonswhowerehispupils.Althoughhisstudentswerequitefondofhim,Whitmanlastedonlyayearin
theclassroom.Amellowteacher,hespentmostofhistimewritinganddaydreaming.
Waltspenthistwentiesintheschoolofhardknocks,roamingaround,pickingupvariousoddjobstokeepthewolffromthedoor.Whitmannextbecametheeditorof
theBrooklynEagle,arespectednewspaper,buthegotcannedtwoyearslaterbecauseofhisoutspokenoppositiontoslavery.Hewasthenaround30.
SoulMan
"Ihavesaidthatthesoulisnotmorethanthebody,
AndIhavesaidthatthebodyisnotmorethanthe
soul,
Andnothing,notGod,isgreatertoonethanone'sselfis,
Andwhoeverwalksafurlongwithoutsympathywalkstohis
ownfuneraldrestinhisshroud."
from"SongofMyself"
Page140
In1855,Whitmanpublishedthefirstversionofhismasterpiece,LeavesofGrass.Intheopeningmanifesto,hedeclaresthatthenewAmericanpoet,referringto
himself,willcreatenewformsandsubjectmatterforpoetry,rejectingconventionallanguage,rhythm,andrhyme.
Whitmandeclaredthathispoemswouldhave
Longlinesthatcapturetherhythmsofnaturalspeech
Freeverse(poetrythatdoesn'thavearegularbeat,rhyme,orlinelength,butinsteadusesarhythmthatreinforcesthemeaningandsoundofspokenlanguage)
VocabularydrawnfromeverydayspeechabardsvoicetorepresentallofAmerica
Abaseinreality,notmorality
Hoitytoitydeclarationsaside,LeavesofGrassmadeaverysmallsplashwiththepublic."Fromaworldlyandbusinesspointofview,"Whitmansaidinhis
essaymemoir,ABackwardGlance,LeavesofGrasswas"worsethanfailure."RalphWaldoEmersoncalledthebook"themostextraordinarypieceofwitand
wisdomthatAmericahasyettocontribute,"whileThewellknownpoetJohnGreenleafWhittierthrewhiscopyofthebookintothefireplace.Whittierwasn'talone.
AnothercriticdismissedLeavesofGrasswithasneerandthecomment,"It'sjustabarbarbicyawp."
Thegrandpoetrypoobahsoftheday,includingHenryWadsworthLongfellow,OliverWendellHolmes,andJamesRussellLowell,weren'timpressed.EvenHenry
DavidThoreauwasappalledbyWhitman'spoetryandweknowhewasn'texactlyfollowingthepartyline.Peoplejustweren'treadyforWhitman'sintense,
complex,andsexuallyexplicitpoems.Takeaganderyourself.
ISingtheBodyElectric
"ISingtheBodyElectric"firstappearedinthe1860editionofLeavesofGrass,thethirdpoeminthe"ChildrenofAdam"sequence.WhatdoyouthinkWalt'sfirst
readersmighthavethoughtofthishymninpraiseofhumansexuality?
Page141
"ISingtheBodyElectric"
1
"Isingthebodyelectric,
ThearmiesofthoseIloveengirthmeandIengirththem,
TheywillnotletmeofftillIgowiththem,respondto
them,
Anddiscorruptthem,andchargethemfullwiththechargeof
thesoul
2
Thisisthefemaleform,
Adivinenimbusexhalesfromitfromheadtofoot,
Itattractswithfierceundeniableattraction,
IamdrawnbyitsbreathasifIwerenomorethana
helplessvapor,allfallsasidebutmyselfandit,
Books,art,religion,time,thevisibleandsolidearth,and
whatwasexpectedofheavenorfear'dofhell,arenow
consumed,
Madfilaments,ungovernableshootsplayoutofit,the
responselikewiseungovernable,
Hair,bosom,hips,bendoflegs,negligentfallinghandsall
diffused,minetoodiffused,
Ebbstungbytheflowandflowstungbytheebb,loveflesh
swellinganddeliciouslyaching,
Limitlesslimpidjetsoflovehotandenormous,
quiveringjellyoflove,whiteblowanddelirious
juice,
Bridegroomnightofloveworkingsurelyandsoftly
intotheprostratedawn,
Undulatingintothewillingandyieldingday,
Lostinthecleaveoftheclaspingandsweetflesh'd
day."
Notsurprisingly,thepoemcausedanuproar.Whitman'shomoeroticlongingswerenotagreatresumebuilder.EvenEmerson,Whitman'sstrongestsupporter,urged
himtocutthispoemoutofthebook.ButWhitmanrefused,believingthatsexualityshouldnotbeconcealed,becauseitisoneofthemostvitalaspectsoflife.Heeven
addedthe"Calamus"poems,whichareunmistakablyhomoerotic.Let'slookatthepoemcloselytoseewhathe'sreallydoinghere.
Page142
Section1describestheinterconnectionsamongeverythingthepoetloves.
Section2describestheentirefemalebody,toptobottom,concludingwithastatementofhisunitywithitall.
Thebodyandsoulareunitedwitheachotherandwiththepoem:Bodiesare"thesoul"and"theyaremypoems,"Whitmandeclared.
NowthatI'vegotyourattention,let'slookatsomeofWhitman'slesssensualpoems.RememberthatthesepoemswerejustasshockingtoWhitman'saudience
becauseoftheirrelianceonfreeverseandnontraditionalpoeticstyleandsubjectmatter.
BlackWidowBlues:ANoiselessPatientSpider
"Anoiselesspatientspider,
Imark'dwhereonalittlepromontoryitstood
isolated,
Mark'dhowtoexplorethevacantvastsurrounding,
Itlaunch'dforthfilament,filament,filament,outof
itself,
Everunreelingthem,evertirelesslyspeedingthem.
AndyouOmysoulwhereyoustand,
Surrounded,detached,inmeasurelessoceansofspace,
Ceaselesslymusing,venturing,throwing,seekingthe
spherestoconnectthem,
Tillthebridgeyouwillneedbeform'd,tillthe
ductileanchorhold,
Tillthegossamerthreadyouflingcatchsomewhere,O
mysoul."
Thepoemopenswithasmallincident:Aspider,aloneonacliff,throwsitsfilamentsintospace.Buthere'sthedifferencebetweenmeandWhitman:I'duselastweek's
TVGuidetosquashthatsuckerflatterthanaRitz,butWhitmanrecognizedthesceneandknewthatthiswasapoeticmomentwithcosmicmeaning.
Sureenough,inthesecondstanza,thespider'sactivitybecomesametaphorsymbolizingthepoet'ssearchforimmortality.Whitmansendsouthisverseasthespider
sendsouthisweb,bothhopingtoconnectandsogivetheirlivesmeaning.Butit'snotthateasytofindmeaninginlife,astheendingshows.
Page143
Sowhatmakesthisagreatpoem?Itcapturestheheroicdignityofthehumansoul,hangingfromaslenderthreadovertheabyssofchaos,yethopefuloffindingsome
meaninginlife.
WhenLilacsLastintheDooryardBloom'd
1
"Whenlilacslastinthedooryardbloom'd,
Andthegreatstarearlydroop'dinthewesternskyin
thenight,
Imourn'd,andyetshallmournwitheverreturning
spring.
Everreturningspring,trinitysuretomeyoubring,
Lilacbloomingperennialanddroopingstarinthe
west,
AndthoughtofhimIlove.
2
Opowerfulwesternfallenstar!
OshadesofnightOmoody,tearfulnight!
Ogreatstardisappear'dOtheblackmurkthat
hidesthestar!
OcruelhandsthatholdmepowerlessOhelpless
soulofme!
Oharshsurroundingcloudthatwillnotfreemysoul."
AsidefromThat,Mrs.Lincoln,HowDidYouLikethePlay?
Whitmanwrote"WhenLilacsLastintheDooryardBloom'd,"hiselegytoAbrahamLincoln,afewweeksafterLincoln'sassassinationonApril14,1865.The16
numberedsectionsoffreeverseexpresshisgriefoverLincoln'sdeathandhisattempttotransformthetragedyintoanunderstandingofthecycleoflifeanddeath.
Here'showthepoemisarranged:
Sections1and2lamentthePresident'sdeath.
Section3shiftsfocustothelilacbushinthedooryard.
Section4bringsforththeimageofthewarblingthrush.
Section5describesLincoln'scoffinandsociety'sgrief.
Sections7to14showWhitmanmerginghisgriefwithsociety'sgrief.
Sections14and15bringinimagesofdeathfromtheCivilWarandtransformsufferingintovisionsofpeaceandrest.
Page144
TheconclusionshowshowWhitmanhasfoundawaytodealwithhisgrief.Thatwaywasthroughnature:
''Lilacandstarandbirdtwinedwiththechantofmy
soul,
Thereinthefragrantpinesandthecedarsduskand
dim."
WithMaliceTowardNone,WithCharityTowardAll
WhitmansawLincolnastherepresentativedemocraticman,thelivingsymbolofhisownmessagetoAmerica."WhenLilacsLastintheDooryardBloom'd"succeeds
intransforminghispersonalgriefintoanexpressionofnationalmourning.ImplicitinthisprocessisWhitman'sbeliefthatthemeaningofLincoln'sdeathissovastthatit
canbegraspedonlythroughpoetry.Checkoutthecorrespondences:
Symbol Meaning
Lilacs Everlastingspring(thepoet'sloveforthepresident)
Fallenwesternstar Lincolnhimself
Thrush'ssong Universalizationofthepoet'sgrief
Page145
OutoftheCradle,EndlesslyRocking
OutoftheCradle,EndlesslyRocking
"Outofthecradleendlesslyrocking,
Outofthemockingbird'sthroat,themusicalshuttle,
OutoftheNinthmonthmidnight,
Overthesterilesandsandthefieldsbeyond,where
thechildleavinghisbedwander'dalone,
bareheaded,barefoot,
Downfromtheshower'dhalo,
Upfromthemysticplayofshadowstwiningand
twistingasiftheywerealive,
Outfromthepatchesofbriersandblackberries,
Fromthememoriesofthebirdthatchantedtome,
Fromyourmemoriessadbrother,fromthefitful
risingsandfallingsIheard,
Fromunderthatyellowhalfmoonlaterisenand
swollenasifwithtears,
Fromthosebeginningnotesofyearningandlovethere
inthemist,
Fromthethousandresponsesofmyheartneverto
cease,
Fromthemyriadthencearous'dwords,
Fromthewordstrongerandmoredeliciousthanany,
Fromsuchasnowtheystartthescenerevisiting,
Asaflock,twittering,rising,oroverheadpassing,
Bornehither,erealleludesme,hurriedly,
Aman,yetbythesetearsalittleboyagain,
Throwingmyselfonthesand,confrontingthewaves,
I,chanterofpainsandjoys,uniterofhereand
hereafter,
Takingallhintstousethem,butswiftlyleaping
beyondthem,
Areminiscencesing."
"OutoftheCradle,EndlesslyRocking"isapoemaboutmemory,akeyconcepttotheromantics.
Page146
LikeWordsworth's"LinesComposedaFewMilesaboveTinternAbbey"andLongfellow's"MyLostYouth,"Whitman's''OutoftheCradle,EndlesslyRocking"
exploreshowchildhoodpreparedthepoettoassumethemantleofArt.ThepoemopenswithadescriptionofLongIsland,whichWhitmancallsbytheNative
Americanname"Paumanok,"andhischildhoodthere.
Theendofthepoemfocusesonlisteningtotheocean'ssongofdeath.ButforWhitman,deathisanaturalpartofthecycleoflife,asthepoem'sstrongrhythmand
repetitionsuggest.
Waltgotitalltogetherinthispoem:Theformofthepoemechoesitscontent.Lookagainatthefirstthreelines:Eachopenswiththeword"out,"andthepoemrocks
witharhythmtheBeatleswouldenvy.
Theimagesalsoreinforcethecyclicalnatureoflife.Therockingcradle,thesingingbird,theyouthfulpoet,andthesearecurthroughout,remindingreadersbothof
life'sconstancyandofitschange.
AdvertisementsforMyself
"Creedsandschoolsinabeyance,
Retiringbackawhilesufficedatwhattheyare,but
neverforgotten,
Iharborforgoodorbad,Ipermittospeakatevery
hazard,
Naturewithoutcheckwithoriginalenergy
Icelebratemyself"
from"SongofMyself"
Determinedtospreadhismessage,Whitmanpublishedhisownreviews(underanassumedname,ofcourse)andcoauthoredhisbiography,TheGoodGrayPoet.
Whitmanevenmanagedtobecomethemostphotographedpoetofhiscentury,perhapsofalltime.
"OCaptain!MyCaptain!
"OCaptain!myCaptain!ourfearfultripisdone,
Theshiphasweatheredeveryrack,theprizewesought
iswon,
Theportisnear,thebellsIhear,thepeopleallexulting,
Whilefolloweyesthesteadykeel,thevesselgrimand
daring
ButOheart!heart!heart!
Othebleedingdropsofred,
Page147
WhereonthedeckmyCaptainlies,
Fallencoldanddead.
OCaptain!myCaptain!riseupandhearthebells
Riseupforyoutheflagisflungforyouthebugle
trills,
Foryoubouquetsandribbonedwreathsforyouthe
shoresacrowding,
Foryoutheycall,theswayingmass,theireagerfaces
turning
HereCaptain!dearfather!"
"OCaptain!MyCaptain!"memoralizesLincoln'spassing,thedeathofagreatmanandthedeathoftheerahedominated.UnlikeLincoln,Whitmansufferedalong
decline.
Whitman'sfinalillnessbeganin1873,whenhesufferedastrokeandamentalbreakdownathismother'sdeath.Unabletolivealone,Waltwastakeninbyhisbrother
GeorgeWashingtonWhitman,aplainspokeninspectorataCamden,NewJersey,pipefoundry.
ButitwasnotuntiltheeveningofMarch26,1892thatWhitmandied.Thenextday,thefamousartistThomasEakinsmadeadeathmask.Theautopsyrevealedthat
Whitmanhaddiedofemphysema.
Page149
Chapter14
67
"Successiscountedsweetest
Bythosewhone'ersucceed.
Tocomprehendanectar
Requiressorestneed."
Onthesurface,EmilyDickinsonaccomplishedverylittle.Anagoraphobicafraidofopenspacesfromage23untilherdeath33yearslateratage56,Dickinson
dressedonlyinwhiteandneverleftherhouseandonlyrarelyherroom.Andeventhoughshewrotenearly2,000poemsinherlifetime,shepublishedonlyseven
andallanonymously.
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Butbelowthesurface,thisoddreclusehelpedpavethewayformodernAmericanpoetry.Asyoulearnedinthepreviouschapter,Whitmancreatedthesprawling
epicofAmerica.Withrichvisualimageryandaradicallydifferentstyle,EmilyDickinsonplumbedlife'sphilosophicalandtragicdimensionsinlittlejewellikepoems.
WithoutFeathers
"Hope'isthethingwithfeathers
Thatperchesinthesoul
Andsingsthetunewithoutthewords
Andneverstopsatall"
Asthispoemreveals,Dickinsonsawhopeasahappybirdperchedinoursoul.Dickinsoncertainlyneededsomethingtoclingto.Althoughshewasborntotheupper
crustofAmherst,Massachusetts,Dickinsonseemedtogetnothingbutthecrumbs.HergrandfatherfoundedAmherstCollege,andherfatherwasawellrespected
lawyer.Emilywasbornwiththedualblessingsoffamilymoneyandsocialstanding,butshelackedtheeasysocialsensethattherestofherkinpossessed.This
becamemoreevidentasshegrewup.Staytuned:it'sagreatstory.
Emily'sbrother,Austin,washappilymarriedtoasocialclimber.Emily'ssister,Lavinia,whilenotthesharpesttoolintheshedluckilyhadthegoodsensetoignore
theinstructionsthatEmilyhadleftinherwilltodestroyherpoems.Instead,Laviniadisplayedanadmirablefanaticismabouthavingthempublished.
TheBelleofAmherst
1129
"Tellallthetruth,buttellitslant
SuccessinCircuitlies
ToobrightforourinfirmDelight
TheTruth'ssuperbsurprise.
AsLightningtotheChildreneased
Withexplanationkind
TheTruthmustdazzlegradually
Oreverymanbeblind"
Asachild,Emilywasabrilliant,determinedstudent.Whennotgrindingawayatchemistry,theology,Greek,Latin,ancienthistory,andotherequallyfrivolous
subjects,sheenjoyedreadingclubs,outdoorjaunts,andsocialevents.At15,Emilydisplayedtypicaladolescentmodestywhenshewrote,"Iamgrowingvery
handsomeveryfast
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indeed!IexpecttobethebelleofAmherstwhenIreachmy17thyear.Idon'tdoubtthatIshallhaveperfectcrowdsofadmirersatthatage."AlthoughEmilywasone
heckofapoet,shewasnoprophet.
AfteratwoyearstintatMountHolyokeFemaleSeminaryandthenanewwomen'scollege,Emily'ssociallifebegantonarrow.Forafewmoreyearssheenjoyed
concerts,lectures,andparties,andintheearly1850s,sheeventookatriptoPhiladelphiaandWashington,D.C.Itprovedtobethelongestjourneyshetookinher
life:Bytheendofthedecade,theBelleofAmherstbecameitsmostfamousrecluse.
DoingHardTime
303
"TheSoulselectsherownSociety
ThenshutstheDoor
ToherdivineMajority
Presentnomore"
"Idonotgofromhome,"Dickinsonwrotein1853.Fromage30on,Emilywithdrewfromsocietyafter1874,shepracticallyneverleftthefamilyhouse.Shedressed
onlyinwhiteandcommunicatedwithpeoplemainlythroughmysteriousnotesandfragmentsofpoems.WhathappenedtosendEmilyDickinsontoherroomforlife?
Herearethetoptheories:
AthwartedloveaffairwiththeReverendCharlesWadsworth
Athwartedloveaffairwithhersisterinlaw
Adeepdepression
Adeliberatechoicetolivealone,alaThoreau
WriteAway
441
"ThisismylettertotheWorld
ThatneverwrotetoMe
ThesimpleNewsthatNaturetold
WithtenderMajesty.
Hermessageiscommitted
ToHandsIcannotsee
ForloveofHerSweetcountrymen
judgetenderlyofMe"
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Withsomuchtimeonherhands,Dickinsonwrote.Andwrote.Andwrote.(Nowriter'sblockthere.)Duringher56years,Dickinsonwrote1,775completedpoems,
andpilesoffragments.Butshepublishedonlysevenpoemsduringherlifetime,allanonymously,butnotforlackofeffort.Dickinsoncouldhavewallpaperedherroom
withrejectionnotices.
Whythecoldshoulderfromthepublishingworld?Herpoemsjustdidn'tmatchwhatwasoutthere.Herearetheproblems:
Problem#1:Dickinson'spoemsdidn'tlooklikepoemsweresupposedtolook.
Problem#2:Herpoemsdidn'trhyme.(Everyoneelse'sdid.)
Problem#3:Herfiguresofspeechweretoostrikingforherday.
Problem#4:Herideasweretooradical.
Dickinson'sworkhadtowaituntilthe20thcenturytobeappreciated:Itwasn'tuntilhercompletepoemswerepublishedin1955thatshereceivedindepthattention
fromtheliterarycriticsandtheeducatedreadingpublic.Whythewait?Checkoutthefollowingcharttobetterunderstandhowherworkwassoaheadofhertime.
19thCenturyPoeticStyle 20thCenturyPoeticStyle
"ATenderLay" Dickinson'sPoem956
Begentletothenewlaidegg,Foreggsare WhatshallIdowhentheSummer
brilliantthings troubles
Theycannotflyuntilthey'rehatched, What,whentheRoseisripe
Andhavaapairofwings. WhatwhentheEggsflyoffinMusic
FromtheMaplekeep?
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Theanonymouspoemontheleftwasabestsellerin1857Dickinson'sversionofthesametheme,whichappearsontheright,wasneverpublishedduringherlifetime.
Let'stakeamorespecificlookattheproblemsI'vealreadyoutlined:
Problem#1:Dickinson'spoemsdidn'tlooklikepoemsweresupposedtolook.Wherearethesentences?Commas,semicolons,andperiods?Andwhat'swithall
thedashes?
Problem#2:Herpoemsdidn'trhyme.(Everyoneelse'sdid.)Inthe19thcentury,peoplebelievedthatallpoemshadtorhyme.SinceDickinsondidn'tuserhyme,
shecouldn'tbewritingpoems,couldshe?(Whoknowswhattheywere.)
Problem#3:Herfiguresofspeechweretoostrikingforherday.Ariperose?"EggsflyoffinMusic/fromtheMapleKeep"?
Problem#4:Herideasweretooradical.Inthe19thcentury,poemsweresupposedtodealwithwarmandfuzzytopics.Dickinsonavoidedthesticky
sentimentalityof19thcenturypoetry,favoringinsteadstartlingimagesandoutlooks.Asaresult,herpoemspavedthewayfortheImagistmovementofthe1920s,
andshebecameoneofthemovement'spatronsaints.Bythen,ofcourse,shewaslongdead.
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NotWaving,ButDrowning
435
MuchMadnessisdivinestSense
ToadiscerningEye
MuchSensethestarkestMadness
'TistheMajority
Inthis,asAll,prevail
Assentandyouaresane
Demuryou'restraightwaydangerous
AndhandledwithaChain"
WhenDickinsondied,hersisterfoundpilesofpoems,manyboundintoneatlittlebooklets.Shesoughtthehelpofaneighbor,MabelLoomisTodd,awriter,who
arrangedwiththehelpofthewellknowncriticThomasWentworthHigginsontohavethepoemspublishedin1890.ToddandHigginsoncutapartthelittlebooklets
andrearrangedthepoemsintotheconventionalpoetictopicsoftheday:
Love
Nature
Friendship
Death
Immortality
Acultclassicinitscutandpastedversion,thebookwasreprintedtwiceintwomonthsandraninto11editionswithintwoyears.Whencriticscomplainedthat
Dickinsonwasinept,variouseditorsrevisedherpoemstoappealtomoreconventionaltastes:Wordswerechanged,linesrevised,andtraditionalpunctuation
substitutedfordashes.Itwasn'tuntil1955thatthepoemswerepublishedintheiroriginalorder(asmuchaspossible)withnumbersinplaceofthetitles.Thecomplete
philosophicalandtragicdimensionsofDickinson'svisionbecameapparent,andherpoemswereonlythenfullyappreciated.Let'stakealookatsomeofhermost
famouspoems.
RemembranceofFlingsPast?
249
"WildNightsWildNights!
WereIwiththee
WildNightsshouldbe
Ourluxury!
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FutiletheWinds
ToaHeartinport
DonewiththeCompass
DonewiththeChart!
RowinginEden
Ah,theSea!
MightIbutmoorTonight
InThee!"
Thispassionateyearningforreunionwithaloverisashocker:CouldthisreallybecomingfromareclusewhorejectedLoveforArt?Thesexualimageryis
astonishinglyexplicitforawomannotknowntohaveeverbeenoutaftermidnight(andformostofherlife,notatanytime,forthatmatter).Thespeakerfantasizes
aboutanXratednightwhentheloversarereunited.Andjusttomakesurethatwedon'tmisreadherintentions,Dickinsonrepeats"WildNights"twiceandaddsan
exclamationpoint.Furthermore,the"port"instanza2andthe"moor"instanza3areclearlysexualimages.
Beginningwiththeunusualrhymeschemeabbb(nights,thee,be,luxury),thepoemabandonsrhymeinthesecondstanza,onlytopickitupagainattheend.The
varyingrhymes,unusualforDickinson'swork,servetoconveythedepthofthelover'sanguish.Thestartlingcomparisonofsextosailingischaracteristicofthe
metaphysicalpoetryofthe17thcentury.AsyoulearnedinChapter2,PuritanEdwardTaylorbroughtthisstyleofpoetrytotheNewWorld.Dickinsonwasfamiliar
withallthePuritanpoets.
Fewpoemshavecapturedthepowerofanticipatedloveasstronglyasthisone.ThereferencetotheGardenofEdeninthelaststanzasuggeststhateveniflove
cannotreturnpeopletoParadise,itcanoffersanctuarytoexiles.
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ASnakeintheGrass
986
"AnarrowFellowintheGrassHavePassed,Ithought,aWhiplash
OccasionallyridesUpbraidedintheSun
YoumayhavemetHimdidyounotWhenstoopingtosecureit
HisnoticesuddenisItwrinkled,andwasgone
TheGrassdividesaswithaCombSeveralofNature'sPeople
AspottedshaftisseenIknow,andtheyknowme
AndthenitclosesatyourfeetIfeelforthematransport
AndopensfurtheronOfcordiality
HelikesaBoggyAcreButnevermetthisFellow
AFloortoocoolforCornAttended,oralone
YetwhenaBoy,andBarefootWithoutatighterbreathing
ImorethanonceatNoonAndZeroattheBone"
Atfirstglance,thispoemlookslikefreeverse(poetrywithoutaregularrhymeandmeterseeChapter13formoreinformationonfreeverse).Buttheunderlying
metricalstructureincorporatesthetraditionalpatternofEnglishhymns,alternatinglinesofeightandsixsyllables.Thetoneisdeceptivelylightandsimplefirstdate
coolaswemeetthataffablefellow,Mr.Snake.Thelanguage,however,assaultsthereaderasmuchastheencounterwiththesnake.Theinversioninthelines"You
mayhavemetHimdidyounot/Hisnoticesuddenis"jerkswordsfromtheireverydayfunctionjustasthefigurativesnakehasjerkedthespeakerfromfeelingat
homeinnature.
ThemetaphorsDickinsonusestodescribethesnakereflectthespeaker'schangingfeelingsaboutit.Checkoutthisprogression:
Tone WordChoice
civilized "fellow"
vaguelyominous "spottedshaft"
hostile "whiplash"
openlyevil "it"
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Thesnakeengendersterror,''tighterbreathing/AndZeroattheBone".Theserpentinelinesandrepeatedssoundsatthebeginninggivewaytothelongosoundsof
terrorfellow,alone,zero,bone.
Thepoemdescribesajourneyintothecoreofnature'sdarkness,anoftenusedthemeinAmericanliterature.ToDickinson,natureismorelikethehurricanein
Twister.Naturetoyswithpeople,oftenunravelingtheirgriponreality.The"Whiplash"showsusthattoDickinson,naturewearshipbootsandlotsofleather.
ADatewithDestiny
712
"BecauseIcouldnotstopforDeathWepassedtheSchool,whereChildrenstrove
HekindlystoppedformeAtRecessintheRing
TheCarriageheldjustOurselvesWepassedintheFieldsofGazingGrain
AndImmortality.WepassedtheSettingSun
WeslowlydroveheknewnohastOrratherHepassedUs
AndIhadputawayTheDewsgrewquiveringandchill
Mylaborandmyleisuretoo,ForonlyGossamer,myGown
ForHisCivilityMyTippetonlyTulle

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WepausedbeforeaHousethatseemedSincethen'tisCenturiesandyet
ASwellingintheGroundFeelsshorterthantheDay
TheRoofwasscarcelyvisibleIfirstsurmisedtheHorses'Heads
TheCorniceintheGroundWeretowardEternity"
Ahotdateturnsouttobeacloseencounterwiththatoldsneak,Death.
Becausethespeakerinthispoemwastoobusytostopanddie,Deathpicksherupinhiscarriage,bringingalongImmortalityasachaperone.OnlyafterDeathhas
thespeakerinanastyembracedoessherealizethatDeathmakesalousydate.(Theghoulishseducerofherpoemwouldbeathomeinany19thcenturyGothic
novel.)
Thepoemshowsthatdeathisalwayscloseby,eventhoughweneverrealizeit.Asaresult,peoplearecaughtunpreparedwhenDeathcomesknocking:The
compressionofwordsandideasinthethirdstanzademonstratesthis.Thisstanzatracesthecycleoflife,fromchildhood(theSchool)todeath(theSettingSun).Time
marcheson,evenforchildrenalthoughthepaceseemstocrawlwhenthey'reyoung.
Seeingthewordpassedinthesamestanzashowstheironyoftime:Theoccupantsofthecarriagearenotonlypassingscenes,theyarealsopassingoutoflife.The
disheveledrhymescheme,alternatingiambictetrameterandtrimeterlines,underscoresourunpreparednessfordeath.
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SpeakingofDeath
465
"IheardaFlybuzzwhenIdiedIwilledmyKeepsakesSignedaway
TheStillnessintheRoomWhatportionofmebe
WasliketheStillnessintheAirAssignableandthenitwas
BetweentheHeavesofStormThereinterposedaFly
TheEyesaroundhaswrungthemdryWithBlueuncertainstumblingBuzz
AndBreathsweregatheringfirmBetweenthelightandme
ForthatlastOnsetwhentheKingAndthentheWindowsfailedandthen
BewitnessedintheRoomIcouldnotsee"
AnotherofDickinson'supliftingpoems,thisonedescribestheeventsleadinguptothespeaker'sdeath.Thefirststanzadescribesthequietroomthesecond,the
bedsidedeathwatch.ThelittlevisitorwhostrafesthethirdstanzaisasymbolforBeelzebub,LordoftheFlies,andKingoftheDevils.Forabeliever,thesymbolis
horrifying,becauseitsuggeststhatthesouldieswiththebody.
LikehercontemporariesEmerson,Melville,Hawthorne,andThoreau,DickinsonwasdeeplyconcernedwithconventionalChristianityanddeath.Inthispoem,she
createsthemomentofdeathtofindaninstantofclarity,butinsteadofchoirsofangels,shegivesusafly.
Whatdoestheflyrepresent?Death?Hell?Nothingness?Theflypointstheway,butthelivingcannotinterpretitsbuzzandthevoicestops.
AlthoughEmilyDickinsonpublishedsolittleduringherlife,shenonethelesswasveryconsciousofherartandthepossibilityoffame.Writingtotheinfluentialliterary
criticThomasWentworthHigginson,Dickinsoncommented,"Iffamebelongstome,Icouldnotescapeherifshedidnot,thelongestdaywouldpassmeonthe
chase."Ittooktime,buteventuallyEmilyDickinsonbecameacknowledgedasoneofthegreatestAmericanpoets.
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PART4
REALISMANDTHEFRONTIER(18651915)
"'ButIreckonIgottolightoutfortheterritoryaheadoftherest,becauseAuntSallysaysshe'sgoingtoadoptmeandsivilizeme,andIcan'tstandit.Ibeentherebefore.'"
MarkTwain,fromAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn
From1860to1914,theUnitedStateswastransformedfromasmall,young,agriculturalexcolonyintoahuge,modern,industrialnation.Adebtornationin1860,by
1914,Americahadbecometheworld'swealthiestcountry.Ourpopulationhadmorethandoubled,risingfrom31millionin1860to76millionin1900.
Asindustrializationgrew,sodidalienation.CharacteristicAmericannovelsoftheperiod,includingStephenCrane'sMaggie:AGirloftheStreets,JackLondon's
MartinEden,andTheodoreDreiser'sAnAmericanTragedy,depictthedamagethateconomicforcesandalienationwreakontheweakorvulnerable.Survivors,like
Twain'sHuckFinn,London'sHumphreyVanderveyden,andDreiser'sSisterCarrie,endurethroughluck,pluck,andstrength.
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Chapter15
"AllmodernliteraturecomesfromonebookbyMarkTwaincalledHuckleberryFinn."
ErnestHemingway,fromTheGreenHillsofAfrica
MarkTwain(thepennameofSamuelLanghorneClemens)isconsideredtobethegreatesthumoristof19thcenturyAmericanliterature.Buthe'smorethana
funnyman.Twainfirstcametofamewithstoriesthatcapturedthe"localcolor"oftheWest.Twainestablishedhimselfasoneofthebestwritersinthehistoryof
AmericanliteraturebytransmutinghischildhoodexperiencesintotheclassicAmericannovelsTheAdventuresofTomSawyer(1876)andTheAdventuresof
HuckleberryFinn(1885).TheinfluenceofthislaternovelwassogreatthatErnestHemingway,notnotedforhisgenerositytowardotherwriters,gaveithisstampof
approval.
ThischapteropenswithatreatageneroussamplingofTwain'shumor.NextcomesasurveyofTwain'slifeandtimes,payingspecialattentiontohismostfamous
works,including"TheCelebratedJumpingFrogofCalaverasCounty"andTheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn.
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FunandGames
WasTwainfunny?Don'ttakemywordforitreadafewclassicTwainlinesandanecdotesandjudgeforyourself.
"Alwaysdoright.Thiswillgratifysomepeople,andastonishtherest."
"Itisbettertokeepyourmouthshutandappearstupidthantoopenitandremovealldoubt."
"Bytrying,wecaneasilylearntoendureadversity.Anotherman's,Imean."
"Familiaritybreedscontemptandchildren."
AMormonarguingwithTwaindefiedhimtociteanyBiblicalpassageexpresslyforbiddingpolygamy."Nothingeasier,"Twaintoldhim."Nomancanservetwo
masters."
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"BeforeIdie,"aruthlessbusinessmantoldTwain,"ImeantomakeapilgrimagetotheHolyLand.IwillclimbMountSinaiandreadtheTenCommandments."
"Ihaveabetteridea,"Twainsuggested."Youcouldstayhomeandkeepthem."
"Quittingsmokingiseasy,"saidTwain,whowasrarelyseenwithoutacigarperchedinhismouth."I'vedoneitahundredtimes."
Nowlet'stakealookatTwain'slifeandcareertoseehowhedevelopedintoAmerica'sforemosthumorist(nottomentiononeofourbestnovelistsandthemasterof
"localcolor"writing.)
EvertheTwainShallMeet
It'snoteasytowriteabiographyaboutSamuelClemensbecausehewassodarnedblameless.SaintSamClemenswasavocalchampionofanyoppressedminority:
Hecampaignedforblackrights,supportedworkers,anddeploredantiSemitism.TwainalsosupportedNativeAmericans,whichwasamazingforhistime.Andhe
spokeoutinfavorofwomen,too.Twainwasdevotedtohisinvalidwifeandfamouslytendertohisthreedaughters.Sohesmokedstinkycigarsandenjoyedabeer
ortwo.That'sallIcoulddiguponhim.
SamuelClemenswasborninFlorida,Missouri,butthefamilymovedsoonaftertotheonehorsetownofHannibal,Missouri,whichwouldbecomethesettingof
manyofhismostfamousnovels.Sam'sfatherdiedwhentheladwasonly12yearsold.Samapprenticedhimselftoaprintertohelpkeepthewolffromthefamily's
door.
"Therecomesatimeineveryrightlyconstructedboy'slifethathehasaragingdesiretogosomewhereanddigforhiddentreasure,"Twainlaternoted.ForTwain,the
timecamewhenhewasinhislateteens.Althoughhewasapprenticedtoaprinter,Twain'srestlessnaturedrovehimwesttomineforgold.However,hedidn'tstrike
gold.
At21,TwaincircledbackhomeandlearnedtopilotaMississippiriverboat,whichwasthenaprestigiousandlucrativecareer.WhentheCivilWarhaltedrivertrade,
Samtriedaseriesofgetrichquickschemesthatsucceededonlyinmakinghimpoorerfaster.Scrapingbottom,heturnedtohispen.Writingunderthepseudonym
MarkTwain(theriverboatpilot'scryfor"Allclear!"),Sambegantochurnoutnewspaperfeatures.
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Whenhestartedwriting,Twainwasn'tplanningacareerhewasjusttryingtomakealiving.Thatquicklychanged,however,whenhefellinlovewithandmarried
OliviaLangdon,thedelicateflowerofawelltodofamily.Foryears,criticsandscholarsclaimedthatLivy,OurLadyoftheSlipcover,changedtheswaggering,
swearingSamintoasensitive,henpeckedweenie.WhetherLivywasresponsibleornot,marriagemadeTwainrealizethathehadtotakehiswritingmoreseriouslyif
hewastomakealivingbyhispen.
Howeverinfluentialshemayhavebeen,LivyneverdidbreakTwainofhishabitof"keepinghimselfhealthy"withfrequentdosesofwhiskey,wearingflamboyantwhite
suitsindefianceoftheuniversalVictorianblackbroadcloth,andtellingoffcolorstoriesinafrontierdrawl.Butacloselookrevealsthatwhateverconcessionseach
partnermadetotheother,TwainandLivy'smarriagewasremarkablyhappyforbothpartners.
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TheCelebratedJumpingFrogofCalaverasCounty
TwainjumpedintonationalprominencewhenhewroteatalltaleaboutJimSmileyandhisfrog,whichwasfirstpublishedinaNewYorknewspaperinNovember
1865andquicklyreprintedaroundthecountry.AlthoughTwainlaterdiscountedthestoryasa"villainousbackwoodssketch,"itnonethelessprefiguresmotifsthat
wouldremainapartofTwain'swritingthroughouthiscareer.Thesemotifsinclude
Vernacular
Exaggeration
Humor
Deadpannarrator
Unexplainedappearanceofamysteriousstranger
Atalltaleisafolktalethatexaggeratesthemaineventsoracharacter'sabilities.OriginallyanoraltraditionthatincludedAmericanfolkheroessuchasPaulBunyan
andhisblueoxBabe,JohnHenry,andMikeFink(theMississippiriverman),thetalltaleeventuallyfounditswayintotheAmericanliterarytraditionaroundthemiddle
ofthe19thcentury.Thestorieslikelystartedasentertainmentduringthelongandlonelynightsonthefrontier.Throughexaggerationandoutrightlies,eachspeaker
wouldtrytotopthelastonewithoutrageouslyfarfetchedyarns."TheCelebratedJumpingFrogofCalaverasCounty"isbasedonatalltaleTwainheardinamining
camp.(AndhereIsaidhedidn'tstrikegold.)
"TheCelebratedJumpingFrogofCalaverasCounty"hasonlyfourcharacters:
TheNarrator:Namewithheldtoprotecttheinnocent
SimonWheeler:Ablowhardblatherer
JimSmiley:CandidateforGamblersAnonymous
Dan'lWebster:KermitofCalaverasCounty
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TheSituation
Theunnamednarrator,astrangerintown,callsonSimonWheelertoaskaboutLeonidasW.Smiley,afriendofafriend.Thenarratorsoonlearnsthathe'sbeenset
up:LeonidasW.Smileydoesn'texist.WheelerthenbacksthenarratorintoacornerandlaunchesintoataleofamannamedJimSmiley,whoseloveofgamblingis
rivaledonlybyImeldaMarcos'sloveofshoes.ThestoryofJimSmileystartsthisway:
''TherewasafellerhereoncebythenameofJimSmiley,inthewinterof'49ormaybeitwasthespringof'50Idon'trecollectexactly,somehow,thoughwhatmakesme
thinkitwasoneortheotherisbecauseIrememberthebigflumewasn'tfinishedwhenhefirstcametothecampbutanyway,hewasthecuriosestmanaboutalwaysbetting
onanythingthatturnedupyoueversee,ifhecouldgetanybodytobetontheothersideandifhecouldn't,he'dchangesides.Anywaythatsuitedtheothermanwouldsuit
himanywayjustso'shegotabet,hewassatisfied.Butstillhewaslucky,uncommonluckyhemostalwayscomeoutwinner.Hewasalwaysreadyandlayingforachance
therecouldn'tbenosolitrythingmentionedbutthatfeller'doffertobetonit,andtakeanysideyouplease,asIwasjusttellingyou.Iftherewasahorserace,you'dfindhim
flush,oryou'dfindhimbustedattheendofitiftherewasadogfight,he'dbetonitiftherewasacatfight,he'dbetonitiftherewasachickenfight,he'dbetonitwhy,if
therewastwobirdssettingonafence,hewouldbetyouwhichonewouldflyfirstoriftherewasacampmeeting,hewouldbetherereg'lar,tobetonParsonWalker,whichhe
judgedtobethebestexhorterabouthere,andsohewas,too,andagoodman.Ifheevenseenastraddlebugstarttogoanywheres,hewouldbetyouhowlongitwouldtake
himtogetwhereverhewasgoingto,andifyoutookhimup,hewouldfollerthatstraddlebugtoMexicobutwhathewouldfindoutwherehewasboundforandhowlonghe
wasontheroad.LotsoftheboysherehasseenthatSmiley,andcantellyouabouthim.Why,itnevermadenodifferencetohimhewouldbetonanythingthedangdest
feller.ParsonWalker'swifelaidverysickonce,foragoodwhile,anditseemedasiftheywarn'tgoingtosaveherbutonemorninghecomein,and
Page169
Smileyaskedhowshewas,andhesaidshewasconsiderablebetterthanktheLordforhisinf'nitmercyandcomingonsosmartthat,withtheblessingofProv'dence,she'd
getwellyetandSmiley,beforehethought,says,"Well,I'llrisktwoandahalfthatshedon't,anyway."
Smileyisespeciallyproudofhis"fifteenminutesnag,"whoalwaysmakesittothefinishlinefirst,despiteherasthmaticwheezing.Smileydelightsinconningthe
spectatorsintogivingthenagahugeheadstart,eventhoughthenagalwaysmakesitinfirst.
TheSetup
Inthesameway,Smiley'sornerybullpup,namedAndrewJacksonafterthetenaciouspresident,alwaysmanagestowindogfights.Thelittledogwaitsuntilallthe
betsareonthetable.Thenitgrabsontoanopponent'shindleg
"jestbythej'intofhishindlegandfreezetoitnotchew,youunderstand,butonlyjestgripandhangontilltheythrowedupthesponge,ifitwasayear.Smileyalways
comeoutwinneronthatpup,tillheharnessedadogoncethatdidn'thavenohindlegs,becausethey'dbeensawedoffbyacircularsaw,andwhenthethinghadgonealong
farenough,andthemoneywasallup,andhecometomakeasnatchforhispetholt,hesawinaminutehowhe'dbeenimposedon,andhowtheotherdoghadhiminthedoor,
sotospeak,andhe'pearedsurprised,andthenhelookedsorterdiscouragedlike,anddidn'ttrynomoretowinthefight,andsohegotshuckedoutbad.HegiveSmileya
look,asmuchastosayhisheartwasbroke,anditwashisfault,forputtingupadogthathadn'tnohindlegsforhimtotakeholtof,whichwashismaindependenceinafight,
andthenhelimpedoffapieceandlaiddownanddied.Itwasagoodpup,wasthatAndrewJackson,andwouldhavemadeanameforhisselfifhe'dlived,forthestuffwasin
him,andhehadgenius"
TheSting
Soonafter,Smiley"ketchedafrogoneday,andtookhimhome,andsaidhecal'klatedtoedercatehimandsoheneverdonenothingforthreemonthsbutsetinhis
backyardandlearnthatfrogtojump."Smileycallsthefrog"Dan'lWebster"afterthesilvertonguedoratoranddiplomat.Dan'thefrogbecomesachampionjumper
andsocapturestheadmirationofthelocalgamblers.OnedaytheproverbialstrangerstrollsintotownandSmileysetshimupforthestingorsohethinks.Here's
howitgoesdown:
"Well,Smileykeptthebeastinalittlelatticebox,andheusedtofetchhimdowntownsometimesandlayforabet.Onedayafellerastrangerinthecamp,hewascome
acrosshimwithhisbox,andsays:'Whatmightitbethatyou'vegotinthebox?'
AndSmileysays,sorterindifferentlike,'Itmightbeaparrot,oritmightbeacanary,maybe,butitain'tit'sonlyjustafrog.'
Andthefellertookit,andlookedatitcareful,andturneditroundthiswayandthat,andsays,'H'mso'tis.Well,what'shegoodfor?'
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'Well,'Smileysays,easyandcareless,'He'sgoodenoughforonething,IshouldjudgehecanoutjumpanyfroginCalaverascounty.'
Thefellertooktheboxagain,andtookanotherlong,particularlook,andgiveitbacktoSmiley,andsays,verydeliberate,'Well,Idon'tseenop'intsaboutthatfrogthat'sany
better'nanyotherfrog.'
'Maybeyoudon't,'Smileysays.'Maybeyouunderstandfrogs,andmaybeyoudon'tunderstand'emmaybeyou'vehadexperience,andmaybeyouain'tonlyaamateur,asit
were.Anyways,I'vegotmyopinion,andI'llriskfortydollarsthathecanoutjumpanyfroginCalaverascounty.'
Andthefellerstudiedaminute,andthensays,kindersadlike,'Well,I'monlyastrangerhere,andIain'tgotnofrogbutifIhadafrog,I'dbetyou.'"
Smiley,norocketscientist,leavesDan'lwiththestrangerwhilehegoesofftotheswamptofetchanotheramphibiousopponent.Thestrangerthinkstohimselffora
momentandthen"tookateaspoonandfilledhimfullofquailshotprettynearuptohischinandsethimonthefloor."Smileyreturnswithachoicefrog,andtherace
begins.
"thenewfroghoppedoff,butDan'lgiveaheave,andhysteduphisshoulderssolikeaFrenchman,butitwan'tnousehecouldn'tbudgehewasplantedassolidasan
anvil,andhecouldn'tnomorestirthanifhewasanchoredout.Smileywasagooddealsurprised,andhewasdisgustedtoo,buthedidn'thavenoideawhatthematterwas,of
course.
Thefellertookthemoneyandstartedawayandwhenhewasgoingoutatthedoor,hesorterjerkedhisthumboverhisshouldersthiswayatDan'l,andsaysagain,very
deliberate,'Well,Idon'tseenop'intsaboutthatfrogthat'sanybetter'nanyotherfrog.'
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SmileyhestoodscratchinghisheadandlookingdownatDan'lalongtime,andatlasthesays,'Idowonderwhatinthenationthatfrogthrow'doffforIwonderifthereain't
somethingthematterwithhimhe'pearstolookmightybaggy,somehow.'AndheketchedDan'lbythenapoftheneck,andliftedhimupandsays,'Why,blamemycats,ifhe
don'tweighfivepound!'andturnedhimupsidedown,andhebelchedoutadoublehandfulofshot.Andthenheseehowitwas,andhewasthemaddestmanhesetthefrog
downandtookoutafterthatfeller,butheneverketchedhim.And"
SimonWheelergetsinterruptedandthenarratorattemptsahastyretreat.ButSimonbuttonholesthemanwithanewtaleofa"yaller[yellow]oneeyedcowthatdidn't
havenotail,onlyjestashortstumplikeabannanner,and"butthestrangermakesgoodhisescape.
HoptoIt
Criticsagreethat"TheJumpingFrog"islikelythebesthumoroussketcheverproducedinAmerica.AswithmanyofthefunnymenoftheAmericanWest,Twain
createdhumorbyrelatingwildlyexaggeratedstoriesinadeadpantone,whichemphasizesthehumorbecauseitimpliesthatthenarratorisunawareofthestory's
absurdity.
Twainwasn'tthefirstwritertocombinehighstylewithlow,northefirsttosquandergeniusonashaggyfrogstory.The"highstyle"isshownintheelevateddictionof
theopeningandclosing,whilethe"lowstyle"isshowninSimonWheeler'suseofthevernacular.
Whatwasnew,electric,andinstantlypopular,however,wasthequalityofthestorythatresultedwhenheswitchedfromstandardwrittenEnglishtothevernacular.
Early19thcenturyAmericanwriterstendedtobeflowery,sentimental,orostentatiouspartiallybecausetheywerestilltryingtoprovethattheycouldwriteas
elegantlyastheEnglish.Twain'sstyle,whichwasbasedonrealistic,colloquialAmericanspeech,gaveAmericansanewappreciationoftheirnationalvoice.Every
humoristsince,includingJamesThurber,DorothyParker,RobertBenchley,S.J.Perelman,andWoodyAllen,laborsinTwain'sshadow.
TheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn
"TheCelebratedJumpingFrogofCalaverasCounty"putTwainontheliterarymap,butTheInnocentsAbroadputsomemoneyinhispocket.Lifeonthe
Mississippimadehimevenmoremoney.In1871,ayearaftermarryingOlivia,Twainusedthemoneyheearnedfromthesalesofthesebookstobuythemanorto
whichhewasn'tborn,atastefulspreadinConnecticut.Fortyyearsoffameandfortunefollowed.
LifeontheMississippiisTwain'sownaccountofhisexperiencesasaboyandyoungmanlivingontheMississippiRiver.Asanadult,heclaimedhestillretainedhis
childhoodwishtobecomeariverboatpilot.RiverboattradewasenormouslyimportantinTwain'sdayasaresult,thepositionofriverboatpilothadtremendous
prestige.AlthoughTwainneverdidachievefameasariverboatpilot,hisloveoftheMississippi
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Riverandtheboatsthattraveleditslengthisevidentinmuchofhiswriting,especiallyintherichdetailhedrewfromthesetting.Thisdetailhelpedgivehisnovelstheir
remarkableclarityanddepth.
HighpointsinTwain'scareerincludehismasterpieces,TheAdventuresofTomSawyerandTheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn,publishedin1885.
AlthoughthenoveliswidelyconsideredtobeoneofthegreatestAmericanworksofart,HuckleberryFinnwascondemnedbymanyreviewersinTwain'stimeas
coarseandbymanycommentatorsinourtimeasracist.In1885,thenovelwasbanishedfromtheshelvesoftheConcordPublicLibraryforitsfoullanguage.The
novelisstillfrequentlyinthemedia,asschoolsacrossthecountryalternatelybanitorrestoreittotheirclassrooms.
Here'showthenovelbegins:
"Youdon'tknowaboutmewithoutyouhavereadabookbythenameofTheAdventuresofTomSawyerbutthatain'tnomatter.ThatbookwasmadebyMr.MarkTwain,and
hetoldthetruth,mainly.Therewasthingswhichhestretched,butmainlyhetoldthetruth.Thatisnothing.Ineverseenanybodybutliedonetimeoranother,withoutitwas
AuntPolly,orthewidow,ormaybeMary.AuntPollyTom'sAuntPolly,sheisandMary,andtheWidowDouglasisalltoldaboutinthatbook,whichismostlyatruebook,
withsomestretchers,asIsaidbefore."
Meetthecast:
HuckleberryFinn:Theselfreliant,mischievous,thoughtfulboyyouwishyouhadbeen,butwouldn'tbabysitforforallthejunkfoodintheworld.
TomSawyer:Theguywhotapsthekeg,wearsthetoga,andstillmanagestoacemath.
Jim:TheblackmanwhoseonlymistakeisbeingbornaSouthernslave.
Pap:Huck'sfatherafatherinnameonly.Heisapoordrunkardwhogivesnewdefinitiontothewordschildabuse.
TheWidowDouglasandhersisterMissWatson:thewellmeaningwomenwhotakeHuckinandtryto"sivilize"him.
TheDukeandKing:Shadyconmen.
TheGrangerfordsandShepherdsons:Twoperpetuallyfeudingfamilieswhohavelongforgottenwhatthefight'saboutTwain'sversionoftheHatfieldsand
McCoys.
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AuntPolly:Huck'saunt.Shecomesinattheveryendofthebook.
TheMississippi:AstateofmindasmuchasabodyofwaterOldManRiverrepresentsfreedomandunifiesthenovel.
DoAsISay,NotAsIDo
Atthebeginningofthenovel,welearnthattheWidowDouglasandhersisterMissWatsonarehellbentoncivilizingHuck,themotherlesschildofthetowndrunk.
Tothatend,they'redeterminedtogetHucktostopswearingandsmoking.Theyalsowanthimtoattendschool,wearcleanclothes,andevensleepinabedrather
thanoutsideinanoldbarrel.Here'swhatHuckhastosayaboutcivilizedlife:
"Thewidowrungabellforsupper,andyouhadtocometotime.Whenyougottothetableyoucouldn'tgorighttoeating,butyouhadtowaitforthewidowtotuckdownher
headandgrumblealittleoverthevictuals,thoughtherewarn'treallyanythingthematterwiththemthatis,nothingonlyeverythingwascookedbyitself.Inabarrelofodds
andendsitisdifferentthingsgetmixedup,andthejuicekindofswapsaround,andthethingsgobetter.
AftersuppershegotoutherbookandlearnedmeaboutMosesandtheBulrushers,andIwasinasweattofindoutallabouthimbutbyandbysheletitoutthatMoseshad
beendeadaconsiderablelongtimesothenIdidn'tcarenomoreabouthim,becauseIdon'ttakenostockindeadpeople."
Huckisquicktonoticethehypocrisyinthesewellmeaningbutsanctimoniqusoldladies:
"PrettysoonIwantedtosmoke,andaskedthewidowtoletme.Butshewouldn't.Shesaiditwasameanpracticeandwasn'tclean,andImusttrytonotdoitanymore.Thatis
justthewaywithsomepeople.Theygetdownonathingwhentheydon'tknownothingaboutit.HereshewasabotheringaboutMoses,whichwasnokintoher,andnouse
toanybody,beinggone,yousee,yetfindingapoweroffaultwithmefordoingathingthathadsomegoodinit.Andshetooksnuff,tooofcoursethatwasallright,because
shedoneitherself."
Nonetheless,HuckslowlyadjuststocivilizedlifeuntilhefindsfootstepsthatrevealthatPap,hisshiftlessfather,isbackintowntogethisgreasyhandsonthe
$6,000robbers'treasureHuckandhisfriend,TomSawyerfoundinacave.WithacaginessthatwouldmakeaSwissbankerproud,Hucksignsthemoneyoverto
honestJudgeThatcher.
Furiousthathecan'tgrabHuck'smoney,Papkidnapshissonandlockshiminanisolatedcabin.WhatfollowsisascenethatwouldmakeWesCraven'sbloodrun
cold:PapbeatsHuckbloodyandtriestostarvehimintosubmission.Huckfinallyescapestheabusebyfakinghisowndeathbykillingapigandsmearingthecabin
withitsblood.HuckthengoestonearbyabandonedJackson'sIslandtohideuntiltheexcitementblowsover.
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HuckandJim
Threedayslater,HuckdiscoversJim,MissWatson'sblackslave,whohasrunawaytoJackson'sIslandbecauseMissWatsonwantstosellhim.Althoughhorrified
thatJimwouldtrytoescape,Huckswearstokeephissecret.Fearingcapture,thetworaftdowntheMississippi,planningtohopasteamboatandtraveltoOhio,a
freestate.
Alongtheway,HuckandJimhaveaseriesofadventures.ThefirstoneoccurswhentheybecomeembroiledinafictionalversionoftheHatfieldMcCoyfeudasthe
GrangerfordsandShepherdsonsshootitoutoveranissuethatneithersidecanremember.
Alittlefartherdowntheriver,JimandHuckaresuckeredbytheKingandDuke,twoconmenpretendingtoberoyalty.Theconmenprofitfromrevivalmeetingsand
fraudulenttheatricalproductions.WhenthetwoconmensetouttodefraudthebereavedWilksfamily,Huckisstruckwithremorseanddeterminestoprotectthe
family.Whentherealheirsarrive,however,Huck'scarefullylaidplansareruinedandhenarrowlyescapes.TwotwoconmenplottocaptureJimandturnhiminfor
thereward.Withallthesegoingson,JimandHuckmisstheturnforOhioandendupheadingdeeperintoslaveterritory.
HuckstruggleswithhisconscienceaboutwhethertohelpJimescapefromslavery.HefinallywritesalettertoMissWatson,revealingtheirlocation,buthecannot
makeuphismindwhetherornottoactuallysendit,asthefollowingsceneshows:
"IfeltgoodandallwashedcleanofsinforthefirsttimeIhadeverfeltsoinmylife,andIknowedIcouldpraynow.ButIdidn'tdoitstraightoff,butlaidthepaperdownand
settherethinkingthinkinghowgooditwasallthishappenedso,andhownearIcometobeinglostandgoingtohell.Andwentonthinking.Andgottothinkingoverour
tripdowntheriverandIseeJimbeforeme,allthetime,intheday,andinthenighttime,sometimesmoonlight,sometimesstorms,andweafloatingalong,talking,and
singing,andlaughing.
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ButsomehowIcouldn'tseemtostrikenoplacestohardenmeagainsthim,butonlytheotherkind.I'dseehimstandingmywatchontopofhis'n,steadofcallingme,soIcould
goonsleepingandseehimhowgladhewaswhenIcomebackoutofthefogandwhenIcometohimagainintheswamp,uptherewherethefeudwasandsuchliketimes
andhowgoodhealwayswasandatlastIstruckthetimeIsavedhimbytellingthemenwehadsmallpoxabroad,andhewassograteful,andsaidIwasthebestfriendold
Jimeverhadintheworld,andtheonlyonehe'sgotnowandthenIhappenedtolookaround,andseethatpaper.
Itwasacloseplace.Itookitup,andhelditinmyhand.Iwasatrembling,becauseI'dgottodecide,forever,betwixttwothings,andIknowedit.Istudiedaminute,sortof
holdingmybreath,andthensaystomyself:
'Allright,then,I'llgotohellandtoreitup.'"
ThisisHuck'scrisisofconscience.BypushingHuckthe"wrong"wayinatugofwarbetweenhisconscienceandtemptation,Twainrevealedthehypocrisyof
institutionalizedreligion.ConsidertheWidow'searlierhypocriticalattemptstoteachHuckaboutreligioneventhoughsheownsslaves.Huck'sdecisiontofreeJim
indirectlymakeshimmore"religious"thanthosearoundhim.
LightOutfortheTerritoryAheadoftheRest
HucktracksJimtothePhelps'farm,whereheisbeingheld.ThePhelps'farmisthehomeofTomSawyer'sAuntPolly.Inasillyandunbelievabletwist,Huckis
mistakenforTomandTomismistakenforSidSawyer,Tom'sbrother.
TomconcoctsanelaborateschemeforJim'sescape,chockfullofdaringschemessuchaschains,lettersscratchedinblood,andhair'sbreathescapes.Whenthe
schemefailsandTomisshotintheleg,TomfinallyadmitsthatJimhasbeenfreeforsometime,thankstoMissWatson'sdeathandthetermsofherwill.Tomknew
forsometimethatMissWatsonhaddiedandfreedJiminherwill,butthisironictwistisnewstoHuckandthereader.
JimtellsHuckthatPaphasdied.JimandHuckhaddiscoveredPap'spartiallydecomposedbodyearlierinthenovel,butJimhadcarefullyshieldedHuckfromthe
bodyanditsidentity.Fedupwithwriting,Huckendshistalethisway:
"thereain'tnothingmoretowriteabout,andIamrottengladofit,becauseifI'daknowedwhatatroubleitwastomakeabookIwouldn'tatackledit,andain'tagoingto
nomore.ButIreckonIgotto
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lightoutfortheTerritoryaheadoftherest,becauseAuntSallyshe'sgoingtoadoptmeandsivilizeme,andIcan'tstandit.Ibeentherebefore."
TheendinggivesthereaderthecounterversionoftheclassicAmericansuccessmyth:Theopenroadleadingtothepristinewilderness,awayfromthemorally
corruptinginfluencesof"civilization."JamesFenimoreCooper'snovels,WaltWhitman'shymnstotheopenroad,WilliamFaulkner's"TheBear,"andJackKerouac's
OntheRoadareotherliteraryexamplesofthistheme.
MarkMyWords
ThefederalgovernmentonceaskedacommitteeofEnglishteacherstopreparealistofbooksthatshouldberequiredreadingforallstudents.Theycouldagree
unanimouslyononlyonebookTheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn.
HuckFinnisthebookthatfirmlyestablishedAmericanliterature.Inevitably,ithasinspiredcountlessliteraryinterpretations.Hereareafewofthestandardones:
Thenovelisastoryofdeath,rebirth,andinitiation.
TheescapedslaveJimisafatherfigureforHuckindecidingtosaveJim,Huckgrowsmorallybeyondtheboundsofhisslaveowningsociety.
Jim'sadventuresinitiateHuckintothecomplexitiesofhumannatureandgivehimmoralcourage.
Twainusesslaveryasthemetaphorforallsocialbondageandacceptedinjusticeandinhumanity.
Freedomexistsontheraftandtheriver,notintheNorthortheSouth.
HuckleberryFinnalsodramatizesTwain'sidealoftheharmoniouscommunity:"Whatyouwant,aboveallthings,onaraftisforeverybodytobesatisfiedandfeel
rightandkindtowardtheothers."LikeMelville'sPequod,theraftsinks,andwithitthatspecialcommunity.Thepure,simpleworldoftheraftisultimately
overwhelmedbyprogressthesteamboatbutthemythicimageoftheriverremains,asvastandchangingaslifeitself.
Besidesthenovel'suproariouscomedy,thereisatragicviewoftheGardenofEden,oneofthegreatvisionsoftheunattainableworldoffreedominnature.Asyou've
alreadyseen,thethemegotitsstartwithJamesFenimoreCooper'sNattyBumppo,ourfirstWildMan.Asyou'llfindoutinChapter21,thedreamgetspickedupby
F.ScottFitzgerald,mostmemorablyinhisnovelTheGreatGatsby.Inthe1950s,thisthemeispickedupbyJ.D.Salinger'sHoldenCaufield,asortofHuckLite.
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Mr.ClemensandMarkTwain
"Everyoneisamoon,andhasadarksidewhichhenevershowstoanybody."
MarkTwain
Thegoodtimesneverlast.Bythe1890s,Twain'slifewasinashambles.Hishealthbroken,hisfortunelostinthePanicof1893,hisdaughterdeadofmeningitis,
Twainplungedintoadeepdepression."Ofalltheanimals,manistheonlyonethatiscruel.Heistheonlyonethatinflictspainforthepleasureofdoingit,"Twainsaid
duringthistime.
Althoughdeeplyembitteredbytheturnhislifehadtaken,Twainnonethelesscontinuedtowriteandlecture.Hewasextraordinarilypopularonthelecturecircuit,atop
venueforpublicentertainmentbeforemovies,television,andradio.
MarkTwain.
TwainwasbornwhenHalley'scometappearedin1835anddiedashehadpredictedwhenitappearedagainin1910."Itwillbethegreatestdisappointmentof
mylifeifIdon'tgooutwithHalley'sComet,"hewrote."TheAlmightyhassaid,nodoubt:'Nowherearetwounaccountablefreakstheycameintogether,theymust
goouttogether.'"
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HuckFinn''don'ttakenostockindeadpeople,"butClemens'deathwastreatedinallpartsofthecountryasamajoreventinAmerica'shistory.Twain'sobituaryin
theApril22,1910issueoftheNewYorkTimesnotedthat
"SamuelL.ClemenswasthegreatestAmericanhumoristofhisagenobodywilldeny.WemayleaveitanopenquestionwhetherhewasnotalsothegreatestAmerican
writeroffiction.ThecreatorofMulberrySellersandPudd'nheadWilson,theinventorofthatSouthwesternfeudin"HuckleberryFinn,"which,withallitswildlyimaginative
details,isstillinfusedwithrarepathos,hascertainlyanundyingvitality.Hisdeathwillbemourned,everywhere,andsmileswillbreakthroughthetearsasremembranceof
theman'srichgifttohiseracomestothemourners'minds.Howeverhisworkmaybejudgedbyimpartialandunprejudicedgenerationshisfameisimperishable."
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Chapter16
"Amansaidtotheuniverse:
'Sir,Iexist!'
'However,'repliedtheuniverse,
'Thefacthasnotcreatedinme
Asenseofobligation.'"
StephenCrane,"BlackRidersandOtherLines"
CranewasaliteraryTerminator,attackinglongstandingtraditionswithaboldnewstyleandtheme.Hesmashedthroughpatriotism,nationalism,individualism,and
organizedreligiontoconfrontthemeaninglessoftheworld.
StephenCranediedbrokein1900attheageof28.AlthoughhislifewasbriefandpainfulhediedoftuberculosisandmalariaCranepublishedanamazingamount:
fivenovels,twovolumesofpoetry,threebigstorycollections,twobooksofwar
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stories,andcountlessworksofshortfictionandreporting.He'dalsodoneanamazingamountofthingsbythetimehedied.
Thefraillooking,chainsmoking,boyishlyhandsomeauthorcorrespondentwenttoarebellioninCuba(well,almost:Theboattakinghimtheresankinastorm),
coveredawarinGreece,setupalargebrickvillaforhiswife,andcultivatedanarrayofcelebratedliteraryandartisticfriends.
Inthischapter,you'lllearnallaboutthislandmarknovelistandshortstorywriteandtheliterarymovementhespawned,naturalism.
EvenStephen
StephenCranewasborninNewark,NewJersey,apreacher'skid.PapaCranewasdevoutandMamaCranewasfertileStephenwasthefourteenthchild.Sickly
andfrail,Stephendidn'tattendschooluntilhewaseight.Thiswasn'tamajorissue,however,forStephenfarpreferredbaseballtobooks.
Encouragedbyhisparentstopursueacareerasaclergyman,Stephenenrolledinaseminaryfortwoyearswhenhewasinhislateteens.
Religiondidn'tstick.ThencameabriefstintatClaverackCollege,amilitaryacademyinupstateNewYork,followedbyaflybyatLafayetteCollegeinPennsylvania.
Afterhefailedfiveofsevenclasses,StephentransferredtoSyracuseUniversityinNewYork.
AtSyracuse,Craneplayedbaseballandwrotefortheschoolpaper.Afterdecidingthat"Collegelifeisawasteoftime,"CraneelbowedhiswayontotheNewYork
Tribuneasacubreporter.
Twoyearslater,whenhewas22yearsold,Cranepublishedhisfirstnovel,Maggie:AGirloftheStreets.Thistaleofagoodgirlwhobecomesaprostitutebecause
ofherenvironmentandhereditywasamilestoneinthedevelopmentofliteraryrealism.Thebookwasgenerallyignoredbythepublicbutwontheadmirationofother
realisticwriterssuchasWilliamDeanHowells,themostinfluentialliterarycriticoftheday.
Twoyearslater,in1895,Cranepublishedhismasterpiece,TheRedBadgeofCourage.SetduringtheCivilWar,thenovelwaspraisedforitsrealism.Thefirst
modernwarnovel,TheRedBadgeofCouragedepictstheAmericanCivilWarfromthepointofviewofayoungsoldier.Animmediatehit,thenovelestablished
Crane'sprofessionalreputation.Hewasonly24yearsold.
Besideswritingpoems("TheBlackRidersandOtherLines,""WarIsKind"),shortstories,andnovels,CranemadetimetosailofftoGreeceasawarcorrespondent
forWilliamRandolphHearst'sNewYorkJournal.Thisexperienceinspiredhisshortstory"DeathandtheChild."In1898,CranetraveledtoCubatoreportonthe
SpanishAmericanWarfortheNewYorkWorld,resultinginhisclassicstory"TheOpenBoat."
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Besidesambition,Cranehad,inthewordsofhiscolleagueJohnNorthernHilliard,"ahankeringforthewomen."Atage20,Craneproposedtoamarriedwoman
whenCranewas22,notedChicagodramacriticAmyLesliemovedinwithhimtherelationshipendedaftera"misunderstanding"over$800.AndthoughCranewas
aloyalcustomerandfriendoftheTenderloinhookers,hesetuphousekeepingwithCoraTaylor,theproprietressofawellknownJacksonvillebrothelin1898.
RegularsatCrane'sdebtridden,ramshackle,butwildlyattractiveliteraryhouseholdincludedFordMaddoxFord,H.G.Wells,HaroldFrederic,andJosephConrad,
whoconsideredthedecadeyoungerCranetobehisliterarymentor.
Cranediedbeforehewas30,leavingenoughwritingtofill10fatbooks.
TheMarchofTime
Literarytheoriescomeandgo,buttheyallhavetwothingsincommon:Theyallendinismandtheyallattempttooverthrowthetheorythatcamebefore.Sometimes
thevanguardsucceedsinfomentingaliteraryrevolutionothertimes,theybuildonwhatcamebeforetomakesomethingnew.Ineitherevent,literaturegetsa
completeoverhaulandthewaywelookatrealitychanges.
Thetwogroundbreakingliteraryismsofthe19thcenturywererealismandnaturalism.Let'sseehowthesetwoliterarymovementsredirectedAmericanwriters.
TheMotherofism:Realism
"Isawamanpursuingthehorizon
Roundandroundhesped.
Iwasdisturbedatthis
Iaccostedtheman.
'Itisfutile,'Isaid,
'Youcannever'
'Youlie,'hecried,
Andranon."
StephenCrane,"BlackRidersandOtherLines"
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Realismwasareactiontoromanticism.Therealists,the19thcentury'sanswertothe6p.m.news,tolditlikeitwas,focusingonthelivesofordinarypeople.Rejecting
theheroicandadventurous(hallmarksofromanticism),therealistsconcentratedonpessimisticviewsofpoverty,prostitution,andpain.
TheSonofism:Naturalism
"Inthedesert
Isawacreature,naked,bestial,
who,squattingupontheground,
Heldhisheartinhishands,
Andateofit.
Isaid,'Isitgood,friend?'
'Itisbitterbitter,'heanswered
'ButIlikeit
Becauseitisbitter,
Andbecauseitismyheart.'"
StephenCrane,from"BlackRidersandOtherLines"
Liketherealists,thenaturalistsfocusedonthelivesofordinarypeopleandattemptedtoportraylifetruthfullyandaccurately.Butthenaturaliststookadarkerviewof
theworld.Accordingtothenaturalists,
Theuniverseisunpredictable,spontaneous,anddiscontinuous.
Ourfateisdeterminedbyourenvironment,heredity,andchance.
Freewillisanillusion.
Lifeisacrueljoke.
Asaresult,thenaturalistscreatedcharacterswhoseliveswereshapedbyforcestheycouldneitherunderstandnorcontrol.
Naturalismflourishedintheearly1900sbutexplodedagaininthe1930sinJohnDosPassos'U.S.A.,depictingapanoramicviewofAmericabothitspositiveside
anditsunderbellyandGrapesofWrath,JohnSteinbeck'smasterpieceabouttheOkiesandthedustbowl.(In1948,mediadarlingNormanMailergavethenodto
naturalismwhenhepublishedTheNakedandtheDead.)
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OnlytheGoodDieYoung:Maggie:AGirloftheStreets
"'Smash'im,Jimmie,kickdehdamngutsoutof'im,'yelledPete,theladwiththechronicsneer,intonesofdelight.
Thesmallcombatantspoundedandkicked,scratchedandtore.Theybegantoweepandtheircursesstruggledintheirthroatswithsobs.Theotherlittleboysclaspedtheirhands
andwriggledtheirlegsinexcitement.Theyformedabobbingcircleaboutthepair.Atinyspectatorwassuddenlyagitated.
'Cheeseit,Jimmie,cheeseit!Herecomesyerfader,'heyelled.
Thecircleoflittleboysinstantlyparted.Theydrewawayandwaitedinecstaticaweforthatwhichwasabouttohappen.Thetwolittleboysfightinginthemodesoffourthousand
yearsago,didnothearthewarning.
Uptheavenuethereploddedslowlyamanwithsulleneyes.Hewascarryingadinnerpailandsmokinganapplewoodpipe.
Ashenearedthespotwherethelittleboysstrove,heregardedthemlistlessly.Butsuddenlyheroaredanoathandadvancedupontherollingfighters.
'Here,youJim,gitup,now,whileIbeltyerlifeout,youdamneddisorderlybrat.'
Hebegantokickintothechaoticmassontheground.TheboyBilliefeltaheavybootstrikehishead.HemadeafuriouseffortanddisentangledhimselffromJimmie.Hetottered
awaydamning.
Jimmiearosepainfullyfromthegroundandconfrontinghisfather,begantocursehim.Hisparentkickedhim.'Comehome,now,'hecried,'an'stopyerjawin',erI'lllamthe
everlastingheadoffyehs.'
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Theydeparted.Themanpacedplacidlyalongwiththeapplewoodemblemofserenitybetweenhisteeth.Theboyfollowedadozenfeetintherear.Hesworeluridly,forhefeltthatit
wasdegradationforonewhoaimedtobesomevaguesoldier,oramanofbloodwithasortofsublimelicense,tobetakenhomebyafather."
fromChapter1,Maggie:AGirloftheStreets
Inthisnovel,Maggieandhertwobrothersgrowuponthewrongsideofthetracks.Thekids'parentshavecrawledinsidethebottleandsetuphousekeeping,andthe
childrenspendalotoftimecoweringunderthebedastheirparentsdukeitout.Onesondiesyoung,whiletheother,Jimmie,followsinhisfather'sfootstepsto
becomeadrunkenlout.Miraculously,MaggieremainsuntouchedbythefiltharoundheruntilshefallsinlovewithJimmie'sbestfriend,theflashybarkeepPete.Two
dateswithPeteandMaggie'saFallenWoman.
Oncehegetswhathewants,PetedropsMaggiesofastherteethrattle.Hermotherandtheneighbors,judgingMaggieadisgrace,refusetoofferhershelter.Asa
result,Maggiefindsherselfhomeless.Jimmie,anexpertinseducingothermen'ssisters,joinsthegeneralhypocriticalindignationanddecidestopunchoutPete'slights
forMaggie'shonor.WhenJimmiefailstoinflictanyrealdamage,helaystheblameonMaggie.Crane'sattackonthehypocriticalreligiousvaluesofthelate19th
centuryopenedthefloodgatesforthesocalledlossoftraditionalvalues,amajor20thcenturytheme.
MaggiebegsPetetotakeherback,butherefuses.Homelessandpenniless,Maggieturnstotheworld'soldestprofession,butgigsareslimfortheinexperienced,and
shesinkslowerandlower,finallyendinguptryingtoseducemenonthewaterfront.
Shortlythereafter,JimmiecomeshomefromoneofhisweeksonthetowntofindoutthatMaggiehasdied.Maggie'smothershrieksandlamentsthatshenow
forgivesherdaughterhersins.SinceMaggieisdead,shecannotbenefitfromhermother'sbeneficence.
ABookofFirsts
ThepublicationofMaggiein1893heraldedamajornewtalentinAmericanletters.Thefirstnoveltodealrealisticallywithlifeintheslums,Maggiehasbeencalled
"thefirsttrulyAmericannovel,""thefirstnaturalisticnovel,"and"thefirstnovelthatdividestheEnglishnovelfromtheAmericannovel."
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TrappedLikeaRat
"Thewayfarer,
Perceivingthepathwaytotruth,
Wasstruckwithastonishment.
Itwasthicklygrownwithweeds.
'Ha,'hesaid,
'Iseethatnonehaspassedhere
Inalongtime.'
Laterhesawthateachweed
Wasasingularknife.
'Well,'hemumbledatlast,
'Doubtlessthereareotherroads.'"
StephenCranefrom"BlackRidersandOtherLines"
Aswiththisexcerptfrom"BlackRidersandOtherLines,"Maggie:AGirloftheStreetsdescribesabitter,bleakworld.Bothworksarenaturalisticbecausethey
tracehowpeoplearecontrolledbytheirenvironmentandheredity.Maggieneverstandsasnowball'schanceinheck,whichwasCrane'sintentionallalong.Signinga
copyofabookforafriend,Cranewrote,"Forit[thenovel]triestoshowthatenvironmentisatremendousthingintheworldandfrequentlyshapeslivesregardless."
Crane'smasterpiece,TheRedBadgeofCourage,doesfornaturalismwhatHagaanDazsdoesforicecream.Here'show:
TheRedBadgeofCourage
"Thecoldpassedreluctantlyfromtheearth,andtheretiringfogsrevealedanarmystretchedoutonthehills,resting.Asthelandscapechangedfrombrowntogreen,thearmy
awakened,andbegantotremblewitheagernessatthenoiseofrumors.Itcastitseyesupontheroads,whichweregrowingfromlongtroughsofliquidmudtoproperthoroughfares.
Ariver,ambertintedintheshadowofitsbanks,purledatthearmy'sfeetandatnight,whenthestreamhadbecomeofasorrowfulblackness,onecouldseeacrossitthered,eyelike
gleamofhostilecampfiressetinthelowbrowsofdistanthills.
Onceacertaintallsoldierdevelopedvirtuesandwentresolutelytowashashirt.Hecameflyingbackfromabrookwavinghisgarmentbannerlike.Hewasswelledwithatalehe
hadheardfromareliablefriend,whohadhearditfromatruthfulcavalryman,whohadhearditfromhistrustworthybrother,oneoftheorderliesatdivisionheadquarters.He
adoptedtheimportantairofaheraldinredandgold.
'We'regoin't'movet'morrahsure,'hesaidpompouslytoagroupinthecompanystreet.'We'regoin''wayuptheriver,cutacross,an'comearoundinbehint'em.'"
fromChapter1,TheRedBadgeofCourage
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Who'sWho
HenryFleming:Themaincharacter,acallowyouthwhofindshimselfthroughbattle.
JimConklin:Thetallsoldier.
Wilson:Theloudsoldier.
TheTatteredSoldier:ThesoldierwhoreflectsHenry'searlyinfatuationwiththebloodandgutsofwar.
Mrs.Fleming:Henry'smother,asimple,uneducatedfarmwomanwhohasabriefcameoappearance.
You'reintheArmyNow
Asthenovelopens,drippingwetbehindtheearsfarmboyHenryFleminglistenstothetallsoldier,JimConklin,andtheloudsoldier,Wilson,argueovertherumor
thatthetroopsareabouttoleave.Henryisjustitchingtoseeactionbecauseheisutterlyconvincedthatwarisglorious.
AsJimConklinpredicts,thetroopsdoindeedmove,butitisonlytomakeanothermarch.Whenthefightingfinallybegins,Henrystartsoffatgroundzero,lostinthe
haze.Suddenlyhefindshimselfinthemiddleoftheattack,firinghisrifleoverandover.Theskirmishendsassuddenlyasitbegan,andHenryisastonishedtoseethe
sunshiningoverthecarnage.Inthemiddleofthemopup,theenemyspringsanotherattack.Exhaustedandunprepared,Henryandtherestofthemenbeatahasty
retreat.
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Inanorgyofguilt,Henrythenhightailsittotheforest:
"Totheyouthitwasanonslaughtofredoubtabledragons.Hebecamelikethemanwholosthislegsattheapproachoftheredandgreenmonster.Hewaitedinasortofa
horrified,listeningattitude.Heseemedtoshuthiseyesandwaittobegobbled
Heyelledthenwithfrightandswungabout.Foramoment,inthegreatclamor,hewaslikeaproverbialchicken.Helostthedirectionofsafety.Destructionthreatenedhim
fromallpoints.
Directlyhebegantospeedtowardtherearingreatleaps.Hisrifleandcapweregone.Hisunbuttonedcoatbulgedinthewind.Theflapofhiscartridgeboxbobbedwildly,
andhiscanteen,byitsslendercord,swungoutbehind.Onhisfacewasallthehorrorofthosethingswhichheimagined
Heranlikeablindman.Twoorthreetimeshefelldown.Onceheknockedhisshouldersoheavilyagainstatreethathewentheadlong.
Sincehehadturnedhisbackuponthefighthisfearshadbeenwondrouslymagnified.Deathabouttothrusthimbetweentheshoulderbladeswasfarmoredreadfulthandeath
abouttosmitehimbetweentheeyes.Whenhethoughtofitlater,heconceivedtheimpressionthatitisbettertoviewtheappallingthantobemerelywithinhearing.Thenoises
ofthebattlewerelikestoneshebelievedhimselfliabletobecrushed."
Henrylaterrejoinshisfellowsoldiersandrealizesthatheistheonlyonewithoutawarwound,a"redbadgeofcourage."Henryapproachesabadlyinjuredsoldier
andishorrifiedtofindthatitisJimConklin.DespiteHenry'sencouragement,Jimdies.ThiscausesHenrytotemporarilyheadforthehillsonceagain.
BeAllThatYouCanBe
Henryenviesthedead,sincethey'reheroesandhe'sacoward.Ashereturnstohisregiment,themenbreakranksandrunfranticallyinhisdirection,shouting
incoherently.OnemanhitshimwithhisriflebuttandHenryseesstars.Hewalksforalongwhileuntilhecatchesupwithhisregiment.There,hespeakswithWilson,
whohadbeenablowhardbeforethebattle.Feelingsuperiortotheblowhard,Henrymanagestoforgethiscowardice.
Anotherbattlestarts,andthistimeHenrytakesitonthechin,andeveryonepraiseshimasahero.
Atthenextbattle,Henrybehavesadmirably.HegetssoheatedthathekeepsfiringevenaftertheRebelArmyhasbeenrepelled.
SoWhatDidYouDointheWar,Daddy?
CraneneverintendedTheRedBadgeofCouragetobeahistoryoftheCivilWarrather,hewasgoingforapsychologicalportrayaloffear.Asseenthroughthe
eyesofHenryFleming,thenovelbecomescosmicinscopebecauseitdealswiththereallyscaryissuesthatjoltusawakeat3:00a.m.:
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Isolation
Lackofidentity
Fearofdeath
Failure
Guilt
Throughoutthecourseofthenovel,Henryfindshisidentity,learnsthatcourageisunselfish,andisabletojudgehimselfdispassionately.Inshort,hebecomesaMan.
ThenovelisclassifiedasnaturalisticbecauseHenryispropelledbyoutsideactions.
TheRedBadgeofCourageisconsideredthefirsttrulymodenwarnovel.Ironically,whenCranewrotethebook,hehadneverseenawar,muchlessfoughtinone.
Luckilyforusall,warscanbetoughtofind,andtheCivilWarwassixyearsinthepastwhenCranewasborn.Buthehaddonehisgroundworkhisportraitofwar
wassovividthatseveralearlyreviewerswereadamantthatonlyawarscarredbattleveterancouldhavewrittenthebook.
TheOpenBoat
''TheOpenBoat,"subtitled"ATaleIntendedtobeAftertheFact,BeingtheExperienceofFourMenfromtheSunkSteamerCommodore,"isbasedonanactual
experience,whenCrane'sshipsankonthejourneytoCubain1897.Craneandthreeothermenspentnearly30terrifyinghoursina10footdinghybeforereaching
theshoreatDaytona,Florida.Here'showthestoryopens:
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"Noneofthemknewthecolorofthesky.Theireyeswerefasteneduponthewavesthatswepttowardthem.Thesewaveswereofthehueofslate,saveforthetops,whichwereof
foamingwhite,andallofthemenknewthecolorsofthesea.Thehorizonnarrowedandwidened,anddippedandrose,andatalltimesitsedgewasjaggedwithwavesthat
seemedthrustupinpointslikerocks.
Manyamanoughttohaveabathtublargerthantheboatwhichhererodeuponthesea.Thesewavesweremostwrongfullyandbarbarouslyabruptandtall,andeachfroth
topwasaprobleminsmallboatnavigation."
Asdawnbreaks,thefourmenareadriftonasmalldinghyofftheFloridacoastthenarrator,anoiler,acook,andthecaptainbegintorealizethattheymightbe
doomed.TheoilerandcorrespondentarerowinginanattempttoreachthelifesavingstationthatthecookclaimsislocatedinMosquitoInlet.Asthedaypasses,
spiritssink,butthecaptain,althoughbadlyinjured,jolliestheothermenalong.Let'spausetomeetthecastandcrewoftonight'svoyage.
Who'sWho
TheCorrespondent:Cranehimself.
TheOiler(Billy):TheRockyBalboaoftheseafaringset.
TheCook:Betterwithanoventhananoar.
TheCaptain:Abraveoldsalt.
TheSea:Thevillainofthestory,acoldandcruelmistress.
CruisetoNowhere
Afteralongwhile,themenspyalighthousefaronthehorizonandfashionasailfromthecaptain'scoat.Thebeachisdeserted,andthereisnolifesavingstation.The
menrowon,despitetheirachingmuscles.
Suddenly,theyspotamanonthebeach.Theyscreamtoattracthisattention,andanomnibusfromoneofthelargeresortsdrivesontothesand.Sincethepeopleon
thebeacharepartofanouting,notarescueparty,theyassumethatthemenontheboatareboredfishermenandignorethem.Thewindshifts,thesunsets,andthe
menareadriftontheindifferentsea.
Thatnight,theexhaustedmensleepasbesttheycan,despitethecrashingwavesthatdrenchthemwithicyblasts.Theoiler,thestrongestofthelot,doesmostofthe
rowing.Finally,evenhefallsasleep,andthecorrespondentrowson.Anenormoussharktrollingforamidnightsnackkeepshimcompany.Asisthetendencyof
peoplesittinguplateatnightinasmallboatontheopensea,thecorrespondentmusesonhisfate:
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"IfIamgoingtobedrownedifIamgoingtobedrownedifIamgoingtobedrowned,why,inthenameofthesevenmadgodswhorulethesea,wasIallowedtocomethus
farandcontemplatesandandtrees?WasIbroughtheremerelytohavemynosedraggedawayasIwasabouttonibblethesacredcheeseoflife?Itispreposterous.Ifthisold
ninnywoman,Fate,cannotdobetterthanthis,sheshouldbedeprivedofthemanagementofmen'sfortunes.Sheisanoldhenwhoknowsnotherintention.Ifshehasdecided
todrownme,whydidshenotdoitinthebeginningandsavemeallthistrouble.Thewholeaffairisabsurd"
Finally,thesharkmoveson,theoilerawakensandtakesover,andthecorrespondentgetstograbsomesleep.
WhenYouShouldHaveTakentheBus
Thenextmorning,thedesperatemenrealizethattheymustgettheboattoshoreverysoonordie.Thetreacheroussurfmakesithighlyunlikelythattheywillsurvive.
Astheyapproachshore,themenjumpintotheragingsea.
"TheJanuarywaterwasicy,andhereflectedimmediatelythatitwascolderthanhehadexpectedtofinditoffthecoastofFlorida.Thisappearedtohisdazedmindasafact
importantenoughtobenotedatthetime.Thecoldnessofthewaterwassaditwastragic.Thisfactwassomehowmixedandconfusedwithhisopinionofhisownsituation
thatitseemedalmostaproperreasonfortears.Thewaterwascold."
Theoilerandthecorrespondentswimforit.Theinjuredcaptainandcookclingtothecapsizedboat.Ironically,theonlyonetoperishistheoiler,seeminglythe
strongestofthelot."Intheshallows,facedownward,laytheoiler.Hisforeheadtouchedsandthatwasperiodically,betweeneachwave,clearofthesea."Gofigure.
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Whennightfell,thewhitewavespacedtoandfrointhemoonlight,andthewindbroughtthesoundofthegreatsea'svoicetothemenonshore,andtheyfeltthatthey
couldthenbeinterpreters.
RubaDubDub:FourMeninaTub
"TheOpenBoat"ismorethananEnglishteacherbeggingyouto"writewhatyouknow."Thestoryconcernstheconflictbetweenhumanityandnature.Thesea,a
symbolofnature,isindifferenttopeople.Alternatelycruelandkind,teasingormenacing,theseaisasheartlessasteenageacne.
It'snaturalismatitspurist:Survivalontheseaisamatteroftotalchance.Humanity'sstrugglesaregrimlyironic:Theoiler,ironicallythestrongestofthelot,drowns,but
thewoundedcaptainandcowardlycooksurvive.CraneandtheCarefulReader(that'syou)realizetheaccidentoftheirsurvival,thetenuousnessoflife.
"TheOpenBoat"hasbecometheposterchildofnaturalismbecauseofCrane'suseofimagerytoportraynature'sheartbreakingindifference:
Theboatiscomparedtoa"bathtub"
Thewavesare"slatewalls."
Thewaveshave"snarling"crests.
Thecorrespondentcompareshimselftoamouse,"nibblingatthesacredcheeseoflife."
Thefamousline"noneofthemknewthecolorofthesky"emphasizesthesinglemindedfocusonsurvival,onglimpsesoflandoverthejaggedhorizon.
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Chapter17
ThreeonaMatch:TheNaturalistsJackLondon,FrankNorris,andTheodoreDreiser(18901925)
AnunidentifiedmaninBuenosAirespushedhiswifeoutofaneighthfloorwindowthisweek,buthisplantokillherfailedwhenshebecameentangledinsomepower
cablesbelow.Seeingshewasstillalive,themanjumpedwiththeintentionoflandingontopofher.Hemissed.
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What'sthemostlikelyexplanationforthismishap?(Checkone.)
Aromanticistwouldsay:Isn't.Natureglorious?
Arealistwouldsay:That'sthewaythecookiecrumbles.
Anaturalistwouldsay:Hewasfatedtodiethiswaythatit'stheinescapableeffectsoftheman'senvironmentandheredity.
(Icallitpoeticjustice.)
Inthepreviouschapter,youreadaboutStephenCrane,oneofthefirstnaturalists.Inthischapter,you'lllearnaboutthethreeAmericanwriterswhopushednaturalism
toitslimits:JackLondon,FrankNorris,andTheodoreDreiser.
First,you'llreviewwhatyoulearnedaboutnaturalismanddelvealittledeeperintothisliterarymovement.Next,I'llgiveyouthelowdownonJackLondon,theHe
Manofthenaturalistset.ThispartofthechapteralsoincludesadiscussionofLondon'smostfamousnovel,TheCalloftheWild,andhisbestknownshortstory,
"ToLightaFire."
Thenwe'llcoverFrankNorris,whosenovelMcTeagueshowsyouwhathappenswhenadentistrevertstohumanity'sprimevalrootsratherthanstickingtoyour
averagerootcanal.NextcomesTheodoreDreiser,abigmanwhomadebigbooksandbignoise.Butfirst,let'slookatnaturalism.
TheLawoftheClaw:Naturalism
"Menwerenaught,lifewasnaughtFORCEonlyexistedFORCEthatbroughtmenintotheworldFORCEthatmadethewheatgrow,FORCEthatgarnereditfromthesoiltogive
placetothesucceedingcrop."
FrankNorris
Naturalism,alsocalledliterarydeterminism,deniesreligionasamotivatingforceintheworldandinsteadperceivestheuniverseasablindmachine.Thisresultsina
bleak,realisticdepictionoflowerclasslife.
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Tothenaturalists,peoplearehumaninsects,squishedonthewindshieldoflifebyforcestheycannotunderstand,muchlesscontrol.Lifeisawilderness,andpeople
fighttoothandnailforsurvival.TheabusesoftheIndustrialRevolution,combinedwithDarwin'stheoriesofnaturalselectionandsurvivalofthefittest,convincedthese
writersthatpeoplearemereplaythingsinacold,crueluniverse.Thenaturalistsbelievedthat
Anindividual'slifeisdeterminedbyenvironment,heredity,andchance.
Conditions,notpeople,areatfaultforthewaythingsturnout.
Asaresultofsomecrisis,theveneerofcivilizationcanbestrippedaway,leavinguswiththeanimalwithin.
Survivalofthefittestandnaturalselectiongovernpeopleaswellasnature.
Naturalisticwriterstookascientificorobjectiveapproachtotheirmaterial,strivingforanaccuraterepresentationoflifewithoutidealization.Sufficeittosaythat
naturalisticnovelsarenotagreatchoicewhenyou'reinthemoodforalittlelightreading.
It'saHardKnockLife
Sowhyarenaturalisticnovelssogrim?Itwasagrimtime,ladiesandgentlemen:In1860,mostAmericanslivedonfarmsorinsmallvillages,butby1919,halfofthe
populationwasconcentratedinabout12cities.Thisresultedinpoorandovercrowdedhousing,unsanitaryconditions,lowpay(calledwagesalvery),difficult
workingconditions,andinadequaterestraintsonbusiness.
Laborunionsgrewoutofthis,andstrikesbroughttheplightofworkingpeopletonationalawareness.FarmersalsostruggledagainsttherobberbaronslikeJ.P.
MorganandJohnD.Rockefeller.
TheirEasternbankstightlycontrolledmortgagesandcreditvitaltoWesterndevelopmentandagriculture,whilerailroadcompanieschargedhighpricestotransport
farmproductstothecities.
Therobberbaronsruledwithanironfist.In1882,forexample,JohnD.Rockefellerestablishedthe
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StandardOilTrust,agroupofsome40oilcompanies,andusedcutthroatmethodstosuppresscompetition.In1892,AndrewCarnegie,thegreatsteelmagnate,used
hiredthugstobreakupastrikeamonghisworkers.Therewasnoeffectivelegislationonthesideofthelaborer.
Over23millionforeignersGerman,Scandinavian,andIrishintheearlyyears,andincreasinglyCentralandSouthernEuropeansthereafterflowedintotheU.S.
between1860and1910.Chinese,Japanese,andFilipinocontractlaborerswereimportedbyHawaiianplantationowners,railroadcompanies,andotherAmerican
businessinterestsontheWestCoast.ThisgreatinfluxofnonEnglishspeakingimmigrantsfloodedthelabormarket,makingiteasierfortheindustrialiststokeep
salariesandworkingconditionsatrockbottom.
WalktheWalkandTalktheTalk
Sincenaturalismhasapseudoscientificbase,thenaturalistwriterstendedtousescientificandphilosophicaltermstoexpresstheirbeliefs.Herearethekeytermsyou
needtoknow:
Atavism:Thereappearanceinanindividualofcharacteristicsofsomedistantancestorthathavenotbeenpresentininterveninggenerations,suchasahandlikea
hairypaw.
Drawinism:Peoplewhoarebestadaptedtosurvivearechosenthroughtheprocessofnaturalselection.
Determinism:Alleventsfollownaturallaws.
Nativism:Thebeliefthatthe"true"AmericanswerethoseofearlierAngloSaxondescent,andthatthis"race"wasunderthreatfromthegrowinginfluxofCentral
EuropeanandAsianimmigrants.
Nietzscheism:FriedrichNietzsche'sbeliefinthe"willtopower"astheprimaryforceofsocietyandtheindividual.
Racialism:Afalsesciencethatarguedthatdifferenthumanracespossesseddistinguishingtraitsthatdeterminedtheirparticularbehaviorandachievementin
society.
Scientism:Theprimacyofscienceoverreligious,mythical,orspiritualinterpretationsoflife.
SocialDarwinism:Applyingtheevolutionary"survivalofthefittest"concepttoaworldmarkedbystruggleandcompetition.(ItwaspromulgatedbyHerbert
Spencer,abestsellingsociologistofthelate19thcentury.)
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PairOffandSquareOff:RealistsVersusNaturalists
Realistsandnaturalists:Theywalkalikeandtalkalike,butthey'renotexactlyalike.Let'sseehowrealistsandnaturalistscompare:
Naturalistsaregenerallymorepessimisticthanrealists.Arealistbelievesthatpeoplecanmakemoralchoices,whileanaturalistdoesnot.
Naturalistsbelievethatallactionsaredeterminedbyheredityand/orenvironment,andthatindividualsare"trapped"bydrivingforcessuchasmoney,sex,and
power.Realists,incontrast,donotbelieveindeterminism.
ThebestknownnaturalistinhisdaywasJackLondon,ahardlivingman'sman.Let'slookathislifeandworknow.
JackLondon(18761916)
"Mercydidnotexistintheprimordiallife.Itwasmisunderstoodforfear,andsuchmisunderstandingmadefordeath.Killorbekilled,eatorbeeaten,wasthelaw."
JackLondonfromTheCalloftheWild
JackLondonwastheoriginalrebelwithoutacauseandthehighestpaidwriterofhisday(earningmorethan$70,000ayear),whononethelessconsideredhimselfa
socialist.Londonlivedhardanddiedyounghewasinhisgravebythetimehewas40.
JackwasborninSanFranciscotoFloraWellman,anunmarriedmotherwithadrivingambition.Unfortunately,Flora'seffortswerealwaysmisplaced,assheplunged
intoonedisastrousgetrichschemeafteranother.Heronlysmartmovewasmarryingquiet,gentleJohnLondon,givinghersonthenamethathewouldmakefamous.
Jackleftschoolat14totryvariousjobs,includingpiratingforoystersinSanFranciscoBay,servingonafishpatroltocapturepoachers,sailingthePacificona
sealingship,joiningKelly'sIndustrialArmy(consistingofunemployedworkingmenseeAppendixC,1893,formoreinformation),andbeingahoboaroundthe
country.Alongtheway,heservedabriefjailtermintheEriePenitentiary(nearNiagaraFalls)forvagrancy.
Intheprocess,Londonbecameacquaintedwithsocialism.Knownasthe"BoySocialistofOakland"forhisstreetcorneroratory,afterhebecamesuccessfulasa
writer,Londonranrepeatedly(butunsuccessfully)ontheSocialistticketasmayor.
Spendingthewinterof1897intheYukonprovidedLondonwiththemetaphoricalgoldforhisfirststories(albeitnotthephysicalgoldhesought).Hebeganpublishing
hisstoriesin1899.
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Fromthenon,Londonwasahighlydisciplinedwriter,eventuallyproducingmorethan50volumesofstories,novels,andpoliticalessays.Hismostfamousbooksare
TheCalloftheWild,WhiteFangandTheSeaWolf.
AlthoughTheCalloftheWild(1903)broughtLondonfame,manyofhisshortstoriesalsodeservetobecalledclassics,asdoeshiscritiqueofcapitalismand
povertyinThePeopleoftheAbyss(1903)andhisstarkdiscussionofalcoholisminJohnBarleycorn(1913).
Londondiedin1916ofkidneyfailurecausedbytoomuchtimespentwithhisclosefriendDemonRum.Bythetimeofhisdeath,Londonhadbeenmarriedand
divorcedtwiceandbecomeestrangedfromhischildrenandpoliticalcomrades.
TheCalloftheWild
TheCalloftheWild,London'smostfamousbook,openswithabriefpoemthatintroducesthetheme:Stripawaythethinveneerofcivilization,andyoufindthe
beast:
"'Oldlongingsnomadicleap,
Chafingatcustom'schain
Againfromitsbrumalsleep
Wakenstheferinestrain.'
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Buckdidnotreadthenewspapers,orhewouldhaveknownthattroublewasbrewing,notaloneforhimself,butforeverytidewaterdog,strongofmuscleandwithwarm,longhair,
fromPugetSoundtoSanDiego.Becausemen,gropingintheArcticdarkness,hadfoundayellowmetal,andbecausesteamshipandtransportationcompanieswereboomingthe
find,thousandsofmenwererushingintotheNorthland.Thesemenwanteddogs,andthedogstheywantedwereheavydogs,withstrongmusclesbywhichtotoil,andfurrycoatsto
protectthemfromthefrost.''
fromChapterI,"IntothePrimitive"
TheCalloftheWildshowshowatamedogcomestoreverttohisoriginalprimitivestate.WhenboldspiritedBuckisremovedfromhiscomfortableCaliforniaestate
andthrustintotheruggedterrainoftheKlondike,weseethesavagelawlessnessofmanandbeast.
LeaderofthePack
Anyonewhopicksupthisnovelexpectingasweetanimalstoryisinforajolt.Toldfromthepointofviewofthedog,Buck,TheCalloftheWildisbrutal,vicious,
andcold.Here'stherundown:
ChapterI:Buckisremovedfromhiscivilizedenvironmentandforcedtofightforsurvival.Hequicklylearnsthelawoftheclubhe'snomatchforamanwitha
club.
ChapterII:Buckcomestograspthelawofthefanginthewilderness,civilizationdoesn'texist.It'seachdog(orman)forhimself.Onlythefittestandstrongest
willsurvive.
ChaptersIIIIV:Bucklearnstosurviveinthefightagainstnature.
ChapterV:Somecan'tsurviveintheNorthbecausetheywon'tadapt.
ChapterVI:Mananddogworktogethertoovercomegreatdifficulties.
ChapterVII:Buckhasheardthe"callofthewild"andansweredit.Hebecomestheleaderofthewolfpack.
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It'saDogEatDogWorld
TheCalloftheWildoperatesonthreelevels:
Narrative:Onthesurface,thebooktellsthestoryofBuck,thedogwholearnstosurvivebyrevertingtohiswolfroots.
Biological:ThenovelrevealswhatLondonhimselflivedandfeltasheclimbedoutofpovertyandobscuritytobecomewealthyandfamous.Symbolically,Buck
representsLondonandhisstruggleforsuccess.
Politicalandphilosophical:Thenovelexemplifiesthenaturalist'spettheoryofSocialDarwinismonlythefittestsurvive.
ToBuildaFire
Firstpublishedin1902,London'sshortstory"ToBuildaFire"hasbecomeaclassic.Thestorystartsoutthisway:Ignoringtheadviceofamoreexperiencedman,a
rookieprospectorintheYukonattemptsalongjourneyonfootduringanintensecoldspellwithonlyhisdogashiscompanion.Here'swhatLondonhastosayabout
theprospector:
"Thetroublewithhimwasthathewaswithoutimagination.Hewasquickandalertinthethingsoflife,butonlyinthethings,andnotinthesignificances.Fiftydegreesbelow
zeromeanteightyodddegreesoffrost.Suchfactimpressedhimasbeingcoldanduncomfortable,andthatwasall.Itdidnotleadhimtomeditateuponhisfrailtyasacreature
oftemperature,anduponman'sfrailtyingeneral,ableonlytolivewithincertainnarrowlimitsofheatandcoldandfromthereonitdidnotleadhimtotheconjecturalfield
ofimmortalityandman'splaceintheuniverse.Fiftydegreesbelowzerostoodforabiteoffrostthathurtandthatmustbeguardedagainstbytheuseofmittens,earflaps,
warmmoccasins,andthicksocks.Fiftydegreesbelowzerowastohimjustpreciselyfiftydegreesbelowzero.Thatthereshouldbeanythingmoretoitthanthatwasathought
thatneverenteredhishead."
Whenthemangetswet,hestopstobuildafiretorestorehiscirculation.Hesucceedsatfirst,butsnowfallsfromatreeontothefireandextinguishesit.Hetriestoget
anotherfiregoing,butheistoonumbandclumsy.Panicked,themanstartstoruntowardthecampwherehispartnersarewaitingforhim.Buthedoesn'thavethe
strengthtogoveryfar.Heeventuallycollapsesinthesnow,fallsasleep,anddies.Thedogremainsuntilthemanisdead,then,seekingwarmth,headstowardthe
camp.
Freezingwasnotsobadaspeoplethought.Therewerelotsworsewaystodie
"Youwereright,oldhossyouwereright,"themanmumbledtotheoldtimerofSulphurCreek.
Thenthemandrowsedoffintowhatseemedtohimthemostcomfortableandsatisfyingsleephehadeverknown.Thedogsatfacinghimandwaiting.Thebriefdaydrewtoa
closeinalong,slowtwilight.Therewerenosignsofafiretobemade,and,besides,neverinthe
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dog'sexperiencehaditknownamantositlikethatinthesnowandmakenofire.Asthetwilightdrewon,itseageryearningforthefiremasteredit,andwithagreatlifting
andshiftingofforefeet,itwhinedsoftly,thenflatteneditsearsdowninanticipationofbeingchiddenbytheman.Butthemanremainedsilent.Later,thedogwhinedloudly.
Andstilllateritcreptclosetothemanandcaughtthescentofdeath.Thismadetheanimalbristleandbackaway.Alittlelongeritdelayed,howlingunderthestarsthat
leapedanddancedandshonebrightlyinthecoldsky.Thenitturnedandtrottedupthetrailinthedirectionofthecampitknew,wherethereweretheotherfoodproviders
andfireproviders."
FrankNorris(18701902)
LikeStephenCrane,BenjaminFranklinNorrislivedhardanddiedyoung.ButunlikeCrane,Norris'parentshadbucksandtookanactiveinterestintheirson's
intellectualandartisticdevelopment,evenschleppinghimtoEuropewhenhewasstillinhighschoolsohecouldstudypainting.
Whenhewas20,NorrislefttheParisartstudiowherehewasstudyingandenrolledintheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleytopursueacareerasawriter.Bythe
timeheleftthereforayearatHarvard,NorrishadalreadypublishedalongpoemcalledYvernelle.Hewas21yearsold.
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War,WhatisitGoodFor?
AfterabriefjaunttoSouthAfricatowritefortheSanFranciscoChronicle,NorristookastaffpositiononanotherweeklynewspaperintheBayarea.
LikeCrane,NorriswassenttoCubatoreportontheSpanishAmericanWarmeanwhile,hewaspublishinghisnaturalisticnovelsatabriskclip.
By1900,attheageof30,Norris'reputationwasgrowing,inlargepartbecausehewrotewellinmanygenres:poetry,reportage,adventureromance,realism,and
psychologicalprobing.Whenheembarkedonhisnextproject,theEpicoftheTrilogyoftheWheat,heintendedtoprovideapanoramicviewofAmerica'ssocial,
cultural,political,andeconomiclife.Unfortunately,heonlyfinishedthefirsttwobooks,TheOctopusandThePit,beforehediedofappendicitisat32.
"TheLiteratureofChambermaids"
Norrisscornedthepale,bloodlessromancesofhistime,whichhedismissedas"literatureofchambermaids."Thepopularromancesofthetimealwayserredonthe
sideofcaution:therewaslittledepression,despair,ordesperation.Instead,realitywascleaneduptomakeitpalatabletoshelteredsensibilities.
Norris,incontrast,embracedaredbloodedplungeintoreality,wherenothingexistsbutforce.Underhishand,Americanfictionturnedfromtentativerealismtoin
yourfacenaturalism.
Today,Norris'mostfamousbookisMcTeague,aStoryofSanFrancisco,afascinatingnaturalistictaleofmoraldegenerationundereconomicpressures.Thenovel
showshowaman'slongsuppressedanimalinstinctscanbreakthroughhisoutwardlycivilizedwrapperwithdramaticanddevastatingresults.Andthemain
characterisadentist,noless.
McTeague,aStoryofSanFrancisco
"Goldcankillyagoldcanspillyergutsalloverthebarroomfloor."
fromMcTeague
McTeagueisthestoryofanoxlikedentistandhiswife,Trina,andtheirfatalobessionwithwealthor,morespecifically,withgold.Thedentist,Dr.McTeague,
ownsasuccessfulpracticeinSanFranciscoaroundtheturnofthecentury.Oneday,McTeague'sbestfriend,Schouler,arrivesatMcTeague'sofficewithhis
girlfriend,Trina,whohasbrokenatooth.WhenMcTeagueseesTrina,it'sloveatfirstsight.Schoulerleaves,andMcTeagueadministersethertothebeautifulgirl.As
Trinanodsoff,Maria,themaid,inducesthedruggedgirltobuyalotteryticket.
Amonthlater,McTeagueandSchoulerarealonetogetherinagarden.Distraughtwithunrequitedlove,McTeaguetellsSchoulerofhisfeelings.Aftersomecursory
consideration,SchouleragreestohandoverTrinatoMcTeague."Butremember,"hesaysasheleavesMcTeague,"youoweme"
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Schouler'swordssoonbecomepropheticduringMcTeagueandTrina'sweddingparty,amysteriousmanappearsandannouncesthatTrinahaswon$5,000inthe
lottery.Schoulerisshocked,thenoutragedastheotherguestsdepart,SchoulerpicksafightwithMcTeague,claimingthatheisowedhalfthemoney.When
McTeaguerefuses,Schoulervowsrevengeandstormsout.
Trinaisamiserwithhermoney,refusingtospendapennyofthe$5,000.SchoulerfallsinlovewiththemaidMaria,andtogethertheydepartforherchildhoodhome
inNevada,whereshepromisestheywillfindatroveofgoldencutlery,plates,andcoins.Inapartingshot,SchoulersicsthehealthinspectoronMcTeague.Whenthe
inspectordiscoversthatMcTeagueisunlicensedasadentist,heshutsdownMcTeague'spractice.
McTeague'sfallcomesquicklyhecannotfindwork,andwithinmonths,heandTrinaareforcedtosellhisofficespaceandliveinthebackroom,whichtheyrent
fromthenewdentist.Despitetheirsuffering,Trinawon'tgiveupasinglepennyofthe$5,000.Inafitofdesperaterage,McTeaguekillsTrinaandstealsthegold.He
fleesthecity,eventuallyendingupinDeathValley.TherehehashisfinalencounterwithSchouler,whohasabandonedMariaandadoptedthelifeofacowboy.The
twomenhaveafistfightinwhichMcTeaguegetsholdofSchouler'sgunandshootshimwithit.
Thenovelconvergesonsocietalinjusticeandindividualweakness.Everycharacterisoverwhelmedbylustforgold.Theeffectsofthisgreedareshownfromboth
sides,however,asMcTeagueencountersabrutallifeofpovertyafterhisdownfall.IsMcTeagueavictimofsocietyoravictimofselfishgreed?
NoTeddyBear:TheodoreDreiser(18711945)
DreisermadeittotheshortlistfortheNobelPrizeforLiterature(severaltimes,infact)butnevermadethefinalcut.Okay,sohealienatedjustabouteveryonehe
evermetwithhisboorishbehavior.Hewassuspiciousofmostmenanddesiredmostwomen,andquestionedeveryone'smotivesbuthisown.Butcan'twehavea
littlepityfortheguy?Afterall,hischildhoodwasrotten.
Dreiserwasthetwelfthof13childreninanunhappyfamily.Heenduredachildhoodoppressedbypovertyandstrife,onestepaheadofthebillcollector.Only
Theodore
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andhisbrotherPaulendedupmakinggoodtherestoftheDreiserkidsendedupdriftingintodrunkenness,promiscuity,andpoverty.
Essentiallyonhisownfromtheageof15,Dreiser'seducationwaserratic,althoughhedidmanageoneyearatIndianaUniversity,thankstothegenerosityofoneof
hiselementaryschoolteachers.Afterhisbriefcollegeexperience,DreisergotinvolvedinjournalismandwroteinChicago,St.Louis,andPittsburgh.Thislaunched
Dreiser'scareerasanovelist,dramatist,andpoet.
"InevercanandneverwanttobringmyselftotheplacewhereIcanignorethesensitiveandseekingindividualinhispitifulstrugglewithnaturewithhisenormousurges
andhispatheticequipment."
TheodoreDreiser
ConsideredbymanytobetheleaderofnaturalisminAmericanwriting,Dreiserisalsorememberedforhisstingingcriticismofthegenteeltraditionwhatliterarycritic
WilliamDeanHowellsdescribedasthe"smilingaspectsoflife"typifyingAmerica.Inhisfiction,Dreiserdealswithsocialproblemsandwithcharacterswhostruggle
tosurvive.
He'salsorememberedforhissprawling,shapelessnovels(theymakegreatdoorstops)andclichdwriting.Butdespiteindulgentoverwritingandstylistic
shortcomings,Dreiser'sbestnovelsexpressabroodinginsistenceontheessentialtragedyoflifeandhavelostnoneoftheirhauntingstrengthmorethanhalfacentury
later.
Dreiser'smostfamousnovelisAnAmericanTragedy(1925),whichexploresthedangersoftheAmericandream.
AnAmericanTragedy
Thenovelrelates,infascinatingornumbing,dependinguponyourperspectivedetail,thelifeofClydeGriffiths,aboyofweakwillandlittleselfawareness.He
growsupdirtpoorinafamilyofwanderingevangelistsbutdreamsofwealthandtheloveofbeautifulwomen.Arichuncleeventuallyemployshiminhisfactory,and
whenClyde'sgirlfriendRobertabecomespregnant,shedemandsthathemarryher.Meanwhile,Clydehasfalleninlovewithawealthysocietygirlwhorepresents
success,money,andsocialacceptance.Shereturnshisaffection.
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ClydedecidestodrownRobertaonaboattrip,butatthelastminute,hechangeshismind.However,Robertaaccidentallyfallsoutoftheboat.Clyde,agood
swimmer,doesn'tbudgetosaveher,andshedrowns.AsClydeisbroughttojustice,Dreiserreplayshisstoryinreverse,usingthevantagepointsofprosecutingand
defenseattorneystoanalyzethemotivesthatledClydetodecidetocommitmurderbylettingRobertadiewhenhecouldhavesavedher.
AnAmericanTragedyisascathingportraitoftheAmericansuccessmythgonesour,butitisalsoauniversalstoryaboutthestressesofurbanization,modernization,
andalienation.DespiteDreiser'sfamouslyawkwardstyle,thenovel'sprecisedetailsbuildupanoverwhelmingsenseoftragicinevitability.
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Chapter18
ColorMyWorld:TheLocalColorists
Thelocalcoloristsfirstdrewattentiontoundiscoveredpartsofthecountry.
AsAmericabecameincreasinglyhomogenized,thesocalled"localcolorists"usedtheirskilltopreservethecustomsandcultureoftheirspecialcornersofAmerica.
Bytheendofthecentury,therewerelocalcoloristsfromMainetoCalifornia,fromthenorthernplainstotheLouisianabayous.
Inthischapter,you'lllearnaboutthelocalcolormovementanditsmostfamouswriters,includingBretHarte,MaryWilkinsFreeman,SarahOrneJewett,Kate
Chopin,CharlottePerkinsGilman,andWillaCather.
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InLivingColor
Theregionalwriterscapturedtheessenceofaparticulararea,its"localcolor."Theydidthisbyaccuratelydescribingthedistinctivequalitiesofthepeople,focusingon
their
Habits
Speech
Customs
Beliefs
Now,it'struethatmanypreCivilWarwriters,fromHenryDavidThoreauandNathanielHawthornetoJohnGreenleafWhittierandJamesRussellLowell,had
createdstrikingportraitsofspecificAmericanregions.Whatsetsthelocalcoloristsapartfromtheseearlierwritersistheirinterestinrenderingagivenlocation,aswell
astheirscrupulouslyfactual,realisticwritingtechniques.
Althoughonlyafewofhisstoriesweresuccessfulfromacommericalorcriticalstandpoint,BretHarteplayedanimportantroleincreatingavividandlastingportrait
oftheWildWest.Ithinkhedeservestobeplacedfirstforeffort,don'tyou?
BretHarte(18361902)
"Mr.Oakhurst'scalm,handsomefacebetrayedsmallconcernforanyoftheseindications.Whetherhewasconsciousofanypredisposingcausewasanotherquestion.'Ireckon
they'reaftersomebody,'hereflected,'likelyit'sme.'HereturnedtohispocketthehandkerchiefwithwhichhehadbeenwipingawaythereddustofPokerFlatfromhisneatboots,
andquietlydischargedhismindfromanyfurtherconjecture."
BretHartefrom"TheOutcastsofPokerFlat"
WherewouldGaryCooper,JohnWayne,andourothercelluloidcowboysbewithoutBretHarte?BretHartehelpedcreateourimpressionoftheOldWestwith
suchstoriesas"TheLuckofRoaringCamp"and"TheOutcastsofPokerFlat,"setalongtheWesternminingfrontier.Asthefirstwriterinthelocalcoloristschoolto
attractwidespreadattention,forabrieftimeHartewasperhapsthebestknownwriterinAmerica,thankstothetremendousappealofhisromanticversionofthe
gunslingingWest.
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Hartewasalsooneofthefirstwriterstointroducelowlifecharacterscunninggamblers,gaudyprostitutes,anduncouthrobbersintoseriousliteraryworks.Hegot
awaywithitbyshowingintheendthattheseseemingderelictsreallyhadheartsofgold.(Gunsmoke,BatMasterson,andBonanzawerenodoubtinspiredby
Harte'swork.)
BornandraisedinAlbany,NewYork,HarteheadedWestwhenhewas18.Successdidn'tcomeeasily:Harteworkedasateacher,messenger,clerk,and
prospectorbeforehestrucktheliterarymotherlodein1868withthepublicationof''TheLuckofRoaringCamp."Tragically,hepeakedonlytwoyearslater.
Althoughhecontinuedwritingformorethan20years,Harte'slaterstorieswereflatandempty.What'safailedwritertodo?Harteturnedtopolitics,servingasa
diplomatinGermanyandSwitzerland.
TheOutcastsofPokerFlat
"TheOutcastsofPokerFlat"takesplaceinCaliforniaduringthegoldrush,in1849.Whenthestoryopens,asecretcommitteeinPokerFlathasdecidedto"ridthe
townofallimproperpersons."Twowomenoflooserepute,MotherShiptonandtheDuchess,thedrunkenthiefUncleBilly,andthegamblerJohnOakhurstare
escortedtotheoutskirtsoftown.TheoutcastsaresoonjoinedbyTomSimsonandhisgirlfriend,PineyWoods.Tomandhisgirlfriendhaveelopedandareontheir
waytoPokerFlatwhenhemeetstheoutcasts.Tomidolizesthegambler,Oakhurst,anddecidestocampwiththeoutcastsinordertohelpthem.Theyallcampat
SandyBarinthefoothillsoftheSierraNevadas.
Thenextmorning,Oakhurstawakenstofindthatithassnowedheavilyduringthenight.UncleBillyhastakenoffwiththehorsesandmules,sotheoutcastsare
stranded.Theblizzardcontinues.Bythethirdday,rationsarerunninglow.Onthetenthday,MotherShiptondies,butnotbeforegivingherpreviousweek'srations,
untouched,toPiney.Inalastditchefforttosurvive,OakhurstsendsTomtoPokerFlattogetfoodandhelp.
Whentherescuepartyarrives,theydiscoverthatPineyandtheDuchesshavefrozentodeathandOakhursthasshothimself.Thestoryends:
"Andpulselessandcold,withaDerringerbyhissideandabulletinhisheart,thoughstillcalmasinlife,beneaththesnow,layhewhowasatoncethestrongestandyetthe
weakestoftheoutcastsofPokerFlat."
from"TheOutcastsofPokerFlat"
Oakhurstwasthestrongestbecausehesacrificedhimselftohelpothersyethewasalsotheweakestbecauseheshothimselfratherthanwaittoseeifhelpwould
arrive.
PaintbyNumber
Hartehastwomaintechniquesforconveyingtheflavoroftheplaceandtimes:dialectanddescription.Forexample,
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Dialect:"Ireckonnowyou'reusedtofinethingsatPokerFlat."(Catchthat"reckon.")
Description:"thereddustofPokerFlat."(Noticehowhedescribesthecoloraswellasthetextureofthetown.)
WealsoseetheOldWest'sdistortedconceptofjustice:Thesettlersarealltooeagertothrowtheirfellowcitizensoutoftownfornotbeing"respectable"Ironically,
theverymenandwomenwhojudgethesettlersarethemselvesguiltyofdisrepectfulcrimes,suchasdrinkingandgambling.
MaryWilkinsFreeman(18521930)
MaryWilkinsFreemanandSarahOrneJewettcorneredthemarketonNewEngland'slocalcolor.Freemancarvedouthernichewithstoriesthathauntinglyexplore
thelivesof"mature"NewEnglandwomenwhoconfronttheirpovertywithferociousindependence.Hercharactersrecognizetheirisolationbutstruggletopreserve
theirdignity.Unfortunatelyforher,Freemandidn'thavetodoanyresearch.
Thedetailsarealittlesketchy,butitappearsthatwhenFreemanwasayoungwoman,shefellinlovewithayoungmannamedHansonTyler.
Atthesametime,Freeman'sfatherlosthisbusiness,heryoungersisterdied,andhermothertookajobasthe
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Tyler'shousekeeper.Notsurprisingly,Freeman'sloveaffairfizzled.Wheneachofherparentsdiedsuddenlywithinthenextthreeyears,31yearoldMaryfound
herselfaloneanddestitute.
Marymovedinwithachildhoodfriendandcontinuedthewritingcareershehadjustbegun.
Whenshewas49,MarymetDr.CharlesFreeman,aphysician.Hemusthavebeenapatientman,becauseittookher10yearstodecidetomarryhim.
Unfortunately,sheshouldhavewaitedevenlongeronlyafewyearslater,hewascommittedtoasanitariumforalcoholism.Theendoftheirmarriageandhislifewere
longandmessy.
Freemanpublishedmorethan20volumesoffictionandchildren'sstoriesAHumbleRomanceandOtherStories(1887)andANewEnglandNunandOther
Stories(1891)arehermostfamousworks.
SarahOrneJewett(18491909)
UnlikemostofthelocalcoloristswholookedaheadtothedevelopingWesternfrontier,JewettlookedbacktoatimefastdisappearinginruralNewEngland.
PeoplewhomadealivingfromtheruggedNewEnglandcoastweredealtaseriousblowwiththeEmbargoof1807,whichforbadeallcommercewithforeignnations.
TheCivilWarfinishedthejobbytakingawaythemenwhoworkedonthesea.Andifthatwasn'tbadenough,textilemillsandtouristsstreamedintochangetheface
oftheregion.
Jewett'soriginality,exactobservationsofherMainecharactersandsettings,andsensitivestylearebestseeninherfinestory"TheWhiteHeron"inCountryofthe
PointedFirs(1896).Althoughloadedwithlocalcolor,"TheWhiteHeron,"likeallofJewett'sstories,revolvesaroundcharacterandcrucialchoices.
GoingtotheBirds:"TheWhiteHeron"
Sylvia,achild,sharesaspecialbondwiththewoodlandcreatures.Onenight,whiletakingthecowhome,shemeetsahandsomeyoungornithologistwhoislooking
forawhiteheron.HeoffersSylvia$10ifshewillpointoutthelocationoftheheron'snest.
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Althoughinfatuatedwiththeyoungman,Sylviacannotunderstandhowhecoulddestroyanimals.Sheclimbsatallpinetreeandlocatestheheron,butdoesn'ttellthe
ornithologistthebird'sexactlocation,forfearthathewillkillit.Inthestory'sclimax:
"Themurmurofthepine'sgreenbranchesisinherears,sheremembershowthewhiteheroncameflyingthroughthegoldenairandhowtheywatchedtheseaandthemorning
together,andSylviacannotspeakshecannottelltheheron'ssecretandgiveitslifeaway."
Theheronsymbolizesthebeautyoflife,itsdignity,andtheendangeredwilderness.
RealityCheck
"Don'ttrytowriteaboutthings:writethethingsthemselvesjustastheyare."
SarahOrneJewett
Jewett'sworkfeaturesthepeopleshewasmostfamiliarwiththeinhabitantsofMaine,oftheeverydayworldofvillagesandordinarypeople.WhatmakesJewett's
brandoflocalcolorwritingdifferentfromtheotherNewEnglandregionalwriters?Focusontheseelements:
Idiomaticlanguage
Conservativevalues
ImageryandvividdescriptionsofruralNewEngland
Jewett'sworkwaslargelyforgottenandevenscornedafterherrathersuccessfullifetimeonecriticwentsofarastocallher"merelyaNewEnglandoldmaid."
DownintheBayou:KateChopin(18511904)
KateChopinwasbornKatherineO'FlahertyinSt.Louis,Missouri.At19,KatemarriedOscarChopin,ayoungcottonbroker,andmovedwithhimtoNewOrleans.
Itwasahappyandfruitfulunion,althoughitlastedbut12years.WhenOscardiedin1882,ChopinreturnedwiththeirsixchildrentoSt.Louisandbeganwritingto
keepthekidsinshoes.
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Chopinwaswidelyacceptedasawriteroflocalcolorfictionandwasgenerallysuccessfuluntilthepublicationofherscandalousnovel,TheAwakening,in1899.
Whileitstronglyevokestheregion,TheAwakeningisprimarilyalyrical,stunningstudyofayoungwomanwhosedeeppersonaldiscontentsleadtoadulteryand
suicide.Nowwidelyreadandhonored,TheAwakeningwasdecidedlyaheadofitstime.
Thenovel'ssexuallyawareandshockingprotagonist,EdnaPontillier,pushedChopinintoliteraryoblivion.Itwasn'tuntilthe1970sthatChopin'snovelwasfinally
accepted.
Stripawaythescandal,andChopin'swritingismemorableforits
Vividandeconomicalstyle
Richlocaldialect
PenetratingviewsofthecultureofsouthLouisiana
TheAwakening
Praisedforitscraftanddamnedforitscontent,TheAwakeningwasascandalousbookforitstime.ItwascondemnedalloverAmericaandbannedinlibraries.And
boy,didChopin'sselfappointedjudgeseverplaydirty:CommunityleadersevenbannedKateChopinfrommembershipinalocalartsclub.
Who'sWhoinTheAwakening
EdnaPontellier:Sherejectstheroleofdomesticgoddess.
LeoncePontellier:HercluelessCreolehusband.
RobertLebrun:Edna'smalefriend.
MadameAdeleRatignolle:Edna'sfemalefriend,theearthmother.
MademoiselleReisz:HerbeautifulpianomusiccontributestoEdna's"awakening."
AlceeArobin:Edna'ssuavelover.
NotFreetoBeYouandMe
Time:Turnofthe20thcentury
Place:Louisiana
ThestoryconcernsEdnaPontellier'sdoomedattempttofindherownidentitythroughpassion.Ednaisayoungmarriedwomanwithattractivechildrenandan
indulgentandsuccessfulhusband,butshe'snotintothemotheringgig:
"Shewasfondofherchildreninanuneven,impulsiveway.Shewouldsometimesgatherthempassionatelytoherheartshewouldsometimesforgetthem.Theyearbeforethey
had
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spentpartofthesummerwiththeirgrandmotherPontellierinIberville.Feelingsecureregardingtheirhappinessandwelfare,shedidnotmissthemexceptwithanoccasional
intenselonging.Theirabsencewasasortofrelief,thoughshedidnotadmitthis,eventoherself.Itseemedtofreeherofaresponsibilitywhichshehadblindlyassumedandfor
whichFatehadnotfittedherInshort,Mrs.Pontellierwasnotamotherwoman"
Duringasummervacation,Edna"beginstorealizeherpositionintheuniverseasahumanbeing,andtorecognizeherrelationsasanindividualtotheworldwithinand
abouther."Chopinrealizesthatit'sadangerousjourney:
"Butthebeginningofthings,ofaworldespecially,isnecessarilyvague,tangled,chaotic,andexceedinglydisturbing.Howfewofuseveremergefromsuchbeginning!How
manysoulsperishinitstumult!"
Ednagivesupherfamily,money,respectability,andeventuallyherlifeinsearchofselfrealization.Poeticevocationsoftheocean,birds,andmusicendowthisshort
novelwithunusualintensityandcomplexity.Withnothinglefttolivefor,Ednakillsherself.Thenovelendswithherdeath:
"Thevoiceoftheseaisseductiveneverceasing,whispering,clamoring,murmuring,invitingthesoultowanderforaspellinabyssesofsolitudetoloseitselfinmazesof
inwardcontemplation.
Thevoiceoftheseaspeakstothesoul.Thetouchoftheseaissensuous,enfoldingthebodyinitssoft,closeembrace.
Thefoamywaveletscurleduptoherwhitefeet,andcoiledlikeserpentsaboutherankles.Shewalkedout.Thewaterwaschill,butshewalkedon.Thewaterwasdeep,butshe
liftedherwhitebodyandreachedoutwithalong,sweepingstroke.Thetouchoftheseaissensuous,enfoldingthebodyinitssoft,closeembrace
ShethoughtofLonceandthechildren.Theywereapartofherlife.Buttheyneednothavethoughtthattheycouldpossessher,bodyandsoul.HowMademoiselleReisz
wouldhavelaughed,perhapssneered,ifsheknew!'Andyoucallyourselfanartist!Whatpretensions,Madame!Theartistmustpossessthecourageoussoulthatdaresand
defies.'"
ChopindiedfiveyearsafterpublishingTheAwakeningofabrainhemorrhageafterastrenuousdayattheSt.LouisWorld'sFair,whereshehadbeenaregular
visitor.
Amongthemostdistinguishedwritersofthelocalcoloristschool,Chopin'splaceinAmericanliteraturewassecuredbyTheAwakeningalone.
CharlottePerkinsGilman(18601935)
WhenCharlottewasjustababy,herfatherwentoutforapackofcigarettesandnevercameback.Andbackthen,theyrolledtheirown.
Asthepoorrelations,thefamilymadetheroundsofthekinfolk,relyingontheircharity.Althoughvowingnevertomarry,inherearly20s,CharlottefellforCharles
WalterStetsonanddecidedtotietheknot.Theymarriedin1884,whenCharlottewas
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24yearsold.Theirunionwasrockyfromthebeginning,eventuallyendinginacontroversialdivorce.Theyseparatedin1888,afteronlyfouryearsofmarriage.
Theyhadonedaughter,KatherineBeecherStetson.(Yes,GilmanwasrelatedtoHarrietBeecherStowewhowashergreataunt.)
Afterthebirthofherchild,Gilmansufferedaseverenervousbreakdown.Tosavehersanity,shemovedtoCalifornia,gotadivorce,andleftherdaughterincareof
herexhusband.Theseboldactionswereunheardofduringthistime.Ofcourse,shewasroundlydenouncedandcallednamesIcan'trepeatinthisbook.Manyyears
later,in1900,GilmanmarriedhercousinGeorgeHoughtonGilmantheyremainedhappilymarrieduntilhissuddendeathin1934.
In1932,Gilmanlearnedthatshehadincurablebreastcancer.Asanadvocatefortherighttodie,Gilmanchosechloroformovercancerandtookherownlifein1935.
Duringherlife,GilmanpublishedahugevolumeofworkmuchofwhichisunavailabletothemodernreaderbecauseithasonlyrecentlybeenrediscoveredThe
feministpresseshavereissuedsomeofGilman'sbestknownworks,butmuchofherworkremainsoutofprint.Gilmanisbestknownforhershortnovel"TheYellow
Wallpaper."
Thelocalcolorangle?Gilman'sconcentrationontheprevalentattitudesofthetime,especiallyregardingthetreatmentofwomen.
InLiteratureasinLife:TheYellowWallpaper
OftenpairedwithTheAwakeningisGilman'sterrifyingstory"TheYellowWallpaper"(1892).Thestorydescribesawomanwhosuffersamentalbreakdowndueto
thebirthofherchild.She'sgivena"restcure,"whichdriveshercompletelyaroundthebend.(Betyoucan'tguesshowGilmandidherresearch.)
Thewomanprojectsherentrapmentontotheyellowwallpaper,inthedesignofwhichsheseesimprisonedwomencreepingbehindbars:
"Ididn'trealizeforalongtimewhatthethingwasthatshowedbehind,thatdimsubpattern,butnowIamquitesureitisawoman
Thefrontpatterndoesmoveandnowonder!Thewomanbehindshakesit!
SometimesIthinkthereareagreatmanywomenbehind,andsometimesonlyone,andshecrawlsaroundfast,andhercrawlingshakesitallover.
Thenintheverybrightspotsshekeepsstill,andintheveryshadyspotsshejusttakesholdofthebarsandshakesthemhard.
Andsheisallthetimetryingtoclimbthrough.ButnobodycouldclimbthroughthatpatternitstranglessoIthinkthatiswhyithassomanyheads."
Inhermadness,thewomangnawsthroughthebedsteadandripsthewallpaperfromthewalls.Shealsocreepssmoothlyonthefloor,hershouldermakingalong
"smooch"
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aroundthewall.Attheendofthestory,thewomanbeginstocompletelyidentifywiththewomentrappedinthedesignoftheyellowwallpaper.Whenherhusband
findshercreepingaboutthebedroom,shedeclares:
"'I'vegotoutatlast,'saidI,'inspiteofyouandJane.AndI'vepulledoffmostofthepaper,soyoucan'tputmeback!'
Nowwhyshouldthatmanhavefainted?Buthedid,andrightacrossmypathbythewall,sothatIhadtocreepoverhimeverytime!"
SomeDaysItJustDoesn'tPaytoTellItLikeItIs
When"TheYellowWallpaper"wasfirstpublishedin1892,aBostonphysiciansaidthestorywasenoughtodriveanyonemad.Anotherphysiciansaiditwasthebest
descriptionofincipientinsanityhehadeverseen.
Inresponsetoherfeedback,Gilmanpennedtheessay"WhyIWrotetheYellowWallpaper"(1913)."FormanyyearsIsufferedfromasevereandcontinuous
nervousbreakdowntendingtomelancholia,"shewrote.
Afterthreeyearsofthis,shewassenttoanotedspecialist,S.WeirMitchell,
"whoapplieda'restcure.'Hisadvice?'liveasdomesticalifeasfaraspossible'with'buttwohours'intellectuallifeaday,'and'nevertotouchpen,brush,orpencil
again.'"
Gilmangavetherestcureherbestshot.Theresults?"IcamesoneartheborderlineofuttermentalruinthatIcouldseeover,"shewrote.Desperatetohangontoher
sanity,Gilmandecidedtowriteherownprescriptionwork,work,andmorework.Theresultwas"TheYellowWallpaper"andadashtoCaliforniasanshusband
andchild.
Thestorycanalsobereadasaconventionalghosttale,however.Tosomecritics,thenarratorisnotatallinsanerather,shetrulyistrappedinahauntedhouse.
BetImadeyouwanttoreadit!
PrairieTales:WillaCather(18731947)
"Itriedtogotosleep,butthejoltingmademebitemytongue,andIsoonbegantoacheallover.Whenthestrawsettleddown,Ihadahardbed.CautiouslyIslippedfromunderthe
buffalohide,gotuponmykneesandpeeredoverthesideofthewagon.Thereseemedtobenothingtoseenofences,nocreeksortrees,nohillsorfields.Iftherewasaroad,Icould
notmakeitoutinthefaintstarlight.Therewasnothingbutland:notacountryatall,butthematerialoutofwhichcountriesaremade.No,therewasnothingbutlandslightly
undulating,Iknew,becauseoftenoutwheelsgroundagainstthebrakeaswewentdown
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intoahollowandlurchedupagainontheotherside.Ihadthefeelingthattheworldwasleftbehind,thatwehadgotovertheedgeofit,andwereoutsideman'sjurisdiction.Ihad
neverbeforelookedupattheskywhentherewasnotafamiliarmountainridgeagainstit.Butthiswasthecompletedomeofheavenalltherewasofit.Ididnotbelievethatmy
deadfatherandmotherwerewatchingmefromuptheretheywouldstillbelookingformeatthesheepfolddownbythecreekoralongthewhiteroadthatleadtothemountain
pastures.Ihadlefteventheirspiritsbehindme.Thewagonjoltedon,carryingmeIknewnotwither.Idon'tthinkIwashomesick.Ifweneverarrivedanywhere,itdidnotmatter.
BetweenthatearthandthatskyIfelterased,blottedout.Ididnotsaymyprayersthatnight:here,Ifelt,whatwouldbewouldbe."
WillaCather,fromMyAntonia
Theeldestofsevenchildren,WillaCathermovedtoNebraskawhenshewasveryyoung,ajourneyhermostfamouscharacter,Antonia,wouldlatermake.Duringthe
tripWestfromherbirthplaceinVirginia,Catherimaginedthat,"Ihadlefteventheirspirits[hergrandparents]behindme.Thewagonjoltedon,carryingmeIknewnot
whitherBetweenthatearthandskyIfelterased,blottedout."
Aswithmanyauthors,Catherheldavarietyofjobs,includingjournalist,teacher,andeditor.HerreputationasawriterrestsonhernovelsaboutNebraskaandthe
AmericanSouthwest,whichshowherawarenessofthetradeoffsrequiredtolivethepioneerlifeisolation,loneliness,andlossofculturebalancedagainstcourage,
naturalbeauty,andindependence.OfCather's12novelsMyAntoniaandDeathComesfortheArchbishopareconsideredtobethefinest.
Here'swhattolookforwhenreadingCather:
Admirationforthecourageandspiritofimmigrantsettlers
Intenseawarenessofpioneers'isolationandloss
Keenawarenessofthecultureofcitylife
WillaCather'slandscapescapturealandthathadalmostbeenerasedbythetimeshebeganwriting.HerfictionalfrontiersevokethebeautyoftheNebraskalanscape
andtheheroismofthepeoplethatinhabitedit.
Intheirown,uniqueways,eachofthelocalcoloristspreservedasliceoftheAmericanlansdcapeforustosavordecadeslater.WhetherdescribingtherockyMaine
shores,thesultrysouthernbayous,orthedesolatemidwesternprairies,thelocalcoloristspaintedvividwordpicturesofavanishingwayoflife.
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Page219
Chapter19
LifestylesoftheRichandFamous:EdithWhartonandHenryJames
EdithWhartonandHenryJamesenjoyedafinestandardofliving,thankstotheircleverchoiceofparents.EdithWharton'smaidennamewasJonesthefamilyhadso
muchmoneythatthephrase''keepingupwiththeJoneses"wascoinedtodescribesociety'sfranticeffortstomatchtheirtastefulopulence.Henry'sfamilywasequally
uppercrust,andextraordinarilyculturedandwelltraveled.
Readontodiscoverwhatlandmarkbooksthesetwowritersproducedwhentheyweren'ttravelingaroundtheworld,dininginthefinestrestaurants,summeringin
Newport,andgenerallyenjoyingLaDolceVita.
HighSociety:EdithWharton(18621937)
Edith'sparents,GeorgeandLucretiaJones,weredescendantsofEnglishandDutchcolonistswhohadmadeenormousfortunesinshipping,banking,andrealestate.
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Asaresult,EdithbelongedtotheveryupperreachesofNewYorksociety,thefolkswholiveofftheinterest,nottheprincipal.Herearliestyearswerespenttouring
Europe.ThefamilyreturnedtoAmericawhenEdithwas10yearsoldtolivenearFifthAvenueinManhattan.
Aswasthecustominhersocialstrata,Edithwaseducatedathomebyagovernessandmadeherformaldebutintosocietyat17.In1885,whenshewas23,Edith
marriedEdward("Teddy")Wharton.Theyseemedtobeaperfectmatch,forhecamefromasimilarsocialbackgroundandwasattractive,kindly,andathletic.Butas
theScottishwriterRobertBurnssaid,"Thebestlaidplansofmiceandmenoftgoastray."TeddyhadnoneofEdith'sartisticorintellectualinterestsinstead,heliked
todrinkandcarouse.Asaresult,theirmarriagewasadisaster.Afteryearsofpain,theydivorcedin1913.
Wharton'swritingcareerwaslaunchedin1897withthepublicationofherfirstbook,TheDecorationofHouses,writtenwithherarchitectfriend,OgdenCodman.
ThetwotastemakersdenouncedVictoriandecoratingpracticesroomsheavilycurtainedandcrammedwithoverstuffedfurniture,"lambrequins,jardiniresofartificial
plants,wobblyvelvetcoveredtableslitteredwithgewgaws,andfestoonsoflaceonmantelpiecesanddressingtables."Instead,theyproposedcreatingroomsbased
onsimple,classicaldesignprinciples,stressingsymmetry,proportion,andbalanceinthearchitecture.TheDecorationofHouseswasanimmediatesuccess,
launchinganentirelynewstyleofdecorating.
KnowYourPlace
Althoughshewasdestinedtobecomethehighestpaidnovelistinthecountryduringherlifetime,Whartondidn'tfindthatwritingorpublishingcameeasily.Asa
result,shedidn'tpublishherfirstbookoffictionuntilshewas36yearsoldandrecoveringfromanervousbreakdown.WhydidWhartonhavesuchahardtimebeing
awriter,eventhoughsherealizedhertalent?
Whartonhadbeenraisedtofollowthecourselaidoutbygenerationsoftheelite.Asawealthywoman,shewasexpectedtobeapassivesocialornament.Shewas
notexpectedorencouragedtohaveacareer,evenoneasgenteelaswriting.Ofcourse,hercontroversialchoiceofthemesdidn'tmakemattersanyeasier.
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TheInsideView
Asamemberoftheuppercrust,WhartonwasinanidealpositiontoviewthesocialambitionsofthenewlyrichoftheGildedAge.Inherfiction,especiallyinThe
HouseofMirth(1905),Whartondescribedtheveryrichandtheirintensematerialism.It'snotagoodideatobitethehandthatfeedsyou,especiallyifyou'reeating
caviarandbonbons.Asaresult,manypeopleinWharton'ssocialclassactivelydiscouragedherliteraryambitions.Theseincludedfriends,relatives,andwealthy,
sociallyconnectedpublishers.
BirdsinGildedCages
WhartonviewedVictoriansocietywithironicdetachment.LikeherfriendHenryJames,Whartonwasalsoconcernedwiththesubtleinterplayofemotionsinasociety
thatcensuredthefreeexpressionofpassion.Hergraspoftheconflictingvaluesinthisartificialenvironmentgivesherstoriesatragicintensity.
Wharton'scharactersareoftenvictimsofcruelsocialconventions,trappedinbadrelationshipsorotherconfiningcircumstances.Thecoreofherconcernisthegulf
separatingsocialrealityandtheinnerself.InaWhartonnovel,asensitivecharacteroftenfeelssmotheredbyunfeelingpeopleorsocialforces.
AsWharton'sPulitzerprizewinningbiographer,R.W.B.Lewis,saysofhissubject,"Wharton'sworksarecontinuingtestimonytothefemaleexperienceunder
modernhistoricalandsocialconditions,tothemodesofentrapment,betrayal,andexclusiondevisedforwomeninthefirstdecadesoftheAmericanandEuropean
twentiethcentury."
LessIsMore
Whartonwasalsoskilledatcapturingamoment,includingtheimportanceofthatwhichisleftunsaid.ThefollowingexcerptfromWharton'sTheAgeofInnocence
illustratesherabilitytosayvolumesthroughallusionandindirection:
"ItwasnotthecustominNewYorkdrawingroomsforaladytogetupandwalkawayfromonegentlemaninordertoseekthecompanyofanother.Etiquetterequiredthatshe
shouldwait,immovableasanidol,whilethemenwhowishedtoconversewithhersucceededeachotheratherside.ButtheCountesswasapparentlyunawareofhaving
brokenanyruleshesatatperfecteaseinacornerofthesofabesideArcher,andlookedathimwiththekindesteyes"
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TopDrawer
In1907,WhartonsettledpermanentlyinParis,France,inparttodistanceherselffromTeddy,whomshehadnotyetdivorced.
DuringWorldWarI,shebecamefiercelydedicatedtotheAlliedcause.SheledtheCommitteetoAidRefugeesfromnortheasternFranceandBelgiumandcreated
hostelsandschoolsforthem.
Theselastyearsbroughtgreatrewards,asWhartonbecamethegrandedameofAmericanlettersandwasvisitedbymanyscholars,artists,intellectuals,andsociety
friends.
In1921,WhartonbecamethefirstwomantowinthePulitzerprize.ItwasawardedforhernovelTheAgeofInnocence.
Inherlongcareer,whichstretchedover40yearsandincludedthepublicationofmorethan40books,WhartonportrayedafascinatingsegmentoftheAmerican
experience.Shewasabornstoryteller,whosenovelsarejustlycelebratedfortheirvividsettings,satiricwit,ironicstyle,andmoralseriousness.
Wharton'sbestnovelsincludeTheHouseofMirth(1905),TheCustomoftheCountry(1913),Summer(1917),TheAgeofInnocence(1920),andthe
beautifullycraftednovellaEthanFrome(1911).Let'slookatthisonenow.
EthanFrome
EthanFromeisatragiclovestoryofsimplepeopleinableakNewEnglandenvironment.ManycriticsjudgethisbooktobeWharton'smasterpiece,becauseits
simplicityhasauniversalitythatislackinginhersocietynovels.
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Thenovel,atragedyofirony,issetinthesmallNewEnglandtownofStarkfield,Massachusetts.Thecommunityisplaguedbyharshwintersthatseemtosuckthelife
fromtheinhabitants.ThenovelcentersonEthanFrome,acrippledfarmerwhohascorneredthemarketonpain.Anewcomertotown,ournarrator,isfascinatedby
EthanFrome.Asthenarratormuses,
"EventhenhewasthemoststrikingfigureinStarkfield,thoughhewasbuttheruinofaman.Itwasnotsomuchhisgreatheightthatmarkedhim,forthe"natives"wereeasily
singledoutbytheirlanklongitudefromthestockierforeignbreed:itwasthecarelesspowerfullookhehad,inspiteofalamenesscheckingeachsteplikethejerkofachain.
Therewassomethingbleakandunapproachableinhisface,andhewassostiffenedandgrizzledthatItookhimforanoldmanandwassurprisedtohearthathewasnotmore
thanfiftytwo."
ThenarratorlearnsthatEthan'slifehasbeenatragictaleofpainandsuffering.
Afterhisparentsdie,EthanmarriesZenobia("Zeena"),anolderwomanwhoquicklybecomesacold,complaininghypochondriac.EthanfindsjoywithZeena's
youngercousinMattieSilver,anorphanwhocomestohelpcareforZeena.WhenZeenarealizesthatEthanhasfalleninlovewithMattie,sheforceshertoleave.
Unabletostartanewlifetogetherandunwillingtobeseparated,EthanandMattietrytocommitsuicidebysleddingintoatree:
"AstheyflewtowardthetreeMattiepressedherarmstighter,andherbloodseemedtobeinhisveins.Onceortwicethesledswervedalittleunderthem.Heslantedhisbody
tokeepitheadedfortheelm,repeatingtohimselfagainandagain:'Iknowwecanfetchit'andlittlephrasesshehadspokenranthroughhisheadanddancedbeforehimon
theair.Thebigtreeloomedbiggerandcloser,andastheyboredownonithethought:'It'swaitingforus:itseemstoknow.'Butsuddenlyhiswife'sface,withtwisted
monstrouslineaments,thrustitselfbetweenhimandhisgoal,andhemadeaninstinctivemovementtobrushitaside.Thesledswervedinresponse,butherighteditagain,kept
itstraight,anddrovedownontheblackprojectingmass.Therewasalastinstantwhentheairshotpasthimlikemillionsoffierywiresandthentheelm"
Theirsuicideattemptisafailure:EthaniscrippledMattieisparalyzed.NowEthanistrappedwithtwowretchedlyunhappywomen.Asafamilyfriendnotes,
"Therewasoneday,aboutaweekaftertheaccident,whentheyallthoughtMattiecouldn'tlive.Well,Isayit'sapityshedid.Isaiditrightouttoourministeronce,andhe
wasshockedatme.Onlyhewasn'twithmethatmorningwhenshefirstcametoAndIsay,ifshe'dha'died,Ethanmightha'livedandthewaytheyarenow,Idon'tsee's
there'smuchdifferencebetweentheFromesupat
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thefarmandtheFromesdowninthegraveyard'ceptthatdowntherethey'reallquiet,andthewomenhavegottoholdtheirtongues."
Wharton'snicheisnarrowbutimpressivenonetheless.Herwordpicturesofsociety'supperreachesremainunsurpassedherglimpseintothemysteryandmiseryof
thehumanheartstillhastheabilitytoreachourownsouls.
HenryJames(18431916)
HenryJamescamefromthekindoffamilythatwouldinspireAaronSpelling:Hisfatherwasawellknown(ifeccentric)theologianandphilosopherhiselderbrother
WilliamwasAmerica'sfirstfamouspsychologistandperhapsourmostinfluentialphilosopher.Twoyoungerbrothersandasisterfinishedthefamilytree.
Enormouswealth,foreigntravel,jealousy,scandalthesagaoftheJamesfamilycontainsalltheelementsofatelevisionminiseries.
Jameswasfirsttakenabroadasaninfant,thenreturnedhomeforabriefstayinManhattan.NextitwasofftoGeneva,Paris,andLondonduringhisteens,wherehe
learnedseverallanguagesandabsorbedEuropeanculture.Thefamilytrekkedthrougheverymuseum,theater,library,andartgalleryonthecontinent.
HenryenteredHarvardLawSchoolin1862.Inhissparetime,hepennedreviewsandshortstoriesformagazines.Henry'searlypublicationrecordisn'tastonishing
whenyouconsiderthatheonceadmittedtohavinga"ferociousambition"underhis"tranquilexterior."Decidingthathewasn'tcutoutforthelaw,Jamesturnedto
writingfulltimein1863.
In1875,JamesspentayearinParis,wherehemettheFrenchwriterGustaveFlaubertandtheRussianwriterIvanSergeevichTurgenevamongotherliteraryfigures.
Thenextyear,JamesmovedtoLondon,wherehewassopopularthatheattended107partiesduringthewinterof1878to'79alone.
Duringthenextdecade,JamesworkedasanoccasionalartreviewerfortheAtlanticMonthly.HetraveledtoCanadatowritearticlesforajournalcalledNation.In
1898,JamesleftAmericaandwenttoliveinEngland.
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Theclimateandpeoplesuitedhissoul,andHenrydecidedtobecomeaBrit.Henevermarried,andthereisnoreportofanyloveinterestofeithergender.Despite
hiswidecircleoffriends,relatives,andacquaintances,Jameslivedandworkedalone.
Inadditiontomanyshortstories,plays,booksofcriticism,autobiographies,andtravel,HenryJamesproducedabout20novels,startingwithRoderickHudsonin
1875.James'mostfamousnovelsincludeTheEuropeans,WashingtonSquare,ThePortraitofaLady,TheBostonians,ThePrincessCasamassima,The
TragicMuse,TheSpoilsofPoynton,TheAwkwardAge,TheWingsoftheDove,TheAmbassadors,andTheGoldenBowl.
CultureVulture
HenryJameshasbeencriticizedasasnob,adeserterofhiscountry,andan"oldmaid."WecandebatewhatlabelstopinonJames,butwecan'tdebatethathewas
thefirstAmericanwritertoplanaBigWritingCareer,onethatspannedtheoceans:Hedeliberatelysetouttobeaninternationalartist.Hefeltthatart,especially
writing,"makeslife,makesinterest,makesimportance."Asaresultofhisgoals,James'fictionandcriticismisthemosthighlyconscious,complex,andsophisticatedof
itsera.Asaresult,itisverydifficulttoread,sinceit'smarkedbylongsentencesandelevatedvocabulary.
Today,HenryJamesisgenerallyrankedbesideMarkTwainasthegreatestAmericannovelistofthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury.InJames'day,everyonewho
wasanyonetalkedabouthisnovelsbutfewpeoplereadthembecauseofthecomplexityofhiswriting.
ThemainthemeofJames'workistheinnocenceandexuberanceofAmericacontrastedwiththecorruptionandwisdomofEurope.InThePortraitofaLady,for
example,thecharactersofMadameMerleandGilbertOsmondseemtaintedfromtheyearstheyhavespentinEurope,comparedtoIsabelArcher'sfreshnessand
innocence.
James'careerissovastandvariedthatit'scommonlydividedintothreephrases:international,experimental,andmajor.
Phase1:International
Jamesisnotedforhisinternationalthemethatis,thecomplexrelationshipsbetweennaiveAmericansandcosmopolitanEuropeans.WhathisbiographerLeonEdel
callsJames'first,or"international,"phaseencompassedsuchworksas
TransatlanticSketches(travelpieces,1875)
TheAmerican(1877)
DaisyMiller(1879)
ThePortraitofaLady(1881)
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InTheAmerican,forexample,ChristopherNewman,anaivebutintelligentandidealisticselfmadeAmericanmillionaireindustrialist,goestoEuropeseekingabride.
Hepicksasweetie,butherfamilyrejectshimbecausehelacksanaristocraticbackground.Newmanhasachancetorevengehimselfindecidingnotto,he
demonstrateshismoralsuperiority.
ThePortraitofaLady,firstpublishedinthreevolumesin1881,isconsideredthemasterpieceofthefirstphaseofJames'career,withitsshrewdappraisalofthe
Americancharacteranditsembodimentofthenationalmythoffreedomandequalityhedgedwithhistoricalblindnessandpride.
Phase2:Experimental
James'secondperiodiscalledhisexperimentalperiod.HeexploitednewsubjectmattersfeminismandsocialreforminTheBostonians(1886),andpolitical
intrigueinThePrincessCasamassima(1885).Healsoattemptedtowriteforthetheater,butfailedembarrassinglywhenhisplayGuyDomville(1895)wasbooed
offthestageonthefirstnight.(Itwastherightreaction,unfortunately.)
Phase3:Major
Inthefinalpartofhiscareer,Jamesreturnedtointernationalsubjectsbuttreatedthemwithincreasingsophisticationandpsychologicalpenetration.Thecomplexand
almostmythicalTheWingsoftheDove(1902),TheAmbassadors(1903Jamesfeltthiswashisbestnovel),andTheGoldenBowl(1904)datefromthisperiodof
majorworks.
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InHenryJames'novels,selfawarenessandclearperceptionofothersyieldwisdomandselfsacrificinglove.AsJamesdeveloped,hisnovelsbecamemore
psychologicalandlessconcernedwithexternalevents.InJames'laterworks,themostimportanteventsareallinternalusuallyportrayedbymomentsofintense
illuminationthatshowcharacterstheirpreviousblindness.
Forexample,inTheAmbassadors,theidealistic,agingLambertStretheruncoversasecretloveaffairand,indoingso,discoversanewcomplexitytohisinnerlife.
Hisrigid,uprightmoralityishumanizedandenlargedashediscoversacapacitytoacceptthosewhohavesinned.
BetYouCan'tReadJustOne
TheTurnoftheScrew(1898)hasbeenperhapsthemostwidelyreadanddiscussedstorybyHenryJames.Thisstoryisbothtypicalofhismainphaseanddifferent
fromit.Ontheonehand,ithasaconvolutedstyleandtechniqueontheother.it'shighlyreadableandsowasimmediatelypopular.I'vealwayslikedTheTurnofthe
Screwbecauseit'sawallopinggoodghoststory,fullofterrorandsuspense.Thestoryinvolvesagovernesswhoseesaghost.IthasasockotwistthatIwon'tspoil
byrevealing.(Here'sahint,though:Eithertheghostsarerealortheyaren't.)
Thetalebegins'roundthefire:
"IcanseeDouglastherebeforethefire,towhichhehadgotuptopresenthisback,lookingdownathisinterlocutorwithhishandsinhispockets.'Nobodybutme,tillnow,
haseverheard.It'squitetoohorrible.'This,naturally,wasdeclaredbyseveralvoicestogivethethingtheutmostprice,andourfriend,withquietart,preparedhistriumphby
turninghiseyesovertherestofusandgoingon:'It'sbeyondeverything.NothingatallthatIknowtouchesit.'
'Forsheerterror?'Irememberasking.
Heseemedtosayitwasnotsosimpleasthattobereallyatalosshowtoqualifyit.Hepassedhishandoverhiseyes,madealittlewincinggrimace.'Fordreadful
dreadfulness!'
'Oh,howdelicious!'criedoneofthewomen.
Hetooknonoticeofherhelookedatme,butasif,insteadofme,hesawwhathespokeof.'Forgeneraluncannyuglinessandhorrorandpain.'
'Wellthen,'Isaid,'justsitrightdownandbegin.'"
Douglas'sister'sgoverness,deadformorethan20years,hadwrittendownthestorybeforeshediedandsentittoDouglas.
"'Irememberthetimeandtheplacethecornerofthelawn,theshadeofthegreatbeechesandthelong,hotsummerafternoon.Itwasn'tasceneforashudderbutoh!'He
quittedthefireanddroppedbackintohischair."
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TheTurnoftheScrewcausedanuproar.Oneadmirercalledthework"themosthopelesslyevilstorythatwehaveeverreadinanyliterature,ancientor
modern."(TheIndependent,January5,1899,p.73).Sufficeittosaythatit'sworthreading.
EdieandHank
EdithWhartonandHenryJamesfirstmetinFranceinthelate1880s,buttheydidn'tbecomefriendsuntilafter1900.Atthattime,hewasafamousauthornearingthe
endofhisbrilliantcareer(butwiththemasterpiecesofhislastperiodyettocome),whileshewasatthebeginningofherfame.
In1900,WhartonsentJamesacopyofherstory"TheLineofLeastResistance"hepraisedit,butincludedsomedetailedcriticism,whichshefounddevastating.In
time,however,shelearnedtoacceptcriticismasadvicefromoneprofessionaltoanother,andJamesbecameavaluedliteraryadviser.Theirrelationshipwascomplex
andclose.
WhartonovercamehershynesswithJameswhenshediscoveredthatshecouldtalktohimwithease"ofthethingswebothcaredaboutwhilehe,alwayssohelpful
andhospitabletoyoungerwriters,atonceusedhismagicalfacultyofdrawingouthisinterlocutor'sinmostself.Perhapsitwasourcommonsenseoffunthatfirst
broughtoutourunderstanding."
HenryJames'greatthemewastheinnocenceandexuberanceoftheNewWorldinconflictwiththecorruptionandwisdomoftheold.EdithWhartondescribed
upperclasslifeandtheconstraintsitplacedonbothmenandwomen.BothEdithWhartonandHenryJamespolishedAmericanliterature,addingasheenof
cosmopolitansophistication.
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PART5
MODERNLITERATURE(19151945)
YouCan'tGoHomeAgain.
ThomasWolfe,titleofnovel
ByWorldWarI,theUnitedStateshadbecomeasignificantworldpower.Nothing'severeasy,however,includingbecomingamajorplayerintheeconomicand
politicalrealm.TwoworldwarsandadecadeofeconomicdepressiontemperedAmerica'sinnocenceandoptimism.
From1918to1945,Americanwritersexplorednewliterarytechniques.Influencedbydevelopmentsinmodernpsychology,novelistsbeganusingthestreamof
consciousnesstechnique,attemptingtorecreatethenaturalflowofacharacter'sthoughts.Poetswereequallyinnovative,e.e.cummings,forexample,experimented
withtypography,capitalization,andsyntaxtostretchtheboundariesofwrittenexpression.Atthesametime,theAfricanAmericanwritersoftheHarlemRenaissance
burstforthwithanextraordinaryoutpouringofcreativity.
F.ScottFitzgeraldcelebratedtheRoaringTwentiesinaseriesofglitteringshortstoriesandonegemofanovel,whileErnestHemingwaytookadifferentviewofthe
times,poignantlyexpressingtheangstofthe''LostGeneration."Meanwhile,WilliamFaulkerbecamecelebratedforhisfablesoftheSouthandofhumandestiny.
Somuchofthewritingbetweenthewarswasbleakanddespairingthatthebuoyantvoicesoftheperiodtendtobeforgotten.DorothyParkerandJamesThurber
weighedinwiththeirwrycommentsonthehumancondition.
Nowlet'stakealookatwhatAmericanlitwaslikeduringthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury.
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Chapter20
"Allgoodbooksarealikeinthattheyaretruerthaniftheyhadreallyhappenedandafteryouarefinishedreadingoneyouwillfeelthatallthathappenedtoyouandafterwardsit
allbelongstoyouthegoodandthebad,theecstasy,theremorseandsorrow,thepeopleandtheplacesandhowtheweatherwas.Ifyoucangetsothatyoucangivethattopeople,
thenyouareawriter."
ErnestHemingway
Inhisnearly62yearsonearth,ErnestHemingwayforgedaliteraryreputationunsurpassedinthe20thcenturyandcreatedamythologicalheroinhimselfthat
captivatedandconfoundednotonlyseriousliterarycriticsbutalsotheaveragereader.Inaword,Hemingwaywasastar.
Inthischapter,you'llfirstlearnaboutHemingway'slife,fromhisboyhoodintheMidwesttohisadventuresaroundtheworld.ThenI'llexplainthefamousHemingway
codeofbehaviorandassessHemingway'sequallyfamouswritingstyle.Nextcomesa
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detaileddescriptionandanalysisoftwoofHemingway'smostfamousnovels,TheSunAlsoRisesandTheOldManandtheSea.Thechapterconcludeswithan
assessmentofHemingway'sliteraryheritage.
HuntandPeck
"It'senoughforyoutodoitonceforafewmentorememberyou.Butifyoudoityearafteryear,thenmanypeoplerememberyouandtheytellittotheirchildren,andtheirchildren
andgrandchildrenrememberand,ifitconcernsbooks,theycanreadthem.Andifit'sgoodenough,itwilllastaslongastherearehumanbeings."
ErnestHemingway
Allwritersworrythattheirfirstbookwillbetheirlast.Thatfirstbookisenoughtogetthemsomesmallmeasureoffameenough"forafewmentorememberyou,"
asHemingwaynoted.ButErnestHemingwaywrotesomuchandsowellthathewonapermanentplaceintheliteraryhalloffame.
ErnestMillerHemingwaywasborninOakPark,Illinois,onJuly21,1899,thesecondofDr.ClarenceandGraceHemingway'ssixchildren.OakParkwasaWASP
suburbofChicagothatHemingwaywouldlatercallatownof"widelawnsandnarrowminds."Notsurprisingly,theconservativeMidwesternvaluesofstrongreligion,
hardwork,physicalfitness,andselfdeterminationwereparamountintheHemingwayhome.Followingtheseguidelines,Erniewastaught,wouldinevitablyleadto
successinwhateverfieldhechose.
Fromhisfather,Hemingwaylearnedtohuntandfishfromhismother,hetooklessonsinbasicpiano.NaturewouldbethetouchstoneofHemingway'slifeandwork,
andthoughhefoundhimselflivinginmajorcitieslikeChicago,Toronto,andParisearlyinhiscareer,oncehebecamesuccessful,hechosetoliveinisolatedplaces
thatwereclosetonatureKeyWest,FloridaSanFranciscodePaula,CubaandKetchum,Idaho.Notaccidentally,eachoftheselocationsboastedrichhunting
andfishing.Andthemusic?WhatlittleHemingwaydidlearn,heusedtowoohisfirstwife,Hadley.
Astonishingly,ourFieldandStreamposterboywasmediocreatorganizedsports.Nonetheless,hetried,playinghighschoolfootballandjoiningtheswimteam.
However,hemostenjoyedwritingforthenewspaper.Aloner,Hemingwaywasnotespeciallypopular.Heranawayfromhometwiceandspentmonthsontheroad
workingatavarietyofjobs.Fromthishelearnedthatlifeishard,andthatonlythetoughsurvive.
Hemingwaygraduatedfromhighschoolinthespringof1917,butinsteadofgoingtocollegethefollowingSeptember,hegotajobasacubreporterfortheKansas
CityStar,thankstoagoodwordfromanunclewhohadconnectionswiththepaper.
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IntheshorttimethatHemingwayworkedfortheKansasCityStar,hepickedupthewritingstylethatwouldlaterbecomethehallmarkofhisfiction.Thenewspaper
advocated:
Shortsentences
Briefparagraphs
Activeverbs
Authenticity
Compression
Clarity
Immediacy
Hemingwaylatersaid,"ThosewerethebestrulesIeverlearnedforthebusinessofwriting.I'veneverforgottenthem."
TheWartoEndAllWars
"Therearesomethingswhichcannotbelearnedquickly,andtime,whichisallwehave,mustbepaidheavilyfortheiracquiring.Theyaretheverysimplestthings,andbecauseit
takesaman'slifetoknowthemthelittlenewthateachmangetsfromlifeisverycostlyandtheonlyheritagehehastoleave."
ErnestHemingway
WhenHemingwayturned18,hetriedtoenlistinWorldWarI,butwasdeferredbecauseofpoorvision.Hegotachancetoseeactionafterall,though,bysigningup
tobeaRedCrossambulancedriver.
Hemingwayplungedrightintothewar:ThedayhearrivedinMilan,Italy,amunitionsfactoryexplodedandhehadtocarrymutilatedbodiesandbodypartstoa
makeshift
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morgue.OnJuly8,1918,Hemingwaywasseriouslywoundedwhenamortarshellexplodedtoocloseforcomfort.Helatersaid,"Therewasoneofthosebignoises
yousometimeshearatthefront.Idiedthen.Ifeltmysoulorsomethingcomingrightoutofmybody,likeyou'dpullasilkhandkerchiefoutofapocketbyonecorner.
ItflewallaroundandthencamebackandwentinagainandIwasn'tdeadanymore."
Whathappenednextisstillunclear.OneofhisfellowambulancedriverswrotethateventhoughHemingwayhadmorethan200piecesofshrapnellodgedinhislegs,
hestillmanagedtocarryanotherwoundedsoldierbacktothefirstaidstation.Toaddinjurytoinjury,alongthewayhislegsweresprayedbymachineguns.Other
sourcesclaimthewoundedsoldier/carryingneverhappened.Inanyevent,HemingwaywasawardedtheItalianSilverMedalforValor.
HemingwaylaterminedhiswarexperienceinhisacclaimednovelAFarewelltoArmsfocusingonhisinjuries,subsequentrecoveryatahospitalinMilan,andhis
romanticrelationshipwithhisnurseAgnesvonKurowsky.
HomeNotSoSweetHome
"Youandme,we'vemadeaseparatepeace."
ErnestHemingway,InOurTime
WhenHemingwayreturnedhomefromItalyinJanuary1919,hefoundOakParkdullcomparedtothedramaofwar.Hewasnotyet20yearsold,butthewarhad
maturedhimbeyondhisyears.Hisparentspressuredhimtofindworkorgotocollege,butHemingwaycouldn'tworkuptheenergytodoeither.Hehadreceived
about$1,000ininsurancepaymentsforhiswarwounds,whichenabledhimtoavoidworkfornearlyayear.Topassthetime,hesharedhiswartimeexperiences
withthelocalsandmeanderedaroundtowninhisRedCrossuniform.
Again,Hemingwayturnedlifeintoart:Theresultwastheshortstory"Soldier'sHome,"whichconveyshisfrustrationandshameuponreturninghometopeoplewho
stillclungtoaromanticnotionofwar.Theywereunabletounderstandhowthewarhadchangedhimandotherslikehim.
Bythefallof1920,HemingwayhadmovedtoChicagoandwaswritingfortheTorontoStarWeekly.Withinayear,HemingwaywasmarriedtoHadleyRichardson.
ThecoupledecampedtoParisonlyamonthafterthewedding,whenHemingwaytookajobwiththeTorontoDailyStarasitsEuropeancorrespondent.
FromtheCityofLightstotheCityofLit
"ThisistotellyouaboutayoungmannamedErnestHemingway,wholivesinParis,(anAmerican)writesforthetransatlanticReview+hasabrilliantfutureHe'sthereal
thing."
F.ScottFitzgeraldtohiseditorMaxwellPerkins,1924
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Inthe1920s,Pariswastheliteraryhotspot.EzraPound,JamesJoyce,GertrudeStein,SylviaBeach,MaxEastman,LincolnSteffens,WyndahamLewis,andFord
MaddoxFordworkedthestreetsofParisastheyreworkedAmericanliterature.It'snosurprise,then,thatHemingwaywouldheadtoParis.
WithaletterofintroductionfromfellowMidwesternwriterSherwoodAnderson,HemingwaymetsomeofParis'prominentwritersandartistsandforgedquick
friendshipswiththemduringhisfirstfewyearsthere.ThepaintersJoanMirandPabloPicassowerealsopartofhiscrowd.Thesefriendshipswouldbeinstrumental
inHemingway'sdevelopmentasawriter.NotonlydidtheyintroduceHemingwaytopublishers,buttheyalsohonedhisstyleandprovidedhimwithmaterialto
fashionintoart.HemingwaybecameaPrimeTimePlayeramongthelitteratiglitterati.
LearningtheTrade
Whenhewasn'tschmoozing,Hemingwaydidsomeseriousandimpressivereporting,coveringtheGenevaConference,GrecoTurkishWar,LuasanneConference,
andthepostwarconventionintheRuhrValleyinearly1923.Byhisearlytwenties,HemingwayhadinterviewedsuchworldfamousfiguresasLloydGeorge,
GeorgesClemenceau,andBenitoMussolini.
Alongwiththepoliticalarticles,Hemingwaywrotelifestylepiecesaswell,coveringfishing,bullfighting,Europeansociallife,skiing,bobsledding,andmore.Justas
Hemingwaywasbeginningtomakeanameforhimselfasareporterandanovicefictionwriter,Hadleybecamepregnantwiththeirfirstchild.Seekingbettermedical
care,theymovedtoToronto,whereHemingwaywrotefortheTorontoDailyStar.JohnHadleyNicanorHemingwaywasborninOctoberbyJanuary,thefamily
wasbackinParis.
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AShootingStar
From1925to1929Hemingwayproducedsomeofthemostimportantworksof20thcenturyfiction:
1925:TheshortstorycollectionInOurTime
1926:ThenovelTheSunAlsoRises
1927:TheshortstorycollectionMenWithoutWomen
1929:ThenovelAFarewelltoArms,arguablythefinestnoveltoemergefromWorldWarI
Hemingwayexperiencedameteoricrisetosuccess.Infourshortyears,hewentfromobscuritytofameandwassuddenlyrankedasoneofthemostimportant
novelistsofhisgeneration.
TradeInTime
AsHemingway'sprofessionalcareersoared,hedecideditwastimeforachangeinhispersonallife.HedivorcedHadleyin1927andmarriedPaulinePfeiffer,a
fashionreporterhehadmetinParis.Hadleygotcustodyoftheirchild.
In1928,PaulineandErnesttemporarilysettledinKansasCity,Missouri,wheretheirsonPatrickHemingwaywasborn.
AfterPatrick'sbirth,HemingwaymovedtoKeyWest,Florida,wherehelivedfornearly10years.Moneywasn'taproblem:AFarewelltoArmssold80,000copies
infourmonths,makingHemingwayfinanciallysecure.
Then,tragedystruck:Hemingway'sfather,strugglingwithdiabetesandheartproblems,putabulletthroughhishead.Despitehisgrief,Hemingwaykeptwriting,
resultingintheinstantclassic,AFarewelltoArms(1929).
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LionsandTigersandBulls,OhMy!
Hemingway'sworkonDeathintheAfternoon,apowerfullookatbullfighting,gavehimtheexcusetovisitSpainandknockdownafewbulls.AfterErnestfinished
DeathintheAfternoonandPaulinegavebirthtoanotherboy,thefamilysetoffforwestAfrica.
ThreebrilliantshortstoriesresultedfromtheAfricanjaunt:"TheGreenHillsofAfrica,""TheSnowsofKilamanjaro,"and''TheShortandHappyLifeofFrancis
Macomber."In"Kilamanjaro,"HemingwayusedF.ScottFitzgerald'sdeclinetodepicttheguiltofatalentedyetunfulfilledartistashefaceddeath.
AboutwithdysenterysenttheHemingwaybackhometoKeyWest.
WarCanBeFun
TheSpanishCivilWarbecameofficialinJuly1936,andHemingwaytraveledtoSpaintoreportontheconflictformassmarketmagazines.
Atthesametime,hecompletedToHaveandHaveNot,whichhepublishedin1937.In1940,aftertheendoftheSpanishCivilWar,HemingwaydivorcedPauline
andpublishedForWhomtheBellTolls.
WhenWorldWarIIerupted,Hemingwayagainleapedintothefray.AftereditinghisbookMenatWarin1942,heservedasawarcorrespondentforvarious
magazines,accompanyingAmericantroopsastheypushedtheGermanforcesbackacrossEurope.Hemingwaytooktothewarwithenthusiasmknownas"Papa"by
respectfultroopsandacelebrityeverywhere,hehelped"liberate"theRitzHotelinParis,actuallypostingaguardattheentrancewithanotice:"Papatookgoodhotel.
Plentystuffincellar."
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"Papa"Hemingwayinhisprime.
Divorcednowfromhisthirdwife,Marthain1945,HemingwaynextmarriedMaryWelsh,aTimemagazinecorrespondent.In1950,Hemingwaypublishedthenovel
AcrosstheRiverandIntotheTrees,togreatcriticaldisapproval.
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DeathintheAfternoon
"Dyingwasnothingandhehadnopictureofitnorfearofitinhismind.Butlivingwasafieldofgrainblowinginthewindonthesideofahill.Livingwasahawkinthesky.Living
wasanearthenjarofwaterinthedustofthethreshingwiththegrainflailedoutandchaffblowing.Livingwasahorsebetweenyourlegsandacarbineunderonelegandahill
andavalleyandastreamwithtreesalongitandthefarsideofthevalleyandthehillsbeyond."
fromForWhomTheBellTolls
AstheyoungHemingwayhadbeenalegendaryadventurer,theoldHemingwaytookuptheroleofGrandOldMan,thebattlescarredveteran,theagingbutstill
indomitablecombatant."TheChamp"(ashelikedtocallhimself)wasbetterknownasPapa,CitizenoftheWorld.
Stillroughedgedandmanfullypoetic,Hemingwaywasalsomellowedbyexperience,aconnoisseuroflife,bullfighters,women,fishing,andwar.
Butbythe1950s,thecriticsdecidedthatHemingwayhadburnedhimselfout.Challenged,hewroteTheOldManandtheSea(1952).ItearnedhimthePulitzer
Prize,andin1954,thebiggestfishintheliterarypond,theNobelPrize.
TheendofHemingway'slifewaslongandbrutal.DiabetesclaimedHemingway'seyesandkidneys.Atthesametime,hebecameparanoidanddelusional.
Hemingway'sconditionworsened,andin1960,hewascommittedtotheMayoClinicandgivenelectroshocktherapy.Releasedin1961,heinitiallyseemedbetter.
ButonApril23,heattemptedtocommitsuicide.OnJuly2,hesucceeded.ErnestHemingwaydiedashisfatherhad,fromaselfinflictedshotgunblasttothehead.
LessIsMore
"Ialwaystrytowriteontheprincipleoftheiceberg.Thereisseveneighthsofitunderwaterforeverypartthatshows.Anythingyouknowyoucaneliminateanditonlystrengthens
youriceberg.Itisthepartthatdoesn'tshow.Ifawriteromitssomethingbecausehedoesnotknowitthenthereisaholeinthestory."
InterviewwithGeorgePlimpton,1958
Hemingway'sdeceptivelysimple,intenselycompressedwritingstylehasinfluencedcountlesswriterstheworldover.Hiswritingis
Concise Objective
Direct Precise
Spare Rhythmic
Hemingwayusedsimplesentencesanddirectwordstohelpreaderslookbeyondthesurfacetotherealityunderneaththewords.
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Hemingway'sCode
"Youareallalostgeneration."
GertrudeStein
RememberthatEuropehadbeenblownapartinWorldWarI.Afterbeingexposedtothehorrorsofwar,peopleweresearchingformeaning.
Notjustthosewhohadseenactionbutalsothosewhohadkeptthehomefiresburningwerefilledwithdespairmakingthema"lost"generation.Itseemedthatall
hopewasgoneevenGodandreligionofferedlittlesanctuary.Fromthisdespair,Hemingwayfashionedhisfamouscodeofbehavior.
Hemingwaybaseshisworkonthesephilosophicalpremises:
Acceptthattherearenoguidelines,norules,forlife.
Facereality:Seethingsexactlyastheyare,nomatterhowdifficult,ratherthanasyoumightwishthemtobe.(EspeciallytheLongGoodbye,Death.)
Containyourdespairandselfpitybysheerwillpower.Giveintodespaironlyinprivateorinthecompanyofanothermemberofthebreed,someonewhothinks
thewayyoudo.
Don'tmaketroubleforothers.
Imposesomemeaningonameaninglessuniversebyachievingformthroughritual.
Don'tjudgeothersinstead,viewtheunenlightenedwith"ironyandpity"
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AccordingtoHemingway'scode,amanmustestablishhisownvaluesbyfacinglifecourageouslyandactinghonestlyintermsofthisreality.Asaresult,the
Hemingwayhero'smainattributeiscourage.Hedoesn'tdodgerealitythroughreligionorlies.Further,heavoidsselfpitybecauseitisdishonest.Followingthiscode
enablestheHemingwayherotomaintainhisessentialmanhoodanddignity,despitethebrutalrealityheconfronts.
TheCodefirstappearedinHemingway'sbrutallyaffectingnovelTheSunAlsoRises,whichintroducedtheworldtothelostgeneration.SetinParisandSpain,the
novelisastoryofunrequitedloveagainstabackdropofbarsandbullfighting.Let'stakealookatitnow.
TheSunAlsoRises
"'You'reanexpatriate.You'velosttouchwiththesoil.Yougetprecious,FakeEuropeanstandardshaveruinedyou.Youdrinkyourselftodeath.Youbecomeobsessedbysex.You
spendallyourtimetalking,notworking.Youareanexpatriate,see?Youhangaroundcafes.'"
fromTheSunAlsoRises
Setinthe1920s,thenoveldealswithagroupofaimlessexpatriatesinFranceandSpain.TheyaremembersofthecynicalanddisillusionedpostWorldWarILost
Generation,manyofwhomsufferpsychologicalandphysicalwoundsasaresultofthewar.
Twoofthenovel'smaincharacters,LadyBrettAshleyandJakeBarnes,typifythemoralandspiritualdissolutionofthisgeneration.LadyBrettdriftsthroughaseries
ofaffairsdespiteherloveforJake,whohasbeenrenderedimpotentbyawarwound.Friendship,stoicism,andnaturalgraceunderpressureareofferedasthevalues
thatmatterinanotherwiseamoralandsenselessworld.
Thenovel'scentralexpressionofheroismliesinthebullfights,whichtoHemingwayepitomizethehero'sdeliberateconfrontationwithdeathundertheprotectionof
ritual.Here'swherewegetintotheideaoftheaficionado,onewhoispassionateaboutaspecificthing,suchasbullfights,books,orballet.Thispassionformsabond
amongitsadherents.
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Who'sWhoinTheSunAlsoRises
WorldWarIveteranJakeBarnes,nowlivingandworkinginParisasanewsman,isthenovel'smaincharacter.He'stheHemingwayhero,aman'smanwholivesby
theCode.Duetoaterriblebutvaguewarwound,Jakeisimpotent.Asyoucansurmise,thisputsacrimpinhisrelationshipwithhislove,LadyBrettAshley.
Meetthegang:
JakeBarnes:Sohe'sgotaproblemwithhisplumbing,buthe'sstillarealman.
LadyBrettAshley:Soshedoestherightthingintheend,buttheladyisatramp.
RobertCohn:Thewhinyantihero.He'sawelltodoAmericanwriterwholivesinParisandhaspublishedhisfirstnovel.
BillGorton:AnotherembodimentoftheHemingwayhero.
MikeCampbell:Brett'sfianc,aScotsman.
CountMippipopolous:ArichGreekwhoenjoyspartyingwithBrettandthegang.
FrancesClyne:RobertCohn'smistress,anAmericanwoman.
PedroRomero:Abullfighter,oneoftheelect.
AsJakenotes,"Itisonlyabullfighterwholiveslifetothehilt,bringingtohisworkallhiscourage,intelligence,discipline,andart."
Theplotisveryloose,revolvingaroundthecharacters'pain.AllthecharactersinTheSunAlsoRisesaresufferingbecauseofthewar,directlyorindirectly:Jakehas
beenwounded,Brettlostherlover,andCohnhasnotrealizedtheimportanceoftheconflictonhisowngeneration.Thosewhohavebeenimmediatelyinvolvedwith
thewargothroughthemostanguishandrelyoneachotherforsupport.Thosewhohavebeenlessinvolvedareseparatedfromtheformerbytheirlackofexperience.
CohnisstilltheidealisticandromanticyoungmanthatJakeBarnesmighthavebeenhadhenotgonetowar.
TheSunAlsoSets
"'Oh,Jake,'Brettsaid,'wecouldhavehadsuchadamnedgoodtimetogether.'
Aheadwasamountedpolicemaninkhakidirectingtraffic.Heraisedhisbaton.Thecarslowedsuddenly,pressingBrettdirectlyagainstme.
'Yes,'Isaid.'Isn'titprettytothinkso?'"
fromTheSunAlsoRises
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Thenovel'sfamousclosinglinesrevealthattheherostrugglesconstantlytoconfrontthetruthandtolivebyit,andtoderivefromhisstruggleameasureofvalueby
whichhecanlivestillmorehonestly.
Nevertheless,thebookisatragedybecauseeventhegreatestcouragedoesnotenablethecharacterstoriseabovetheircircumstances.Theyonlyknowhowtosuck
itinandliveinit.(That'sthebestaHemingwayherocandointhefaceofreality.)
Thetitleofthenovelreinforcesthetragedyofthestory.AquotefromtheOldTestament,itsuggeststhatlifemovesincycles,andthatweareallcaughtwithinthese
forces.Theconstantactivityoftheearthisrepetitious,andnothingwecandowillbreakthemovementoftheseforces.Thenovelhaslittleplotandevenlessaction
bytheend,Jake,Brett,andtherestofthecharactersareatexactlythesameplacetheywereatthebeginning.Don'twefeeldepressed?
TheOneThatGotAway:TheOldManandtheSea
"Iamgladwedonothavetotrytokillthestars.Imagineifeachdayamanmusttrytokillthemoon,hethought.Themoonrunsaway.Butimagineifamaneachdayshouldhaveto
trytokillthesun?Wearebornlucky,hethought."
fromTheOldManandtheSea
TheOldManandtheSeadescribesanoldCubanfishermannamedSantiagowhofinallycatchesamagnificentfishafter84dayswithoutacatch.Afterthreedaysof
battlingthefish,hefinallymanagestoreelitinandlashittohisboat,onlytohavesharkseatitashereturnstotheharbor.Theotherfishermenmarvelatthesizeofthe
skeletonSantiagoisspentbuttriumphant.
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LikeJakeinTheSunAlsoRises,SantiagothefishermanembodiestheHemingwayCode.Despitehisageandpoverty,Santiagoisamaninthefullestsenseofthe
word.Althoughhisstrengthisgone,hisenduranceandwillremainfacedwithdefeat,hedoesnotquit.
Thenovelcombinesthesimplicityofafable,thesignificanceofaparable,andthedramaofanepic.Ononelevel,youcanreadthenovelasafableofthe
unconquerablespiritofman,acreaturecapableofsnatchingspiritualvictoriesfrommaterialdisasteranddefeat.
Onanotherlevel,youcanreadthenovelasanallegoryofthelastdaysofChrist:
ChristandSantiagoarebothmoralteachers.ThefishisasymbolofChrist,sothatChrist,fish,andfishermanareequated.
Santiago'speriodofbadluckparallelChrist's40daysinthewilderness.
Santiagostruggleswiththefishforthreedays,asChristsufferedthreedaysonthecross.
Santiago'shandsaretornasChrist'swerepiercedbynails,hisbackislashedbythelineasChrist'swaslashedbeforebeingtakentoCalvary,andSantiagogetsa
piercingheadache,asChristwassubjectedtopainbythecrownofthorns.
Santiagokillsthefishatnoononthethirdday,asChristrosefromthetombonthethirddayafterthecrucifixion.
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Santiagocarrieshismast,asChristcarriedHiscross.
SantiagofallsuponhisbedintheattitudeofChristonthecross.
TheFickleFingerofFame
Inthe1930sand1940s,HemingwaywastheKingoftheLiteraryHill.Writersallovertheworldwereimitatinghiswritingstyle,strugglingtoparetheirsentencestoa
leanprecision.
Bythe1950s,however,thewritingworldturned,leavingHemingwayatthebottom.Peoplegrewwearyofhispublicposturing.Thestoichadbecomethebraggart
thecelebratorofaseparatepeacehadbecomeaporkyparodyofhisyoungerself.Thenewgenerationofwritersquestionedwhattheysawashisobsessionwith
violence,hisscornofintellect,hisdenialofhisfeelings.
Today,Hemingway'swritingishonored,buthisreputationisstillunsteady.Hecontinuestobewidelyread,butnotmanywritersseehimasamodel.TheHemingway
who40yearsagoseemedsoimmediatenowseemsdated.However,theHemingwaymillkeepsgrindingoutcriticism,analysis,andstudies.Theamountofcriticism
thathasbeenpublishedisfar,farmorethanHemingwayeverwrote.It'saveritableindustry.
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Chapter21
"Ifpersonalityisanunbrokenseriesofsuccessfulgestures,thentherewassomethinggorgeousabouthim,someheightenedsensitivitytothepromisesoflife,asifhewererelatedto
oneofthoseintricatemachinesthatregisterearthquakestenthousandmilesaway."
fromTheGreatGatsby
Inthispassage,thenovel'snarrator,NickCarraway,describesJayGatsbybutthedescriptionappliesjustaswelltoGatsby'screator,F.ScottFitzgerald.There
wassomething"gorgeous"aboutFitzgerald,somethingthatcatapultedhimforabrieftimetothetopoftheliteraryheap.Fitzgeraldbecamethevoiceofthetwenties,
thesymbolofeverythingthatwasterrificandtragicaboutthegaudy,gloriousRoaringTwenties.
Inthischapter,you'llfirstlearnallaboutFitzgerald'slife,whichiscrucialtounderstandinghiswriting.Thenwe'lltakealookatFitzgerald'smasterpiece,TheGreat
Gatsby.Bytheendofthechapter,you'llunderstandhowandwhyFitzgeraldcametobetheemblemofanera.
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GreatScott!
NamedafterhisdistantcousinFrancisScottKey,themanwhowrote''TheStarSpangledBanner,"FrancisScottKeyFitzgeraldmadehisdebutin1896inSt.Paul,
Minnesota.Hismotherhadcomefrommoney,buthisfatherneverreallygotittogetherfinancially.Asaresult,thefamilymovedoften,neverstayinginanyoneplace
formorethanthreeyears.
TheFitzgeraldshadallthetraditionsofoldmoneyexceptthemoney.Thisdidn'tstophismotherfromenrollingScottinaprivateschool,buthealwaysfeltlikehe
wasonthefringeslookingin.Nonetheless,Scottgainedsomemeasureoffameamonghispeersatschoolforhisdetectivestories,encouraginghimtopursuewriting
moreenthusiasticallythanacademics.
In1913,FitzgeraldenrolledinPrincetonUniversity.Anindifferentstudent,hedabbledincampustheaterproductionsandbeganhisfirstnovel,ThisSideofParadise
(thencalledTheRomanticEgotist).Healsowrotestoriesforthecampushumormagazineandpublishedstoriesinthecampusliterarymagazine.Scott'scollege
friendsincludedEdmundWilsonandJohnPealeBishop,bothofwhomwouldbecomedistinguishedcriticsandnovelists.
By1916,FitzgeraldwasonacademicprobationatPrincetonanditseemedunlikelythathewouldgraduate.Hetookhisonlyoutatemporarywithdrawal.Hedid
returntoPrincetonbrieflyinthefall,butleftagainbeforegraduatingtojointheArmy.ConvincedthathewoulddieinWorldWarI,herapidlycompletedThe
RomanticEgotistandsubmittedittoScribnerandSons.Theletterofrejectionpraisedthenovel'soriginalityandaskedthatitberesubmittedwhenrevised.
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TheglamourofWWIinEuropebeckoned,buttheArmywasn'tlisteningFitzgeraldwassenttoAlabama.Itwasthemostsignificantmoveofhislifesincethiswas
wherehemethiswife,Zelda.
BelleoftheBall
"Thenwearthegoldhat,ifthatwillmoveher
Ifyoucanbouncehigh,bounceforhertoo,
Tillshecry'Lover,goldhatted,highbouncinglover,
Imusthaveyou!'"
ThomasParkeD'Invilliers
ThisinscriptionthatopensTheGreatGatsbyperfectlydescribesFitzgerald'scourtshipofhisladylove,18yearoldZeldaSayre.Acelebratedsouthernbelleandthe
youngestdaughterofanAlabamaSupremeCourtjudge,Zeldawasrenownedforherbeauty.SheandFitzgeraldsoonbecameengaged,butshewasunwillingto
proceedwiththemarriageuntilhehadenoughmoneytosupportherinthewaytowhichshewasaccustomed.
TheromanceintensifiedFitzgerald'shopesforthesuccessofhisnovel,andheresubmittedTheRomanticEgoisttoScribner'swhorejecteditasecondtime.Thewar
endedjustbeforeFitzgeraldwasscheduledtogooverseas.Afterhisdischargein1919,hewenttoNewYorkCitytoseekhisfortune.(Remember,nomoney=no
marriage.)Inthemeantime,ZeldawasreluctanttogamblethatFitzgeraldwouldindeedsucceed,andunwillingtoliveonhissmallsalaryuntilsuchtime.Zeldabroke
offtheirengagement.Thebelleoftheballhadbiggerfishontheline.
OnceinNewYork,Fitzgeralddidn'tsettheworldonfirefarfromit.Foreightmonths,heslavedfor$90amonthwritingadvertisingcopy.Hethendecidedto
returntoSt.Paul,lockhimselfinhisroom,andrevisehisnovelyetagain.Theworkpaidoff,forinSeptemberof1919Scribner'sagreedtopublishthenovel.
Fitzgerald'slifewouldneverbethesame.
ParadiseWon
ThisSideofParadisesold3,000copiesinthreedays,catapultingFitzgeraldtoinstantfame.Thehero,AmoryBlaine,ayoungPrincetonundergraduatelike
Fitzgerald,wasconsideredacompositeofallthesadyoungmenofthepostwarflapperera,andthenovelbecameasocialdocumentofitstime.Theresultfor
FitzgeraldwasthatmagazinesbeganbuyinghisshortstoriesasfastashecouldwritethemandthatZelda
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finallyagreedtobehiswife.Itwasafairytalecometrue.FitzgeraldwasthegoldenboyofAmericanliterature.
TheSaturdayEveningPostinparticularservedasashowcaseforhisshortstories,mostofwhichrevolvedaroundanewbreedofAmericanwomantheyoung,
freethinking,independent"flapper"oftheRoaringTwenties.TheflapperappearedinsuchFitzgeraldshortstoriesas"TheOffshorePirate"and"BerniceBobsHer
Hair."Fitzgerald'smoreambitiousstories,suchas''MayDay"and"TheDiamondasBigastheRitz,"werepublishedinanothermagazine,TheSmartSet,whichhad
afarsmallercirculationbutwasmuchmoreprestigious.
TheBeautifulandtheDamned
Soonafter,Scribner'spublishedacollectionofFitzgerald'sstoriesinavolumecalledFlappersandPhilosophers,andthecouplemovedintoaluxuryNewYork
apartment.Theywerethecenterofaglitteringcrowdginflowedlikewaterandmoneyflowedlikegin.Betweenparties,Fitzgeraldmadetimetowritehissecond
novel,TheBeautifulandtheDamned.Theironlychild,adaughtertheynamedFrancesScott("Scottie"),wasbornin1922.
TheBeautifulandtheDamnedsoldwell,butnotaswellasFitzgeraldhadhoped.Theirlifestylewaslavishandmoneygrewtight,despiteasecondcollectionof
shortstories,TheJazzAge.
ExpectingtohitthejackpotwithhisplayTheVegetable,theFitzgeraldsmovedtoGreatNeck,LongIsland,inordertobenearBroadway.
ButthepoliticalsatiresubtitledFromPresidenttoPostmanfailedatitstryoutinNovember1923,soFitzgeraldhadtowritehiswayoutofdebtwithhisshort
stories.ThedistractionsofGreatNeckandNewYork
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preventedFitzgeraldfrommakingprogressonhisthirdnovel,andhisdrinkingincreased.Fitzgeraldwasanundeniablealcoholic,Zeldawasoftensmashed,too,and
theirfightswerelegendary.
Thefollowingspring,ZeldaandScottmovedtoParis,wheretheypartied,andpartied,andpartiedsomemore.Despitehisdrinking,Fitzgeraldcompletedhis
masterpiece,TheGreatGatsby.ThenovelmarkedastrikingadvanceinFitzgerald'stechnique,usingacomplexstructureandacontrollednarrativepointofview.
Nonetheless,itdidnotsellwellandtheFitzgeraldswerebitterlydisappointed.
F.ScottFitzgeraldasayoungman(1920s).
ParadiseLost
Forthenextnineyears,theFitzgeraldswanderedaimlesslythroughoutEurope,drinkingandcarousing.Zelda'smentalhealth,neverstrong,startedtocrack.Fitzgerald
wassousedmostofthetime.Despitehisnumerousproblems,Fitzgeraldmanagedtocompleteanothernovel,TenderIstheNight,athinlydisguisedaccountofScott
andZelda'slife,in1933.SetinFranceduringthe1920s,TenderIstheNightexaminesthedeteriorationofDickDiver,abrilliantAmericanpsychiatrist,duringthe
courseofhismarriagetoawealthymentalpatient.Thisnovelsoldpoorly.
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TheCrackUp
"Inarealdarknightofthesoulitisalwaysthreeo'clockinthemorning."
Fitzgerald,"TheCrackUp"
SoFitzgeralddescribedhisown"crackup"inanessaythathewrotein1936.Hewashopelesslyindebt,unabletowrite,nearlyestrangedfromhiswifeand
daughter,andincapacitatedbyexcessivedrinkingandpoorphysicalhealth.
Inthesummerof1937,FitzgeraldwenttoHollywood,luredbyasixmonthMetroGoldwynMayercontractthatpaid$1,000aweek.Hereceivedhisonlyscreen
creditforadaptingThreeComrades(1938).Basedonthissuccess,hiscontractwasrenewedforayearat$1,250aweek.Thiswasagreatdealofmoneyduringthe
lateDepressionyearswhenanewcarcostabout$500,butFitzgeraldwasstillunabletopayoffallhisdebts.
Fitzgeraldmanagedtoavoidclichsinhisfiction,buthebecameonewhenhewenttoHollywood.Likemostofthegreatwriterswhorespondedtotheallureof
Hollywood,Fitzgeraldhatedit.Hebecametheclichofafinewriterreducedtoadrunken,disillusionedhack.Hermentalhealthshattered,Zeldaenteredanasylum.
LoveAmongtheRuins
InCalifornia,FitzgeraldfellinlovewithmoviecolumnistSheilahGraham.Theirrelationshipendured,despitehismarriageandhisalcoholicbenders.AfterMGM
droppedhisoptionattheendof1938,FitzgeraldworkedasafreelancescriptwriterandwroteshortstoriesforEsquire.Hehadcompletedabouthalfofhislast
novel,TheLoveoftheLastTycoon,whenhediedofaheartattackinGraham'sapartmentin1940.ZeldaFitzgeraldperishedinafireinHighlandHospitalin1948.
SnatchingVictoryfromtheJawsofDefeat
"Italkwiththeauthorityoffailure,"F.ScottFitzgeraldoncewroteinhisnotebooks,soonafterhisfamousbreakwithErnestHemingway,"Ernestwiththeauthority
ofsuccess.Wecouldneversitacrossthesametableagain."
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Atthetimeofhisdeath,FitzgeraldwasconsideredtobeanextravagantdrunkwhoepitomizedtheexcessesoftheJazzAge.Fewofthepunditspredictedthat
FitzgeraldwouldbeaccordedasecureplaceamongtheranksofthegreatestAmericanauthors.
Fitzgerald'sreputationasanalcoholicpartyboysparkedthemyththathewasanirresponsiblewriter,yetjusttheoppositewastrue.Apainstakingreviserwhose
fictionwentthroughlayersofdrafts,Fitzgeraldcreatedclear,lyricalprosemarkedbyvividimages.
TheFitzgeraldrevivalwassparkedonlyayearafterhisdeath,whenwriterStephenVincentBenetreviewedTheLastTycoonintheSaturdayReviewof
Literature.Benetwrote,"Youcantakeoffyourhatsnow,gentlemen,andIthinkperhapsyouhadbetter.Thisisnotalegend,thisisareputationandseenin
perspective,itmaywellbeoneofthemostsecurereputationsofourtime."
EdmundWilsonsetoffafloodofFitzgeraldcriticismin1945whenheeditedandpublished"TheCrackUp."TheGreatGatsbywasreissuedwithaflattering
introduction.Soon,fulllengthFitzgeraldstudies,criticalanthologies,andarticlesfloodedthemarket.
Whenthedustsettled,F.ScottFitzgeraldmadeittothefrontrow.He'snowrankedasoneofthemajorprosewritersofthe20thcentury.Hisfictionbecamethe
symbolofthefreneticenergyoftheera.NootherwritercapturedsowellthespiritoftheJazzAge,themoraldecayofageneration.
TheJazzAge:"TheGreatest,GaudiestSpreeinHistory"
"Itwasanageofmiracles,itwasanageofart,itwasanageofexcess,anditwasanageofsatire."
F.ScottFitzgerald
The1920swereperhapsthemostastonishingperiodinAmericanhistory,forthedecadewasmarkedbyvastcontrasts:certaintyandinsecurity,stabilityand
confusion,
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contentanddiscontent,andconformityandrebellioninatimeofrelativepeaceandprosperity.
Inthe1920s,Americawasinthemidstofthegreatestperiodofprosperitythecountryhadeverknown.Economistshavepointedoutthatonlyasmallamountof
moneywasrequiredtobeconsideredwelloffinthe1920sbecausepricesandtaxeswerelow.It'sestimatedthatapersonearning$6,000ormoreayearwasina
selectincomegroup,approximatelytheupperfivepercentofthepopulation.Inreality,thiseraprovedtobeabriefboomindeed,aprecariousperiodofprosperity
lastingascantfiveyears.
Popculturewascarefree,markedbyanenormousriseinmovieattendance.TheleadingfiguresofthesilentscreenwerethecomediansCharlieChaplinandHarold
Lloyd"America'sSweetheart,"MaryPickfordswashbucklingleadingmanDouglasFairbanksandthe"GreatLover"RudolphValentino.DirectorCecilB.deMille's
filmswereanorgyofspectacularsceneryandincludedcastsofthousands.
Inthemidstofthespree,asmallbutinfluentialgroupofwritersexpressedtheirdisillusionmentwiththedecadesofthe'20s.InChapter20,youreadaboutthe"lost
generation,"namedbywriterGertrudeStein.FitzgeraldrecognizedthedespairbeneaththesurfacemerrimentwhenhedescribedAmericansocietyas"thebeautiful
andthedamned."Hiswritingcapturesboththemerrimentandtheemptinessofthe1920s.
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TheJazzAgecametoascreechinghaltonOctober29,1929,whenthestockmarketcrashed.TheworldplungedintothedarkyearsoftheGreatDepression.
TheGreatGatsby
"Gatsbybelievedinthegreenlight,theorgiasticfuturethatyearbyyearrecedesbeforeus.Iteludedusthen,butthat'snomattertomorrowwewillrunfaster,stretchoutourarms
fartherAndonefinemorning.
Sowebeaton,boatsagainstthecurrent,bornebackceaselesslyintothepast."
fromTheGreatGatsby
TheGreatGatsbyisalyricalpictureofAmericanvalues,auniquelyromanticmaterialisminwhichpeopletrytoconvincethemselvesthatdesirecandefinereality,that
gesturecandefineaction,andthatsentimentcandefineemotion.
Onecriticcalledtheheartofthenovel"theextraordinarygiftforhopeandromanticreadiness,"symbolizedbyJayGatsbyashebuildshis"enchantedpalace"for
DaisyBuchanan.Daisy,inturn,representswhatnarratorNickCarrawaycalls"avast,vulgar,meretriciousbeauty."Butbeforewegetaheadofourselves,let'smeet
everyone.
Who'sWhoinTheGreatGatsby
NickCarraway:Thenovel'snarratorandmoralcompass.
TomBuchanan:Daisy'shusband,arichandbrutalman.
DaisyBuchanan:Her"voiceisfullofmoney,"butherheartisempty.SherepresentstheembodimentofGatsby'sdreamsofperfection,butsheiscarelessand
selfish.
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JordanBaker:Abeautifulwomanwhocheatsingolfandinlife.
JayGatsby:Aracketeerandaromanticidealist,theformerJamesGatzremakeshimselftowinhisdreamofideallovewithDaisy.He'scrookedbutadmirable.
GeorgeWilson:Theownerofagarageinthe"valleyofashes,"hekillsGatsbyandhimselfwhenhemistakenlyassumesthathiswifeisGatsby'smistress.
MyrtleWilson:GeorgeWilson'swifeTomBuchanan'scoarsemistress.
Catherine:Myrtle'ssister,"aslender,worldlygirlofaboutthirty."
Mr.andMrs.McKee:Aphotographerandhiswife,theyliveinanapartmentbelowtheoneTomkeepsforMyrtle.
"OwlEyes":AmiddleagedmanwhoattendsGatsby'spartiesandhisfuneral.
MeyerWolfsheim:Gatsby'sbusinesspartner,agamblerandracketeerthemanreputedtohavefixedthe1919WhiteSoxscandal.
EwingKlipspringer:ThepianoplayingboarderatGatsby'shouse.
DanCody:The"pioneerdebauchee"whogaveGatsbyhis"education."
Ain'tWeGotFun?
Thenovelopenswiththevoiceofthenarrator,NickCarraway,thesonofwelldotopeoplefromAmerica'sMidwest.NickrepresentsAmerica'straditionalmoral
codes:Hewantstheworld"tostandatmoralattentionforever."Heisattractedbythebeauty,thewealth,andthesophisticationof"theWasteland,"whichis
representedbyNewYorkCity,butcomestounderstandtheessentialemptiness,thegaudydisplayof"nothingness,"thatcharacterizestheWastelanditself.Thenovel
isNick'sperspectivebecauseheunderstandsthecarelessnessandcorruptionattheheartoftheworldoftherich.
Inthespringof1922,NickmovestothetownofWestEggonLongIsland'sNorthShore,overlookingthetwinvillageofEastEggwhereNick'scousinDaisylives.
EastEggisfarmorefashionable,anouveaurichebastionofhugemansionsandostentatiousparties.Nick'snextdoorneighbor,JayGatsby,hasacolossalmansion.
Acrossthebay,Nickcanseethemansionofhissecondcousin,DaisyBuchanan,andherhusbandTom,whomNickhadknowncasuallyincollege.NickvisitsDaisy
andTomandmeetstheirfriend,JordanBaker,anattractiveandwealthyyoungwoman.Duringdinner,JordantellsNickthatTomhasamistress.
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Returninghome,NickcatcheshisfirstglimpseofthemysteriousGatsby,stretchinghisarmsouttowardthegreenlightacrossLongIslandSound.Nickmuses,
"InvoluntarilyIglancedseawardanddistinguishednothingexceptasinglegreenlight,minuteandfaraway,thatmighthavebeentheendofadock."
LettheGoodTimesRoll
Chapter2openswithadescriptionofthevalleyofashesthatliesbetweenWestEggandNewYorkCity,overshadowedbyahugebillboardofDr.T.J.Eckleburg.
NickisastonishedwhenTominviteshimtomeethismistress,MyrtleWilson.Theydrivetoherhome,anapartmentaboveherhusbandGeorge'sgarage.Myrtlethen
takesthetraintoManhattanandmeetsTomandNickinthestation.TombuysherapuppyandtheyallgototheapartmentTomkeepsforMyrtle.Sheinvitesfriends
andrelativesover,andthepartysoonbecomesbrutalaftersomeoftheguestshavehadtoomuchtodrink.WhenMyrtleshoutsoutDaisy'sname,Tomsmashesher
faceandbreakshernose.ThepartybreaksupandNickreturnshome.
Thefollowingevening,Gatsbyholdsahugepartyinhismansion.Armiesofcaterers,florists,andmusicianspreparefortheonslaughtofguests.Amidthemadness,
NickrunsintoJordan,andtogethertheylistentowildrumorsabouttheirhost.Isheakiller?WasheaGermanspyduringthewar?DidheattendOxfordUniversityin
England?Asthepartywindsdown,thegaietydissolves,replacedbyphysicalviolence.Couplesturnoneachother,andonedrunkenguesthasaminorcaraccident.
Nickthinksabouthisusualdullworkroutine,brokenonlybydateswithJordan.Althoughheisattractedtohercoolbeauty,herealizesfromallheractionsthatsheis
incurablydishonest,incontrasttohisdeepsenseofhonestyandstrictmoralcode.
Soonafter,GatsbydrivestoNick'shouseandshowsoffhisluxuriouscar.ToNick'sastonishment,GatsbytellsNickabouthispast,tracinghisadventuressincehe
lefthiswealthyMidwesternhometohiseducationatOxford,adventuresintheworld'scapitals,andbrilliantwarrecord.NickisunconvinceduntilGatsbyshowshim
hiswarmedalsandapictureofhimselfatOxford.Laterthatafternoon,JordantellsNickthatDaisyhadbeeninlovewithayoungsoldiernamedJayGatsby.When
Gatsbywentofftowar,DaisyunwillinglymarriedTom.JordanrevealsthatGatsbystilllovesDaisyandmovedtoEastEggsohecouldwinherawayfromher
husband.GatsbyholdshugepartiesinhopesthatDaisymightattendone.Althoughsheneverdoes,Nickarrangesameetingbetweenthem.Soonafter,Gatsbyand
DaisymeetforsecretassignationsatNick'shouse,pickinguptheromancewheretheyleftoffyearsearlier.
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WhenYouWishUponaStar
InChapter6,readerslearnthetruthaboutGatsby'sbackground.BornJamesGatztoshiftlessandunsuccessfulfarmers,helearnedaboutthegoodlifeasasteward
onmillionaireDanCody'syacht.
NowGatsbywantsDaisytorepudiateherloveforTomanddeclareherloveforhim.GatsbyisastonishedwhenNicktellshimthatnoonecanrepeatthepast.He
explainsthatDaisyrepresentstheincarnationofallhisdreamsandrecallstheirfirstkiss:
"Heknewthatwhenhekissedthisgirl,andforeverwedhisunutterablevisionstoherperishablebreath,hismindwouldneverrompagainlikethemindofGod.Sohewaited,
listeningforamomentlongertothetuningforkthathadbeenstruckuponastar.Thenhekissedher.Athislips'touchsheblossomedforhimlikeaflowerandtheincarnation
wascomplete."
Daisy,Daisy,GiveMeYourAnswer,Do
AfterDaisygoesoffwithGatsby,TomtakesNicktoWilson'sgasstation.WilsonrealizesthatMyrtlehasbeenunfaithful.Byaccident,everyonemeetsatthePlaza
Hotel,andTomforcesGatsbytorevealhisplans.
ThesceneshiftstotheWilson'sgarage.Michaelis,whorunsthecoffeeshopnexttoWilson'sgarage,seesMyrtlerunacrosstheroadandgetkilledbyayellowcar.A
fewminuteslater,TomarrivesonthesceneandtellsWilsonthecarbelongstoGatsby.Laterthatnight,GatsbyrevealstoNickthatDaisywasdriving.Daisylater
makesupwithTom,andtheyareunitedbytheir"vastcarelessness."NickrealizesthatDaisywillneverleaveTom.
NickandGatsbydiscussthesituation,andGatsbydecidestogoforaswim.Nickleavesforwork,callingafterhim,"They'rearottencrowd.You'reworththewhole
damnbunchofthemputtogether."Thatafternoon,NickbreaksoffhisrelationshipwithJordan.
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Whenhereturnshomethatnight,hefindsthatWilsonhasshotandkilledGatsby,whomheblamesforMyrtle'sdeath.Wilsonshootshimself,andthedevastationis
complete.
NicknotesthatnoneofthepeoplewhosoeagerlycametoGatsby'spartiesshowupatthefuneral.DaisyandTomleavethecountry.Afewmonthslater,Nickmeets
TominNewYorkCity.NickisstillfuriousaboutthewayTomsetupGatsby'smurder.Soonafter,NickleavestheEastandreturnstotheMidwest.
AGreatNovel
Fitzgerald'sbrillianteditor,MaxwellPerkins,recognizedthebook'sgeniusafterhereadthemanuscript:
"ThepresentationofTom,hisplace,DaisyandJordan,andtheunfoldingoftheircharactersisunequaledsofarasIknow.Thedescriptionofthevalleyofashesadjacentto
thelovelycountry,theconversationandtheactioninMyrtle'sapartment,themarvelouscatalogueofthosewhocametoGatsby'shousethesearesuchthingsasmakeaman
famous.YouoncetoldmeyouwerenotanaturalwritermyGod!Youhaveplainlymasteredthecraft,ofcourse,butyouneededfarmorethancraftsmanshipforthis."
Thecriticalreviews,however,weremixed.TheWorldheadlineditsassessment:"F.ScottFitzgerald'sLatestaDud,"buttheinfluentialcriticGilbertSeldesrecognized
Fitzgerald'sachievement:"TheGreatGatsbyisabrilliantwork,"hewrote,"anditisalsoasoundoneitiscarefullywritten,andvividithasstructure,andithaslife."
Thenovelwasnotacommercialsuccess,however.Ittooktime,asitoftendoes,forthenowclassictoberecognized.Today,Fitzgerald'soriginalpublisher,
Scribner's,publishessevendifferenteditionsofthenovel.
Athisbest,Fitzgeraldanalyzedthepersonalandmoralcorruptioninasocietybasedonthesocialandmoralprerogativesofwealth.Hismostmemorablecharacters
givetheirallforaromanticideal,nomatterwhatthecostJustasFitzgeraldhimselfdid.
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Chapter22
MintJuleps,Moonlight,andMadness:WilliamFaulkner(18971962)
''Theaimofeveryartististoarrestmotion,whichislife,byartificialmeansandholditfixedsothatahundredyearslater,whenastrangerlooksatit,itmovesagainsinceitislife.
Sincemanismortal,theonlyimmortalitypossibleforhimistoleavesomethingbehindhimthatisimmortalsinceitwillalwaysmove.Thisistheartist'swayofscribbling'Kilroy
washere'onthewallofthefinalandirrevocableoblivionthroughwhichhemustsomedaypass."
WilliamFaulkner
Regardedasthemostinnovativewriterofhistime,WilliamFaulknerwashonoredwiththeNobelPrizeinLiteratureforhismasteryofawidevarietyofformsand
techniques,especiallyhisexperimentswithmultiplepointsofview.Hisnovelsrangefrompotboilerstomasterpieces,allwritteninafamouslycomplexanddifficult
style.They'renoteasytoread,buttheyarerippinggoodreads.StaytunedtodiscoverwhatsetWilliamFaulknerofffromthepack.
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SouthernComfort
BorninNewAlbany,Mississippi,andraisedinnearbyOxford,WilliamFaulknerhadgenerationsofSouthernbloodflowinginhisveins.Inappearanceandoutlook,
Faulknerwasindeliblylinkedtohislocale.FewotherwritersareascloselytiedtothelandasFaulknerwas.
Hisformalschoolingcanmostcharitablybedescribedas"spotty"henevergotaroundtofinishinghighschoolbuthereadwidelyanddeeply.In1918hetriedto
jointheArmy,buthewasturneddownbecausehewasn'ttallenough.EagertoseeactioninthewaningdaysofWorldWarI,FaulknerenlistedintheBritishRoyal
FlyingCorpsandwassenttoCanadafortraining.Thewarendedbeforehegotintobattle,however,buttheoutcomewashappy:ThankstothelargessofUncle
Sam,FaulknerwasabletoentertheUniversityofMississippiforseveralsemestersofstudy.Heleftschoolin1920,attheageof23.
Awritersinceadolescence,Faulknerdecideditwastimetopayattentiontohismuseandgetpublished.Tothatend,hemovedtoNewYorkCity,thecenterofthe
publishingindustry.Themusemayhavebeentalking,butthepublishersweren'tlistening.Discouragedaftersixmonthsspentgatheringrejectionslips,Faulkner
returnedhomeandtookajobasapostmaster.(Thiswasn'texactlywhathemeantwhenhedecidedthathewantedtobeamanofletters.)
BreakOut
Thepostmasterjobwasadisasterfromthegetgo.Afterthequickandinevitableparting,Faulknerdecidedtoputhismoneywherehisheartwas.Hestartedwitha
namechange.Hehadbeenborn"Falkner."Aswith19thcenturywriterNathanielHawthorne,Faulknerdeclaredhisliteraryindependencebyaddingalettertohis
name.SoWilliamFaulknerwasborn,and,thus,hepledgedhimselftobeingawriter.
Faulknerbeganwritinginearnest.Hisfirstbook,thecollectionofpoemsTheMarbleFaun,soldabout50copies.
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FellowwriterSherwoodAndersongaveFaulknerthebreakheneeded.In1926FaulknerpublishedSoldier'sPaywithAnderson'shelpthreeyearslater,hegained
criticalacclaimwithTheSoundandtheFury.Thenovelisstillconsideredhismasterpiece.
Flushwithsuccess,FaulknermarriedandsettledintohisSoutherncountrysquireexistence.Heboughtaramshacklecolonialmansion,RowanOak,andpoured
moneyintorestoringitsformergrandeur.
TakeaMeeting
WiththepublicationofSanctuaryin1931,Faulknergainedasmallmeasureofpopularaswellascriticalacclaim.TheAmericanGothictaleofterror,sex,and
perversionconvincedHollywoodthatFaulkner'snovelsmightmakeracymovies,sohewascalledouttotheCoasttohelpadaptthenovelforthescreenunderthe
titleTheStoryofTempleDrake.Aftercompletingthatassignment,FaulknerworkedonseveralotherHollywoodliteraryproperties,hisownaswellasotherwriters'.
By1939,Faulknerhadproduced10novels,twovolumesofpoetry,andtwocollectionsofshortstories.Thatsameyear,hewaselectedtotheNationalInstituteof
ArtsandLetters.Still,thebillspiledup.Criticslovedhiswriting,butthepublichadreallyonlyboughtjustoneofhisworksSanctuary.Forthemostpart,only
literarytypesboughthisbooks.Soneedingthemoney,FaulknerwentbacktohackingscreenplaysinHollywood.
MyWorld,andWelcometoIt
Inall,19ofFaulkner'snovelscenteredaroundthefictionalYoknapatawphaCounty.(Yes,youreadthatcorrectly,19novels.)
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SowhatwastheallureofYoknapatawphaCounty?Itwasthefictionalrenderingofhisbirthplace,hishomeintheSouth.FaulknerfocusedonSouthernmemory,
Southernreality,andSouthernmyth.Hisrealhome,Oxford,Mississippi,becameYoknapatawphaCounty,andtheFaulknersbecamethefictionalSartorises.
YoknapatawphaCountyiscompletedowntothesmallestdetail.Herearesomefactsaboutit,culledfromvariousFaulknernovels:
YoknapatawphaCountyis2,400squaremiles.
BoundedbytheTalahatchieandYoknapatawpharivers,itconsistsoffarmlandsandpinehills.
AccordingtoFaulkner'scensus,thecountyhas15,611inhabitants6,298whiteand9,313black.
Itisacountyscarredbypoverty.
Therearenodistinctsocialclasses,butratherariseofclansreflectingfamilyprideandreverenceforancestors.
ItsmaintownsareJeffersonandMattson.
Faulkner'stragicstoryofthedecayofthegenteelsocietyofthepostCivilWarSouthbeginsinhisnovelSartoris.TheSartorisandCompsonfamiliesrepresentthe
refinedbutdecadentOldSouth.Asthenovelsprogressandtimepasses,theOldSouthissupersededbypragmatic,worldly,andunscrupulousforces.Thesebrutal
newforcesareembodiedintheSnopesfamily.
NearlyallofFaulkner'sheroescarrytheguiltofslavery.InFaulkner'snovels,thisguiltistakenonestepfurther.Anywhitepersonwhoadmitsthatblacksandwhites
areequalisdefyingthecodesandconceptsoftheOldSouthandalienateshimselffromhisfamily,hissociety,andhisheritage.
Thenovelsarepessimistic,althoughFaulknerwasanoptimist,asherevealedinhisNobelacceptancespeech:
"Ideclinetoaccepttheendofman.Itiseasyenoughtosaythatmanisimmortalsimplybecausehewillendure:thatwhenthelastdingdongofdoomhasclangedandfaded
fromthelastworthlessrockhangingtidelessinthelastredanddyingevening,thateventhentherewillstillbeonemoresound:thatofhispunyinexhaustiblevoice,still
talking.Irefusetoacceptthis.Ibelievethatmanwillnotmerelyendure:hewillprevail.Heisimmortal,notbecausehealoneamongcreatureshasaninexhaustiblevoice,but
becausehehasasoul,aspiritcapableofcompassionandsacrificeandendurance."
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PushingtheEnvelope:Faulkner'sStyle
Faulknerexperimentedwithdifferentnarrativetechniquesthroughouthiswritingcareer.Ofcourse,hewasn'ttheonlywriterstretchingtheboundariesofliterature:
France'sMarcelProust,Ireland'sJamesJoyce,andEngland'sVirginiaWoolfwereallexploringnewwaysofwriting.Unliketheothers,however,Faulknerwas
experimentingoneveryfront(andhescoredwithmostofthem).
Faulkner'sexperimentaltechniquesincluded
Streamofconsciousness
Interiormonologues
Discontinuoustime,fragmentingchronologicalorder
Multiplenarrators
Allusions,oftentomythologyandtheBible
Southerndialects
Complexsentencestructure
ElementsoftheGothicromance(necrophilia,macabreevents,ghosts,andsoon)
Allegory(charactersrepresentallegoricalfigures,suchasDeath)
ShrinkLit:Faulkner'sTopTen
SpaceforbidsanindepthsurveyofFaulkner'sentirecollectionofnovels,solet'ssample10ofthebiggies:SartorisAsILayDyingSanctuaryLightinAugust
Absalom,Absalom!TheUnvanquishedTheWildPalmsTheHamletGoDown,MosesandIntruderintheDust.
Sartoris(1929)Asmentionedearlier,SartorisisimportantbecauseitintroducedthekeythemesFaulknerwoulddevelopoverhislifetime.Thenovelconcernsthe
relationshipofthepresentwiththepast(withtheauthorrootingforthepast).
AsILayDying(1930)Faulkner'sfifthnovel,AsILayDying,showsabriefreconciliationbetweenthepastandthepresent,sparkedbytheapproachingdeathof
acherishedfamilymember.ItistheshortestofFaulkner'snovels.
Sanctuary(1931)Anintentionallyshockingnovel,Sanctuaryconcernsaman,acorncob,andagirl.Faulknerhimselfsaiditwas"acheapidea,deliberately
conceivedtomakemoney."Thenoveldidindeedbringinthebucks,gotFaulknerinvitedtoHollywood,andevenbroughtthecriticstotheirfeettoboot.
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LightinAugust(1932)Thisnovelconcernslonelinessbroughtaboutbyhatred,alienation,andsocialdivisiveness.Thenoveltellsthreecharacters'stories:The
pregnantandsereneLenaGrove,theChristiansymbol/martyrJoeChristmas,andthepowerlessbutwellmeaningReverendHightower.
Absalom,Absalom!(1936)AGothicromance,thenoveldealswithincestandmiscegenation(cohabitationorminglingbetweenraces).Theamoralandwillful
19thcenturyplantationownerThomasSutpenrepresentstheentireSouthernexperience.
TheUnvanquished(1938)TheUnvanquishedtakesplaceduringtheCivilWar.Bayard(laterColonel)Sartorisisthemaincharacter.
TheWildPalms(1939)Thisnovelhastwoplots,whichalternatefromchaptertochapter.ThefirstplotdescribesHarryandCharlotte,"whosacrificedeverything
forlove,andthenlostthat."Hedescribedthesecondplot,thesocalled"OldMan"plot(asin"OldManRiver"),asthetaleofaman"whogothisloveandspentthe
restofthebookfleeingfromit,eventotheextentofvoluntarilygoingbacktojailwherehewouldbesafe.''
TheHamlet(1940)Anoutrageousstory,aseriesofexaggeratedepisodesinthelifeoftheverminlikeSnopesfamily,whospreadtheircorruptionthroughout
Yoknapatawpha.TheTown(1957)andTheMansion(1959)aretheothertwobooksinthetrilogy.
GoDown,Moses(1942)Thenovel'smainthemesaretherelationshipbetweenwhitesandblacksandtheneedtorespecttheland.
IntruderintheDust(1948)Centeringonracerelations,thenovelstartswithablackman,LucasBeauchamp,whoisjailedforacrimehedidnotcommit,who
willnonethelessbeexecutedduetoracialbias.Amysterystory,thenovelwasadaptedforthebigscreenin1949,withsomesuccess.
TheSoundandtheFury
NoneofFaulkner'snovelshasgeneratedasmuchcriticalresponseasTheSoundandtheFury.Whenwegetbeneaththemassofarticles,here'swhateveryonecan
agreeon:
Thenovelisatragedy,thedeclineoftheCompsonfamily.
Thestyleisstreamofconsciousness,anattempttoreproducethewayourmindsactuallythink.
Theprimarythemesarehonorandsin.
It'samasterpiece.
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TheSoundandtheFurytellsthesamestorythroughfourdifferentviewpoints:thatofthethreeCompsonbrothersBenjy,Quentin,andJasonandtheirblack
servantDilsey.Here'showitsortsout.
Section1:April7,1928
ThefirstsectionistoldfromthepointofviewofBenjyCompson,amentallyretarded,33yearoldman.EventhoughBenjy'sthoughtsarerecordedinshortsentences
withsimplewords,readingthissectionisextraordinarilydifficultbecauseBenjyhasnoconceptoftimeorplace.Asaresult,randomstimulifromthepresentaword,
asmell,atastepropelhimtothepast,instantlyandwithoutwarning.
Benjy'searliestmemorydatesfrom1898,whenhewasthreeyearsold.Thechildrenhavenotbeentoldthattheirgrandmother,"Damuddy,"hasdied.Benjy'ssister
CaddyistheonlyCompsonchildbraveenoughtoclimbthepeartreeandlookthroughthewindowatthewakewhileherbrothersstandbelow,gazingupather
muddyunderpants(called"drawers"inthenovel),whichweresoiledearlierwhentheywereplayinginacreekadjoiningtheCompsonestate.
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MostofBenjy'sothermemoriesalsofocusonCaddy,probablybecauseshewastheonlysiblingwholovedhim.HerecallswhenCaddyfirstusedperfume,whenshe
losthervirginity,andwhenshegotmarried.BenjyalsorememberswhenhisnamewaschangedfromMaurytoBenjamin,hisbrotherQuentin'ssuicide,andthe
sequenceofeventsthatleadtohisbeingcastrated.
Section2:June2,1910
ThesecondsectiontellsthesamestoryfromQuentinCompson'spointofviewonthedayhecommitssuicide.AstudentatHarvardUniversity,heiswandering
aroundBostonpreparingtotakehislife.AlthoughhisthoughtsareobviouslymoreintelligentthanBenjy's,theyarenolesseasytofollow,sinceheisderanged.
Whenthesectionbegins,Quentinisobsessedwithtime,tothepointofbreakinghiswatchinauselessattempttoescapeit.Onadeeperlevel,Quentincannotaccept
hissisterCaddy'ssexualactivityandresultingpregnancy.Inanattempttorestore"honor"toCaddyandtotheCompsonfamily,hehasphysicallyconfrontedDalton
Ames,likelythemanwhoimpregnatedCaddy.ButAmesoverpoweredhim.QuentinisunabletoshedthetraditionalSouthernconceptionofSouthernwomanhood,
virginity,andhonor.
ThissectionisseenthroughtheeyesofthethirdCompsonbrother,Jason,andtakesplaceonGoodFriday.Thevoiceisverydifferentfromthetwothatcamebefore:
Unlikehisbrothers,Jasonisneitherretardednorsuicidal.Rather,he'shoppingmad.Theopeningsentenceestablisheshisanger:"Onceabitchalwaysabitch,whatI
say."Jasoniscruel,andhisportionofthenovelrevealsjusthowlowtheCompsonfamilyhassunkfromQuentin'sobsessionsoverheritage,honor,andsinto
Jason'sviciousness,whining,andconniving.
Here,thefocusisonCaddy'sdaughter,Quentin,senttolivewiththeCompsonsafterCaddy'sdivorce.She'sinherlateteensand,likehermother,hottotrot.Much
ofthissectionofthenoveldepictsJason'seffortstofindQuentinwhenshecutsschooltobewithacircusworker.Someofthefragmentspresentedinsections1and
2fallintoplacehere.Forexample,welearnthatQuentindrownedhimself(hissuicidewasn'tspelledoutinhissection),thatBenjywascastrated,andthat
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Caddy'smarriagedisintegrated.Throughout,webecomeawareofJason'sgreed.Welearn,forinstance,thatJasonpocketsallthemoneythatCaddysendstoher
daughter.
Everythingcomestogetherinthefinalsection.Toldfromtheomniscientviewpoint,itisoftencalled"Dilsey'ssection,"becausesheisthemainplayer.Theentiresection
takesplaceinthepresent,onEasterSunday.Therearetwomainplotlines:Jason'schasingQuentintorecoverthe$7,000shehasstolenfromhim(it'sthemoney
Caddyhadsentforher)andDilsey'sattendanceatanEasterchurchservice.Attheservice,ReverendShegog'ssermonmakesDilseyrealizethattheCompsonsare
doomed.Asshesaysaftertheservice,"I'veseeddefirstendelastIseeddebeginnin,ennowIseesdeendin."
Attheendofthenovel,thetwoplotlinescometogether.Benjy'scaretaker,Luster,isdrivingBenjytothegraveyard,andheandJasonarriveatthetownsquareat
thesametime.LusterhaspassedastatueonwhatBenjyperceivestobethe"wrong"side,whichcausesBenjytostartcrying.JasonhitsLusterandtellshimtotake
Benjyhome.Thenovelendswiththeselines:
"[Benjy's]brokenflowerdroopedoverBen'sfistandhiseyeswereemptyandblueandsereneagainascorniceandfaadeflowedsmoothlyoncemorefromlefttoright,post
andtree,windowanddoorwayandsignboardeachinitsorderedplace."
In1945,Faulkneraddedafifthviewpointtothesameevents:"IshouldhavedonethiswhenIwrotethebook,"Faulknerremarked."Thenthewholethingwouldhave
fallenintopatternlikeajigsawpuzzlewhenthemagician'swandtouchedit."
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Whenthevoteswerecounted,WilliamFaulknerwon"mostinnovativeAmericannovelist"ofhistime.Hisnovelsexperimentwithnarrativechronology,explore
multiplepointsofview,anddelvedeeplyintothehumanpsyche.AlthoughFaulkner'stechniquesvary,hisworksarelinkedthroughacommonsetting,thefictional
worldofYoknapatawphaCounty,Mississippi.
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Chapter23
SnapQuiz:
Whoarethetwomostfamouspoetsofthetwentiethcentury?
Choice#1:BenandJerry
Choice#2:RomeoandJuliet
Choice#3:OrvilleandWilburWright
Choice#4:EzraPoundandT.S.Eliot
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Nofairyoucheatedbylookingatthetitleofthischapter.Butevenifyoudid,itistruethatEzraPoundandThomasStearnsEliotdidmorethananyother20th
centurywriterstoremakeWesternliterature.NovelistJohnSteinbecktookadifferentapproach,usinghisfictiontohelptheunderdoganddrawattentiontocritical
socialproblems.ReadontofindouthowthesethreewriterstwoofthemNobelPrizewinnerschangedthefaceofthepoetryandproseweprizetoday.
PoundCake
"Nomanunderstandsadeepbookuntilhehasseenandlivedatleastpartofitscontents."
EzraPound
IftherewaslittleinPound'schildhoodtosuggestthathe'dlaterbetiedfor"PoetoftheCentury"withhisbestfriendT.S.Eliot,therewasevenlesstosuggestthathe'd
becomeoneofthemostnotorioustraitorsoftheeraaswell.
BorninIdahoandraisedinPennsylvania,Poundhadaconventionaluppermiddleclasschildhood.HisfatherworkedfortheUnitedStatesMint,andPoundlovedto
accompanyhisoldmantoworktowatchthegoldbeingmelteddown.At12,Poundenrolledinamilitarycollegearoundtheblockfromhishome.Whiletheother
boysplayedwithbatsandballs,Poundkickedaroundrhythmandrhyme,soit'snotastonishingthatbytheageof12he'dalreadywrittenhisfirstpoem.It'salsonot
astonishingthathehadfew,ifany,friends.
HowNottoWinFriendsandInfluencePeople
PoundwasagoodstudentandsoenrolledintheUniversityofPennsylvaniaonlythreeyearslater.Hedecidedthetimehadcometoseizecenterstage,arelatively
easytaskwithhisflamingredhairandeccentricpersonality.(Hisgoldtoppedcaneandpugnaciousapproachhelped,too.)Notsurprisingly,hewasknownwithout
affectionasa"sortofscrewball,"buthedidformaclosefriendshipwiththemedicalstudent/modernistpoetWilliamCarlosWilliams.
AlthoughWilliamslikedhisnewfriend,hetoldhismotherthetruthaboutPound:"notonepersoninathousandlikeshimandagreatmanypeopledetesthim
[because]hewasfullofconceitsandaffectation."
Pound'smotherdecidedthathersonnyboywashangingaroundwiththewrongsort(whatelsecouldexplainhisoddbehavior?)sosheyankedhimoutofUPennand
slappedhimintobucolicHamiltonCollegeinupstateNewYork.
Nothingchanged:HewaseverybitasstrangeandshunnedinNewYorkashe'dbeeninPennsylvania.
WhenPoundwasn'tbusyrubbingpeoplethewrongway,hewasstudyingforeignlanguages,especially
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Chinese.HegraduatedfromHamiltonin1905andreturnedtotheUniversityofPennsylvaniatoearnamaster'sdegreeinEnglishLiteratureandRomancePoetrythe
followingyear.AfterayearinSpain,fundedbyafellowship,PoundsecuredapositionasaninstructorinFrenchandSpanishatWabashCollege,asmallPresbyterian
schoolinwesternIndiana.
I'veLookedatLovefromBothSidesNow
Itwasanoddmatchindeed:Wabashforbadesmokingandpublishedinthetownnewspaperthenamesofstudentswhomissedchapel.KeepinmindthatPoundwas
nothingifnotflashythisissomeonewhoafewyearslaterwouldhaveastatuemadethatdepictedhimasaphallus.It'snotsurprising,then,thathewasvery
uncomfortablewiththeschoolanddroveeveryonenutsbypushingtheenvelope.Poundspikedhistea,dressedinoddcostumes,andsmokedlikeachimney."Ido
notteach,"heannouncedtohisstudents,"Iawake."
Tomakesuretheygotthepoint,Poundhadanaffairwithawomanwhowasamaleimpersonator.WhenthemanwomanwasdiscoveredinPound'sbedroom,both
partieswerekickedoutintothesnow.Soonafter,PoundleftforLondon,nursingwhatwouldbecomealifelonghatredofuniversities.Inhisspinonthesituation,he
wasthebrilliantinternationalscholarrejectedbythePhilistineAmericans.(Historyhasnotrecordedthefateofthemaleimpersonator.)
MakeItNew!
PoundquicklyplungedintoLondon'sspiritedliterarylife.WhileheremadetheWesternliterarytradition,Poundsupportedhimselfbyteaching,reviewingbooks,and
workingforWilliamButlerYeats,thebrilliantIrishpoet.In1914,PoundmarriedDorothyShakespeare.Ceaselesslyactive,heinspiredpoetsandwritersonboth
sidesofthepondwithhisrallyingcry,"MakeItNew!"
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Imagism
"Peoplefindideasaborebecausetheydonotdistinguishbetweenliveonesandstuffedonesonashelf."
EzraPound
Poundfirstadvancedatypeofpoetryhecalledimagism,anattempttopresentanobjectdirectlyratherthanthroughornatedictionandcomplexverseforms.
Imagismwascharacterizedby
Ordinarylanguage
Freeverse
Concentratedwordpictures
Veryspecificwordsandphrases
Imagistpoemswereoftenfragments,preciseandpointed.Here'soneofPound'sbestknownimagistpoems,"InaStationoftheMetro:"
"Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd
Petalsonawet,blackbough."
No,Ididn'tforgettherestofthepoem.That'sall,folks!
Cantos
Despitehisrecommendationstoothers,Pound'sownpoemsduringthisperiodtendedtofollowtraditionalverseforms,includingdramaticmonologues.Heoften
assumedapersona,ormask,todistancehimselffromhismaterial.Forexample,here'stheopeningofhisdramaticmonologue,"HughSelwynMauberley":
Forthreeyears,outofkeywithhistime,
Hestrovetoresuscitatethedeadart
Ofpoetrytomaintain"thesublime"
Intheoldsense.Wrongfromthestart
In1915,PoundstartedworkonhisCantos,aseriesoflongandcomplexpoems.Sincetheyarelengthy,highlypersonal,andfilledwithfragmentsfromhisreadingsin
foreignliterature,readingtheCantosisnotunlikeclimbingMt.Everest.However,Cantoshashadaprofoundeffectonmodernpoetry.
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Inform,theme,andcontent,Pound'smodelfortheCantoswasWhitman'sLeavesofGrass.Ironically,PoundoftenclaimedthatLeavesofGrassembodied
everythingthatwaswrongwithpoetry.
HismostloyalalliesincludedfellowwritersH.D.(HildaDolittle),T.S.Eliot,JamesJoyce,RobertFrost,ErnestHemingway,andMarianneMoore.DuringhisLondon
years,Poundalsoproducedtwoofhismostfamouspoems,"HughSelwynMauberly:LifeandContacts"and"Mauberly"(1920).Thesepoemsdescribedwhat
PoundsawasthedemiseofWesterncivilizationafterWorldWarIandtheresultingsenseofemptinessanddespair.
PoundofFlesh
"Theconceptofgeniusasakintomadnesshasbeencarefullyfosteredbytheinferioritycomplexofthepublic."
EzraPound
In1920,PoundleftLondon,movedtoParis,andfinallysettledinItalyfiveyearslater.Lefttohisowndevices,Poundbecameincreasinglyextremeinhisviewsone
couldevensayderanged.Hedecidedthatthemostsuccessfulcivilizationshadpowerfulleaders,astablehierarchy,andanagriculturalbase.Whofitthisbill?None
otherthantheItalianfascistdictatorBenitoMussolini.PoundembracedIIDucewithsuchfervorthatwhenWorldWarIIerupted,heofferedhisservicestothe
regime.FromJanuary1941untiltheendofthewarin1945,PounddeliveredscoresofradiobroadcastsdenouncingAmericansocietyingeneral,Jews,andPresident
FranklinRooseveltinparticular.
Whenthewarended,PoundwasarrestedbytheAmericangovernmentfortreason.HeldinanopenaircageinaprisoncampnearPisa,Italy,Poundlosthisgripon
reality,butnonethelesscontinuedtowritepoetrysomeofitjudgedamonghisbestworks,strangely.
WhileinLondon,Poundbuiltfriendshipsthatwouldproveinvaluablewhenhelaterwentovertothedarksideandbecameoneofthemostfamoustraitorsofthe20th
century.
In1945PoundwasbroughtbacktoAmericaforhistrial,buthisdeathsentencewassuspendedbecausehewasjudgedinsane.Theinsanityrulingwaslargelydueto
theinterventionandsupportofliterarycolleagueswhorespectedPoundinspiteofhisunacceptablepolitics.Confinedforthenext13yearsatSt.Elizabeth'sMental
HopsitalinWashington,D.C.,Poundpublishedmoreofhisepiclifework,Cantos,whichhehadbegunin1924.
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In1948,theLibraryofCongressawardedPoundtheBollingenPrizeforpoetry,anawardthatsparkedatremendousoutcry.Remember,Poundwasbeinghonored
forpoemsthatlamentedthepassingoffascistandNazicollaborators.AllenTatesummeduptheproPoundsidewhenhearguedthatevenifPoundhadbeen
convictedoftreason,hehadinhisrevitalizationoflanguageperformedan''indispensabledutytosociety."OthersclaimedPoundwasanantiSemitewhoseloathsome
viewsweresoabhorrentthatnoamountofpoetrycouldcompensateforthehatredhehadfanned.TheuproarwassogreatthattheU.S.governmentforbadethe
Libraryfromeverawardingtheprestigiousprizeagain.
In1958PoundwasreleasedfromSt.Elizabeth'sandreturnedtoItaly,wherehedied14yearslater.
Forthose14years,Poundrefusedtocommunicateatall.Hewouldnotevenopenhismouthtoutterasound.HispolemicagainstAmericansocietywasfinally
silenced.Pound'sfriendT.S.Eliotwascutfromdifferentcloth,fortunately.
T.S.Eliot(18881965)
"Weknowtoomuch,andareconvincedoftoolittle.Ourliteratureisasubstituteforreligion,andsoisourreligion."
T.S.Eliot
T(homas).S(tearns).EliotisafarlesscontroversialpublicfigureandwriterthanPound,butnolessimportanttothedevelopmentof20thcenturyliterature.Bornin
St.Louis,Missouri,toadistinguishedNewEnglandfamily,EliotwaseducatedatSmithAcademy(ofWashingtonUniversity)andMiltonAcademy.Whenhewas18,
EliotenrolledinHarvardUniversity.
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AnunbeatablecombinationofhardworkandbrillianceenabledEliottocompletehisB.A.inthreeyearsthefourthwasdevotedtoearninghisM.A.Althoughshyand
quiet,Eliotwasanacknowledgedgeniusandleader.HewasacceptedinbothofHarvard'sprestigiousliteraryclubs(theStylusandtheSignet)andevenascendedto
theeditorshipofHarvard'sliterarymagazine.Alwaysfussyandprecise,Eliotwasconsideredtobeadandybyhisclassmates,butwasnonethelessadmiredforhiswit
andprecisediction.
In1910EliottookoffforParis,wherehestudiedattheSorbonne.HethenreturnedtoHarvardforaPh.D.inphilosophy.Aftercompletinghisdissertation,Eliot
traveledtoGermany,stoppingoffatEngland'sOxfordUniversityforayear.
TheoutbreakofWorldWarIpreventedEliotfromreturningtoHarvardfortheoraldefenserequiredforadoctorate,andsohebegantodriftintoacareerasawriter
andpublisherratherthanhisplannedpathasauniversityprofessor.
In1915,EliotmarriedVivienneHaighWoodandsettledinLondon,earninghislivingatfirstbyteachingavarietyofsubjectsatHighgateSchoolandlaterbyworking
asaclerkatLloydsBank(from1917to1925).Eliotdidn'tmultitaskwell,however,andhiswritingsuffered.ItwasEzraPoundwhosethimbackontherighttrack
byencouraginghimtopursuehiswritingmoreearnestly.
TheLoveSongofJ.AlfredPrufrock
PoundservedasEliot'smentorandcritic,thesoundingboardheneededashedevelopedhislandmarkpoems.WithPound'shelp,"TheLoveSongofB.Alfred
Prufrock"and"Preludes"werecompletedandpublishedinlate1915,launchingEliot'scareer.Hisfirstbookofpoetry,PrufrockandOtherObservations,appeared
shortlythereafter,in1917.
"Prufrock"isalongdramaticmonologueaboutafastidiousmiddleagedmanwhoisunabletoovercomehisemotionaltimiditytofindloveandmeaninginlife.
Prufrock'sfrustrationsreflectthedilemmasofmodernsociety,especiallymiddleclassculture.Prufrock'ssenseoffragmentationandalienationisahallmarkofearly
20thcenturypoetry.
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Thepoemopenswiththesefamouslines:
"Letusgothen,youandI,
Whentheeveningisspreadoutagainstthesky
Likeapatientetherizeduponatable"
ThepoemconcernsPrufrock'svisittoawoman,hisinabilitytodeclarehisloveforher,andhislaterrecollectionoftheexperience.Afterthefact,herationalizesthat
thewomanwouldhaverejectedhisproposalbysaying,"Thatisnotitatall,/ThatisnotwhatImeant,atall."Unabletoforcethemomenttoitsclimax,Prufrockasks,
"DoIdare?""AndshouldIthenpresume?"Heresignshimselftobeingaminorplayer,an"attendantlord,"doomedtoflutteronthefringesoflife.
Painfullyawareofthesterilityofhislife,Prufrockistormentedby
Hisinabilitytoloveandcommunicate
Thesuffocatingenvironmentofclosedroomsandnarrowstreets(symbolsforhislife)
Hisinabilitytobreakoutofhisisolation
Hisacuteselfconsciousness
AllDressedUpandNoWheretoGo
"DoIdare
Disturbtheuniverse?
Inaminutethereistimefordecisionsandrevisionswhichaminutewillreverse."
from"TheLoveSongofJ.AlfredPrufrock"
Thetitleisironic,forPrufrockistimidandspirituallynumb,amanunabletolove,andsothe"lovesong"issungbynooneleastofallhim.The"youandI"ofthefirst
linecanbeinterpretedastwopartsofPrufrock'spersonality,oneparturginghimtoparticipateinexperience,theotherpartholdinghimback.Imagesofmovement
arejuxtaposedwithimagesofparalysis,reflectingPrufrock'sinternalconflict.
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TheWasteLand
In1922Eliotpublished"TheWasteLand,"themostfamouspoemofthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury.Itwasabigbang,ladiesandgentlemen.ThepoetWilliam
CarlosWilliamsdescribedtheeffectof"TheWasteLand"asthatofanatombombbeingdetonated.Beforethepoemwaspublished,Pounddidabrillianteditingjob,
deletingagreatdealofextraneousmaterialandEliotacknowledgedhisdebttohimbydedicatingthepoemtohim.
"TheWasteLand"sumsuptheAmericanandEuropeanpostwarsenseoftragedyanddespair.Thepoemisaboutspiritualdryness,aboutthekindofexistencein
whichnoregeneratingbeliefgivessignificanceandvaluetoourdailyactivities.Sexbringsnofruitfulness,anddeathheraldsnoresurrection.
Whythetitle"wasteland?"Onaliterallevel,thebattlefieldsofWorldWarIwereamuddywastelandplantedwithcorpses.Onafigurativelevel,thewarhadleft
EuropeandAmericaaspiritualandemotionaldesert.Manypeoplelosttheirfaithinreligionafterthewarbecausetheycouldn'treconciletheideaofabenevolentgod
withwholesaleslaughter.Nothinginhistoryhadpreparedtheworldforthesightofsomuchdeath.Eliotbelievedthatmodernsocietylackedavitalsenseof
communityandaspiritualcenter.ThewastelandofthepoemismodernAmericanandEuropeanculture,whichhadstrayedtoofarfromitsChristianroots.
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PartI:BurialoftheDead
Here'showthepoembegins:
"Aprilisthecruellestmonth,breeding
Lilacsoutofthedeadland,mixing
Memoryanddesire,stirring
Dullrootswithspringrain."
Inthefirstpartofthepoem,acountesslooksbackonheryouthbeforeWorldWarI.Sheremembersaromantic,beautifultime.Thismemoryisundercutbythe
presentdrought,when"thedeadtreegivesnoshelter."Thepoemthenflashesbacktoalovescene,perhapsthecountesses',andthenmovestoafortunetellerwho
readstarotcardsandwarnsofdeath.ThesectionendswithanimageofLondoncrowdsmovingalongthestreetslikedeadpeople.
PartII:AGameofChess
"TheChairshesatin,likeaburnishedthrone,
Glowedonthemarble,wheretheglass
Heldupbystandardswroughtbyfruitedvines"
Avariationonthethemeestablishedin"BurialoftheDead,"thesecondpartofthepoemgivestheopposingvoicesofthewealthyandthepoor,thesaneandthemad.
EliotbringsinancientfertilityimageryandChristiansymbolismtosuggestthatallofhumankindisdesolate.
PartIII:TheFireSermon
"Theriver'stentisbrokenthelastfingersofleaf
Clutchandsinkintothewetbank."
ThispartofthepoemcombineslinesfromanoldmarriagesongcelebratingLondon'sfamousThamesRiverwithamoderndescriptionofthefilthy,trashfilled
Thames.ThentheancientprophetTiresiasrecountsaseedyandpassionlessloveaffair,suggestingthatsexismeaninglessinthepostwarworld.Thisisfollowedby
contrastingimagesofQueenElizabethIboatingontheThameswithherlover,theEarlofLeicester.
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PartIV:DeathbyWater
"PhlebasthePhoenician,afortnightdead,
Forgotthecryofgulls,andthedeepswell
Andtheprofitandloss."
Thissectioncompletesthefortuneteller'sprophecyfromPartI.Ashortsection,itagainsuggeststhatdeathmustcomebeforerebirth.
PartV:WhattheThunderSaid
"Afterthetorchlightredonsweatyfaces
Afterthefrostysilenceinthegardens
Aftertheagonyinstonyplaces"
Thelastpartofthepoemopenswithimagesofajourneyoverbarrenandrockyground.Thethunderissterile,sinceitisnotaccompaniedbyrain.Therearechaotic
imagesofrotandofacrumblingcity,leadingtotherain.
ThepoemendswiththreetermsfromHindulore:
Datta(togivealms)
Dayadhvam(tohavecompassion)
Damyata(topracticeselfcontrol)
Thencomesaheapofallusions,afloodofmeaningsandsuggestions.Thepoemendswiththewordshanti(peace).
BigManonCampus
Thespeakerforageneration,Eliotcreatedpoetrythatiscomplex,packedwithobscureallusions,andbasedontherhythmsofnaturalspeech.Onecriticnotedthat
Eliotcombined"trivialandtawdrypictureswithtraditionalpoeticsubjectmatter,linkingthebanalitiesofconversationtorichrhetoricandinterruptingthepresentwith
flashbacksofthepast."
EliotbecameaBritishcitizenin1926andshortlythereafterconvertedtotheEpiscopalianfaith.Hisgrowingfaithwasreflectedinhisworkincreasingly,Eliotsaw
religionastheantidoteforthetypeofspiritualemptinesshedescribedin"TheLoveSongofJ.AlfredPrufrock"and"TheWasteLand."
Inadditiontopoems,Eliotalsowroteplays,suchasMurderintheCathedral(1935)andTheCocktailParty(1950).Inrecognitionofhisenormouscontribution
tomodernliterature,EliotwasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1948.
Eliot'sfellowNobellaureate,novelistandshortstorywriterJohnSteinbeck,approachedtheproblemsofthefirsthalfofthe20thcenturyinaverydifferentway.
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Amanofthepeople,herolleduphissleevesanddugrightin.Theresultwasanastonishingoutpouringoffantasticwritingandaspotlighttrainedonimportantsocial
issues.
JohnSteinbeck(19021968)
Whenaskedwhyhebecameawriter,Steinbeckanswered:
"Likeeveryone,Iwanttobegoodandstrongandvirtuousandwiseandloved.Ithinkthatwritingmaybesimplyamethodortechniqueforcommunicatingwithother
individuals"
Steinbeckcertainlyknewhowtocommunicateinwriting,whichmadehimoneofthemostpopularnovelistsinAmericaduringthe1930sand1940s.Butwhenit
comestoawriter'scriticalreputation,popularitycanbethekissofdeath.ThisiscertainlythecasewithSteinbeck:thefactthathisnovelshavesoldenormouslyand
continuouslyhasmarkedhimasa"popular"writer,andthereforeunworthyof"serious"attention.
Fortunately,noteveryoneagreed,andSteinbeckwasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1962.Itwasasweetvindicationforawriterwhonevercurried
popularfavorandrefusedtoplaythetorturedartiste.Rather,Steinbeckalwaysinsistedthatawriter'sprimaryjobistogethisworkread.AshesaidinhisNobel
PrizeAcceptanceSpeech:
"Theancientcommissionofthewriterhasnotchanged.Heischargedwithexposingourmanygrievousfaultsandfailures,withdredginguptothelightourdarkand
dangerousdreamsforthepurposeofimprovement."
CaliforniaDreamin'
JohnSteinbeckwasborninSalinas,California,onFebruary27,1902,adescendantofoldsettlers.Hisfatherwasacountyofficialhismother,ateacher.Johnloved
thelandscape,whichbecamethesettingformanyofhisnovels.
Anathleteratherthanascholar,Johnnonethelessreaddeeplyandwidely.HeenteredStanfordUniversityin1920andeventhoughhestayedforfiveyears,he
managedtoearnveryfewcredits,muchlessadegree.Hedid,however,writefortheUniversity'sliterarymagazineandworkavarietyofjobsontheside,including
laboringonroadgangsandassistinginthelaboratoryofasugarbeetfactory.
AfterabriefstintintheBigApple(wherehehelpedbuildMadisonSquareGarden),Steinbeckheadedhomeandstartedworkonanovel.CupofGoldappearedin
1929.Histimingwasterrible:Thestockmarkethadcrashedandbookswerethelastthingonpeople'sminds.Underthecircumstances,itishardlysurprisingthatfew
reviewerstookthebookseriously.
BadluckcontinuedtodogSteinbeck'sliterarycareerforatime.Afterseveralattemptstogetanothernovelgoing,hecompletedPasturesofHeavenin1932,butit
alsofailedtoflyofftheshelves.
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Meanwhile,SteinbeckmarriedCarolHenning,andthecouplesettledinPacificGrove.Thecouplelivedon$25amonthcontributedbyJohn'sfather.In1933,John
publishedthedark,broodingnovelToaGodUnknown,anotherflop.Thesuccessofseveralshortstories,however,including"TheRedPony"in1933,andthe
selectionof"TheMurder"fortheO.HenryPrizein1934,turnedthetideinSteinbeck'sfavor.
FameandFortune
TortillaFlat(1934),anaffectionatelytoldstoryofMexicanAmericans,wasthebreakthrough.Steinbeckwassuddenlyfamous.Twoyearslater,InDubious
Battle,anaccountofafarmworkers'strike,addedtohisfame.OfMiceandMen(1937)showedthatSteinbeck'ssuccesswasnotafluke.Thisnovella,which
portraystwodrifterswhosedreamofowningtheirownfarmendsintragedy,becameabestsellerandhasbeenmadeintomanymovieversionsandaBroadway
play.
Twoyearslater,Steinbeckpublishedhisfinestnovel,TheGrapesofWrath(1939),thedeeplymovingstoryofthe"Okies,"theOklahomafarmersdispossessedof
theirlandandforcedtobecomeimmigrantfarmersinCalifornia.Thenoveldescribesthefamily's(andtheland's)exploitationbyaruthlesssystemofagricultural
economics.TheGrapesofWrathestablishedSteinbeckasoneofthemosthighlyregardedandpopularwritersofthetime.TheboyfromtheWesthadmadethebig
towntakenoticewithoutcompromisinghisartisticandpoliticalindependence.
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Steinbeckwentontowriteseveralothersuccessfulworks,includingCanneryRow(1945),ThePearl(1947),andEastofEden(1951).Nonetheless,bythe
1960s,itappearedthatSteinbeckhadpassedthehighwatermarkofhiscareer.Hehadbecomeamanmorewrittenaboutthanoneactuallywriting.Onceagain,
however,Steinbeckchallengedtheoddsandwon.WinterofOurDiscontent,1961,isoneofSteinbeck'smostpowerfulbooks.Thenovelwasasmashhit,and
thewriterdismissedasanartistic"hasbeen"receivedtheultimatepatontheback,theNobelPrize.
Steinbeckassessedhischaracterthiswayinhisautobiography,TravelswithCharlie:
"Ihavealwayslivedviolently,drunkhugely,eatentoomuchornotatall,sleptroundtheclockormissedtwonightsofsleeping,workedtoohardandtoolongin
glory,orslobbedforatimeinutterlaziness.I'velifted,pulled,chopped,climbed,madelovewithjoyandtakenmyhangoversasaconsequence,notasapunishment.
Ididnotwanttosurrenderfiercenessforasmallgaininyardage.MywifemarriedamanIsawnoreasonwhysheshouldinheritababy.Iknewthattenortwelve
thousandmilesdrivingatruck,aloneandunattended,overeverykindofroad,wouldbehardwork,buttomeitrepresentedtheantidoteforthepoisonofthe
professionalsickman.AndinmyownlifeIamnotwillingtotradequalityforquantity.Ifthisprojectedjourneyshouldprovetoomuch,thenitwastimetogoanyway.
Iseetoomanymendelaytheirexitswithasickly,slowreluctancetoleavethestage.It'sbadtheateraswellasbadliving.
TheGrapesofWrath
"uspeoplewillgoonlivin'whenallthempeopleisgoneWe'rethepeoplethatlive.Theyain'tgonnawipeusout.Whywe'rethepeoplewegoon."
fromTheGrapesofWrath
Steinbeck'sprimarythemescamefromthepoverty,desperation,andsocialinjusticethathewitnessedduringtheGreatDepressionofthe1930s,atimewhenmany
peoplesufferedunderconditionsbeyondtheircontrol.Hedidallhisownresearch,too.
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In1936,SteinbeckdrovetoOklahomatojointhemigrantworkersandaccompanythemtoCalifornia.Atonepointhewassodisturbedbytheirdirepovertythathe
wantedtoacceptaHollywoodcontractof$1000aweekforsixweekssohecouldgivetwodollarsapieceto3,000migrantworkers.Hisagentflewtothecoastto
talkhimoutofit.
Anothertime,herefusedtogointothefieldwithaphotographerandobservethemigrantsforanarticleforLifemagazine,saying,"I'msorrybutIsimplycan'tmake
moneyonthesepeoplethesufferingistoogreatformetocashinonit."
TheGrapesofWrathreflectedtheOkies'sufferingandsomuchmore.AscriticPeterLiscadescribesit,"TheGrapesofWrathwasaphenomenononthescaleof
anationalevent."Now,let'slookatSteinbeck'smasterpieceitself.
Who'sWhoinTheGrapesofWrath
TomJoadisthenovel'scentralcharacter.Kind,strong,andsensitive,he'snotsomeoneyou'dthrowoutofbedforeatingcrackers.Sowhatifhekilledamanina
fight?Hedidhistimeandgoesontohelphispeople.Here'stherestofthecast:
Pa:theDustbowlreduceshimtoadeerintheheadlights.Hisfarmgone,hecannotcope.
Ma:theidealmotherfigure,strong,loyal,andloving.She'sthegluethatholdsthefamilytogether.
Grampa:lecherous,loud,cantankerous,theoldmanseemstohavealotoffightinhim.Hediesofasuddenstrokeonthefirstnightontheroad.Mostwouldsay
thathediedofabrokenheartathavinghadtoleavehisland.
Granma:justascussedashermate,Granmapinesawayafterhisdeath.Whatcanyouexpectfromawomanwhoshotawayhalfhisheinietomakesurehedidn't
stray?
UncleJohn:PaJoad'solderbrother,UncleJohnisaneccentricloner.
Noah:theoldestoftheJoadchildren,droppedonhisheadoncetoooften.
Rosasharn(RoseofSharon):TomJoad'syoungersister.MarriedtoConnie,sheispregnantanddreamsofabetterlifeinCalifornia.
Connie:RoseofSharon'snogoodhusband,whodesertsthefamilyoncetheyreachCalifornia.
Al:Tom's16yearoldbrotherlikesladiesandmachinesandhe'sgoodatboth.
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RuthieandWinfield:theyoungestJoadchildren.
JimCasy:theintrospectiveformerpreacheristheChristfigureprophetandsuffersamartyr'sdeath.NoticethathesharesthesameinitialsasJesusChrist.
MuleyGraves:theJoads'neighborinOklahoma,hesymbolizestheOkies'ruinedlives.
SairyAndIvyWilson:thecouplefromKansaslinktheirfortuneswiththeJoads'onthefirstnightout.TheJoadsareforcedtoabandonthem,knowingthatSairy's
deathisimminentandMr.Wilson'ssurvivalaloneuncertain.
FloydKnowles:commentatorontheconditionsofthemigrants.
TheWainwrights:AfamilytheJoadsmeetinthelastoftheHoovervilles.
JessieBullitt,AnnieLittlefield,andEllaSummers:naturalleaders.
California,HereICome
Asthenovelopens,TomJoadishitchhikinghomeafterbeingparoledfromthestateprison,havingservedfouryearsofasevenyearsentence.Droppedoffnearthe
family'sfarm,TommeetsJimCasy,anitinerantpreacher.Casyhasdecidedthatsinceallthingsareholy,hewilldrophisvocationandlivewiththepeople.Whenthey
arriveatTom'splace,theyarebaffledtofindthateveryoneisgone,andthatallthefarmsseemdeserted.MuleyGravestellsTomthattheJoadsareatUncleJohn's.
Thenextday,TomandJimwalktoUncleJohn's,wherethefamilyispreparingtogotoCaliforniatofindwork.Foreclosureshaveforcedallthefarmersofftheland
theDustBowlhasdecimatedtheregion.Aftersellingalltheirbelongings,thefamilyhasonlyeighteendollars.CasyandTomjointhemandtheyallsetoff.Thefirst
night,Grampadiesofastroke.TheJoadsgetaquiltfromanothergroupofdisplacedfarmers,theWilsons,andburyGrampa.Thetwofamiliesjoinupandtravel
together.JustbeforetheyreachCalifornia,Mrs.Wilsonbecomessosickshecannotgoon.TheJoadsgivethemmoneyandfoodandpresson.
Granmadies,butMrs.Joadconvincesaguardthattheoldwomanisonlysleepingsotheycanpassthroughthedesert.Theyburyherasapauperbecausethey
cannotaffordafuneral.
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Flatbroke,theJoadsstopatafilthymigrantworkercampbutthemenareunabletofindwork.WhenafriendofTom'saskswhatacontractorispayingforsome
labor,heisarrestedasa''red,"acommunist.Afightbreaksoutandthesherifftellsthepeoplethatthecampisgoingtobeburned.TheJoadsfleetoagovernment
campwheretheyfindlawandorderbutstillnowork.Againtheymustmoveon.
Theyarriveatapeachorchardanddespitethedemonstrations,immediatelysetaboutpickingfruitsotheywillhavesomethingtoeat.TomfindsJimCasy,leaderof
thestrike,whotellshimthatthestrikersaretryingtocorrectwageinequalities.WhenstrikebreakerskillCasy,Tomkillsoneofthemenbuthashisnosebroken.The
Joadsleaveandfindaplacewheretheycanpickcotton.Tomhidesinanearbywoods.
NobelLaureateJohnSteinbeckchampioned
theunderdog,leavinglittletimeforhaircuts.
OneoftheJoadchildrenrevealsthatTomhaskilledaman.TomdecidestocarryonCasy'swork.HetakesasmallamountofmoneyfromMaandleaves.Whenthe
cottonpickingends,therainssetin.RoseofSharongoesintolaborandherbabyisstillborn.Thewatercontinuestoriseandthefamilyseeksshelterfortwodaysina
boxcar.
Whentherainabates,thefamilyescapestoabarn,wheretheyfindamandyingofstarvation.TheJoadshaveneithermoneynorfood.RoseofSharonfeedsthedying
manfromherbreast.
TheGrapesofWrathisapleaforCalifornialandownerstobemoretolerantofthosewhoarelessfortunate.TheJoads'journeyWestisalsoajourneyfromone
family'spersonalconcerntoalargerconcernforallofhumanity.Andit'sagreatread,ladiesandgentlemen.
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Chapter24
T.S.EliotandEzraPoundmayhavedominatedthehighbrowliterarylandscape,butfrom1914untilhisdeathin1963,RobertFrostwasprobablyAmerica'sbest
knownandbestlovedpoet.ItwasproofofFrost'sspecialplaceinAmericanliteratureandlifethatPresidentKennedyinvitedhimtoreadapoem,"TheGift
Outright,"athisinaugurationin1961.
InadditiontoFrost,e.e.cummings,EdwinArlingtonRobinson,CarlSandburg,EdgarLeeMasters,andVachelLindsaywerewellknownandinfluentialAmerican
poetsofthetime.Inthischapter,you'lllearnallaboutthesewritersandtheirplaceinAmericanletters.
RobertFrost(18741963)
"I'malwayssayingsomethingthat'sjusttheedgeofsomethingmore."
RobertFrost
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WithanarmfulofPulitzerPrizes(four,tobeexact),RobertFrostranksasatop20thcenturypoet.Hisambitionasapoetwastowrite"afewpoemsitwillbehard
togetridof,"andheunquestionablysucceeded.Hisachievementwasaresultofhisuseof
Traditionalverseforms,especiallythesonnet,rhymingcouplets,andblankverse
TheplainspeechofruralNewEnglanders.
Inhispoems,Frostcomesacrossasawisecountrypersonlivingclosetonature.Butdon'tbefooled:Thevoiceofhispoetrywasabrilliantartisticcreation,a
"persona"ormaskverysimilartowhatEzraPoundcreated.Inhispoetry,FrostcomesacrossascalmandkindthepersonFrostwouldliketobebutknewalltoo
wellthathewasnot.
Asanaturepoet,FrostbelongstotheromantictraditionofthetranscendentalpoetRalphWaldoEmerson.Likehispoeticpredecessor,Frostembodiesthecliche,
"Stillwatersrundeep."
Undertheguiseofafolksytone,Frostprobesanirrationalandindifferentuniversewithitsmysteriesofdarknessandirrationality.
FrostythePoet
"Everypoemisavoyageofdiscovery.IgointoseeifIcangetout,likeyougototheNorthPole.Onceyou'vesaidthefirstline,therestofit'sgottobe."
RobertFrost
America'smostfamousNewEnglandpoetwasactuallyborninSanFrancisco,California,in1874whereheliveduntilhewas11yearsold.In1885,hisfatherdied,
andthefamilyresettledinLawrence,Massachusetts.Frostattendedpublichighschoolandcoppedhighesthonors,sharingthevaledictorianspotwithhisfuturewife,
ElinorWhite.
Aftergraduation,FrostenrolledinDartmouthCollege,butheremainedthereforlessthanayear.ReturningtoMassachusetts,hetriedhishandatavarietyofjobs,
includingteacher,millhand,andreporter.Frostsoldhisfirstpoem,"MyButterfly:AnElegy,"whenhewas20yearsold.Flushwithsuccess,hemarriedElinorand
spenttwoyearsatHarvardasaspecialstudent.Overthenext10years,Frostwroteabigpileofpoems.Sinceonlyafewwereacceptedforpublication,Frost
supportedhisgrowing
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familybyrunningadairyfarminDerry,NewHampshire,andteachingontheside.Hehatedthefarm,buthehadfourkidsandawifetosupport.
In1912FrostdecidedthathehadhadenoughofGreenAcres,sohesoldthefarmandtookhiswifeandfourchildrentoEnglandtotrytomakeitasawriter.
Itwasagoodcareermove,forthefollowingyear,hepublishedhisfirstbookofverse,ABoy'sWillthenextyear,NorthofBostonhittheshelves.Thereviewswere
good,andFrost'sreputationwasestablishedonbothsidesoftheAtlantic.ThefamilyreturnedtoAmericathreeyearslater.
Poetryhasneverbeenabigbuckscareer,evenfortheheadliners.AlthoughFrost'spoetryenjoyedcriticalsuccess,hedidnotseemuchfinancialgain.He
supplementedhisincomeagainwithteaching.HedeliveredlecturesatAmherst,theUniversityofMichigan,Yale,Harvard,andDartmouth.Oneofhisstudents
recalledthatFrost
"wasashort,stockyman,butIfeltatoncethatherewasamanwithanimmensespread.Hewasthecenteroftheaudience,andnoonecouldmistakehisstrengthand
confidence.Asheshoulderedhiswayalong,heseemedpurposefullyintenthishairwasverywhiteandthin,hisfacesquareandstrong,andtherewasacontinualhalfsmile
aroundthelips.Fromthestartheseemedathomewithhisaudience."
SoundofSense
InJuly1913,RobertFrostexplainedhistheoryofpoetrywhilegivinghimselfapatontheback:
"TobeperfectlyfrankwithyouIamoneofthemostnotablecraftsmenofmytime.Thatwilltranspirepresently.Iampossiblytheonlypersongoingwhoworksonanybuta
wornouttheoryofversificationIaloneofEnglishwritershaveconsciouslysetmyselftomakemusicoutofwhatImaycallthesoundofsense."
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SomeofFrost'smostwellknownpoemsinclude
"DeathoftheHiredMan"
"Birches"
"StoppingbyWoodsonaSnowyEvening"
"TheRoadNotTaken"
"MendingWall"
Let'stakealookatthelasttwopoemsonthelistnow.
TheRoadNotTaken
"Tworoadsdivergedinayellowwood,
AndsorryIcouldnottravelboth
Andbeonetraveller"
"Apoemshouldsayonethingandmeansomethingelse,"Frostsaid,referringtohis"soundofsense"theory.Thisexcerptfrom"TheRoadNotTaken,"oneofhis
mostfamouspoems,illustrateshispoint.The''road"isusuallyinterpretedasmorethanagardenvarietymacadamhighwaymostcriticsinterprettheroadasasymbol
ofthedifferentpathswetakeinlife.
Frostclaimedthatthe"TheRoadNotTaken"isaboutEdwardThomas,hisEnglishpoetfriendkilledearlyinWorldWarI.Hesaidthatthepoem"hassomethingto
dowiththequestionofbeingunderstoodandnotbeingunderstood."
What'sthe"real"interpretation?It'suptoyou,gentlereader,whichiswhatmakesgoodliteraturesomuchofapleasuretoreadandinterpret.
StoppingbyWoodsonaSnowyEvening
"Thewoodsarelovely,darkanddeep,
ButIhavepromisestokeep,
AndmilestogobeforeIsleep.
AndmilestogobeforeIsleep."
Frostknew"StoppingbyWoodsonaSnowyEvening"hadoftenbeenreadasameditationondeath,but"Ineverintendedthat,"hesaid.Nonetheless,hedidhave
thefeelingthatitwas"loadedwithulteriority."Heclaimedtohavewrittenthepoemonenightbackinthe1920s,whenhewasa"littleexcitedfromgettingover
tiredtheycallitautointoxicated."
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Whilereadingthispoematawriters'conferencein1958,Frostsaid:"Somepeoplehavesaidit'sasuicidepoem.That'sgoingsome.Butitcanbeseenasadeath
poem.AndIcanseehowyoucouldsay:'Lifeislovely,darkanddeep.'See.'ButIhavepromisestokeep.Ihaveheaventogoto,youknow.'Likethat.Youcould
dothat.Thatanalogy'sinit.'"
Nomatterhowyouultimatelyinterpretthispoemandhisothers,Frostguideshisreadersintoanexaminationofthemselvesthroughthework."Myutmostambition,"
Frostclaimed,"istolodgeafewpoemswheretheywillbehardtogetridof."Hesucceeded.WeallhaveshardsofFrost'spoemembeddedinoursubconscious.
Duringhis1960politicalcampaign,forexample,JohnKennedyendedhisspeechesbysaying,"ButIhavemilestogobeforeIsleep."Everyoneintheaudienceknew
theline.
e(dward).e(stlin).cummings(18941962)
"Tobenobodybutmyselfinaworldwhichisdoingitsbest,nightandday,tomakeyoueverybodyelsemeanstofightthehardestbattlewhichanyhumanbeingcanfight,and
neverstopfighting."
e.e.cummings
e.e.cummingscorneredthepoetrymarketoninnovation.Inhisnearly1,000poems,cummingscreatedanew,highlyidiosyncraticmeansofpoeticexpression.His
poetryisknownforitseccentricstyle,itsunusualtypographyandspellings,anddeliberatemisuseofgrammaticalstructure.Heexperimentedwiththe"rhythmofthe
phrase"discoveredbyWaltWhitmanandcalledthe"variablefoot"bypoetWilliamCarlosWilliams.Alltold,cummingsplayedaroundwith
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Form
Punctuation
Spelling
Typography(typestyle)
Grammar
Imagery
Rhythm
Syntax
cummingsevenadjustedhisnametoreflecthispoeticexperiments:Sometimeshesigneditinconventionalupperandlowercase,asin"E.E.Cummings."Mostoften,
however,hesignedhisnameinalllowercaseletters,asin"e.e.cummings."
Thematically,however,cummingsisatraditionalpoet,especiallyinhislovepoemsandhiscelebrationsoffamilies,parents,children,andvalues.
cummings'primarythemeissolidlyconventional:Innearlyallofhispoems,heextolsindividualisminaworldofconformitylikehispredecessorWaltWhitman.
somewhereIhavenevertravelled,gladlybeyond
"somewhereIhavenevertravelled,gladlybeyond
anyexperience,youreyeshavetheirsilence
(idonotknowwhatitisaboutyouthatcloses
andopensonlysomethinginmeunderstands
voiceofyoureyesisdeeperthanallroses)"
e.e.cummings
EdwardEstlinCummingswasborninCambridge,Massachusettsin1894.
Somekidscuttheireyeteethonabaseballbatforcummings,itwaspoetryandart.Fortunately,hisparentsencouragedtheirbelovedsonandsupportedhisinterests
inpoetryandart.AfterearninghisB.A.inEnglishin1915andhisM.A.inClassicsin1916,bothfromHarvard,cummingsmovedtoGreenwichVillageinNewYork
City,wherehestayeduntilWorldWarI.
LikeHemingway,cummingssawagreatdealofactionasanambulancedriverduringWorldWarI.Hisoutspokenantiwarstanceearnedhimsomejailtimeina
Frenchprisoncamp,anexperiencerecountedinhisnovelTheEnormousRoom.ItisrankedasoneofthebestAmericanworkstocomeoutofthewarexperience.
Writtenasajournalofhisprisonstay,it'sheightenedbyanexperimentalprosestyleandahatredofabureaucracythattreatscivilianscruelly.
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Afterthewar,cummingsdevotedhimselfentirelytopoetry,publishing12volumesofpoems,includingaposthumousvolume.Apainteraswellasawriter,hewasnot
theleastinterestedinwealthandcelebrity.Bycarefullybudgetingastipendfromhisparentsandthemoneyhewonfromprizes,cummingswasabletodevotehimself
fulltimetohisart.
sincefeelingisfirst
"sincefeelingisfirst
whopaysanyattention
tothesyntaxofthings
e.e.cummings
Amarryingsort,cummingshadthreewivesnotatthesametime,ofcourse.HisfirstmarriagetoElaineOrr(wholeftherhusbandforhim)lastedonlysixmonths.
Hissecondmarriage,toAnnBarton,wasstormyandpassionate,butalsofailedtomakeittothefinishline.Hefoundtruelovethethirdtimearound,however,andhis
unionwiththeactress/modelMarionMorehouselastedfortheremaining30yearsofhislife.
Laterinhiscareer,cummingswasoftencriticizedfornotpressinghisworktowardfurtherevolution.Nevertheless,heattainedgreatpopularity,especiallyamong
youngreaders,forthesimplicityofhislanguage,hisplayfulmode,andhisattentiontosubjectslikewarandsex.Atthetimeofhisdeathin1962,cummingswasthe
secondmostwidelyreadpoetintheUnitedStates,afterRobertFrost.
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Here'stoYou,Mr.Robinson:EdwinArlingtonRobinson(18691935)
"Andsoweworked,andwaitedforthelight,
Andwentwithoutthemeat,andcursedthebread
AndRichardCory,onecalmsummernight,
Wenthomeandputabulletthroughhishead."
E.A.Robinson,"RichardCory"
SoendsRobinson'softenanthologizedpoem"RichardCory."Likeitstitlecharacter,Robinsonledalifeof"quietdesperation."
AlthoughhewasaNewEnglanderlikeRobertFrostandachroniclerofsmalltownlifelikeSherwoodAnderson,Robinsonwasdifferentfromhiscontemporaries
becausehefeltthathewasborninthewrongtimeperiod.Moreathomeinthepastthanthepresent,Robinsonyearnedfortheglorious,heroicpastofmyth.Asa
result,healwaysfeltestrangedfromhisfellowpoets,preferringtowriteaboutthepast.Asaresult,hecreatedpoemsdealingwithhistoricmythsandcharacters.
Knownprimarilyforshort,ironiccharacterstudiesofordinaryindividuals,Robinsonusedtraditionalrhymeandrhythms.Despairrunsthroughhispoetry,suchas
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"LukeHavergal,"aboutaforsakenlover(1896)
"RichardCory,"asomberportraitofawealthymanwhocommitssuicide(1896)
"MinniverCheevy,"aportraitofaromanticdreamer(1910)
Robinsonmayhavefeltcutofffromthecrowd,buthisachievementswererecognizedbytheliteraryestablishment:HewonthreePulitzerPrizes.Thefirstwasfor
CollectedPoems(1922)thesecondforTheManWhoDiedTwice(1925)thethirdforTristram(1927).
TheChicagoPoets:CarlSandburg,EdgarLeeMasters,andVachelLindsay
Bytheturnofthecentury,Chicagohadbecomeagreatcity,homeofinnovativearchitectureandcosmopolitanartcollections.ChicagowasalsothehomeofHarriet
Monroe'sPoetry,themostimportantliterarymagazineoftheday.
CarlSandburg,EdgarLeeMasters,andVachelLindsayarepartoftheMidwesternorChicagoschoolthatarosebeforeWorldWarItochallengetheEastCoast
literaryestablishment,madepopularbyFrostandCummings.The"ChicagoSchool"wasawatershedinAmericanletters,foritdemonstratedthatAmerica'sinterior
hadcomeofage.
Thesethreepoetshavemoreincommonthanlocale:
Theirversesoftenconcernordinary,everydaypeople.
Theirrealistpoemsanddramaticemphasisattractedalargeaudience.
Let'sseewhatmakesthesepoetssospecial,startingwiththemostfamousone,CarlSandburg.
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CarlSandburg(18781967)
"HogButcherfortheWorld,
ToolMaker,StackerofWheat,
PlayerwithRailroadsandthe
Nation'sFreightHandler"
CarlSandburg,"Chicago"
AfriendofSandburg'soncesaid,"TryingtowritebrieflyaboutCarlSandburgisliketryingtopicturetheGrandCanyoninoneblackandwhitesnapshot."Poet,
historian,biographer,novelist,musician,essayistSandburg,sonofarailroadblacksmith,wasallofthisandmore.Ajournalistbyprofession,hewroteamassive
biographyofAbrahamLincolnthatisoneoftheclassicliteraryworksofthe20thcentury.
CarlSandburg,oneof
America'sbardicpoets.
Tomanyreaders,SandburgwasalatterdayWaltWhitman,writingexpansive,evocativeurbanandpatrioticpoemsandsimple,childlikerhymesandballads.Like
Whitman,Sandburg'spoems
DescribeeverydayAmericans
Haveapositivetone
Usesimplewords
Areeasytounderstand
Arewritteninfreeverse
Sandburgtraveledaroundthecountryrecitingandrecordinghispoetryinalilting,mellifluousvoicethatwasacrossbetweenspeakingandmusic.Hispoetry
expressesthehearty,earthynatureofAmerica.
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Notwithstandinghisnationalfame,Sandburgwasaquietandunassumingman.Whathewantedfromlife,heoncesaid,was"tobeoutofjailtoeatregulartoget
whatIwriteprinted,alittleloveathomeandalittleniceaffectionhitherandyonovertheAmericanlandscape,(and)tosingeveryday."
EdgarLeeMasters(18681950)
"Lifeistoostrongforyou
IttakeslifetoloveLife."
EdgarLeeMasters,"LucindaMatlock"
EdgarLeeMasterswasfamousforcreatingtheboldSpoonRiverAnthology(1915),agroupofpoemspresentedasepitaphsthatsumupthelivesofindividual
villagersasifintheirownwords.SpoonRiverpresentsapanoramaofacountryvillagethroughtheheadstonesinitscemetery:250peoplespeakfrombeyondthe
grave,revealingtheirdeepestsecrets.Becausetheyaredeadandsohavenothingtofearfromtheliving,thespeakersarehonestabouttheirlives,includingthe
resentment,hatred,anddespairtheyfeltduringtheirtimeonearth.
ThepoemsinSpoonRiverAnthologyarecharacterizedby
An"unpoetic"colloquialstyle
Frankdescriptionsofsex
Averycriticalviewofsmalltownlife
Adescriptionoftheinnerlivesofordinarypeople
FewcollectionsofpoetryhadtheimpactofSpoonRiverAnthology.Thepoemsoutragedthepublicandcriticsalike,soitflewofftheshelves.Thebookwent
through19printingsofthefirsteditionalone,arecordforpoetryatthattime.SpoonRiverAnthologyremainsanimportantcollectionofpoemsforwhatitreveals
abouttheinnerlivesofmodernAmericans.
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NoneofMasters'othercollectionsofpoetrywereasgood(oraspopular)asSpoonRiverAnthology,buthenonethelessenjoyedadistinguishedcareerasawell
knownnovelistandbiographer,withmorethan50bookstohiscredit.
VachelLindsay(18791931)
VachelLindsaycelebratedsmalltownMidwesternpopulismandcreatedstrong,rhythmicpoetrydesignedtobereadaloud.Hisworkbridgesfolkpoetryand
modernistpoems.Anextremelypopularpublicreaderinhisday,Lindsay'sreadingsprefigure"Beat"poetryreadingsofthepostWorldWarIIerathatwere
accompaniedbyjazz.
Topopularizepoetry,Lindsaydevelopedwhathecalleda"highervaudeville,"usingmusicandstrongrhythm.Atthesametime,heimmortalizedsuchfiguresonthe
AmericanlandscapeasAbrahamLincoln("AbrahamLincolnWalksatMidnight")andJohnChapman("JohnnyAppleseed"),oftenblendingfactswithmyth.
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Page303
Chapter25
''AteverysubwaystationIkeptwatchingforthesign:135THSTREET.WhenIsawit,IheldmybreathIwentupthestepsandintothebrightSeptembersunlight.Harlem!Ilooked
around.Negroeseverywhere!Itookadeepbreathandfelthappyagain."
LangstonHughes,fromTheBigSea
TheartisticAfricanAmericanswasoneofthemoststrikingliterarydevelopmentsofthefirstpartofthe20thcentury.InthewritingsofRichardWright,Langston
Hughes,CounteCullen,ZoraNealeHurston,JeanToomer,ClaudeMcKay,andothers,therootsofmodernblackAmericanwritingtookhold,intheformsof
novels,poetry,autobiographies,andprotestliterature.
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Inthischapter,you'lllearnallabouttheseremarkableAfricanAmericanwriters.Let'sstartwithsomebackgroundonthebrilliantoutpouringofAfricanAmericanart
andcultureknownasthe"HarlemRenaissance."
ThePlacetoBe
UponarrivinginHarlemintheearly1920s,jazzgreatDukeEllingtonexclaimed,"Theworld'smostglamorousatmosphere!Why,itisjustliketheArabiannights!"
Harleminthe1920swasaplacewherelifebeganatnight.Morethan100nightspotslinedthe10blocksofNewYorkCityalong125thand135thstreetsbetween
LennoxandSeventhavenuesknownasHarlem.
Therewereatleast40nightclubsabout20cafes,speakeasies,cellars,lounges,bars,andgrills10theatersandeightballroomswherejazzbandsplayedandpeople
dancedthenightaway.PianistsandcomposerslikeDukeEllingtonandFatsWallerbluessingerslikeEthelWatersandBessieSmithandentertainerssuchas
JosephineBaker,FlorenceMills,andBillRobinson("Mr.Bojangles")keptcrowdsenthralled.Whathadcausedthisgreatculturalexplosion?
Duringthelate1800sandearly1900smanyAfricanAmericansfromthesouthmovednorth,lookingforemploymentintheindustrialcitiesofthenortheast.In1915,
about50,000AfricanAmericanslivedinHarlemlessthan15yearslater,thepopulationhadswelledto150,000people.Asthepopulationincreased,theNewYork
CitycommunityofHarlemdevelopedintoaculturalmeccaforAmericanblacks.Theculturalblowoutincludedliterature,music,andart.Itbecameknownasthe
"HarlemRenaissance."
Aswithmanyculturalmovementsofthetime,theHarlemRenaissanceendedwiththeGreatDepression:Themoneytosupporttheartssimplydriedup.
WhiletheindividualworksofliteratureproducedbythewritersoftheHarlemRenaissancewereasdifferentasthemenandwomenwhocreatedthem,mostofthe
writingdealswiththesametopic:Therelationshipbetweenraceandliterature.Someofthe
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poets,forexample,viewedtheirwritingasawaytoexpresswhatitmeanttobeblackinAmericawhileothers,incontrast,usedtheirtalenttoexploremore
"traditional"poeticsubjects,suchasnature,childhood,andlove.
Althoughthespecificliteraryconcernsandtechniquesvariedfromwritertowriter,thesewriterssharedacommonpurpose:toprovethatAfricanAmericanscould
producegreatliterature.Simultaneously,theyexpressedthemoodoftheAfricanAmericancommunityofthetimeoften,theirresentmentconcerningtheoverall
treatmentofAfricanAmericans.RichardWright'slegacyhasbeenthemostenduringandproblematic.
RichardWright(19081960)
"ThedayNativeSonappeared,Americanculturewaschangedforever.Nomatterhowmuchqualifyingthebookmightlaterneed,itmadeimpossiblearepetitionofoldlies."
criticIrvingHowe
RichardWrighthasthedistinctionofbeingthefirstAfricanAmericanauthorwhoseworkappearedonthenationalbestsellerlists.NativeSonwasaninstantsuccess
andsoldaquarterofamillioncopiesinitsfirstmonthofpublicationin1940.Togetherwithhisautobiography,BlackBoy,NativeSonestablishedWrightasawriter
ofpowerandintensity.NativeSonisabrutalportraitofapoorblackmanspurredontomurderbytheoppressionandhatredofthewhiteworld.
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BehindtheEightBall
WrightwasbornonaMississippifarmin1908soonafter,thefamilymovedtoMemphis.HisfatherleftwhenRichardwassix,plungingthefamilyintopoverty.In
desperation,Richard'smotherplacedhimandhisbrotherinanorphanage.Itprovedtobeawretchedplace,andRichardranaway.
Wrightwasthenshuttledamongvariousrelatives,whichhefoundjustaboutasintolerableastheorphanageespeciallysincehisrelativestriedtomakehimaccept
religionasapanaceaforprejudice.
TheworldofworkgaveWrightafirsthandtasteofracism,buthehidhisangerasbesthecouldinordertobuythefood,clothes,andbooksheneeded.He
accomplishedthisthroughaseriesofshortterm,menialjobs.
Despitehishorrificchildhood,Wrightmanagednotonlytostayinschoolbutalsotopublishastorycalled"TheVoodooofHell'sHalfAcre"inalocalblack
newspaper.Praisewasashardtocomebyasfood,however,forhisfriendsandfamilythoughthiswritingwassinfulandawasteoftime.
Bytheageof17,Wrighthadmoved25times.ThemaltreatmentheexperiencedalongthewayconvincedhimthatthehiddenangerofAfricanAmericanswas
justified.WrightfeltthatonlybyexpressingthisangercouldAfricanAmericansmoveon.
BetterRedthanDead?
HemovednorthtowardMemphis,andeventuallywenttoChicago.There,heheldaseriesofoddjobsuntilhejoinedtheWPAWriters'Projectasdirectorofthe
FederalNegroTheater.HebegantostudyMarxisttheoryandcontributearticlestotheCommunistPartyjournals.By1935,hehadestablishedhimselfasafiction
writer.Twoyearslater,in1937,hemovedtoNewYork,wherehewrotefortheNewYorkWriters'ProjectandthebecametheHarlemeditorfortheCommunist
publication,DailyWorker.
ParlezVousEquality?
AfterpublishingNativeSonin1940,WrightproducedBlackBoy,anautobiographicalwork(1945).HisnovelsgreatlyinfluencedwritersRalphEllisonandJames
Baldwin,profiledinChapter29.
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America's"nativeson"
RichardWrighteventually
soughtrefugeinFrance.
WrightlefttheCommunistPartyin1944.Threeyearslater,hesettledinFrance,wherehewaswarmlyreceivedtheFrenchrankedhimamongthegreatwhite
writersoftheperiod:Hemingway,Fitzgerald,andFaulkner.
Duringthelast10yearsofhislife,WrightcontinuedtopublishfromhishomeinFrance.HisnovelsfromthisperiodincludeTheOutsider,SavageHoliday,Black
Power,TheColorCurtain,WhiteMan,Listen!,andhislastnovel,TheLongDream.Hediedofaheartattackin1960attheageof52.
NativeSon
SetinChicagointhe1930s,Wright'sexplosivenovelNativeSonisjustasmeaningfultodayasitwaswhenitwaswritten,bothinitsunsparingdescriptionofpoverty
andfeelingsofhelplessnessexperiencedbypeopleininnercitiesandwhatitmeanstobeblackinAmerica.
Thenovelisdividedintothreesections,calledbooks,"inwhichthereadertracesthemaincharacter's(Bigger's)inexorableslideintotragedy.
BookOne:Fear
TwentyyearoldBiggerThomas,anAfricanAmerican,livesinaChicagosouthsidetenement
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withhismother,sister,andyoungerbrother.HeacceptsajobwiththewealthywhiteDaltonfamilyasachauffeur.Onenight,BiggerhastocarrytheDaltons'beautiful
daughterMaryintoherbedroombecausesheistoodrunktowalkonherown.
HearingMary'smuttering,Mrs.Dalton,whoisblind,entersherdaughter'sbedroom.Biggerpanics.Ifheisfoundalonewithawhitewomaninherbedroom,hewill
surelybechargedwithrape.Inapanic,BiggertriestostifleMary'sdrunkenmutteringswithapillowandaccidentallypushesthepillowtoofirmlyagainstherface,and
Marysuffocates.Heburnsherbodyinthefurnacebutfirsthastocutherheadofftofitherbodyinthefurnace.Afterherbodyisreducedtoash,hefleeshome.
BookTwo:Flight
Decidingtocapitalizeonthecrime,BiggerconcoctsaschemeforextortingmoneyfromtheDaltonsbysendingafakeransomnote.Hisplanfallsapartwhenbones
andanearringarefoundinthefurnaceashes.Decidingtorunfromthescene,BiggerknowshecanneitherleavehisblackgirlfriendBessiebehindnortakeherwith
him.Hekillsherandthrowsherbodydownanairshaftinavacantbuilding.Biggerevadescaptureforafulldaybyhidinginemptysouthsideapartmentsbutisfinally
forceddownfromthetopofawatertankbyastreamfromafirehose.Heisdraggedbyhisfeettothesnowystreetbelow.
BookThree:Fate
AttheinquestthreedaysafterBigger'scapture,thecourtrulesthathebeheldonamurdercharge.TakentotheDaltonhome,Biggerrefusestoreenacthiscrime,and
whenheseesaflamingcross,hetearsoffthewoodencrossheiswearing.
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AlthoughBigger'sCommunistlawyerMaxentersapleaofnotguiltyatBigger'sarraignment,helaterchangesthepleatoguilty.AsaCommunist,Maxfeelsthat
societyistoblameforBigger'scrime,notBiggerhimself.
Duringthedramaticthreedaytrial,MaxattemptstoconvincethecourtthatBigger'scrimeispartofthenation'sguilt,butProsecutingAttorneyBuckley'svehement
denunciationsprevail,andBiggerissentencedtodie.Beforehisexecution,Biggercomestoanunderstandingofotherpeopleandofhimselfthatenableshimtoface
deathwithdignityandcourage.
CrimeandPunishment
"Ididn'twanttokill!ButwhatIkilledfor,Iam!WhatIkilledformust'vebeengood!Itmusthavebeengood!Ididn'tknowIwasreallyaliveinthisworlduntilIfelt
thingshardenoughtokillfor'em"
BiggerThomasfromNativeSon
NativeSondescribesasocietythatcommitsacrimeagainstoneofitsown.Thenovelexploresthethemesofinequality,racialconflict,andasthisquoteshows,
violenceasapersonalnecessityclearlythemostcontroversialofWright'sthemes.Inaddition,thestoryshowsWright'sbeliefatthetimethatCommunismwas
BlackAmerican'sbesthopeforequality.
RichardWrightmaybethemostfamousandcontroversialwriterfromthisera,butmanyotherAfricanAmericanshelpedcreateAmerica'srichheritageofblack
literature.Let'sexploresomeoftheothernotablecontributorstotheHarlemRenaissance,startingwithLangstonHughes.
LangstonHughes(19021967)
"Well,son,I'lltellyou:
Lifeformeain'tbeennocrystalstair."
LangstonHughes,from"MothertoSon"
Inhisday,LangstonHugheswasthemostsuccessfulblackwriterinAmerica.Nicknamed"thebardofHarlem,"Hughesismostfamousforhispoetry,althoughhe
alsowrotedrama,novels,songs,articles,autobiographicalpieces,andmoviescripts.UnlikeRichardWright,JeanToomer,andCounteCullen,Hugheswantedto
capturethedominantoraltraditionsofblackcultureinwrittenform.
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BorninMissouriandraisedintheMidwest,HughesattendedhighschoolinCleveland,wherehewrotefortheschoolliterarymagazine.Whenhewas19yearsold,
HughesmovedtoNewYorkCitytoattendColumbiaUniversity,butayearlaterhedecidedtotraveltoEuropeandAfricaasamerchantseaman.WhenHughes
returnedtotheUnitedStates,hemetthepoetVachelLindsay,whohelpedhimpublishhisfirstbookofpoetry,TheWearyBlues(1926).Thebookwasahit,and
Hugheswasonhisway.
Hughespublishedseveralcollectionsofpoetry,includingTheDreamKeeper(1932),FieldsofWonder(1947),andMontageofaDreamDeferred(1951).Inhis
poetry,Hughesexperimentedwithavarietyofformsandtechniquesandoftentriedtorecreatetherhythmsofjazz.Healsowrotepoemsofprotestagainstracism.
Hughes'poetryinspiredmanyotherblackwriters.Byeloquentlychroniclingtheheritageofblackpeopleandexpressingtheirprideanddetermination,Hughes
providedallAmericanswithalookattherichcultureofhispeople.
CounteCullen(19031946)
"TheillsIsorrowat
Notmealone
Likeanarrow.
Piercetothemarrow,
Throughthefact
Andpastthebone."
CounteCullen,from"AnyHumantoAnother"
CounteCullen'soriginisshroudedinmysterytheexactdateofhisbirthandhisparentagearebothunknown.Fortunately,hischildhoodwassecureandhappy.As
theadoptedsonofaMethodistministerandhiswife,Cullenwasmuchloved.HeattendedrigorousDeWittClintonHighSchoolinNewYorkandcompletedhis
undergraduateworkatNewYorkUniversity.HeearnedhisM.A.fromHarvard.
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Hisfirstcollectionofpoetry,Color,waspublishedin1925,followedbyCopperSunandTheBalladoftheBrownGirltwoyearslater.Cullen'syouth(hewasonly
22whenColorwaspublished),skillasapoet,andthemesevokedcomparisonstothe19thcenturyEnglishpoetJohnKeats,andsoCullenwascalledthe"black
Keats."Hewascelebratedasagenius.
Duringhislateryears,Cullenpublishedtwochildren'sbooks,TheLostZoo(1940)andMyLivesandHowILostThem(1942).
Unlikemanyoftheotherblackpoetsoftheperiod,Cullenworkedwithintraditionalpoeticformsratherthanexperimentingwithjazzrhythms.Nonetheless,hispoems
broughtblackthemestotheattentionofwhitereaders.
ZoraNealeHurston(18911960)
"Iamnottragicallycolored.Thereisnogreatsorrowdamnedupinmysoul,norlurkingbehindmyeyes.IdonotmindatallNo,IdonotweepattheworldIamtoobusy
sharpeningmyoysterknife."
ZoraNealeHurston,"HowItFeelstoBeColoredMe"
ZoraNealeHurstonarrivedinNewYorkCityin1925andcametorepresentthebestoftheHarlemRenaissance.Byherdeathin1960,shehadpublishedmore
booksthananyotherblackAmericanwriternonetheless,shediedaloneandpenniless.
WhenHurstonwas11yearsold,hermotherdiedandthechildwasshuttledfromrelativetorelative.Hurstonwassoeagertolearnthateventhoughsheneverfinished
highschool,shewasabletostudyatHowardUniversity.ShedecidedtomovetoNewYorkafterherfirstshortstory"DrenchedinLight"waspublishedinanAfro
Americanmagazine.
Vivaciousandspirited,HurstongotajobasapersonalsecretarytothewhitenovelistFannyHurst.Inhersparetime,sheenrolledinBarnardCollege.There,Hurston
developedaninterestinAfricanAmericanfolkliteratureandbecameapopularperformanceartistandstoryteller.
In1927HurstongraduatedfromBarnardCollegeandwasawardedafellowshiptostudytheblackoraltraditions.Hersubsequentpublicationswerecontroversial
amongherfellowblackwritersbecausetheywerenotpolitical.Sherefusedtofollowapoliticalagendarather,shearguedthatsheshouldbefreetowriteaboutwhat
shewanted,regardlessofappearanceorperception.
Inthe1930s,Hurstonproducedherfinestwriting,eventhoughthepublic'sinterestinblackliteraturehadwaned.TheseworksincludeJonah'sGourdVine(1934),
MulesandMen(1935),TheirEyesWereWatchingGod(1937),andDustTracksonaRoad(1942).Hermostpopularbookearnedlessthan$1,000,butstill
shepersevered.Finally,overworkedtothebreakingpoint,HurstonmovedbacktoFlorida.Sheworkedasamaidtosupportherself.Rediscoveredbythewomen's
movementinthe1970s,Hurstonisnowconsideredoneofthekeyblackwritersofthe20thcentury.
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JeanToomer(18941967)
"Thesky,lazilydisdainingtopursue
Thesettingsun,tooindolenttohold
Alengtheningtournamentforflashinggold,
Passivelydarkensfornight'sbarbecue,"
JeanToomer,fromCane
LikeotherHarlemRenaissancewriters,JeanToomerhadadeepinterestintheculturalrootsoftheAfricanAmericanexperience.Inhispoetry,Toomerexpressed
hisbeliefthatmaintainingasenseofprideintheblackheritagewasvitaltothefreedomofblackpeople.
BorninWashington,D.C.,Toomerattendedanumberofdifferentcollegesbutneverearnedadegree.AfterteachinghighschoolforseveralyearsinGeorgia,he
createdaseriesofsketches,poems,andaoneactplaythathepublishedunderthetitleCane(1923).
CaneelevatedToomertoapreeminentpositionamonghisfellowblackwriters.
UnlikeLangstonHughesandZoraNealeHurston,ToomerwantedtobeconsciouslyliteraryCanedoesnotusethevoicesofblackpeopleofthatera.Toomerwas
praisednotonlyforhissensitiveportrayalsofblacklife,butalsoforwriting"withoutsurrenderorcompromiseoftheartist'svision,"asoneadmirersaid.
Canefellintoobscurity,andToomerfollowedsuit.Recently,however,Canehasregainedattentionandisnowregardedasoneofthemostinfluentialandimportant
workstoemergefromtheHarlemRenaissance.
ClaudeMcKay(18901948)
"Myeyesgrewdim,andIcouldnomoregaze
Awaveoflongingthroughmybodyswept,
And,hungryfortheold,familiarways
Iturnedasideandbowedmyheadandwept."
ClaudeMcKay,from"TheTropicsinNewYork"
AlthoughClaudeMcKaywasborninJamaicaandlivedinmanycountriesduringhislife,heconsideredHarlemhisspiritualhome.Thesonofpoorfarmers,McKay
movedfromthevillageofSunnyVilletoKingston,thecapitalofJamaica,whenhewas14yearsoldandbeganwritingpoetrywhilestillateenager.
WhenhispoetrycollectionSongsofJamaicawonamajorawardin1912,hewasabletoemigratetoAmerica.MuchofMcKay'spoetryevokestherichheritageof
hisnative
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Jamaica.McKay'sAmericanreputationwassecuredwiththepublicationofHarlemShadowsin1922.Thiscollectionofpassionateandvibrantpoemsisthefirst
greatliteraryachievementoftheHarlemRenaissance.Thatyear,McKaymovedtoRussia,wherehewascelebratedbytheBolshevikleadersandtheRussianmasses
asaleftistpoet.Around1925,McKayleftRussiaforFrance,wherehewrotehisfirstnovel,HometoHarlem(1928)andgatheredmaterialforhissecond,Banjo
(1929).ThiswasfollowedbytwoshortstorycollectionsaboutHarlemlife,Gingertown(1932)andBananaBottom(1933).
Thelast14yearsofMcKay'slifewerealetdown.BackinAmerica,hefoundbothhishealthandcreativitydeclining.HislastbookwasHarlem:ANegro
Metropolis(1940).
AdditionalVoices
W.E.B.DuBois(18681963)BorninNewEnglandandeducatedatHarvardUniversityandtheUniversityofBerlin,DuBoisdemonstratedinhislandmark
book,TheSoulsofBlackFolk(1903),thatsegregationwouldinevitablyleadtoinequality,particularlyineducation.DuBois,afounderoftheNationalAssociation
fortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP),alsowrotesensitiveappreciationsoftheAfricanAmericantraditionsandculturehisworkhelpedblack
intellectualsrediscovertheirrichfolkliteratureandmusic.
JamesWeldonJohnson(18711938)JohnsonexploredthecomplexissueofraceinhisfictionalTheAutobiographyofanExColoredMan(1912),abouta
mixedracemanwho''passes"(sconsidered)white.ThebookeffectivelyconveysBlackAmerica'sconcernwithissuesofidentityinAmerica.Johnsonhimselfwasof
mixedwhiteandblackancestry.HealsowrotetheNationalNegroAnthem"LiftEveryVoiceandSing."
CharlesWaddellChesnutt(18581932)Theauthoroftwocollectionsofstories,TheConjureWoman(1899)andTheWifeofHisYouth(1899)several
novels,includingTheMarrowofTradition(1901)andabiographyofFrederickDouglass,Chesnuttwasaheadofhistime.Hisstoriesdealwithracialthemesbut
avoidpredictableendingsandgeneralizedsentimenthischaractersaredistinctindividualswithcomplexattitudesaboutmanythings,includingrace.Chesnuttoften
showsthestrengthoftheblackcommunityandaffirmsethicalvaluesandracialsolidarity.
BookerT.Washington(18561915)Aneducatorandthemostprominentblackleaderofhisday,WashingtongrewupasaslaveinFranklinCounty,Virginia.
Borntoawhiteslaveholdingfatherandaslavemother,hebecamefamousforhiseffortstoimprovethelivesofAfricanAmericansthrougheducation.Hispolicyof
integrationwithwhiteanattempttoinvolvetherecentlyfreedblackAmericaninthemainstreamofAmericansocietywasoutlinedinhisfamousAtlantaExposition
Address(1895).Checkouthisautobiography,UpFromSlavery(1901),formoreinformationaboutthisremarkableman.
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Page315
Chapter26
Politicallifeinthe1950smayhavebeencalmandconforming,buttheliteraryfrontwasexplodingwithwildlydifferentvisions.The"beat"writersWilliamS.
Burroughs,JackKeroauc,andAllenGinsbergexploredtheneedforspontaneityinlivingandwriting.The"confessional"poetsSylviaPlath,AnneSexton,and
RobertLowellusedtheanguishoftheirownlivestoexploreAmerica'shiddendespair.J.D.Salinger'sTheCatcherintheRyebecamethesymbolforageneration
ofdisaffectedyouth.
Sosettleback,ladiesandgentlemen,anddiscoverhowsomeofourfavoritewritersexpressedtheirvisionofAmericanlifeinmidcentury.
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TheBeatGoesOn
TherecentdeathsofAllenGinsbergandWilliamS.BurroughsendedoneofthemostintriguingliterarymovementsinAmericanhistory:thebeats.Burroughswasthe
beats'fatherfigureandliteraryinnovator,Ginsbergitspublicistandpoetlaureate.Thoughthebeatmovementislargelyover,itwillalwaysberememberedfor
changingthewayAmericansviewmodernlife.
BeatIt
TheBeatmovementstartedinNewYorkCityin1944,whenWilliamBurroughs,JackKerouac,AllenGinsberg,andLucienCarrbegantheirquestfora"New
Vision"inliterature.ItflourishedthroughfellowbeatnikssuchasNealCassady,whoarrivedinNewYorkin1946tobecomeKerouac'sfriendandGinsberg'slover.
AccordingtoaTimemagazinearticleoftheperiod,thebeatswereeasytospotbecause"theyspoketheirownargot,mostlypickedupfromtheNegroJazz
musiciansandjuvenilestreetgangs:"bread"formoneyand"dig"foradmiration.Theyexperimentedwithmarijuana,whichtheycalled"pot.''Bothsexeshuddledup
inflatstheycalled"pads,"furnishedwithnomorethanaguitar,hotplate,baremattressandafewrecordsandbooks."
Thebeatswerecarefultopointoutthattheyweren'tnearlyasdangerousasthepublicthought.AsKerouacremarked,"WeloveeverythingBillyGraham,theTop
Ten,RockandRoll,Zen,applepie,Eisenhowerwedigitall."
RunningonEmpty
Underthesesurfacedifferences,however,thebeatswerecuriouslyliketheothergreatliteraryarchitectsofthe20thcentury,suchastheModernistsspearheadedby
EzraPoundandT.S.Eliot.Aswiththesewriters,thebeatswerestrugglingwiththequalityofcontemporarylife.Theirwritingreflectedtheemptinessofaworld
devoidofspontaneityandcreativepossibility,whichhas"driventhebestmindsmad,"inGinsberg'swords.Thebeatwritersattemptedtoconveypureemotion
throughwordsinordertobreakthroughwhattheysawasthesterilityofthetimes.
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Thebeatscatapultedtonationwideattentioninthe1950s,whentheyjoinedforceswiththepoetsofthesocalled"SanFranciscoRenaissance":KennethRexroth,
RobertDuncan,JackSpicer,LewWelch,andothers.ItwasaSanFranciscopoet,LawrenceFerlinghetti,whopublishedandpopularizedthebeatwritersviahisCity
LightsBooksandCityLightsBookstore.
SinceWilliamS.BurroughsisusuallyconsideredthepatriarchoftheBeatmovement,let'slookathislifeandworkfirst.
WilliamS.Burroughs(19141997)
WilliamBurroughswasthebeatgeneration'smostinnovativewriter.BornintoseriousmoneyhisgrandfatherinventedtheBurroughsaddingmachineBurroughs'
personallifecanbesummarizedbythetitlesoftwoofhisnovels,JunkyandQueer.Muchofhislifewasmarkedbydrama:Burroughswasarrestedondrugchargesin
1949andfledtoMexicowithhiswife,Joan.In1951,BurroughscausedabiggersensationwhenheaccidentallykilledJoaninadrunkengameofWilliamTell.
Burroughsspentmuchofthe1950sand1960sinEuropeandNorthAfrica,wherehewroteaseriesofcontroversialbooks.Themostfamousofthese,NakedLunch
(1959)wastriedforobscenityinBoston.
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JackKerouac(19221969)
KerouaccamefromLowell,Massachusetts,adownandoutformermilltown.Kerouac'sfathertookupgamblingwhenhisbusinessfailed.Jackwastheninhigh
school.
Jacktriedtosavethefamilybywinningafootballscholarshiptocollegeandenteringtheinsurancebusiness.Hewouldthenmakeenoughmoneytosupportthem.
HedidindeedwinascholarshiptoColumbiaUniversityinNewYork.Hisparentsfollowedhimthere,settlinginOzonePark,Queens.
Butlifedidn'tgoasplannedforKerouacintheBigApple.Kerouac'sfootballcoachrefusedtoputhiminthegames,andhisfathersankrapidlyintoalcoholism.In
desperation,KerouacdroppedoutofColumbiaandjoinedtheMerchantMarines.Whenhewasn'tsailing,KerouacwashangingaroundNewYorkwiththewild
crowdhehadcometoknowwhileatColumbia:AllenGinsberg,LucienCarr,WilliamS.Burroughs,andNealCassady.
Soonafterhefinishedhisstintintheservice,Kerouacpublishedhisfirstnovel,aconventionalbookcalledTheTownandtheCityin1950.Itearnedhimsome
recognitionasawriterbutnorealmoney.KerouacfoundhisnichewhenhedecidedtowriteaboutthecrosscountrytripsheandNealCassadyhadtaken.In1950,
hepresentedtheresultingmanuscripttohiseditoronasinglelongrollofunbrokenpaper,buttheeditorwasn'timpressed.Ittooksevenyearsforhismostfamous
novel,OntheRoad,tobepublished.ThenovelchangedKerouac'slifeforgood.
Dissatisfiedwithtraditionalfiction,KeroucusedOntheRoadtodevelopanew,spontaneous,nonstop,anduneditedmethodofwritingthatshockedmorepolished
andconventionalwriters.Thenovel,writteninthreeweeks,drewpublicattentiontothewidespreadsubterreaneancultureofbeatpoets,folksingers,hipsters,mystics,
andeccentrics.
AfterOntheRoad,KerouacpublishedTheDharmaBums(1958),TheSubterranean(1958),DoctorSax(1959),LonesomeTraveler(1960)andDesolation
Angels(1965).AllKerouac'sbooksareautobiographical.
Alwaysadrinker,Kerouacfoundthelossofprivacydifficulttohandleandbegantodrinkheavily.KerouaclivedouthisfinalyearswithhismotherinSt.Petersburg,
Florida.VisionsofCodywaspublishedposthumously,in1972.ItwasoriginallypartofOntheRoad.
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AllenGinsberg(19261997)
"Isawthebestmindsofmygenerationdestroyedby
madness,starvinghystericalnaked,
draggedthemselvesthroughtheNegrostreetsatdawn
lookingforanangryfix,"
AllenGinsberg,"Howl"
AshychildgrowingupinPaterson,NewJersey,AllenGinsberg'shomelifewasdominatedbyhismother'smentalillness.HediscoveredthepoetryofWaltWhitman
(theoriginalbeatnick)inhighschool,butdespitehisinterestinpoetry,Ginsbergfollowedtheadviceofhisfather,andbeganplanningacareerasalaborlawyer.
Allen'sfather,Louis,wasapoetofsomenote,sowecanassumeheknewfirsthandtheproblemsthatpoetsface.
DuringhisfirstyearatColumbiaUniversityin1948,GinsbergfellinwithacrowdofwildandcrazymenandquicklywassuspendedfromColumbiaforvarious
offenses.HebeganconsortingwithjunkiesandthievesintheTimesSquareareaofNewYorkCity(mostlyfriendsofBurroughs),experimentingwithdrugs,and
cruisinggaybarsinGreenwichVillage.Hewasconvincedthatheandhisfriendswereworkingtowardsomekindofasyetundefinedpoeticbreakthrough.
"Howl"
WhenhisfriendWilliamBurroughswasarrestedin1951forthemurderofhiswife,Ginsbergimmersedhimselfinpsychoanalytictreatmentandtookajobasa
marketingresearcher.Thisphasedidn'tlastlong,andGinsbergheadedwesttoplungeintotheSanFranciscopoetryscene.Hewasthefirstbeatwritertobecome
wellknownwhenhedeliveredadramaticreadingofhisnewpoem,"Howl,"atthenowlegendarySixGallerypoetryreadinginOctober1955.Thisgreatpoemwas
convenientlypublicizedbyabungledobscenitychargethatmadeAllenaworldwidesymbolofsexualdepravity."Howl"wasavisibleexpressionofbeatdefiance,just
asKerouac'sOntheRoad,publishedtwoyearslater,wouldbethegreatexpressionofbeatyearningsforcreativefreedom.
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UnfortunatelyforGinsberg,theSanFranciscopoets'enthusiasticreceptionfor"Howl"wasnotsharedbythepopulationatlarge.Tomostofthepublic,"Howl"was
simplyadirtypoem.Ferlinghetti,owneroftheCityLightsBookstoreinSanFrancisco,andthebookstoremanagerwerebotharrestedforsellinganobscenebook.
Ginsbergpublished"Howl"withseveralotherimportantcollectionsofpoems,suchas"EmptyMirror"and"KaddishandOtherPoems''(1963).Hemellowed
considerably,likelytheresultofdiscoveringBuddhismandfallinginlovewithPeterOrlovsky,whowouldremainhisconstantcompanionfor30years.Perhapsmost
importantly,heexorcisedsomeinternaldemonsbywriting"Kaddish,"abrilliantpoemabouthismother'sinsanityanddeath.
GinsbergcarriedonanactivesocialscheduleuntilhisdeathinApril1997.HenevermovedawayfromhishumbleapartmentonNewYorkCity'slowereastside.
NoteveryonewasaGinsbergfanfarfromit.Theinfluentialintellectualscholar,writer,andcriticNormanPodhoretz,forexample,startedoutasafriend,butended
upbrandingGinsbergafraud,awriterwhopassedofflittletalentwithalotofbombast.PodhoretzattackedGinsberg'sethic:insanityissanity,drugsaresacramental,
homosexualityisholy,normalityishorror.
Nonetheless,Ginsberg'sreputationremainsundiminishedafterhisdeath.Ifanything,hisfollowersaremoredevotedthanever.Icanunderstandtheadmirationpeople
feelforGinsberg,forwehadhimspeaktwiceattheVisitingWritersProgramattheStateUniversityatFarmingdale,andfoundhimprovocativeyetsweet.
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TheFamily
Storead:"Wetreatyoulikefamily."
Thatbad,huh?ThecolumnistMurrayKemptoncoinedthetermtheFamilytodescribetheNewYorkintellectualswhobuzzedaroundthehighbrowliterary
magazinesCommentaryandPartisanReviewinthe1940sand1950s.TheFamilyincludedthefollowingintellectuals:
HannahArendt
LillianHellman
IrvingHowe
DwightMacdonald
MaryMcCarthy
NormanPodhoretz
PhilipRahv
HaroldRosenberg
LionelTrilling
DianaTrilling
Thiswastheothersideofthecoin,the"highbrow"cult,whichtodaysurvivesasthe"NewYorkReviewofBooks."Intheirintellectualworldofcriticismand
scholarship,thesewritersmadeaquietsplashintheliterarypoolbutanequallyimportantone.That'sbecausetheyinfluencedthebookstaughtincollegesandthe
criticalslantstakentowardthem.Asaresult,thesewritersandcriticshelpedestablishmanyofthebookswetodayesteemasclassics.
MoreThanINeededtoKnow
There'snothingnewaboutlettingitallhangoutthesocalledconfessionalpoetsweresharingtheirfeelingslongbeforedepressionbecameobligatorycocktailparty
chatter.SylviaPlath,AnneSexton,andRobertLowellwere"confessionalpoets,"socalledbecausetheirpoetrydealtwithdeeplypersonal,emotional,and
psychologicalmatters.Confessionalpoetrymovedawayfromtheearliernotionthatpoetrywastobeuniversalratherthanpersonal.Theconfessionalpoetsdescribed
theexperienceofsuffering,ofteninthecontextofthefamily,andthroughthissuffering,suggestedthecostofthenationalpracticesandideologiesofthe1950sonthe
individual.
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Theresultisabodyofworkofuniversalsignificance,anexpressionofapsychologicalconditionthatispublicaswellasprivate.RobertLowellwastheteacherofthe
group,butSylviaPlathhasbecomethepatronsaint,solet'sstartwithher.
SylviaPlath(19321963)
"EverywomanadoresaFascist,
Thebootintheface,thebrute
Bruteheartofabrutelikeyou."
SylviaPlath,"Daddy"
In"Daddy,"perhapsPlath'sbestknownpoem,sheexaminesthefather/daughterrelationship.Criticizedasa"rackingpersonalconfession"aswellasforitsuseof
''readymade"publicimagesofterror,"Daddy"hasalsoreapedmuchpraise.CriticGeorgeSteiner,forexample,saidthepoemsucceedsintranslatingprivate
sufferingintouniversaltruths.Mostpositiveresponsestothepoem,though,notethecarefulinterplaybetweenthepoem'scontentandformaspossiblyPlath'shighest
poeticachievement.Itisthisinterplaythateffectivelyconveystheambiguityoftheemotionbehindthepoem,thelove/haterelationshipbetweenthespeakerandher
father.
DaddyDearest
"Daddy"opensinrejection:"Youdonotdo,youdonotdo"suggestinganantimarriagevow.Thespeakerisdeclaringthatafter30years,shewantstofreeherselfof
theawfulinfluenceofherdeadfather.Hehasbecomeaburden,"marbleheavy"inhisdeathlikethebastardchildofaNazisoldier("IntheGermantongue,inthe
Polishtown"),shehassoughtherfatherunsuccessfullyandsufferedforit.Then,"stuckinabarbwiresnare,"shesuddenlybecomesnotthechildofaNazi,buthis
victim.Onherway"toDachau,Auschwitz,Belsin,"sheimaginesherself,inherpersecutedstate,aJew.
Thefather/Naziimageisextendedtoherlover,asshemarriesamodelofherfather,"AmaninblackwithaMeinkampflook/Andaloveoftherackandscrew."The
irony,though,isthatwhileshesays"I'mfinallythrough"withDaddy,shealsosays"Ido,Ido"tohisreplacement,reversingtherenunciationoftheopeningline.While
shehasfinallylaidherbloodsucking,vampirefathertorest,shehasmarriedhisreplicaanddeliberatelycontinuedherownpersecution.Thespeakerbecomesboth
victimandvictimizer,findingpleasureinherownpain,tornbetweenlifeanddeath.
WhatdrovePlathtocreateapoemthispowerful,thissad?Onthesurface,therewaslittleinherlifetosuggesttheharrowingimagesfoundinherverse.
ThePerfectChild
Sensitive,intelligent,compelledtowardperfectionineverythingsheattempted,onthesurfacePlathwasthemodeldaughterpopular,brilliant,andaccomplished.By
the
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timesheenteredSmithCollegeonascholarshipin1950,Plathhadalreadycompiledanimpressivelistofpublications.WhileatSmith,shewrotemorethan400
poems.
Plath'ssurfaceperfectionwasanillusion,however,forshewasactuallymentallyill.DuringthesummerfollowingherjunioryearatSmith,Plathbarelyescapeddeath
afterswallowingsleepingpills.Shelaterdescribedthisexperienceinanautobiographicalnovel,TheBellJar,publishedin1963.Afterelectroshockand
psychotherapy,PlathgraduatedfromSmithandwonaFulbrightscholarshiptostudyatCambridge,England.
In1956,shemarriedtheEnglishpoetTedHughes,andin1960,whenshewas28,herfirstbook,TheColossus,waspublishedinEngland.SheandHughessettled
forawhileintheEnglishcountryside,butlessthantwoyearsafterthebirthoftheirfirstchild,themarriagecollapsed.Itwas1958,butbythen,Sylviahadgivenbirth
toasecondchild.
ThepoemsPlathwroteduringthewinterof1962to'63becamemorepowerful:Deathnowtakesonaphysicalallureandpsychicpainthatisalmosttactile.On
February11,1963,Plathkilledherself.Itwasagrislydeath.Shesettwomugsofmilkbyherchildren'sbeds,barricadedherselfinthekitchen,stuffedclothunderthe
door,andstuckherheadintotheoven.Twoyearslater,Ariel,acollectionofsomeofherlastpoems,waspublishedthiswasfollowedbyCrossingtheWaterand
WinterTreesin1971,andin1981,TheCollectedPoemsappeared,editedbyTedHughes.
Plath'slifeanddeathhaveevokedastonishingfireamongherdevotedfans.TedHughesisoftenpaintedasaheinousvillainwhocontrolledaccesstoherworkand
stifledherlife.CheckoutanyofthemanyWebsitesontheInternetforapeekatthepassionPlathevokeseventoday,decadesafterhersuicide.
AnneSexton(19201974)
BorninNewton,Massachusetts,AnneHarveyattendedGarlandJuniorCollegeforayearbeforehermarriagein1948toAlfredM.SextonII.TheylivedinNew
YorkandMassachusettsforsomeyearsandinBaltimoreandSanFranciscowhileAlfredservedinthenavyduringtheKoreanWar.Sextonworkedatvarioustimes
asafashionmodelandasalibrarian.In1960,Sextonpublishedherfirstbookofpoetry,ToBedlamandPartWayBack."Hersecondbookofpoems,AllMy
PrettyOnes,appearedin1962andcontinuedheruncompromisingselfexploration.(Orselfobsession,dependingonhowyoulookatit.)
LiveorDie(1966)wonaPulitzerPrizeandwasfollowedbyseveralothervolumesofpoetry.
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Sexton'songoingmentalillnessledtorepeatedhospitalizationsinpsychiatricinstitutions.
Andifthatwasn'tenoughtohaveononeplate,Sextonwasalsoaddictedtoalcoholandsleepingpills.Sextontookherownlifewithonoverdoseofmedicationon
October4,1974,inWeston,Massachusetts,attheageof54.
RobertLowell(19171977)
PoetElizabethBishopwrotetoRobertLowell:
"Ingeneral,Ideploretheconfessionalhowever,whenyouwroteLifeStudiesperhapsitwasanecessarymovement,andithelpedmakepoetrymorereal,fresh,and
immediate."
RebertLowellhailedfromadistinguishedliteraryfamily:hisgreatgranduncleJamesRussellLowellhadbeenapoetandAmerica'sambassadortoEnglandhiscousin
AmyLowellwasalsoawellknownpoet.(Sowhatifshesmokedbigfatcigarsbeforeitbecamefashionable?)
RebelRobertleftHarvardin1937beforecompletinghisdegreeinordertostudyatKenyonCollegewithJohnCroweRansom,thepoetandcritic.Lowellfurther
alienatedhimselffromhisfamilywhenheconvertedtoRomanCatholicismin1940andrefusedtobedraftedintothearmyinWorldWarII.Asaresult,heserveda
yearinjailthejudgescoldedhimforscarringhisfamily'sgrandheritage.Lowell'sfirstbookofpoems,LordWeary'sCastle(1946)wasastunningindictmentofhis
elegantProtestantBostonbackground.
"Acarradiobleats,
'Love,0carelessLove'Ihear
myillspiritedsobineachbloodcell,
asifmyhandwereatitsthroat
Imyselfamhell
nobody'shere"
Lowell,from"SkunkHour"
InLifeStudies(1959),Lowellchangedhisstyledramaticallytobecomeaconfessionalpoet.ForTheUnionDead,publishedfiveyearslater,continuedinthesame
selfrevelatoryvein.Morebooksfollowed,asLowelldivided
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histimebetweenNewYorkandteachingatHarvard.Byhisdeath,Lowellhadcompleted10booksofpoetryandhadbecomeareveredelderstatesman.Atthe
VietnamWarprotestin1967,NormanMailersaidthatLowell"gaveoffattimestheunwillinghauntedsaintlinessofamanwhowasrepayingthemoraldebtsoften
generationsofancestors."
J.D.Salinger(b.1919)
Thesonofaprosperousmeatimporter,JeromeDavidSalingerwasborninNewYorkCity.HisliferesembledthatofhisfictionalcreationHoldenCaufield:He
enjoyedthebenefitsofanuppermiddleclassfamilylife,includinganeducationatprivateschools.
Aftergraduatingfromhighschool,SalingerbrieflyattendedNewYorkUniversity,UrsinusCollege,andColumbiaUniversity.In1940,hepublishedhisfirstshort
story.Draftedin1942,Salingerservedasasergeantinthecounterintelligencecorps.HeparticipatedintheDDayinvasionandtheBattleoftheBulgeandwas
hospitalizedinNurembergforpsychiatricreasons.HonorablydischargedfromtheArmyin1946,SalingerreturnedtoNewYorkCity.
OnceinNewYork,SalingercontinuedwritingandpublishingstoriesinCollier's,Esquire,andtheNewYorker.Hisstorieswerewellreceivedbythecriticsbut
attractedlittlepopularattention.Buteverythingchangedin1951,withthepublicationofTheCatcherintheRye.
KvetcherintheRye
TheCatcherintheRyewasasmashsuccess.ABookoftheMonthClubselection,itgaveSalingerahugeaudience.ThepopularitydisturbedSalingersomuch,
however,thatheorderedhisportraitremovedfromsubsequentprintingsofthebook.Heremarkedlatertoafriendthat"Ifeeltremendouslyrelievedthattheseason
forsuccessforTheCatcherintheRyeisnearlyover.Ienjoyedasmallpartofit,butmostofitIfoundhecticandprofessionallyandpersonallydemoralizing."
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Reviewsofthenovelweremixed,fromoutandoutapprovaltoquestionsaboutSalinger'sattitudes,hisuseofthecolloquialstyle,thefocusonanadolescentboy,
andtheamountofsex.Asaresult,TheCatcherintheRyeisintheoddpositionofbeingjustasoftenrequiredreadingasitisbannedinhighschoolsandcolleges.
Thenovel'smaincharacter,HoldenCaulfield,capturedthemoodofagenerationofhighschoolandcollegestudents.Holdenhasbecameasymbolformisunderstood
youth.(JohnLennon'sassassinwasclutchingacopyofTheCatcherintheRyewhenhefiredthefatalshots.)Thepublicattentionthatfollowedthesuccessofthe
bookledSalingertomovefromNewYorktotheremotehillsofCornish,NewHampshire.
HideandSeek
SoreclusivethathemakesBigFootlooklikeapartyanimal,Salingernowrefusesallprofessionalinterviews(hedidspeaktoahighschoolstudentafewyearsago,
however).Heclaimsthatheisstillwriting,althoughhehasnotpublishedanythingsince1953.Salingerspottinghasbecomeaminorsport,likebalancingspoonson
yournose.
TheCatcherintheRye
RecoveringfromamentalbreakdowninaCaliforniaresthome(afancynameforamentalinstitution),HoldenCaufield,a17yearoldhighschooljunior,narrateshis
declinethepreviousDecemberfollowinghisexpulsionfromPenceyPrep,anexclusiveboy'sprepschoolinPennsylvania.FourdaysbeforetheChristmasbreak,
Holdenisexpelledbecausehehasfailedfouroutoffiveclasses,passingonlyEnglish.
Holdenvisitshisformerhistoryteacher,Mr.Spencer,tosaygoodbyeandthenreturnstohisdormandtalkstoRobertAckley,theslovenlystudentwhoroomsnext
door.Holden'shandsomeroommate,WardStradlater,asksHoldentowriteacompositionforhim,borrowsHolden'sjacket,anddressesforadatewithJane
Gallagher,Holden'soldfriend.HoldenhasdinnerwithfriendsandfightswithStradlateroverJane.Inthemiddleofthenight,HoldenleavesPenceyandtakesatrain
toNewYorkCitywhereheplanstostayuntilWednesday,whenheisexpectedhome.Bythattime,theheadmaster'sletterwillhavearrivedhomewiththenewsof
hisexpulsion.
OnceinNewYork,HoldentakesacabtotheEdmontHotelandcallsanacquaintancenamedFaithCavendishwhorefusestomeethim.HegoestotheLavender
Room,thehotelnightclub,anddanceswiththreewomen.Lonelyandrestless,hetakesacabtoErnie's,aGreenwichVillagenightclub.Althoughtheclubisoneofhis
brotherB.D.'sfavoritespots,Holdenisputoffbytheinsincerepeoplehemeetsthere.
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Holdenthenwalksthe41blocksbacktotheEdmontHotel,whereMaurice,theelevatoroperator,offerstosendhimaprostitutefor$5.Holdenagrees,butwhen
Sunnytheprostitutearrives,hepretendstoberecoveringfromsurgery.MauricethenshakesHoldendownfortendollars.
Thenextday,Sunday,HoldeninviteshisfriendSallyHayestogotoaBroadwayshow.Hetriestoexplainhisdisillusionmentwithphonies,butSally,herselfaphony,
doesn'tunderstand.Theyquarrel.HoldenmeetsCarlLuce,afriendfromanotherschool,butthatmeetinggoesbadlyaswell.AfterwanderingaroundCentralPark,
Holdengoeshomewhereheawakenshis10yearoldsister,Phoebe,whoisoverjoyedtoseehim.HethenvisitsaformerEnglishteacher,Mr.Antolini.Convinced
thatAntoliniismakinghomosexualadvances,Holdenfleeshisapartment.
HoldendecidestogoWest.HetellsPhoebeofhisplans,andshebegstocomewithhim.Herefusesbuttakeshertothezooandpark,wherehewatchesherridethe
carousel.ConfusedandunsureaboutwhethertoreturntoschoolthefollowingSeptember,Holdenhasanervousbreakdown.Heendshisnarrativefromthemental
institution.
TheCatcherintheRyewoncriticalacclaimandthousandsofdevotedfollowersforitspoignantdescriptionofateenagertryingtofindhiswayintheworld.Given
Salinger'stremendouscultfollowing,it'ssurprisingtorealizethathisentirebodyofpublishedworksconsistsofthisonenoveland13shortstories.
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Chapter27
Threebuddiesdieinacarcrashandgotoheavenfortheorientation.They'reallasked,"Whenyou'reinyourcasketbeingmourned,whatwouldyouliketohearyour
friendsandfamilysayaboutyou?
Thefirstguysays,"I'dliketohearthemsaythatIwasagreatdoctorandagreatfamilyman."
Thesecondguysays,"I'dliketohearthatIwasawonderfulteacherwhomadeabigdifferenceinAmerica'sfutureleaders."
Thelastguyreplied,"I'dliketohearthemsayLook,he'smoving!"
Humorandhorrortheygotogetherlikeloveandmarriage.ManyofAmerica'sfinesthorrorwriterscreatestorieswithatouchofmacabrehumorthatservesto
intensifythechillsandthrills.Ourhumoristsfindtheirowntypeofterrorincourtship,thebattleofthesexes,andeverydaylife.Theirwritingisfunny,butlet'snot
overlookthesubtleundercurrentofapprehension.
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Inthischapter,you'llfirstmeetFlanneryO'Connor,oneofthemostintriguingwritersofthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury.Labeled"SouthernGothic"forher
obsessionwithdeathanddarkhumor,O'Connor'sgallowshumorreflectedhervisionoftheworld.ThewritingsofNewYorkwitDorothyParkerhavetheirown
mordanthumor,grimlyironicbutmorecosmopolitanthanO'Connor'swork.JamesThurbercreatedcharacterswhosestrugglesagainsttheunpleasantrealitiesoflife
arebothamusingandawesome.
FlanneryO'Connor(19251964)
"Tothehardofhearingyoushout,andforthealmostblindyoudrawlargeandstartlingfigures."
FlanneryO'Connor,MysteryandManners
Atfirstglance,FlanneryO'Connor'swritingisassubtleasasmacktothesideofthehead.Herstoriesareloadedwithphysicaldeformities,freakfatalities,and
spiritualdepravity.Inonestory,anentirefamilyisviolentlymurderedintheGeorgiabackwoodsinanother,aconmandisguisedasaBiblesalesmanstealsawoman's
artificiallegbutnotbeforedisplayinghiscollectionofotherfauxbodyparts.ForO'Connor,evilusuallytriumphsovergood.
O'Connoradmittedthatherfictioncouldbecalledgrotesque,thoughshecautionedthat"anythingthatcomesoutoftheSouthisgoingtobecalledgrotesquebythe
northernreader,unlessitisgrotesque,inwhichcaseitisgoingtobecalledrealistic."Morethanthreedecadesafterherdeath,readersarestillshockedbyO'Connor's
grotesqueimages.
PeacocksandPain
"Highlyunladylikeabrutalirony,aslambanghumor,andastyleofwritingasbalefullydirectasadeathsentence."
TimemagazineonFlanneryO'Connor
BorninSavannah,Georgia,todevoutCatholicparents,MaryFlanneryO'ConnorattendedSt.Vincent'sgrammarschoolandSacredHeartparochialschool.When
Flannerywas13yearsold,herfathertookajobasanappraiserfortheFederalHousingAdministration.ThefamilyfirstmovedtonortheastAtlanta,andthento
Milledgeville,where,threeyearslater,O'Connor'sfatherdiedfromcomplicationsarisingfromlupus,achronicautoimmunedisease.
O'ConnorattendedGeorgiaStateCollegeforWomen(nowGeorgiaCollege)andtheStateUniversityofIowa,receivingherMasterofFineArtsfromthelatterin
1947.
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Whenshewas27,O'Connorpublishedherfirstnovel,WiseBlood,thestoryofaviolentrivalryamongthemembersofafictionalreligioussectintheSouth.
Atthesametime,aftercomplainingofaheavinessinherarms,shewasdiagnosedwithlupus.Despitethedisease,O'Connorwentontowritetwonovelsand32short
stories,winningawardsandacclaim,andgoingonspeakingtourswhenherhealthpermitted.Nonetheless,O'Connorspentmostofhertimeonthefamilyfarm,
Andalusia,inMilledgeville,withhermother.There,sheraisedpeacocks.O'Connordiedoflupusin1964,attheageof39.
DefenderoftheFaith
"WhenpeoplehavetoldmethatbecauseIamaCatholic,Icannotbeanartist,Ihavetoreply,ruefully,thatbecauseIamaCatholicIcannotaffordtobelessthananartist."
FlanneryO'Connor
O'Connor'sworkreflectsherstrongCatholicfaith.ShelivedintheSouthernBibleBeltandfreelyadmittedthatherfriendsandneighborshadastrongsenseofthe
absolute.InO'Connor'sstories,violentandgrotesquecharactersoftensymbolizemoraldepravityandaredriventodamnation.Theironlysalvationliesindivine
awarenessandredemption.
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FlanneryO'ConnorwasaChristianwriter,andherworkismessageoriented,yetsheisfartoobrilliantastylisttotipherhandherwritingstandsuponbothliterary
andreligiousgrounds,andsucceedsindoingjusticetoboth.
MakeMeLaugh,MakeMeCry
Humorinliteraturereferstothewriter'sattemptstoevokelaughteroramusement.Humoristsevokeyuksbypointingoutcomical,ludicrous,andridiculoussituations.
Inaddition,humorwritersmay:
Embellishevents
Usesarcasm
Usewordplay
Includeirony
Deliberatelymisusewords
Exaggeratedetails
Ingeneral,humordoesn'tagewell.Who,afterall,remembersArtemusWard,PetroleumV.Nasby,ortheothersocalled"FunnyFellows"fromthe19thcentury?
Almostnooneoutsideuniversities.Whenitcomestohumor,youjusthavetobethere.Well,maybenot.
MarkTwainclaimed:"Humormustnotprofessedlyteach,andmustnotprofessedlypreach,butitmustdobothifitwouldliveforever.Byforever,Imeanthirty
years."SincemostofthebookswrittenbyJamesThurberandDorothyParkerareinprint30yearsafterthewritersdied,Ithinkthey'vemetTwain'sstandard.Let's
seewhytheseAmericanhumoristshavewithstoodthetestoftime.
JamesThurber(18941961)
"Humorisemotionalchaosrememberedintranquillity."
JamesThurber
BorninColumbus,Ohio,ThurberlosthislefteyewhenhewassixyearsoldduringagameofWilliamTellwithhisbrother.Despitethishandicap,heattendedOhio
StateUniversityfrom1913to1918.Duetohisvisionproblems,however,hefailedgymandbiology,andlefttheuniversityin1919withoutearningadegree.He
movedtoNewYorkCitywhereheworkedfortheSaturdayEveningPost.In1927,hejoinedthestaffofTheNewYorkerasstaffwriterandmanagingeditor.
AswithHenryJamesandT.S.Eliot,ThurberexpatriatedhimselftoEuropeinthe1930sbutreturnedtoNewYorkCitywithfewprospects.TheNewYorkeroffered
topublishhiswork,agestureThurberrepaidbycontributingtothemagazine'ssuccessmanytimesover.
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TheNewYorkerwasanidealforumforThurber,andtherehisworkflourishedashepublisheddrawings,stories,andbitsofautobiography,theworkthatearnedhim
fameandhonor.ThurberwasAmerica'smostpopularhumoristinthe1930sand1940s.Alltold,hepublishedmorethan30books.
FablesforOurTime
''Thurber'sgeniuswastomakeofourdespairahumorousfable."
JohnUpdike
FantasywasThurber'sforte.FablesforOurTime(1940)andFurtherFablesforOurTime(1956)remainamonghismostbrilliantcreations.Thurberknewthat
wearefunny"inthefaceoftheAwful."ItisthisknowledgethatmakesThurber'sfablesasrelevanttodayastheywereagenerationago.
Perhapsasaresultofhisfailedfirstmarriage,Thurber'sstoriesandfablesdepictwedlockasaseriesofpowerstrugglesbetweenhusbandsandwives.However,in
theseearlypieces,thisconflictislightenedbytouchesofironyandidealisticoptimism.Atypicalexampleisthefable"TheShrikeandtheChipmunk."Afemale
chipmunkleavesherhusbandanddeclaresthathewillneversurviveonhisownonthecontrary,hecarriesalongnicelyuntilshereturnsandgetsthembothkilled
duringamorningwalksheinsistsontaking.Thedeepermeaninghintedatbythisstorythatmarriageisnotagoodthingformenislightened
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bythehumorinitsmoral,"Earlytoriseandearlytobedmakesamalehealthyandwealthyanddead."
Incomparison,darkermeaningslingerjustbeneaththesurfaceofFurtherFablesforOurTime.ThepessimismshownintheseparablesresultedfromThurber's
revulsiontowardtheongoingRedScareofthe1950shecomposedthebulkofhispoliticalsatirefollowingtheriseofSenatorJosephMcCarthy.Thurber's"The
PeacelikeMongoose,"forinstance,detailsthepersecutionsfacingamongoosewhodecidesthathedoesn'twanttospendhislifekillingcobras.Hisneighborsand
familytreathimasdeeplysubversiveandbanishhimfromthecolony.Thefable'smoralhasafardarkeredgethanearlierstories,"Ashestoashesandclaytoclay,if
theenemydoesn'tgetyou,yourownfolksmay."
TheSecretLifeofWalterMitty
"Thelittlewheelsofinventionaresetinmotionbythedamphandofmelancholy."
JamesThurber
Thurber'smostfamousstoryis"TheSecretLifeofWalterMitty,"firstpublishedintheNewYorkerin1939.Thestorydescribesamiddleagedman,WalterMitty,
whoishenpeckedbyhisoverbearingwife.Unhappywithhiseverydaylife,Mittydreamsofgrandadventureandheroism.
"WalterMitty"epitomizesThurber'sdepictionofthecharactershecalled"PerfectNeurotics."Commentingonthesecharacters,Thurbersaid,"Theyleadanexistence
ofjumpinessandapprehension.InthehouseofLifetheyhavethefeelingtheyhavenevertakenofftheirovercoats."
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Thurberiscelebratedforhisvisionoftheurbanmanneedingtoescapeintofantasybecauseheisbefuddledandbesetbyaworldheneithercreatednorunderstands.
Thurber'sbestknownportraitofthischaracterisWalterMitty,atimid,haplessmanwhononethelessoutsmartshisoverbearingwifebyretreatingintoarichinnerlife.
DorothyParker(18931967)
Inthe1920s,DorothyParkerbecameasymboloftheliberatedwomanforherwitandindependence.HerclevercommentswereoftenquotedinNewYorkgossip
columns.Herearesomeofhermostfamouswitticisms:
"IthoughttheplaywasfrightfulbutIsawitunderparticularlyunfortunatecircumstances.Thecurtainwasup."
OnlearningthatCalvinCoolidgewasdead,sheremarked,"Howcouldtheytell?"
"Youcanleadahorticulturebutyoucan'tmakeherthink."
"AreyouDorothyParker?"aguestatapartyinquired."Yes,doyoumind?"shereplied.
Inabookreview:"Thisisnotanoveltobetossedasidelightly.Itshouldbethrownasidewithgreatforce."
"Brevityisthesouloflingerie."
Ina1933reviewoftheplay"TheLake"starringKatherineHepburn:"MissHepburnrunsthegamutofemotionsfromAtoB."
Oftheplay"TheHouseBeautiful":"TheHouseBeautifulisThePlayLousy."
BorninNewYorkCity,DorothyRothschildwaseducatedataprivatehighschool.Ratherthanattendingauniversity,
DorothytookajobwithVogue,thefashionmagazine,writingcaptionsforphotographs.Inherfreetime,shewrotepoetry.Whenshewas24yearsold,Dorothytook
ajobwithVanityFair,aslick,sophisticatedmagazine.SheandRobertBenchley,themagazine'smanagingeditor,hititoffandbecameclosefriends.Robert
Sherwood,thedramaeditor,soonjoinedthegroup.
ThethreeVanityFairwritersoftenatelunchattheAlgonquinHotel.Soon,theywerejoinedbyotherjournalists,includingFranklinPierceAdams,ahumor
columnist,andHaroldRoss,thefounderoftheNewYorker.ThisgroupformedthecenterofabouttwodozenofNewYork'smostfamouswriters,dramatists,and
actors.Thesocalled"AlgonquinGroup"becamefamousforitscollectivewit.Whentheywereintown,theMarxBrothersoftendroppedbyforadrinkandajoke.
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In1917,DorothymarriedEdwinPondParkerIIandbecameDorothyParker.Thenamechangelastedfar,farlongerthanthemarriage,whichendedin1928.
CannedfromVanityFairforherharshreviews,Parkerbecameafreelancewriter.Lifewashard,andtwicesheattemptedsuicide.Parker'slifeimprovedin1926
whenherbookofpoems,EnoughRope,waspublishedandbecameabestseller.Althoughshepublishedtwootherbooksofpoemsduringthistime,SunsetGun
(1928)andDeathandTaxes(1931),Parker'sreputationwasbuiltonhershortstories.
In1929,ParkerwontheimportantO.Henryshortstoryawardforherstory"BigBlond."
ShepublishedastunningseriesofsuperbstoriesduringtheDepressionyears.Parker'sstoriesweremostoftenobservantstudiesofthecontrastbetweenappearance
andreality.
In1933,ParkermarriedtheactorAlanCampbell.Together,theywrotesomefinescreenplaysandwerewellpaidfortheirwork.Aswithmanyintellectualsduringthe
1930s,Parkerbecameasocialistsympathizer.TheideologicalmovewouldcomebacktohauntherintheMcCarthyeraoftheconservative1950s,whensheand
Campbellwereblacklistedandunabletogetwork.Campbelldiedin1963whileParkerenduredfouryearsofisolationandpovertybeforeherdeathinNewYork
Cityin1967.
LegendsofLaughter
OtherAmericanhumoristsalsolefttheirmarkonthenationalconsciousness.AmongthemostpopularwereRobertBenchley,theMarxBrothers,andWillRogers.
Let'stakealookatthemnow.
RobertBenchley(18891945)Benchleywasoneofthemostprolificandpopularwritersofhistime.BorninMassachusettsandeducatedatHarvard,Benchley
wentintojournalismandeventuallyservedaseditorofVanityFair.Inhislateryears,heworkedasadramacriticforLifeandtheNewYorker.Hisessaycollections
includePluckandLuck(1925)20,000LeaguesUndertheSea,orDavidCopperfield(1928)FromBadtoWorse,orComfortingtheBison(1934)andMy
TenYearsinaQuandary,OrHowTheyGrew(1936).
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WillRogers(18791935)HumoristandwriterWillRogerswasborninOologah,Indianterritory(nowparkofOklahoma).Rogersgothisstartinvaudevillewith
alassoactinNewYorkCity.Later,headdedafunnyrunningmonologueashethrewtherope,whichgreatlyimprovedtheshow.Knownforhisgentle,selfeffacing
humor,RogersbecameanAmericanicon.Hishomespun"awshucks"mannerdisguisedhisbrilliantbarbsandaddedtohishumorandpopularity.Tragically,Rogers
waskilledwhenanairplanehewaspilotingcrashedinAlaska.HisbooksincludeTheCowboyPhilosopheronProhibition(1919)andWillRogers'Political
Follies(1929).
TheMarxBrothersChicoMarx(Leonard,18911961),HarpoMarx(Arthur,18931954),GrouchoMarx(Julius,18951977),andZeppoMarx(Herbert,
19011979)wrotemovieswhosehumorhasbecomelegendary.Trainedasmusicians,theMarxbrothersbegantheircareersinvaudevilleasthe"SixMusical
Mascots."TheirfilmsincludeAnimalCrackers(1930),HorseFeathers(1932),andDuckSoup(1933).AfterZepporetiredin1935,Harpo,Chico,andGroucho
appearedwithenormoussuccessinNightattheOpera(1935),ADayattheRaces(1937),andRoomService(1938).
Eachbrotherwaseasilyidentifiable:Grouchohadahuge(andearlyinhiscareer,fake)mustacheandasharpwit,ChicospokeinanItalianaccentandplayedthe
piano,andHarpocommunicatedinmimeandplayedtheharp.Zeppowasinontheearlyantics,butretiredin1935beforethebigmoviesANightattheOpera,A
DayattheRaces,andRoomService.
Afterthebrothersendedtheirfilmcareer,GrouchomovedtothesmallscreenasmasterofceremoniesinYouBetYourLife.
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Page339
PART6
CONTEMPORARYLITERATURE(1946PRESENT)
"'Ididn'twanttoharmtheman.Ithoughthewasaverynicegentleman.Softspoken.IthoughtsorightuptothemomentIcuthisthroat.'"
TrumanCapote,InColdBlood
ContemporaryAmericanliteraturehasbeencharacterizedbyatremendousvarietyofforms,techniques,andoutlooks.Somewritersembracefantasy,myth,and
innovativestyle,whileothersreturntomoretraditionalmeansofexpression.
Inthissection,you'llreadaboutarichrangeofliterature.Therewillbestoriesofoptimism,despair,cynicism,violence,abnormality,anger,absurdity,andmysticism,
alongwithrevivalsofreligion,folklore,andmyth.
Suchvarietyhasproducedadegreeofconfusionamongliteraryscholars,buteveryoneagreesthatAmericanliteratureisfarfromstagnant.Rather,it'sasvitalasthe
teemingdiversityofthecurrentAmericanlifeitreflects.
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Chapter28
TheJewishAmericanculturehasgivenusagroupofgreatwriters.Thischapterhighlightssomeofthemosttalented20thcenturyJewishAmericanwriters,themen
andwomenmostcloselyidentifiedwiththeirculturalheritage.ThesewritersincludeSaulBellow,EricaJong,NormanMailer,BernardMalamud,PhilipRoth,I.B.
Singer,andElieWiesel.EachpresentsauniquevisionofwhatitmeanstobeAmerican,Jewish,andawriter,yetareallunitedbytheircommonculture.
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Gentleman'sAgreement
JewishcultureisoneofthefoundationsofWesterncivilization,butasthe"outsiders"toChristianity,JewsinEuropehavebeencharacterizedasthealienmysterious,
fearsome,andunrelentingintheiradherencetothefaith.
WhenthepromiseoffreedominAmericabeckonedinthe1800sand1900s,Jewsheededhersirencall.Optimisticandambitiousforeachnewgeneration,Jewish
immigrantssawtheirchildrenmergewithAmericanlife.WhiletraditionalistsmournedthelossofJewishidentity,moderniststhoughtassimilationofferedthebest
chanceofsurvival.
ButeventhoughtheovertrestrictionsofEuropewereremoved,AmericahaditsownformofdiscriminationagainstJewishpeople.Intermsofliterature,the
dominanceoftheWASPsinthe1930s1950sshutoutmanyJewishwriters(ofcourse,thiswastrueofall"ethnic"writersAsian,Hispanic,NativeAmerican,and
AfricanAmerican).
Forquiteawhile,someJewishwritersmaintainedaseparatecultureinYiddishnewspapersandtheaters.However,theeventssurroundingWorldWarIIandthe
Holocaustarousedworldattentionandinterestin"Jewish"literatureandtheJewishwriter.Ironically,alienationbecameapassporttothemainstreamculture.
The1950sand1960ssawashiftinconcernsforJewishAmericans.ThoughantiSemitismwasstillaninescapablefactoflife,thepostWorldWarIIerasawmany
JewsfindingameasureofacceptancewithinthenonJewishworld.ThiswasalsoreflectedintheriseinpopularityofJewishwriters.SaulBellow,forexample,
synthesizedtheconflictsofmodernlifeinordinaryJewishpeople,whileBernardMalamudexploredhowJewishfolkwisdomoperatedinthecontemporaryworld.
SincethenJewishselfconsciousnessmanifesteditselfinthepoetryofStanleyKunitz,DelmoreSchwartz,andKarlShapiro,aswellasinthedramasofArthurMiller.
JewishAmericanfictionbecameimportantforitstreatmentofthehistoryofpersecutionandtheprocessofassimilation.Bythe1950s,theJewishAmericanhero
victim,survivor,joker,andvoiceofmoralconsciencehadcomeofage.
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SaulBellow(b.1915)
WhenSaulBellowwasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1976,thecitationread:"Forthehumanunderstandingandsubtleanalysisofcontemporaryculture
thatarecombinedinhiswork."TheNobelcommitteewasrightonthemark.
BorninLachine,Quebec,BellowgrewupintheJewishghettoofMontrealandmovedtoChicagowhenhewasnineyearsold.HeattendedtheUniversityof
Chicago,butultimatelyearnedhisdegreefromNorthwesternUniversity.AfteratourintheMerchantMarinesduringWorldWarII,BellowtaughtEnglishatNew
YorkUniversityandPrinceton,andhespentsometimeinParis.In1962,hereturnedtoChicago,wherehesettled.
Alatestarter,Bellowwasnearly30whenhisfirstnovel,TheDanglingMan,appeared.Briefandelegant,thenoveltakestheformofajournal.ThencameThe
Victim(1947),whichdescribesaweekinthelifeofoneAsaLeventhal,confrontedbyafigurefromhispast.Naturalisticanddark,TheVictimdescribesaman
broughtupagainstforcesfargreaterthanheis.
SaulBellow.
Bellow'swritingthentookahumorousturnwithTheAdventuresofAugieMarch(1953)andHendersontheRainKing(1959).AugieMarchwontheNational
BookAwardforfictionin1954.Criticshaileditsvitality,richness,originality,andpowerfulaffirmationthatlifeisworthliving.
Tomanycritics,Bellow'sfinestnovelofthiseraisSeizetheDay,thebittercomedythattellsthestoryofaformeractor.InMr.Sammler'sPlanet(1970),Bellow's
fictiononce
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againtakesagrimturn,asSammler,anelderlyJew,seeseverywherethe''povertyofsoul"butadmitshehas"atouchofthesamediseasethediseaseofthesingle
selfexplainingwhatwaswhatandwhowaswho."
Bellow'smorerecentnovels,suchasHimwithHisFootinHisMouth(1984)andMoreDieofHeartbreak(1987)concentrateontheturmoilofmodernlife,with
acomicturn.
EricaJong(b.1942)
EricaJongwascatapultedtointernationalfamein1973attheageof31withthepublicationofherribaldfirstnovel,FearofFlying.Oneofthetop10bestselling
novelsofthe1970s,FearofFlyingdescribesIsadoraWing'squestforemotionalandsexualfulfillment.Jong'sheroineaspirestobe"onelustyladywhohadjuice
andjoyandloveandtalenttoo,"qualitiessheshareswithhercreator.Jong'swryandwittywritingcelebratesthetreatsandtricksthatawaitwomenwhoseek
emotionalandsexualsatisfactionincontemporaryAmerica.
Jong'swritingwasgroundbreakingbecauseshewasoneofthefirstwomenwriterstoapproachsexinsuchamodernway(forexample,acknowledgingthedesireto
havesexwithastranger).Herfeelingswerepreviouslyseenasfeelingsonlyamanwouldhave.
BornEricaManninNewYorkCity,JonggrewuponManhattan'supperwestside.AsanundergraduateatBarnardCollege,shemajoredinwritingandliterature,
earningherB.A.in1963andherM.A.twoyearslater.Herfirstcollectionofpoetry,Fruits&Vegetables,appearedin1971,followedtwoyearslaterbyHalf
Lives.PraisedbyLouisUntermeyer,awellrespectedAmericanwriterandeditorofpoetryanthologies,as"slybutpenetrating,wittybutpassionate,bawdyand
beautiful,"Jong'spoemsgarneredahandfulofawards.
Jong'ssecondnovel,HowtoSaveYourOwnLife,trackedIsadoraWing'sfurtheradventures.ThethirdinstallmentoftheIsadoraWingtrilogywasParachutes&
Kisses(1984).GreetedbytheAssociatedPressas"Jong'sbestbook,"itportrayedIsadoraat39afterthreebrokenmarriagesandmorethanhershareoffame.The
storyleftherinloveagaininVenice.
Throughouthercareer,Jonghasalsocontinuedtopublishmorepoetrycollections:AttheEdgeoftheBody(1979),agroupofmetaphysicalpoemsandOrdinary
Miracles(1983),poemsonchildbirth.Fanny,Beingthe
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TrueHistoryoftheAdventuresofFannyHackaboutJones,Jong'spicaresqueresponsetothequestion"WhatifTomJoneshadbeenawoman?"washailedby
theNewYorkTimesasa"quantumleap,aliteraryprodigy."Itwasalsoabestseller.
InventingMemory:ANovelofMothersandDaughters,waspublishedin1997.AfourgenerationsagaaboutaJewishfamilyinAmerica,InventingMemoryisthe
storyoffourwomenwhoembodylifeinthe20thcentury.Inhernovels,collectionsofpoetry,andarticles,Jongcontinuestocelebratewomen'sstrengthsand
possibilitieswithenergyandpassion.
NormanMailer(b.1923)
AscriticRichardPoirierputit,NormanMailer"hasexhibitedaliteraryambitionthatcanbestbecalled"imperialistic."Hehaswantedtotranslatehislifeintoaliterary
careerandthentranslatethatliterarycareerintohistory."
Likeallimperialists,Mailerhassteppedonmorethanafewtoesinhisquesttoconquerandsucceed.Mailersuccessfullydevelopedaformofjournalismthatconveys
actualeventswiththesubjectiverichnessandimaginativecomplexityofthenovel.Hisboldstyleandrichuseoflanguageoftenblurredthelinebetweenjournalismand
fiction.
NormanMailerwasborninLongBranch,NewJersey.HegraduatedfromBoysHighSchoolin1939andthenstudiedatHarvard,earningadegreeinaeronautical
engineering.Despitehischoiceofmajors,MailerhadalreadydecidedtobecomeagreatAmericannovelist.HehaddecidedthathewasgoingtobeoneofAmerica's
greatwriters.
DuringWorldWarII,MailerwasasergeantintheArmy.Heenlisteddeliberatelynottofight,necessarily,butrathertogetthematerialheneededforagreatwar
novel.Honorablydischargedin1946,inthenext15monthshewroteTheNakedandtheDead,drawingonhiscombatexperiencesinthePhilippines.Thenovel,
publishedtwoyearslater,maynothavebeenthegreatestwarnoveltoemergefromtheconflict,butitwasunquestionablyavery,verygoodone.Thosewholikedit
hailedthebookasoneofthefinestAmericannovelsofWorldWarIIthosewhodidnotcriticizeditasobsceneandmotivatedbypersonaldisgustwitharmylife.
Afterastintinthelate1940sasaHollywoodscreenwriter,MailermovedtoGreenwichVillageinNewYorkCity.Hisnextbignovel,TheDeerPark(1955),wasa
thinlydisguisedaccountofhismarriagetoAdeleMorales.In1960,hestabbedAdeleattheendofanallnightpartyinManhattan.Hereceivedasuspendedsentence,
however,
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NormanMailer.
whenAdelerefusedtopresscharges.Duringthisperiodofhislife,Mailerexperimentedwithdrugs,newfictionalforms,marriage,anddivorce.Ofallhisexperiments,
thewritingprovedmostsuccessful.
Inthemid1950s,Mailerstartedtogainfameasanantiestablishmentessayist.HecofoundedtheVillageVoice,oneoftheearliestundergroundAmerican
newspapers.Mailer'scollectionofessays,ThePresidentialPapers(1963),establishedhimasoneofthemostvigorousessayistsinAmerica.Inthe1960sand
1970s,hewonadmirationwithhisbooksTheArmiesoftheNight(1968),MiamiandtheSiegeofChicago(1968)andOfaFireontheMoon(1970).
In1979,Mailerpublishedahighlysuccessfultruelifenovel,TheExecutioner'sSong,basedonthelifeanddeathofconvictedkiller,GaryGilmore.
Anoutrageouspublicfigure,MailerranformayorofNewYorkCity,marriedanddivorcedafewmoretimes(heiscurrentlywithhissixthwife),fatheredmany
children,appearedonlatenighttalkshows,andmadevariousfilms.Whetherhehasliveduptohisambitionsremainstobeseen,buttheimmensequantityofhiswork
andthehighqualityofsomeofitsetshimapartfrommanyofhisfellowwriters.
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BernardMalamud(19141986)
"Well,wewerehere,firstgenerationAmericans,ourlanguagewasEnglishandalanguageisaspiritualmansionfromwhichnoonecanevictus.Malamudinhisnovelsandstories
discoveredasortofcommunicativegeniusintheimpoverished,harshjargonofimmigrantNewYork.Hewasamythmaker,afabulist,awriterofexquisiteparables.TheEnglish
novelistAnthonyBurgesssaidofhimthathe"neverforgetsthatheisanAmericanJew,andheisathisbestwhenposingthesituationofaJewinurbanAmericansociety.""A
remarkablyconsistentwriter,"hegoeson,''whohasneverproducedamediocrenovelHeisdevoidofeitherconventionalpietyorsentimentalityalwaysprofoundly
convincing."LetmeaddonmyownbehalfthattheaccentofhardwonandindividualemotionaltruthisalwaysheardinMalamud'swords.Heisarichoriginalofthefirstrank."
SaulBellow'seulogyforMalamud,1986
MalamudwasoneofanumberofpostWorldWarIIwriterswhoseworksdrawheavilyontheirurbanNewYork,Jewishbackgrounds.Hisstoriesoftendramatize
thetensionarisingoutoftheclashbetweenJewishconscienceandAmericanenergyandmaterialism:thedifficultyofkeepingalivetheJewishsenseofcommunityin
Americansociety.HisJewishcharactersbecomesymbolsofallAmericanstryingtomaintainalinkwiththeirculturalheritagewhilecopingwiththerealitiesof
contemporarylife.
BorninBrooklyn,NewYork,thesonofRussianimmigrants,Malamudlivedabovethefamily'sgrocerystore.BothEnglishandYiddishwerespokenathome,and
theMalamudfamilyenjoyedattendingshowsattheSecondAvenueYiddishTheater.
AfterattendingCityCollege(B.A.1936)andColumbiaUniversity(M.A.1942),Malamudbeganpublishinghisshortstoriesinanumberofwellknownmagazines.In
1952,hepublishedhisfirstnovel,TheNatural,whichdescribesthelifeofatalentedbaseballplayer.ThiswasfollowedbyTheAssistant(1957),ANewLife
(1961),PicturesofFidelman(1969),TheTenants(1971),andGod'sGrace(1982).TheFixer(1966)wonbothaNationalBookAwardandaPulitzerPrize.
Malamud'spoignantshortstoriesarealsocollectedinTheMagicBarrel(1958),winneroftheNationalBookAwardin1959,IdiotsFirst(1963),andRembrandt's
Hat(1973).
PhilipRoth(b.1933)
"Portnoy'sComplaintAdisorderinwhichstronglyfeltethicalandaltruisticimpulsesareperpetuallywarringwithextremesexuallongings,usuallyofaperversenatureItis
believedbySpielvogelthatmanyofthesymptomscanbetracedtothebondsobtaininginthemotherchildrelationship."
PhilipRoth,Portnoy'sComplaint
Fornearly40years,PhilipRothhasbeenoneofthemostsuccessfulandcontroversialwritersinAmericanliterature.Firstthrustintothespotlightin1959bythe
successofthenovelGoodbye,Columbus,Rothlaterachievedevengreateracclaimandcelebrity
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withthehugelypopularnovelPortnoy'sComplaint(1969).Thenovelisshocking,crude,andwildlyentertaining.ThestoryconcernsAlexanderPortnoy'smemories
ofhisearlychildhoodmiseries.Portnoy'smemoriesincludehilariousandoftenscatalogicaltalesofgrowingupinNewJersey,listeningtoradioprograms,playing
softball,oglinggirls,andseekingselfgratificationinthemostoutlandishways.
Roth'sworkreflectsthechangingattitudeofJewslivinginpostWorldWarIIAmerica.Hisstoriesexemplifyacollectiveidentityinturmoil,wheretheaffluenceand
prosperityofthetimeistemperedbythememoriesoftheHolocaust.Goodbye,Columbus,forexample,describesJewishAmericansonthevergeofbeingor
alreadyhavingbeenassimilatedintothelargerAmericanculturecompletewithalltheconflictsachangeinidentitycanbring.
RothdiffersfromtheotherJewishAmericanwriters,however,bypresentingcharacterswhocanatanymomentplayintooroutoftraditionalstereotypes.Healso
showshowJewscanbevictimizedbyotherJews,asmuchasbybigots.Hisdaringsubjectmattersetshimapartfromhiscontemporaries,makinghimasingular
identityinbothAmericanandJewishliterature.
BorninNewark,NewJersey,Rothattendedpublicschools,followedbyNewarkCollegeandRutgersUniversity.HeearnedhisB.A.fromBucknellUniversityand
hisM.A.fromtheUniversityofChicago.In1955,RothenlistedintheArmyandworkedinthePublicInformationOfficeinWashington,D.C.Dischargedbecauseof
abackinjury,hebeganteachingandworkingonhisPh.D.attheUniversityofChicago.Atthesametime,Rothwaspublishinghisshortstories.
AfterthesuccessofGoodbye,Columbus,Rothestablishedapatternofwritingandteachingthatcontinuedevenafterthenotorietyandacclaimthatgreeted
Portnoy'sComplaint.Afteraforayintooutrageousness(TheBreast,1971),
Rothreturnedtothetopicsofhisbestwork:marriage,divorce,family,andhisidentityasaJew.Theseconcernslieatthecenterofhisbestworkstodate,
ZuckermanBound(1985)andTheCounterlife(1987).
IsaacBashevisSinger(19041991)
"SinceYiddishliteratureisthemostunnecessaryofall,weareabsolutelyfree.Wehavenoreaders.Wecansaythedeepestthings.Nobodywillsaythathedoesn'tunderstand."
I.B.Singer
Ironically,Singerdiscoveredthathiswriting,farfrombeingisolated,madehimoneofthemostcelebratedAmericanwritersofhisgeneration.
Bornin1904,SingerwasraisedinBilgoray,Poland,inagrimandcheerlessfamily.Surroundedbyaweakfather,anangrymother,aresentfulolderbrother,anda
sistersufferingfromundiagnosedepilepsy,Singerretreatedinto"scribbling"asawayto
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avoidhisstressfulfamily.Hewas"aloner,asolitaryobserveroftheworld,abalconyenthusiastwholovedtowatchfromasafedistance,"ashelaterclaimed.
Inhislateteens,Singerfollowedhisbrother,IsraelJoshua,toWarsaw,wherehewasintroducedtotheintimateandfiercelycompetitiveworldofYiddishwriters.
ThereSingerhadhisfirstexperienceswith"liberated"femaleJewishwritersandartists.HavingescapedtheclaustrophobicconfinesofhisOrthodoxupbringing,Singer
beganthewomanizingthatwouldcharacterizehisadultlife.Thequaint,grandfatherly,pigeonfeeding,vegetariangotaround.
TheLandofMilkandHoney
SingerfollowedhisbrothertoAmericain1935,abandoninganillegitimatechild.HefirstsettledinBrooklyn,andtheninManhattan.Workinginhisbrother's
shadowI.J.SingerwrotetwowellreceivedYiddishnovelsSingerstrovetoestablishhimselfbywritingproseandfictionforYiddishpublications.In1940,he
marriedAlmaHaimannWassermann,aGermanbornfellowrefugeewhowouldremainwithhimuntilhisdeath.Hecouldnothavefoundawomanwithwhomhehad
lessincommon.
Notuntil1950washiswritingtranslatedintoEnglish,withhisnovelTheFamilyMoskat.Yearsofstrugglefollowed,untilhisnovelsfinallyreachedawideaudience.
Singer'sfabuloustalesarefilledwithdemonsandschlemiels,wildplots,andevenwilderresolutions.
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ElieWiesel(b.1928)
"Weknowthateverymomentisamomentofgrace,everyhourisanofferingnottosharethemwouldbetobetraythem.Ourlivesnolongerbelongtousalonetheybelongtoall
thosewhoneedusdesperately."
ElieWiesel,1986NobelPeacePrizeacceptancespeech
In1944,whenElieWieselwas15yearsold,theNazismarchedintohisvillageinRomaniaandtookhimand
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hisfamilytotheconcentrationcamps.OnlyWieselandhistwooldersisterssurvived.WieselfledtoFranceandbegantryingtoreassemblehislife.
Atfirst,Wieselcouldnotbeartothinkaboutthetragedythathadbefallenhisfamily,hispeople,andtheworld.Finally,hewaspersuadedto"bearwitness"towhathe
hadseen.
TheresultwasNight(1958),hisexperienceintheconcentrationcampsasaboy.Thebookalsodescribeshisfather'sexperiencesinthedeathcamps.Thenovel
describesaboytornbyguiltandanguishovertheannihilationofhispeople.ThethemeisthelossofhisbeliefinGod.
In1956,WieselcametotheUnitedStatesandbecameacitizensevenyearslater.SincethepublicationofNight,Wieselhasbeenatireless"witness"tothe
Holocaust.AwardedtheNobelPeacePrizein1986,WieselpledgedtospeakoutnotonlyforJewishpeoplebutalsoforoppressedpeopletheworldover.
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Chapter29
"Wewillbeourselvesandfree,ordieintheattempt.HarrietTubmanwasnotourgrandmotherfornothing."
AliceWalker,YouCan'tKeepaGoodWomanDown
TheendofWorldWarIIplungedAmericaintomanyunexpectedsituationsnottheleastofwhichwasthefloodofAfricanAmericanveterans,fullofhighhopesand
aspirationsforfullcitizenship.Americawasforcedtobeginanewitssearchforanswerstoquestionsthathadgoneunansweredsince1865.
Thischapteropenswithabriefhistoryofblackliteratureinthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury,focusingontheBlackPowermovementandcivilrights.Thenyou'll
readaboutAmerica'soutstandingblackwritersofthemodernage.ThediscussionstartswiththeclassicwritersRalphEllison,GwendolynBrooks,andJames
Baldwin.Thenit
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movesontothebrilliantcontributionsofMayaAngelou,ToniMorrison,AliceWalker,andJamaicaKincaid.
IHaveaDream
MartinLutherKingJr.hadadreamofequalityforallmenandwomen,regardlessoftheircreedandcolor.TheAmericanclergymanandNobellaureate(19291968)
wasoneoftheprincipalleadersoftheAmericancivilrightsmovementandaprominentadvocateofnonviolentresistancetoracialoppression.BythetimeRalph
EllisonpublishedhismasterpieceInvisibleManin1952,assimilationintothemainstreamwasnolongeracrucialneedordemandofAfricanAmericans,thanksin
greatparttotheworkofDr.King.
Theblackindividual'sdilemmainAmericahadbecomeaworldwideissue,linkedwiththeworld'spostwarconcernwithproblemsofpersonalidentityandinvisibility.
JamesBaldwin'snovelsandessays,especiallyGoTellItontheMountain(1953),probedthepsychologicalandpoliticalparametersoftheblackexperiencewithina
predominantlywhiteAmerica.Evenasaculturalconceptof"blackness"wascrystallizing,twoeventsoccurredinAmericathatdeterminedracerelationsinourcountry
fordecadestocome.
BlackPower
Thefirsteventtookplacein1948inamaximumsecurityprisoninMassachusetts,whenMalcolmX(aformerHarlemracketeerknownas"BigRed")becamea
Muslim.BythetimeMalcolmXwasinstalledasministerofaBlackMuslimtempleinHarlemsixyearslater,hehadbecomeavocal,abrasive,andcharismatic
speakerforAmerica'slargestblackseparatistmovement.Hisradicalmilitancyacquiredalargefollowing,especiallyamongAfricanAmericanyouths,andstimulated
considerableliteraryactivity.
TheCivilRightsMovement
Thesecondeventoccurredattheendof1955inMontgomery,Alabama,whenatiredseamstress,Mrs.RosaParks,refusedtogiveupherseatonabustoawhite
man,asdemandedbyMontgomery'ssegregationistcityordinance.
HerarrestandthesubsequentlocalbusboycottcatapultedalittleknownBaptistministerDr.MartinLutherKing,Jr.tonationalprominence.Hisleadershipinthe
civilrightsmovementchangedthecourseofhistoryandsetoffanoutburstofliterarycreativity.
Today,AfricanAmericansarefreefromslavery'sbonds,butracialdiscriminationstillexists.Thedifferencebetweenthepresentandthepast,however,isthatnow
Americahashundredsandhundredsofblackwriterstoprotest,question,change,andrecordhistory.Thischaptercanonlydojusticetoahandfulofthese
outstandingliteraryfigures,sowe'llconcentrateonthewriterswhoseworkshavesofarwithstoodthetestoftime.Let'sstartwithRalphEllison,oneofAmerica'skey
literaryfiguresatmidcentury.
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RalphEllison(19141994)
"IftheNegro,oranyotherwriter,isgoingtodowhat'sexpectedofhim,he'slostthebattlebeforehetakesthefield."
RalphEllison
Ellisonwastruetohisword:Hefollowedhisownheart,insistingonbeinganeclecticwriterratherthanaspeakerforanyonecause.
Perhapsmostsurprisingofall,hepublishedonlyonenovelnonetheless,heisrankedasoneofthemostinfluentialblackAmericanwritersofthe20thcentury.The
novel,InvisibleMan(1952),expoundsthethemeofblackinvisibilityinanAmericansocietythatwillfullyignoresblacks.
ThenoveltellsthestoryofanunnamedyoungSouthernblackman'sjourneyfrominnocencetoexperienceashesearches,firstintheSouthandthenintheNorth,for
hisplaceintheworld.Ellisonusesrich,varied,andpowerfullanguagetoportraytheblackexperienceinallitsvitalityandcomplexity.
EbonyandIvory
Ellisonwasbornin1914inOklahomaandattendedTuskegeeUniversityonascholarship,wherehemajoredinmusic.AlthoughEllisonwasseriousabouthismusic,
literatureeventuallybecamehislife.WithRichardWright'sencouragementandassistance,Ellisonbegantopublishreviewsandshortstories.
BasedonthesuccessofInvisibleMan,Ellisontaughtinanumberoffinecolleges.In1970,heacceptedaprofessorshipatNewYorkUniversity,whereheremained
untilhisretirementin1979.
In1985,EllisonwasoneofthefirstrecipientsoftheNationalMedalofArtsaward.Athisdeath,hislongawaitedsecondnovel,delayedinpartbythedestructionof
hundredsofpagesina1967fire,wasleftuncompleted.In1995,TheCollectedEssaysofRalphEllisonwaspublished.
InvisibleMan
Thenovel'sopeningsection,atrulyhorrifyingvision,hasbecomeafamoussetpiece.AtimidandagreeableyoungAfricanAmericanmanarrivesatawhitesocial
eventinaSoutherntown,whereheistobeawardedascholarship.Togetherwithseveralotherblackyouths,heisrushedtothefrontoftheballroom,wherea
sumptuousblondetantalizesandfrightensthembydancinginthenude.Blindfolded,thescholarshiphonoreesareorderedtostageabattleroyal,afreeforallinwhich
theypummeleach
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othertothedrunkenshoutsofthewhites.Afterthehumiliationandterroroftheseevents,theyoungmandeliversapreparedspeechofgratitudetohiswhite
benefactors.
Nothing,fortunately,intherestofthenovelisquitesoharrowing.Thenovel'snamelessnarrator(theInvisibleMan)representsmanyintelligentyoungAfrican
Americansofhisgeneration.BornandraisedintheruralSouth,heisanoutstandingstudentatapredominantlyblackcollege.Hedreamsofsuccessthroughhumility
andhardwork,adoctrinepreachedbytheschoolandthelargerSouthernculture.
Theunnamedheroisexpelledforinnocentlytakingawhitedonorthroughablackginmillintheblackghetto.
Bearingwhathebelievestobealetterofrecommendationfromtheuniversitypresident,Dr.Bledsoe,theInvisibleManmovestoNewYork.Theletteractuallywarns
prospectiveemployersagainsthim.
OnceinNewYork,hegetsajobinafactorybutsoonlosesit.Next,theInvisibleManacceptsanoffertogivespeechesfortheHarlemCommunistsandbecomesa
bigwheelintheAfricanAmericanpoliticalworldandthedarlingofaStalinistbohemia.
Throughtheradicalmovement,heeventuallylearnsthatthroughouthisentirelifehisrelationswithotherpeoplehavebeenshallowandunfulfilling.Neitherwithblacks
norwithwhiteshasheeverbeenvisibleorreal.Finally,hedecidestoliveundergroundasatrulyinvisiblemanafterwitnessingafrenziedriotinHarlem.
Thenaiveyoungmanis"educated"bybeingslowlydisabusedofallhisideals.Despitethis,heultimatelychoosestorejectcynicismandhatredandtoembracea
philosophyofhope.Ellisonwantedhisnoveltotranscendtherageandhopelessnessoftheprotestnovelandassertaworldofpossibility,howeverremote.
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Ellison'sInvisibleManwaswhatbothmadeanddestroyedhim.Inonestroke,thenovelestablisheditsauthorasAmerica'spreeminentAfricanAmericanwriter.But
atthesametime,itsethimupagainstmanyAfricanAmericanintellectuals,whoarguedforaclearerstatementofblacksasvictims.Nolessobsessedwithquestions
ofracethanhisfellowAfricanAmericanwriters,EllisonnonethelessinsistedonhisvisionofAmericaasaplacewhereblacksandwhitesareinextricablytiedtogether.
Aswe'regoingtopress,Ellison'sposthumousnovelJuneteenthisscheduledforpublication.ThethousandsofpagesofmanuscriptEllisonleftbehindathisdeath
havebeeneditedtoastillsprawlingnovelthatdealswiththeBigThemesofrace,religion,andidentity.ThenovelaimstogiveavoicetotheentireAmerican
experience.Checkitout,reader,toseewhatEllisonaccomplishedthesecondtimearound.
GwendolynBrooks(b.1917)
"Ourearthisround,and,amongotherthings
ThatmeansthatyouandIcanhold
completelydifferent
Pointsofviewandbothberight."
GwendolynBrooks,"CornersontheCurvingSky"
GwendolynBrookswasborninTopeka,Kansas,andmovedtoChicagowhenshewasatoddler.Shepublishedherfirstpoemwhenshewasonly13yearsold.In
1936,BrooksgraduatedfromWilsonJuniorCollegeandembarkedonabrilliantliterarycareer.Herfirstpoetrycollection,AStreetinBronzeville(1945),reveals
hertalentformakingtheordinarylifeofherneighborsextraordinary.
TheBeanEaters(1960)containssomeofhermostinsightfulverse:
"TheBeanEaters,"thetitlepoem,offersaglimpseintothelifeofapoorbutcontentedelderlyblackcouple.
"WeRealCool"explorestheattitudesandfateofpoor,innercityblackhoodlums.
Thesearehertwomostfamouspoems.They'rebrief,butverypithy.Likearichcandy,theylingeronthepalate.SelectedPoems(1963)wasfollowedin1968byIn
theMecca,halfofwhichisalongnarrativepoemaboutpeopleintheMecca,afortresslikeapartmentbuildingerectedonthesouthsideofChicagoin1891,long
since
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deterioratedintoaslum.Thesecondhalfofthebookcontainsindividualpoems.Someofthehighlightsare''BoyBreakingGlass"and"MalcolmX."Laterworks
includePrimerforBlacks(1980),YoungPoets'Primer(1981),andBlacks(1987),acollectionofherpublishedworks.
Justlycelebratedforheraccomplishments,BrooksbecamethefirstblackfemalepoettowinaPulitzerPrize(forAnnieAllen,1949).In1968,Brookswasnamed
poetlaureateofIllinois.ShehasreceivedtwoGuggenheimFellowshipsandhasservedaspoetryconsultanttotheLibraryofCongress.In1990,shebecamea
professorofEnglishatChicagoStateUniversity.
However,Brooksisgenerallyconsideredoneofthemostunderappreciatedpoetsofhergeneration.AccordingtocriticJamesM.Johnson,"Nowhitepoetofher
qualityissoundervalued,sounpardonablyunread.Sheoughttobewidelyappreciatedasoneofourmostremarkablepoets."
JamesBaldwin(19241987)
"IftheconceptofGodhasanyvalidityoranyuse,itcanonlybetomakeuslarger,freer,andmoreloving."
JamesBaldwin,"TheFireNextTime"
Baldwin'swritingsinterweavesexualandracialconcernsspecifically,whatit&gravemeanstobeblackandhomosexualinAmericainthesecondhalfofthe20th
century.ThisthemeismostfullyexploredinAnotherCountry(1962),Baldwin'sthirdnovel,butitcanalsobediscernedinhisfirst,GoTellItontheMountain
(1953),andhissecond,Giovanni'sRoom(1955).
GoTellItontheMountainestablishedBaldwinasaleadingblackcommentatorontheconditionofblacksinAmerica,apositionheextendedinhisfineessays,
especiallyNotesofaNativeSon(1955).In"LetterfromaRegionofMyMind,"forexample,Baldwinadvocatesloveasameansofeliminatingracism.
ThenovelsTellMeHowLongtheTrain'sBeenGone(1968)andJustAboveMyHead(1979)concernAfricanAmericanidentity.AcollectionofBaldwin's
nonfiction,ThePriceoftheTicket,waspublishedin1985.IfnoneofhisworksrankswithEllison'sInvisibleManorWright'sNativeSon,Baldwin'swritings
nonethelessshowgreatsensitivitytoracialandsexualdiscriminationandafiercecommitmenttotheAmericanidealofpersonalfreedom.
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MayaAngelou(b.1928)
Asbothawriterandentertainer,MayaAngelouisbestknownforherportrayalsofstrongAfricanAmericanwomen.BornMargueriteJohnsoninSt.Louis,Missouri,
AngelouspentmostofherchildhoodlivingwithhergrandmotherinruralArkansas.Shemovedtohermother'shomeinSanFranciscoaftergraduatingfromLafayette
CountyTrainingSchoolin1940.Atage16,Angelougraduatedfromhighschool,gavebirthtohersonGuy,andbeganworkingataseriesofjobs,includingcooking
andwaitingtables.
Inthe1950s,Angeloubecameanightclubperformer,kickingoffacareerasasinger,dancer,actor,playwright,magazineeditor,civilrightsactivist,poet,andnovelist.
MuchofAngelou'swritingstressesthethemesofcourage,perseverance,selfacceptance,andtherealizationofone'sfullpotential.Inherwriting,shefrequently
presentsstrongfemalerolemodels.Hermostwellknownpublicationsincludeherseriesofautobiographicalbooks,startingwithIKnowWhytheCagedBirdSings
(1970).TheseriescontinueswithGatherTogetherinMyName(1974),Singin'andSwingin'andGettin'MerryLikeChristmas(1976),TheHeartofa
Woman(1981),andAllGod'sChildrenNeedTravelingShoes(1986).Intheseautobiographies,AngeloudescribesAfricanAmericanlifeinwitty,intelligent
languagerichinrhythmandtexture.
Angelou'sbooksofpoetryincludeJustGiveMeaCoolDrinkofWater'foreIDiiie(1971),OhPrayMyWingsAreGonnaFitMeWell(1975),AndStillIRise
(1978),Shaker,WhyDon'tYouSing?(1983),NowShebaSingstheSong(1987),IShallNotBeMoved(1990),andPhenomenalWoman(1994).Acollection
ofessays,EventheStarsLookLonesome,waspublishedin1997.
Angelouhasreceivedmanyawardsandhonorarydegrees,includingGrammyawards(1994and1996)forherrecordingsofherpoetryonthealbumsOnthePulse
ofMorning(1993)andPhenomenalWoman(1995).Aselfdescribedsixfootblacksouthwesterner,AngeloucurrentlylivesinCalifornia.Shecontinuestowrite,
makepublicappearances,andentertain.
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ToniMorrison(b.1931)
"IreallythinktherangeofemotionsandperceptionsIhavehadaccesstoasablackpersonandafemalepersonaregreaterthanthoseofpeoplewhoareneitherMyworlddid
notshrinkbecauseIwasablackfemalewriter.Itjustgotbigger."
ToniMorrison
In1993,MorrisonbecamethefirstAfricanAmericanwomantowintheNobelPrizeforliterature.Herwriting,notedforitspoeticlanguage,provocativethemes,and
powerfulstorytelling,exploresgenderandracialconflictsandthemanywaysthatpeopleexpresstheiridentities.
MorrisonwasbornChloeAnthonyWoffordinLorain,Ohio,in1931.SheattendedHowardUniversitywhereshechangedhernameto"Toni"because"Chloe"
washardtopronounceandreceivedamaster'sdegreefromCornellUniversityin1955.Twoyearslater,shereturnedtoHowardUniversitytoteachEnglish.There
shemetHaroldMorrison,aJamaicanarchitectwhomshemarriedin1958.Aftertheirdivorcesixyearslater,Morrisonworkedasaneditorforatextbooksubsidiary
ofRandomHouse.Atthesametime,shestartedwriting.HerfirstnovelwasTheBluestEye(1970).
NovelIdeas
"[EachofMorrison'snovels]isasoriginalasanythingthathasappearedinourliteratureinthelast20years.Thecontemporaneitythatunitesthemthetroublingpersistenceof
racisminAmericaisinfusedwithanurgencythatonlyablackwritercanhaveaboutoursociety."
CharlesLarson(ChicagoTribuneBookWorld)
SomeofMorrison'soutstandingnovelsinclude
TheBluestEye(1970)DrawingonelementsofMorrison'sownexperience,thenovelportraysadysfunctionalblackfamily,theBreedloves,andahealthy,loving
blackfamily,theMcTeers,modeledafterMorrison'sownfamily.
Sula(1973)Thenovelfocusesontwoblackwomenwhohavechosendifferentdirectionsfortheirlives.
SongofSolomon(1977)Here,Morrisonfollowsablackman'squestforidentityandhissearchforhisancestry.ThisnovelwonboththeNationalBookCritics'
CircleAwardandtheAmericanAcademyandInstituteofArtsandLettersAwardin1977.
TarBaby(1981)Thisnovel,setintheCaribbean,hasbeendescribedasanallegoryofcolonialism.
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Beloved(1987)Here,Morrisondescribesanexslave'sattempttodealwithherpast.Thisnovelwonthe1988PulitzerPrizeandwasmadeintoamoviestarring
OprahWinfreyin1998.
Jazz(1992)ThisbookconcernsamiddleagedcouplewhomigratefromtheSouthtoHarlemintheearly1900s.
TheBestandtheBrightest
WritingintheTimesLiterarySupplement,criticJenniferUglownotedthatMorrison'snovels"exploreinparticulartheprocessofgrowingupblack,femaleandpoor.
Avoidinggeneralities,ToniMorrisonconcentratesontherelationbetweenthepressuresofthecommunity,patternsestablishedwithinfamiliesandthedeveloping
senseofself."
In1980,PresidentJimmyCarterappointedMorrisontotheNationalCouncilontheArts.Thefollowingyear,shewonadmissiontotheAmericanAcademyand
InstituteofArtsandLetters.
Inadditiontowriting,Morrisonhastaughtatseveraluniversities,includingHoward,Yale,Cambridge,Harvard,andPrinceton.Shehasalsowrittenaplay,Dreaming
Emmett(1986),andcontinuestoeditforRandomHouse,helpingtopublishworksbyauthorssuchasToniCadeBambaraandGayleJones.
AliceWalker(b.1944)
"Theywerewomenthen
Mymama'sgeneration
HuskyofvoiceStoutof
Step
Withfistsaswellas
Hands
Howtheybattereddown
Doors"
AliceWalker,"InSearchofOurMother'sGardens"
AliceWalker'swritingmostoftenportraysthelivesofpoor,oppressedblackwomenintheearly1900s.BornAliceMalseniorWalkerinEatonton,Georgia,shewas
educatedatSpelmanandSarahLawrencecolleges.Shewrotemostofherfirstvolumeofpoetryduringasingleweekin1964itwaspublishedin1968asOnce.
Walker'sexperiencesduringhersenioryearatSarahLawrence,includingundergoinganabortionandmakingatriptoAfrica,providedmanyofthebook'sthemes,
suchaslove,suicide,civilrights,andAfrica.
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TheColorPurple(1982),Walker'sbestknownwork,wontheAmericanBookAwardandthePulitzerPrizeandwaspraisedforitsstrongcharacterizationsandthe
clear,musicalqualityofitscolloquiallanguage.TheColorPurplewasmadeintoacriticallyacclaimedmotionpicturein1985Walker'sbookTheSameRiver
Twice:HonoringtheDifficult(1996)containshernotesandreflectionsonmakingthefilm.
Walker'sotherworksincludethenovelsTheThirdLifeofGrangeCopeland(1970),Meridian(1976),TheTempleofMyFamiliar(1989),andPossessingthe
SecretofJoy(1992).
JamaicaKincaid(b.1949)
"WashthewhiteclothesonMondayandputthemonthestoneheapwashthecolorclothesonTuesdayandputthemontheclotheslinetodrydon'twalkbareheadinthehotsun
cookpumpkinfrittersinveryhotsweetoilsoakyourlittleclothsrightafteryoutakethemoff"
JamaicaKincaid,"Girl"
OverthecourseoffourbooksthenovelsAnnieJohn(1985)andLucy(1990),theshortstorycollectionAttheBottomoftheRiver(1984),andhernonfiction
bookabouthernativeAntiguatitledASmallPlace(1988JamaicaKincaidhascarvedoutauniqueplaceintheAmericanliterarylandscape.Writinginspare,
deceptivelysimpleprose,herfictionvividlyandoftenharrowinglydescribesthedifficultcomingofageofstrongmindedgirlswho,verymuchlikeherself,wereborn
intotropicalpoverty.
JamaicaKincaid'swritingoftendescribesonecultureoverwhelminganother,resultingindeeplyconflicted,dividedindividualsunabletowhollyacceptthedominant
culture.Further,Kincaid'scharacterssometimeshatetheirownculturebecausetheycannothelpbutseeitthroughwhiteeyes.
JamaicaKincaidwasbornin1949inSt.John's,Antigua,asElainePotterRichardson.Hermother'sfamilywerelandedpeasantsfromDominica.Hermaternalgrand
motherwasaCaribIndian.Kincaid'sfatherwasacarpenterandcabinetmaker,hermotherahomemakerandpoliticalactivist.
Kincaidlearnedtoreadwhenshewasthreeyearsoldandthenattendedseveralschoolsontheisland.Atage17,Kincaidfulfilledalonglongdreambyemigratingto
America.There,shefirstworkedasanaupairinupscaleScarsdale,NewYork,thenasareceptionist,andfinally,asamagazinewriter.Alongtheway,sheearneda
highschooldiploma,attendedcommunitycollege,studiedphotographyatTheNewSchool,andattendedFranconiaCollegeinNewHampshire.In1973,to
celebratehernewlife,ElainePotterRichardsondecidedto"celebratehernewlife"byrenamingherselfJamaicaKincaid.
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Kincaid'slatestnovel,TheAutobiographyofMyMother,chartsthewide,troubledarcof70yearoldXuelaClaudetteRichardson'slife.Mostnotably,thebookis
astrikingportraitofXuela'sstruggleasayoungwomantofindherownlanguageandidentityinthefaceofanuncaringfather,acountrywrackedbycolonialism,anda
mothersheneverknew.
KincaidnowlivesinBennington,Vermont,withherhusband,thecomposer/actor/writerAllenShawn,andtheirtwochildren.
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Chapter30
Canada,theworld'ssecondlargestcountry,isknownformagnificentscenery,richnaturalresources,importantmanufacturingcenters,andsomevaluablewarmand
fuzzyanimals.
ButdidyoualsoknowthatCanadahasafascinatingliteraryhistory?That'swhatyou'lllearnaboutinthischapter.
Firstwe'llsurveyCanada'sliterarypast,startingwiththecolonialperiod,movingontotheearlynovelists,andpausingatapersonalfavorite,LucyMaud
Montgomery.Alongtheway,you'lllearnaboutthehumoristStephenLeacock,too.
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Aswemoveontotoday'sliterarylights,I'llexplaintheimportanceofAlfredPurdy'spoetry,PierreBerton'shistoricalnovels,MavisGallant'sbrilliantlyironicstyle,
andMargaretLaurence'sstoriesofculturaldislocation.
Let'snotforgetthenovelist,journalist,andcurmudgeonMordecaiRichler.You'lllearnabouthisbestknownnovelTheApprenticeshipofDuddyKravitz,aswellas
othersignificantworks.ThesurveycontinueswithalookatAliceMunro,MargaretAtwood,andMichaelOndaatje.I'vearrangedthewriterschronologically,
accordingtotheirdateofbirth,tohelpyouplaceeveryoneinhistoricalcontext.
OCanada!
Explorers'accountsmadeuptheearliestCanadianliterature.SamuelHearne(17451792)andSimonFraser(17761862)wereamongthefirsttoweighinwiththeir
storiesofthewild,vastCanadiancountryside.Now,nooneisgoingtoarguethatthesebooksmadecompellingreading,butCanadadidcopanimportant"first"soon
after:thefirstnovelproducedinNorthAmericaTheHistoryofEmilyMontague(1796).ArealisticaccountofQuebec,itwaswrittenbyFrancesMooreBrooke,
thewifeofanEnglishArmychaplain.
ThefirstnovelbasedonCanadianhistory,JohnRichardson'sWacousta,appearedin1832.Later,herecordedthechallengesofpioneerlifeinboththe
autobiographicalBackwoodsofCanada(1836)andRoughingItintheBush(1852).
TheConfederatePoets
ThefirstimportantCanadianpoetsmadetheirdebutinthe19thcentury.Thesocalled"Confederate"schoolofpoetryfocusedonromanticnaturepoems.SirCharles
G.D.Roberts(18601943),theleaderofthisgroup,publishedtheromanticOrionandOtherPoems(1880)andSongsoftheCommonDay(1893).Hispoems
glorifiedtheNewBrunswickcountryside.FellowconfederatepoetBlissCarmenwaswellknownforhisromanticlovesongsandnaturepoems,collectedinLow
TideontheGrandPre(1893)andthefivevolumecollectionThePipesofPan(19021905).
OtherimportantconfederatepoetsincludedArchibaldLampmanandWilfredCampbell.Lampman(18611899)describedtheOntariocountrysideinNewWorld
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LyricsandBalladsandBeautyandLife.Inaddition,LampmanheadedtheDepartmentofIndianAffairs.Heusedhisexperiencetocreatesensitiveand
compassionateportraitsofNativeAmericans.WilfredCampbell(1858?1918)paintedlushwordpicturesoftheCanadianlandscape.
IsabellaValancyCrawford(18501887)focusedonpioneerlifePaulineJohnson(18621913),daughterofanIndianchief,wroteaboutherpeople.
EarlyNovelists
WilliamKirby(18171906)andSirGilbertParker(18621932),thetwomostpopularCanadiannovelistsofthelate1800s,pennedhistoricalromancesaboutlifein
Canada.Kirby'sGoldenDog(1877)andParker'sTheSeatsoftheMighty(1897),bothsetinQuebec,startedthetrendofunrealistichistoricalnovels(youknow,
thekind:bodicerippersmeanttobereadonthebeach).
Aroundthe1900s,C.W.Gordon,writingunderthename"RalphConnor"(18601937),wroteBlackRock(1898)andTheManfromGlengarry(1901)about
Canada'sWest.
MypersonalfavoritesfromthisperiodaretheAnneofGreenGablesbookswrittenbyLucyMaudMontgomery(18741942).Theseclassicnovelsaresetin
Montgomery'schildhoodhomeofPrinceEdwardIsland.
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BornatClifton,PrinceEdwardIsland,MontgomeryrelocatedtoOntarioin1911afterherweddingtotheReverendEwenMacdonald.
StephenLeacock(18691944)
BritishbornwriterStephenLeacockwasarguablytheEnglishspeakingworld'sbestknownhumoristfrom1915to1925.Heproducedwiseandwittysocialcriticism
insuchworksasSunshineSketchesofaLittleTown(1912),setinOntario,andArcadianAdventureswiththeIdleRich(1914).
SunshineSketchesofaLittleTownhumorouslydescribesbusiness,sociallife,religion,romance,andpoliticsinthetypicallysmallCanadiantownofMariposa,
whosenamehasattainedmythicsignificanceintheCanadianpsyche.ArcadianAdventureswiththeIdleRichdissectslifeinanAmericancitywithsharpersatire,
lessqualifiedbyLeacock'saffectionandpathos.Takentogether,thesebooksrevealLeacock'snostalgicconcernforwhatislostwiththepassingofhuman
communities,aswellashisfearforwhatmaycome.
LeacockgrewuponafarminOntarioandwaseducatedatUpperCanadaCollege,theUniversityofToronto,andtheUniversityofChicago,wherehestudied
economicsandpoliticalscience,earninghisPh.D.in1903.LeacockjoinedMcGillUniversity'sDepartmentofEconomicsandPoliticalSciencein1903,rosequickly
tobecomedepartmenthead,andremainedthereuntilhisretirementin1936.
BetweentheWars
Duringthe1920s,mostrealisticCanadianwritersbitthehandthatfedthem,condemningCanadianvaluesandinstitutions.ThetalentedNewfoundlandbornpoet
EdwinJohnPratt(18821964),forexample,expressedhispessimisticworldviewinhisepicworkTheTitanic(1935).
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Thedecadebetween1930and1940explodedwithpoetictalent,especiallyinMontreal.Publishinginsmallliterarymagazinestosaveprintingandpaperexpenses
duringtheDepression,thesepoetsembracedtheircountry'svaluesandshunnedAmericanandBritishinfluences.AbrahamMosesKlein(19091972),forinstance,
wrotelyricallyofCanada'sJewishminoritiesandtheirheritage.
Inprose,MorleyCallaghanexploredindividualsinconflictwithinsocietyinsuchworksasMyBeloved(1934),TheyShallInherittheEarth(1935),andTheLoved
andLost(1961).HughMacLennananalyzedthemeaningofCanada'spastinBarometerRising(1941),TwoSolitudes(1945),andTheWatchThatEndsthe
Night(1959).
Sincethe1960s,Canadianliteraturehasgainedinvolumeandcreativity,reflectingandencouragingaheightenednationalconsciousness.Producedinatimeof
rebellionandbreakswithtradition,theliteraturehasbecomemoreexperimentalinapproachanduniversalintheme.
AmongthemostinterestingofthemodernCanadianwritersisAlfredPurdy.
AlfredPurdy(b.1918)
AlfredWellingtonPurdyisamemberofagroupofCanadianpoetsrootedinworkingclassculture.RaisedinOntario,Purdyendedhisformaleducationatthehigh
schoollevel.DuringtheDepression,heworkedasamanuallaborerinVancouver.
DuringWorldWarII,PurdyservedintheRoyalCanadianAirForce,afterwardreturningtohisworkasalaborer.Eventually,hesettledinAmeliasburgh,the
communitycelebratedinhispoems.Bytheearly1960s,Purdywasabletosupporthimselfbyfreelancewriting,poetryreading,andperiodsaswriterinresidenceat
variouscolleges.
Purdywasattheheartofthe1960smovementsthatsetCanadianpoetswanderingthecountryandreadingtheirpoemstolargeaudiences.Thereisnodoubtthatthis
experiencehelpedhimtodevelopapoetrystylemorecloselyrelatedtooralspeechpatternsthanhis1940sapprenticepoems.Todate,hehaspublished25volumes
ofpoetry.
TheinfluenceofreadingsonPurdy'sworkisoneaspectoftheclosecontactbetweenexperienceandwriting.Hehasbeendescribedasa''versifyingjournalist,"and
someofhisbookshaveinfactbeenpoeticaccountsofjourneys,suchasNorthofSummer(1967),basedonatriptotheArctic,andHiroshimaPoems(1972),
aboutavisittoJapan.
PurdyhastriedtobringtohispoetryasenseofCanada'spast,andoftherapidpatternofchange.
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PierreBerton(b.1920)
OneofCanada'sbestknownwriters,PierreBertonisparticularlywellregardedasaseriouspopularizerofCanadianhistory.Hewroteforvariousnewspapersand
magazinesandhasbeenaregularonCanadiantelevisionasbothhostofhisownshowsandasaguestpanelistonothers.Berton'sfirstimportantbookwasKlondike
(1958),anarrativeoftheKlondikeGoldRushof1898,aneventthatcastalongshadowunderwhichBertonlivedforyears,beingthesonofagoldseekerand
havinggrownupinDawsonamidthedebrisofthestampede.
AfterKlondikecameaseriesofpolemics,TheComfortablePew(1965)andTheSmugMinority(1968),whichattackedtheAnglicanChurchandCanada'sbig
business.
In1970,BertonreturnedtohistorywiththepublicationofTheNationalDream(1970)andTheLastSpike(1971).ThesubjectwaswellsuitedtoBerton's
strengths:patrioticverve,themarshalingofcolorfuldetail,andaboveall,adrivingnarrative.
Berton'sotherworksincludeTheDionneYears(1977),TheInvasionofCanada(1980),FlamesAcrosstheBorder(1981),andThePromisedLand(1984),a
historyofthesettlingoftheCanadianWest.Vimy(1986),anexaminationoftheWorldWarIbattleinwhichtheCanadianCorpstookVimyRidgein1917,was
hugelysuccessful.InStartingOut(1987),Bertonpickeduptheautobiographicalthreadagainwithamemoirthatendsin1947.
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MavisGallant(b.1922)
Gallant'sbrilliantandironicwritingstyleishighlyrealistic.Sheoftendescribesfrightened,lonelychildrenandteenagers,writingcompassionatelyoftheirpain.
Anotherofherthemesisexpatriateswhohavebeendisplacedfromtheirculturethroughchoiceorcircumstancelackingaclearsenseofdirection,thesecharacters
areadriftaspermanenttourists,ekingoutmiserablelivesinrundownEuropeanhotelsandpensions.
Theonlychildofmismatchedparents,Gallantattended17differentschools,includingpublicschools,conventschools,andboardingschools.
AftercompletinghereducationinAmerica,shereturnedtoCanada,wheresheworkedbrieflyinthecuttingroomoftheNationalFilmBoardbeforebecominga
featurereporterfortheMontrealStandardin1944.MavismarriedJohnGallant,amusicianfromWinnipeg,buttheysoondivorced.
GallantbeganwritingfictioninCanada,publishingstoriesinpopularmagazinesfrom1944to1950.In1950,determinedtowritefictionfulltime,sheresettledinParis,
whereshestilllives.Since1951,Gallanthaspublishedmorethan100stories,mostofwhichfirstappearedintheNewYorker,whereshecontinuestopublish.Her
shortstorycollectionsincludeTheOtherParis(1956),MyHeartIsBroken(1964),ThePegnitzJunction(1973),TheEndoftheWorldandOtherStories
(1974),andFromtheFifteenthDistrict:ANovellaandEightStories(1979).
NeglectedbytheCanadianpublicformanyyears,Gallanthasfinallygainedrecognitioninherhomeland.In1981,shewasappointedanOfficeroftheOrderof
Canada,andin1993shewasraisedtoCompanion,theOrder'shighestlevel.Inunsentimentalproseandwithtrenchantwit,Gallantdescribestheisolation,
detachment,andfearthatafflictsrootlessNorthAmericanandEuropeanexpatriates.
MargaretLaurence(19261987)
MargaretLaurenceisrankedasoneofthetopCanadiannovelistsofthe1960sand1970s.Laurence'swritingisdistinguishedbypenetratingcharacterizationsandfine
techniques.Herstoriesresonateinyourmind,echoinglongafteryou'veputthebookdown.
BorninOntario,LaurencewaseducatedinWinnipegandmarriedJackLaurence,ahydraulicengineer,in1947.Twoyearslater,theymovedtoEnglandandlaterto
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SomalilandandGhana,whereheworkedasadambuilderwiththeBritishOverseasDevelopmentService.In1974,MargaretLaurencereturnedtolivepermanently
inOntario.
AlthoughLaurencewrotestoriessincechildhood,herfirstbook,ATreeforPoverty,wasn'tpublisheduntil1954.AfricahadaprofoundinfluenceonLaurence,
awakeningarealisticappraisaloftheproblemsofemergentnations.
HerAfricanfictionreflectsherbeliefinthedignityandpotentialofeveryhumanbeing.
BackinCanada,LaurencepublishedhermemoirsoftheSomalilandyears,TheProphet'sCamelBell(1963).
TheStoneAngel(1964)wasalandmarkeventforCanadianliteratureandthekeystoneofLaurence'scareer.ItsetthetownofManawakafirmlyinCanada's
imaginativelandscapeandpointedthewayfortheworkstofollow.Thenoveldescribestheruminationsofanoldwoman,Hagar,astheendofherlifenears.Hagar's
lifewasharshandcruel,markedbytragedyandbrutalmisunderstandings,yetmarkedbybeautynonetheless.
AJestofGod(1966)isthestoryofRachelCameron,who,throughtheordealofonesummerinManawakainthe1960s,findsafragilebutsustainingselfhood.The
Diviners(1974),acomplexandprofoundnovel,wasgreetedwithgreatpraise.HerfinalliterarylegacyisthememoirDanceontheEarth,whichshefinishedjust
beforeshedied.
MordecaiRichler(b.1931)
Canada'smostcelebratedcurmudgeonisproudofhisreputation,"becauseitkeepsalotofpeopleaway,"henotes.Whenhe'snotbusybeingcranky,Richlerisalso
oneofCanada'sforemostnovelists,acontroversialandprolificjournalist,andanoccasionalscriptwriter.
RichlerwaseducatedatSirGeorgeWilliamsCollege,Montreal.After20yearsabroad,RichlerreturnedtoMontrealin1972.Hisreputationasanovelisttookoff
withthe1959publicationofTheApprenticeshipofDuddyKravitz.AwittyportraitofayoungMontrealJewishentrepreneur,thenovelischaracterizedbythe
contrastbetweencomedyandpathosrichdramaticscenesalivelynarrativepaceandacomprehensivedepictionoftheprotagonistasMontraler,Jew,and
individual.
TheIncomparableAtuk(1963),agoofypieceonCanadiannationalism,showsRichler'sconsiderabletalentforhumor.Cocksure(1968),asatireonthedifficultyof
stickingtotraditionalvaluesinaworldgonemad,isequallyfunny.St.Urbain'sHorseman(1971)examinesthelifeofamiddleagedmansubjecttointense,
contradictoryfeelings,who,Richlerclaimed,is"closertomethananybodyelse."JoshuaThenandNow(1980)exploresthepastandtheeffectsoftimeonthe
individual.
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RichlerhaspublishedhundredsofarticlesinawiderangeofpublicationsinCanada,America,andBritain.HepublishedcollectionsofhisarticlesinHuntingTigers
UnderGlass(1968),TheStreet(1969),ShovellingTrouble(1972),NotesonanEndangeredSpecies(1974),andHomeSweetHome:MyCanadianAlbum
(1984).Hehasalsowrittenahandfulofmoviescripts.
AliceMunro(b.1931)
ThestrengthofAliceMunro'sfictionarisespartiallyfromitsclearsenseofplace.MostofhertalesaresetinHuronCounty,Ontario,andunderherdescription,the
settingcomesalive.Munro'searlywritingconcernstheproblemsteenagegirlsfacecomingtotermswithfamilyandsmalltownlife.Hermorerecentworkaddresses
theproblemsofmiddleage,ofwomenalone,andoftheelderly.CharacteristicofMunro'sstyleisthesearchforsomegesturebywhichaneventisilluminatedand
givenpersonalmeaning.
Munro'searlyyearswerespentinwesternOntario.Shemetherfirsthusband,JamesMunro,attheUniversityofWesternOntario,andsoonaftertheymovedto
Vancouver.Themarriagedidnotlast,andin1972,MunroreturnedtoOntario,whereshemarriedGeraldFremlinin1976.ShewasawardedtheGovernorGeneral's
AwardforbothDanceoftheHappyShades(1968)andWhoDoYouThinkYouAre?(1978),whichwasalsorunnerupfortheBookerPrize.Munroisalsothe
recipientoftheCanadianBooksellersAssociationInternationalBookYearAwardforLivesofGirlsandWomen(1971),theCanadaAustraliaLiteraryPrize
(1977),andtheMarianEngelAward(1986).
MargaretAtwood(b.1939)
"Howdoyoulearntospell?
Blood,sky&thesun,
yourownnamefirst,
yourfirstnaming,yourfirstname,
yourfirstword."
MargaretAtwood,"Spelling"
TheprolificCanadiannovelist,poet,andcriticMargaretAtwoodisbestknownforher1986novelTheHandmaid'sTale,whichwasmadeintoafilmin1990.She
hasbeeninstrumentalinseparatingCanada'sculturalidentityfrombothAmericanandBritishinfluences.Atwoodaccomplishesthisbywritingpoems,novels,and
storiesthatconsidertheissuesthatpreventmanyCanadians,especiallywomen,fromachievingtheirgoalsanddreams.
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BorninOttawain1939,AtwoodearneddegreesfromtheUniversityofTorontoandRadcliffeCollege,andhaslivedinmanyplaces,includingVancouver,Montreal,
Edmonton,Boston,England,Scotland,andFrance.Herfrequenttravelsstartedwhenshewasachild,whenherfamilytrekkedthroughtheQuebecbushasherfather
conductedscientificresearch.
Afulltimewritersince1972,Atwoodhasalsodoneaspotofteachinghereandthere.Shehaswonapileofimpressiveawards,includingtheGillerPrizeforAlias
Grace(1996),theGovernorGeneral'sAwardforFictionforTheHandmaid'sTale(1986),andtheGovernorGeneral'sAwardforPoetryforTheCircleGame
(1966).
MichaelOndaatje(b.1943)
Poet,novelist,andfilmmakerMichaelOndaatjewasborninSriLankain1943andcametoCanadain1962.HenowlivesinTorontoandteachesatGlendon
College,YorkUniversity.
Hismostfamousbook.TheEnglishPatient,waspublishedin1992andwasawardedtheprestigiousBookerPrize.Thecelebratedfilmversion,starringRalph
Finnes,wasboxofficegold.
PerhapsthemostnotableaspectofOndaatje'swritingishispreferenceforimagesoverstandardnovelisticcauseandeffectplots.Theactionisalwaysenhancedby
hisintensesenseofmotionandpicture.Ondaatjeevenclaimsthatheislessinfluencedbybooksthanbyotherartforms,suchasmusicandpainting.
Ondaatje'sownfamilyhistoryhasbeenasfantasticasthatofthecharactershecreates.Asherelatesinhismemoir,RunningintheFamily,Ondaatjegrewupin
Ceylon(nowSriLanka),thechildofastrongwilledmotherandabrilliant,eccentricfatherwho,whendrunk,heldgunsontrainsandforcedthetrainstorunbackand
forthathispleasure.AsOndaatjeexploreshisDutchCeylonesegenealogy,hepaintsasad,hilarious,memorablepictureofliveslivedtoasurrealtropicalhilt:an
entiresocietyconsumedbycompulsivegambling,endlessaffairs,andbitterfeuds.
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BesidesRunningintheFamily,Ondaatjeistheauthorofthreecollectionsofpoems:TheCinnamonPeeler,SecularLove,andThere'saTrickwithaKnifeI'm
LearningtoDo.HehasalsowrittenthenovelsIntheSkinofaLion,ComingThroughSlaughter,andTheCollectedWorksofBillytheKid.
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Chapter31
WeallhaveourownnotionsofwhatitmeanstobeAmerican.
Notsolongago,Americawasconsideredtobea"meltingpot,"asdiversegroupsshedtheirheritagetobecomesomethingnew,somethingwecall"American".
Butovertheyears,somepeoplebegantoquestionhowaccuratelytheterm"meltingpot"describedtheAmericanexperience.Theysawthatsomegroupsweremore
easilyassimilatedandmorewelcomethanothers.Webegantorealizethatnewcomersdon't"melt"rather,theymaintaintheirnativeheritagewithinAmerica,ina
"saladbowl,"''crazyquilt,"or"gloriousmosaic."
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NativeAmericansdidn'timmigratetothiscountry,ofcourse.Nonetheless,theyhavestruggledtomaintainanidentitywithinaculturethathadtakenover.For
example,NativeAmericansbelieveeverythingintheworldhasitslifeandpurpose,andeveryeventissignificant,abeliefthatclasheswiththeprevailingmood.
PartlyasaresultofthisnewwayoflookingatAmericanidentity,multiculturalwritinghasflourished.Perhapsnotsincetheliterarycommunityandreadingpublic
discoveredJewishAmericanwritersinthe1950shaveweexperiencedsuchaconcentratedethnicwaveofliterature.Alongwiththishascomeanenthusiastic
receptionofwritersofvariedbackgroundsandcultures.
Inthischapter,you'llexplorehowNativeAmerican,LatinoAmerican,andAsianAmericanwritersexpresstheirvisionofAmericanculture.
ModernNativeAmericanWriters
Inanastonishingexampleofirony,itwasnotuntil1924thatCongressdeclaredthatNativeAmericanswereU.S.citizens.Today,about2millionAmericansidentify
themselvesasNativeAmericans.
Thefivelargesttribesandtheirmembershipsfollow:
Tribe Membership
1.Cherokee 369,035
2.Navajo 225,298
3.Sioux 107,321
4.Chippewa 105,988
5.Choctaw 86,231
Source:1999WorldAlmanacandBookofFacts
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NativeAmericanwritersareasdiverseastheirtribes,butmostshareaninterestinexploringtheirheritage,theiruniqueplaceinAmericanlife,andwhatitmeanstobe
aNativeAmerican.Let'sseehowtheseconcernsarevoicedinthewritingofN.ScottMomaday.
NatacheeScottMomaday(b.1934)
"Childrentrustinlanguage.Theyareopentothepowerandbeautyoflanguage,andheretheydifferfromtheirelders,mostofwhomhavecometoimaginethattheyhavefound
wordsout,andsomuchofthemagicislostonthem."
N.ScottMomaday,"TheNames"
MostofMomaday'spoemsandstoriesfocusonthepowerofmythandlanguagetoshapereality.HisworksalsorevealthetraditionalNativeAmericanharmonywith
theenvironment.
Writer,poet,andartistMomaday,amemberoftheKiowaandCherokeetribes,wasborninFairview,Kentucky,andeducatedonIndianreservations.
In1952,heenteredtheUniversityofNewMexico.Bythetimehehadcompletedhiseducation,MomadayhadearnedaPh.D.inEnglishfromtheUniversityof
ArizonainTucson.Until1981,hewasaprofessorofEnglishatStanfordUniversity.Sincethen,MomadayhasservedonthefacultyoftheUniversityofArizona.
Momaday'snovelHouseMadeofDawnwonthePulitzerPrizeforfictionin1969.Hehaspublishedanumberofotherbooks,includinghismostwellknownwork,
TheWaytoRainyMountain,acompilationofmythandpersonalmemory(1969).
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WilliamLeastHeatMoon(b.1940)
WilliamTrogdonofColumbus,Missouri,tellsthestorybehindhispseudonymintheearlypagesofhisbestknownbook,BlueHighways:AJourneyintoAmerica,
"MyfathercallshimselfHeatMoon,myelderbrotherLittleHeatMoon.I,cominglast,amthereforeLeast.Ithasbeenalonglessonofanametolearn.TotheSioux,
theMoonofHeatistheseventhmonth,atimealsoknownastheBlueMoon,because,Ithink,ofitsduskymidsummercolor."
Shouldthewriterthencallhimself"WilliamTrogdon"or"WilliamLeastHeatMoon?"LeastHeatMoonnotedthathisfatheralwaysadvisedhimtousethename
"Trogdon"whendoing"Anglo"things,suchasconductingbusiness,buttousehisNativeAmericannamewhendoingspiritualactivitiessuchaswriting.Hence,
WilliamLeastHeatMoonthewriter.
AfterLeastHeatMoonlosthisjobasacollegeEnglishteacherandwatchedhismarriagedisintegrate,hedecidedtotourAmerica.Beforehisjourneywasover,he
wouldtravelmorethan10,000milesinavanhenamed"GhostDancing."Histravellog,transformedintotheworkhecalledBlueHighwaysbecameabestseller.The
memoirwaspraisedespeciallyforitsvividdescriptionsofAmerica.
Today,LeastHeatMooncontinuestocontributeessaysandarticlestowellrespectedperiodicalssuchasTheAtlanticMonthly.Hiswritinghasattractedattention
andearnedrespect.
LeslieMarmonSilko(b.1948)
"Theearthisyourmother,
sheholdsyou.
Theskyisyourfather,
heprotectsyou.
Sleep.
sleep.
Rainbowisyoursister,
shelovesyou.
Thewindsareyourbrothers."
Storyteller
Asthispoemsuggests,LeslieMarmonSilkoseekstopreserveherNativeAmericanheritage,especiallytheoraltradition.Sheisalsointerestedinmaintainingthe
ceremoniesoftheLagunaPuebloNativeAmericans."Silkoemphasizestheneedtoreturntoritualsandoraltraditionsofthepastinordertorediscoverthebasisfor
one'sculturalheritage,"onecriticnoted.SilkohasalsousedherstatusasaprominentNativeAmericanwritertodrawattentiontocontroversialmodernissues,such
aswomen'sequalityandcurrentimmigrationpoliciesdirectedatminorities.
BorninAlbuquerque,NewMexico,ofLagunaPueblo,Mexican,andwhitedescent,SilkogrewupontheLagunareservation.AftergraduatingfromNative
American
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school,SilkowentontoattendtheUniversityofNewMexico.Silkopublishedherfirstwork,thenovelTony'sStoryin1969andherfirstbookofpoems,Laguna
WomenPoems,in1974.
Silko'ssecondmajornovel,Storyteller(1981),usesstoriesfromherNativeAmericanheritagetorecreatestoriesaboutherownfamily.In1981,shewasawardeda
MacArthurgeniusFellowshipforheraccomplishments.AlmanacoftheDead(1991)hasthusfarattractedthemostattention.
Inthisbook,SilkodealswithmanyissuesrelatedtoNativeAmericans,focusingonthehistoryofconquest.SilkocontinuestowriteYellowWomencameoutin
1993.ThisnovelagainrevealsthehauntingpowerwithwhichSilkoblendstherealandmythicofthepeopleandplacesinAmerica'sSouthwest.
LouiseErdrich(b.1954)
"SowhenIwentthere,Iknewthedarkfishmustrise.Plumesofradiancehadsolderedonme.Noreservationgirlhadeverprayedsohard."
LouiseErdrich,"SaintMarie"
LouiseErdrich'sfictionandpoetrydrawonherChippewaheritageandexperiencesasaNativeAmericantoexaminecomplexfamilyandsexualrelationshipsamong
fullandmixedbloodNativeAmericansastheystrugglewithquestionsofidentityinwhiteAmericanculture.
BorninMinnesotatoaChippewamotherandaGermanAmericanfather,ErdrichisamemberoftheTurtleMountainChippewaTribe.ShewasraisedinWahpeton,
NorthDakota,whereherparentsworkedfortheBureauofIndianAffairs.Thefamily'sNativeAmericanrootsrundeephergrandfather,PatrickGourneau,was
tribalchairmanoftheTurtleMountainReservationformanyyears.
Erdrich'sparentsencouragedherprecociousliterarytalents:Herfatherpaidheranickelforeachshortstoryshewrote,andhermotherboundthemintolittlebooklets.
Inaddition,Erdrich'smotherpassedonmanyfamilystoriesthatfoundtheirwayintoLouise'swritings,especiallythenovelTracks(1988).
ErdrichearnedherB.A.fromDartmouth(whereshemetherhusbandtobe,fellowNativeAmericanandwriterMichaelDorris)andherM.A.fromJohnHopkins
University.In1984,Erdrich'snovelLoveMedicinewontheNationalBookCriticsCircleAwardforbestworkoffiction,aswellastheLosAngelesTimesprizefor
fiction.Herotherworks
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includethenovelTheBeetQueen(1986),BaptismofDesire:Poems(1989),TheBingoPalace(1994),TheBlueJay'sDance:ABirthYear(1995),and
AntelopeWoman(1998).
Erdrich'scareerwasflourishing,butherpersonallifetookadiveinthe1990s,whenhermarriagetoDorrisfellapart.SeparatedfromErdrichanddepressedover
allegationsofsexuallyabusingatleastoneofhischildren,MichaelDorriscommittedsuicidein1997.
Today'sLatinoAmericanWriters
LatinoAmericanwritershavecomealongwaysincethefirstwritersandpoetsjoinedunionactivistCesarChavezintheCaliforniafieldstoprotesttheunequal
treatmentofChicanoandotherminorityworkers.Inthebriefspanofaquarterofacentury,Latino/ChicanoAmericanliteraturehasblossomed.WritteninEnglish,it
nowholdsaplaceintheliteratureoftheUnitedStates.WithitshistoricalrelationshiptoMexicoanditsgroundingintheSouthwest,LatinoAmericanwritingspeaksto
theHispanicworldsouthofMexicoaswell.Thiswritingisinmanywaysabridgeacrosslafrontera,joiningAngloAmericatoLatinAmerica.
Recently,therehasbeenanewwaveofyoung,widelyreadLatinoAmericanauthors,notunliketheearlierfloweringofAfricanAmericanwritersthatbroughtus
everyonefromJamesBaldwintoTerryMcMillan.Whilealloftoday'sLatinoAmericanwritershareaSpanishlanguagebackground,theyareasdifferentfromeach
otherastheirfiction.
RichardRodriguez(b.1946)
RichardRodriguezknewonlyafewwordsofEnglishwhenheenteredkindergarteninaCatholicschoolinSacramento,California.
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Hisautobiography,HungerofMemory:TheEducationofRichardRodriguezpublishedin1982,describeshowthenunstaughthimEnglish,sparkedaloveof
reading,andsethimonthepaththatwouldhelphimearnaB.A.fromStanfordUniversityandagraduatedegreeinEnglishfromtheUniversityofCaliforniaat
Berkeley.
Asbothawriterandateacher,RodrigueztracestheintellectualroadthattookhimfromhissecureandsafefamilyintothedifficultandfrighteningrealmofAmerican
life.AshebecamemoreassuredinEnglish,RodriquezlosthisfluencyinSpanishandaclosenesstohisparents,becausetheyneverbecamecomfortablespeakingand
writingEnglish.
DeniseChavez(b.1948)
"Inourfamily,menusuallycomefirst.ThenGodandCountry.Countrywaslast.Shouldbelast."
DeniseChvez,FaceofanAngel
AlthoughherwritingoftenseemstoshiftfocusfromthekeyissuesofChicanoculturetoselfreflection,ChavesnonethelesswelcomesherChicanoheritage.Sheis
deeplygratefulforbeingbilingual.Infact,sheusessomanySpanishwordsandphrasesinherwritingthatshehascomeintoconflictwithhereditors."It'stimefor
readerstopickupalittleSpanish,"sheargues."It'slikeaplateoffoodwithsalsa,withtheSpanishwordsthesalsa.Itgives(thewritings)flavor."
DeniseChvezwasborninLasCruces,NewMexico,only40milesfromtheMexicanborder.ThebilingualbackdropoftheSouthernNewMexicotownimmersed
theChvezhomeintwodistinctcultures.AtMadonnaHighSchoolinMesilla,NewMexico,Chvezenrolledinatheaterclass.There,shediscovereddramaasa
meansofselfexpression.ShewasawardedadramascholarshiptoNewMexicoStateUniversity,whereshestudiedwithMarkMedoff,authoroftheplayChildren
ofaLesserGod.SheearnedherB.A.indrama,thenaMasterofFineArtsindramain1974,andanM.F.A.increativewritingadecadelater.
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Chvezbeganwritingplaysintheearly1970s,focusingonthesocialandeconomicissuesoftheChicanocultureaswellasbilingualspeechandChicanohumor.
Chvezhasalsopublishedpoetryandshortstories.In1986,acollectionofhershortstorieswaspublishedasanovel,TheLastoftheMenuGirls.
ChvezhasfoundmuchstrengthandsupportinanetworkoffellowChicanoandChicanawriters,includingRobertoAnayaandSandraCisneros.Chvezisvery
activeintheChicanocommunityandsaysthatherworkiswrittenforthepoorandforgotten.Indeed,thecharactersinherwritingsaretypicallyeverydaypeople,and
throughthesecharactersChvezcelebratesthestrengthanddignityoftheworkingclass.
JuliaAlvarez(b.1950)
Inherpoemsandnovels,JuliaAlvarezexploresthegulfbetweenalienationandassimilationwithintheLatinocommunity.Despitethedifficultiesofbridgingtwo
cultures,Alvarezseesadvantagestothisuniquepositionwhensheassertsthat:"Wetravelonthatborderbetweentwoworldsandwecanseebothpointsofview,"
shenotes.Alvarezhasfirsthandexperienceasamemberoftwocultures:in1960,attheageof10,shearrivedintheUnitedStatesfromtheDominicanRepublic.
AlvarezclaimsthatbeinginAmerica,whereshewassurroundedbybooksandwomenwereencouragedtodiscovertheirtalents,contributedtoherbecomingan
author.In1971,AlvarezearnedherB.A.fromMiddleburyCollegefouryearslater,shecompletedherM.A.increativewritingfromSyracuseUniversity.Currently,
sheisaprofessoratMiddleburyCollege.
Alvarezisaprolificwriter.Homecoming,acollectionofpoems,waspublishedin1984thenovelHowtheGarciaGirlsLostTheirAccentswaspublishedsixyears
later.HowtheGarciaGirlsLostTheirAccentsdescribestheexperiencesofthefourGarciasisters,wholikeAlvarez,cametoNewYorkCityfromtheDominican
Republic.The15interconnectedchaptersexplorethegirls'struggletonegotiatetheirplacebetweenthetwoculturestowhichtheybelong.
In1994,AlvarezpublishedIntheTimeoftheButterflies,whichwasnamedanAmericanLibraryAssociationNotableBookandaNationalBookCriticsCircle
Awardfinalist.Inthishistoricalnovel,AlvarezintroducestheAmericanpublictothelegendaryMirabalsisters,whogavetheirlivesdefyingtheoppressivedictatorship
intheDominicanRepublic.Theywerecalled"lasmiraposas"(thebutterflies).
Alvarezpublishedasecondcollectionofpoetryin1995,TheOtherSide:ElOtroLado.Hermostrecentwork,Yo!,waspublishedin1997.
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SandraCisneros(b.1954)
"Inthemoviesthereisalwaysonewithredredlipswhoisbeautifulandcruel.Sheistheonewhodrivesmencrazyandlaughsatthemalltheway.Herpowerisherown.Shewill
notgiveitaway."
SandraCisneros,TheHouseonMangoStreet
Anacclaimedfictionwriter,essayist,poet,andteacher,Cisnerossaysofherwriting,"WhenIwaselevenyearsoldinChicago,teachersthoughtifyouwerepoorand
Mexican,youdidn'thaveanythingtosay.NowIthinkthatwhatIwasputontheplanetforwastotellthesestories.Usewhatyouknowtohelphealthepaininyour
community.We'vegottotellourownhistory.IamveryconsciousthatIwanttowrite."
Cisneros'stylehasbeenshapedbyherexperiences:feminism,love,oppression,andreligion.Thesethemesrecutinherwork.In"GhostsandVoices:WritingFrom
Obsession,"shesays,"IfIwereaskedwhatitisIwriteabout,IwouldhavetosayIwriteaboutthoseghostsinsidethathauntme,thatwillnotletmesleep,ofthat
whichevenmemorydoesnotliketomention."
AfterearningherB.A.inEnglishfromLoyolaUniversityinChicagoandanM.A.inwritingfromtheUniversityofIowa,Cisnerostookavarietyofjobs.In1984,she
publishedTheHouseonMangoStreet.Hercollectionofpoems,MyWickedWickedWayspublishedin1987,iswidelyread.
ContemporaryAsianAmericanWriters
Itwasnotuntilthe1976publicationofMaxineHongKingston'smysticalmemoirofherSanFranciscochildhood,TheWomanWarrior:MemoirsofaGirlhood
AmongGhosts,
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thatAsianAmericanwritersbrokeintomainstreamAmericanliterature.Evenso,morethan10yearspassedbeforeanotherAsianAmericanwriterachievedfame
andfortune.TheJoyLuckClub,AmyTan'sfirstnovel,soldanastonishing275,000hardcovercopiesuponits1989publication.
ThesuccessofTan'sbookmadepublishersmorewillingtogambleonfirstbooksbyAsianAmericanwriters.Twoyearslater,atleastfourotherChineseAmerican
writershadbrisksellingbooks:
GusLee'sChinaBoyhadaninitialprintrunof75,000,hugeforafirsttimeauthor.
PublishersdukeditoutfortherighttopublishDavidWongLouie'sPangofLove,acollectionofshortstories.
GishJen'sTypicalAmericahadanequallyimpressivereception.
Inpart,thisinterestinAsianAmericanliteraturecanbeattributedtotheneardoublingofAmerica'sAsianAmericanpopulation,from3.5millionto6.9millioninthe
past10years.Thefactremains,however,thatmoreAsianAmericansthaneverarewriting,andtheirbookshaveafreshandoriginalvoice.
AmongthemostpopularcontemporaryAsianAmericanwritersareMaxineHongKingstonandAmyTan.
MaxineHongKingston(b.1940)
"TheWomanWarriorisaboutbeingChineseinthewaythat(theJamesJoycenovel)PortraitoftheArtistasaYoungManisaboutbeingIrish.Itisaninvestigationofsoul,not
landscape.Itssourcesaredreamandmemory,mythanddesire.Itscrisesarethecrisesofaheartinexilefromrootsthatbindandterrorizeit."
TheNewYorkTimesBookReview
TheWomanWarrior:MemoirsofaGirlhoodAmongGhostsmadeMaxineHongKingstonaliterarycelebrityattheageof36.Kingstonhassincewrittentwo
othercriticallyhailedbooks.ChinaMen,asequeltoTheWomanWarrior,waspublishedin1980and
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alsoreceivedtheNationalBookCritic'sCircleAward.In1989,Kingstonpublishedherfirstnovel,TripmasterMonkey:HisFakeBook.Kingston'swritingisoften
praisedforitsharmonyandpoetry.
Kingstonhadadifficultchildhood.Herparents,bothChineseimmigrants,operatedagamblinghouseinStockton,California,whenMaxinewasborn.Shortlyafterher
birth,thefamilyopenedalaundry,wheresheandherfivesiblingsjoinedtheirparentsassoonastheywereoldenoughtoworkthelongandhardhours.Kingston
attendedpublicschools,whereshewasanexcellentstudent.Aftergraduation,withthehelpofscholarships,sheenrolledintheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.
In1962KingstonearnedherB.A.andmarriedfellowclassmateEarlKingston.Fiveyearslater,theKingstonsmovedtoHawaii,whereMaxinetaughtschool.
Kingston'smemoirsandnovelsareafascinatingmixofmythandreality,fableandfact.Let'sturntothemnow.
''Whenfishingfortreasuresintheflood,becarefulnottopullingirls."
"There'snoprofitinraisinggirls.Bettertoraisegeesethangirls."
MaxineHongKingston,TheWomanWarrior
TheWomanWarrior(1976)ThismemoirdescribestheconflictingculturalmessagesKingstonreceivedasthedaughterofChineseimmigrantsgrowingupin
1950sAmerica.ItalsoexploresthepressureshefeltasanAmericantryingtoemergefromthetragedyofherfemaleancestorsinChina'smaledominatedsociety.
ChinaMen(1980)ChinaMenexplorestheChineseAmericanmeninKingston'sfamily.TheNewYorkTimespraiseditas"atriumphofthehighestorder,of
imagination,oflanguage,ofmoralperception."
TripmasterMonkey:HisFakeBook(1989)SetinSanFranciscointhe1960s,thenoveldescribesWittmanAhSing,whowritesacontemporaryepicbasedon
anoldChinesenovel.SomereviewerscomparedWittmanAhSingtoJ.D.Salinger'sHoldenCaulfieldandMarkTwain'sHuckFinn.ThenameWittmanisalsoan
homagetoWaltWhitmanandthetriumphantAmericanindividualspirit.
AmyTan(b.1952)
"BeforeIwroteTheJoyLuckClub,"Tanremarkedinaninterview,"mymothertoldme,'Imightdiesoon.AndifIdie,whatwillyouremember?'"
AsTheJoyLuckClubrevealed,Tanrememberedquiteabitofherheritage."Allthedaughtersarefracturedbitsofme,"shenoted.
AmericanbornAmyTanistheonlydaughterofChineseimmigrants.Herfamilymovedagreatdealwhenshewasachild,eventuallysettlinginSantaClara,
California.TangraduatedfromhighschoolinMontreux,Switzerland,andearnedhermaster'sdegreeinlinguisticsfromSanJoseStateUniversity,California.
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Afterbecomingafreelancebusinesswriter(ajobshefounddull),Tanbeganwritingfictionasahobby.ShesoonquitthefreelancebusinessandwroteTheJoyLuck
Clubinfourmonths.Itwasasmashsuccess,asyouhavealreadyread.ThenoveldescribesthelivesoffourAsianwomenwhofleeChinainthe1940sandtheirfour
veryAmericanizeddaughters.ThestoryfocusesonJingmei(June)Woo,a36yearoldwomanatlooseends.Afterhermother'ssuddendeath,Junecomesto
appreciateherheritageandtheextraordinaryhardshipsexperiencedbytheChineseimmigrantwomenofhermother'sgeneration.
Tan'ssecondbook,TheKitchenGod'sWife,publishedin1991,tellshermother'sstorythroughthefictionalWinnie,aChineserefugee.Thebookwasahuge
successevenbeforepublication.
In1992,Tanpublishedachildren'sbook.TheMoonLady.PublishersWeeklynoted,"Thehauntingtalethatunfoldsisworthyofretelling."
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Chapter32
NewFrontiers
Roev.Wade,Stonewall,theMiddleEast,biologicalweapons.Today'sturbulencehascontributedtothedevelopmentofawidevarietyofliterarymovements.Some
writersreacttoturmoilbyexploringnewliteraryformsandtechniques,creatingworksthatblendfictionandnonfictionorfantasyandrealism.
Otherwritersfocusoncapturingtheessenceofmodernlife,oftenzeroinginonthecomplex,contradictory,andcommercialnatureofexistence.Stillotherwriterskey
intotheviolencetheyseeexplodingaroundthem.
Whatcanweconcludeaboutthenatureofcontemporaryliterature?Theonethingthatunitestoday'swritersistheirwidediversityofformsandthemes.
ThischapterstartswithadiscussionofJohnCheeverandJohnUpdike,whochroniclesuburbanmannersandmoralsintheirnovelsandshortstories.Thenyou'llread
aboutTrumanCapoteandthe"nonfictionnovel,"oneofthemostinfluentialdevelopmentsincontemporaryAmericanletters.I'llalsoexplainhowMaryGordonhas
fashionedtherawmaterialoflifeintoliterature.Andwhatwouldachapterontoday'swritersbewithoutalookatStephenKingandJoyceCarolOates?
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JohnCheever(19121982)
"OurChekhovoftheexurbs,"criticJohnLeonardcalledJohnCheever,alludingtoCheever'sinterestinthelivesofupperclasssuburbanprofessionalstrappedby
circumstancesmarriages,jobs,possessions.Imprisonedintheirbeautifulhomesandneighborhoods,Cheever'scharacterslongtobreakfreefromtheirroutines,but
sometimestheydon'trealizehowdeeplytheyaretrapped.
BorninQuincey,Massachusetts,Cheeverhadthetypicalunhappychildhood,aseemingrequirementforasuccessfulcareerasawriter.Hisfatherlostallhismoneyin
thestockmarketcrashof1929,thesameyearthatCheeverwasexpelledfromprivateschool.Withadmirablecheek,hewroteastoryabouttheexperienceand
promptlysoldittotheNewRepublicin1930.Sohiscareerwasborn.
DuringtheDepression,CheeverlivedinManhattanandekedoutalivingdoingoddjobs.HeenlistedinthearmedservicesinWorldWarIIbutdidn'tseeaction.
Soonafterthewar,Cheeverpublishedhisfirstcollectionofshortstories,TheWaySomePeopleLive,in1943.Throughouthiscareer,hecontinuouslywrotestories
fortheNewYorker.In1978,CheeverpublishedTheStoriesofJohnCheever,ananthologyofhisbesttales.
AlthoughCheever'sfamerestslargelyonhisshortstories,healsowroteseveralfinenovels,includingTheWapshotChronicles(1957,NationalBookAward
winner),TheWapshotScandal(1964),andBulletPark(1969).Afteraboutwithalcoholanddrugaddiction,Cheeverpublishedhislasttwonovels,Falconer
(1978)andOhWhataParadiseItSeems(1982).
JohnUpdike(b.1932)
"MysubjectistheAmericanProtestantsmalltownmiddleclass,"Updikesays."Ilikemiddles.Itisinmiddlesthatextremesclash,whereambiguityrestlesslyrules"
Updikehascorneredthemarketonstoriesandnovelsaboutmiddleclasslifeandthedailyupsanddownsofthatexistence.
UpdikewasbornonMarch18,1932,inShillington,Pennsylvania.Hisfatherwasateacherhismother,awriter.Agiftedartist,UpdikegraduatedfromHarvardin
1954andthenspentayearstudyingartinEngland.
UponhisreturntoAmerica,UpdiketookajobwritingfortheNewYorker,apositionheheldforseveralyears.
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Inthe1950s,UpdikelefttheNewYorkerandmovedtoIpswich,Massachusetts,wherehecontinuestowritefulltime.(HeisstillaregularcontributortotheNew
Yorker,however.)
Here'sJohnny!
Since1958,whenThePoorhouseFair,Updike'sfirstnovel,appeared,hehasturnedoutasteadystreamofhighqualityfiction,including
Rabbit,Run(1960)
PigeonFeathers(1963)
TheCentaur(1964)
OftheFarm(1965)
Couples(1968)
RabbitRedux(1971)
MarryMe(1976)
RabbitIsRich(1981)
TheWitchesofEastwick(1984)
Roger'sVersion(1986)
S(1988)
RabbitatRest(1990)
BunnyHop
UpdikeisperhapsbestknownforhisthreeRabbitbooks:Rabbit,RunRabbitReduxandRabbitIsRich.Eachbookcharacterizesanerathe1950s,thelate
1960s,thelate1970s,andthe1990sthroughHarry"Rabbit"Angstrom,astandinforUpdikeinsomeways.
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InRabbit,Run,Harryishavingamidlifecrisisandlongstoescapefromhislife,especiallyhiswife,child,andcommunity.
RabbitReduxdealswiththeeffectoftheVietnamWarandtheblackrevolutiononHarryandasmallPennsylvaniatown.
RabbitIsRichpaintsthesad,quietstoryofHarrysettlingintooldage.ThisonegothimaPulitzerPrize.
RabbitatRest(anotherPulitizerPrizewinner)followsHarryinthepresent.
WhileJohnUpdikedescribestheangstofmiddleclasslife,TrumanCapote,ontheotherhand,lookedatlifefromaverydifferentangle.
TrumanCapote(19241984)
"Heworebluelinenshortsthatbuttonedtohisshirt,
hishairwassnowwhiteandstucktohisheadlikedandruffAshetoldatalehisblueeyeswouldlightenanddarkenhislaughwassuddenandhappyhehabituallypulledata
cowlickinthecenterofhisforeheadWecametoknowhimasapocketMerlin,whoseheadteemedwitheccentricplans,strangelongings,andquaintfantasies."
HarperLee,describingTrumanCapoteasachild
Ashortstorywriterandnovelistbestknownforhis"nonfictionnovel"InColdBlood,Capotewasthefirstauthortowriteanonfictionbookthatcouldbereadasa
novel.Agiftedprosestylist,Capoteopenedupnewliteraryterritory.Hewasalsoaflamboyantmediacelebrity,famousforhislavishpartiesandexcesses.
BornTrumanStreckfusPersonstoaformerNewOrleansbeautyqueen,Trumanspenthischildhoodbeingshuffledamonghisrelativesafterhisparents'divorce.
Sincenoonewantedtocareforhim,Trumanwasraisedinanoddsortofhouseholdpeculiarto
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theSouthatthattime,dominatedbythreequarrelsomesisters(hisaunts)andtheirreculsiveotherbrother(hisuncle).
Theairwasheavywithpettyresentments,ancientsecrets,and50yearsofaccumulatedslights.
WhenTrumanwaseightyearsold,hismothermarriedJosephGarciaCapotewhoadoptedTrumanandrenamedhimTrumanGarciaCapote.ButTruman'smother
wasfarlessfondofherchild,chieflybecauseshewasembarrassedbyhiseffeminateways,andafterTruman'sbirth,sheterminatedtwopregnancies,saying"Iwillnot
haveanotherchildlikeTruman."Sheeventookhimtovariousdoctorsinanattempttofindadrugthatwouldturnhimintoa"realboy."
CapotegraduatedfromGreenwichHighSchoolinConnecticut.Anunsuccessfulscholar,hefoundhisrealcallingthatsameyearwhenhetookaparttimejobasa
copyboywiththeNewYorker.
By18hehadnotyetreachedhisadultheightoffivefeet,threeinchesandhadahigh,childlikevoice.Despitehislowlypositiononthepublishingfoodchain,Capote
quicklyattractedattentionforhiseccentricmannerismsandflamboyantclothing.HiscareerwiththeNewYorkerlastedlessthanayear,however,whenhewasfired
formisrepresentinghimselfasastaffwriter.
Fame,Fortune,andFriends
In1945,Capotepublishedhisfirstshortstory,"Miriam."Theplotisinterwovenwithrecurringthemesofisolation,dread,andpsychologicalbreakdowns,typical
concernsinCapote'searlywriting.ThestorywontheO.HenryAwardin1946,leadingtoabookcontractforCapote.
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TrumanCapote.
In1948,CapotepublishedthenovelOtherVoices,OtherRooms.Animmediatecriticalandpopularsuccess,ittoppedTheNewYorkTimesbestsellerlist.At23
yearsold,CapotebecamethedarlingoftheNewYorkliterarycircuitandlovingit.
Capote'ssuccesscontinued.Hisnextnovel,TheGrassHarp(1951),wasasuccessinprintandwaslateradaptedasaplay.Bythistime,Capotewasregularly
hangingoutwithJohnandJackieKennedy,MarlonBrando,ArthurMiller,andLizTaylor.Hewasallowedintotheworldoftherichandfamous,fetedonyachts,in
chalets,andinpenthouses.
TheNonfictionNovel
Inthemidstofhismadsocialwhirl,Capotebegantodevelopanewapproachtotherolethatnonfictioncouldhaveonhiscareerandonliterature.Lateinthe1950s,
hebegantoexperimentalongthisline.HisfirstsuccessatexperimentingwithnonfictionwasBreakfastatTiffany's(1958).Withinmonths.HollyGolightly,the
novel'smaincharacter,hadtakenherplaceinAmerica'sconsciousness.EvenharshcriticNormanMailerwrotethatBreakfastatTiffany'swassoperfectthathe
wouldnotchangetwowordsofit.
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However,Capote'sgreatestworkandsuccesswereyettocome.Capotesecuredhisclaimtofamein1965,whentheNewYorkerpublishedhisnonfictionnovelIn
ColdBloodinitspages.
AgrippingaccountofthemassmurderofaKansasfarmfamily,theClutters,thebookfollowstwoyoungkillersfromthemurderscenetotheireventualexecutionfive
andahalfyearslater.Capote'smeticulousresearchhehadevenbefriendedthemurderersresultedinaliterarylandmark.Capote's"nonfictionnovel"received
extrordinaryacclaim:TheNewYorkTimesdeclaredthenovelamasterpiece.
ThelastyearsofCapote'slifewerepainfulanddifficult.Shunnedbyhisformerfriendsforusingtheirrealnamesandpeccadilloesinhisbook,AnsweredPrayersin
1975,Capotesufferedanervousbreakdown,followedbyahostofseriousphysicalconditions.Alcoholismanddrugaddictionaddedtohisdifficulties.Capotedied
in1984.
MaryGordon(b.1948)
"IthinkIknewaboutsecretsandlies,althoughIdidn'tknowthatIknewit.AndIthinkIdidn'texpectthathumanlifewasabouthappiness."
MaryGordon
MaryGordonhasbeenpeggedasareligiousandmoralwriter,atagshehastriedtoshed.Nonetheless,herethicalstanceandtherhythmsofherproserevealthatthe
labelismoreaccuratethanshemightperhapslike.
MaryCatherineGordongrewupintheworkingclassworldofValleyStream,NewYork.Althoughintellectualambitionswerediscouragedintheneighborhood,
Gordon'sfathertookMarytothelibraryregularlyandwroteherpoemsinGerman,French,Greek,andLatin.Decadeslater,Gordonwoulddiscoverthather
belovedfathercreatedacompletelyfalsepastforhimself,buthisintellectualslantneverthelesshelpedherbecomeawriter.
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Notsurprisingly,Gordonwasshatteredwhenherfatherdiedofaheartattackwhenshewasonlysevenyearsold."Whenmyfatherdied,"Gordonremembers,"itwas
likealllightswentoutmyonlyreallife,Iwouldsay,wasreading,andIwasquiteprayerful.Ididn'thavemanyhumanrelations."Sheandhermothermovedintoher
grandmother'shome.BothhermotherandgrandmotherwerecrippledfrompolioanddidnotencourageyoungMary'sartisticambitions.
AftergraduatingfromBarnardCollege,GordonattractedtheattentionofthecelebratedBritishwriterMargaretDrabble,whohelpedlaunchhercareerwithhernovel
FinalPaymentsin1978.
Thebookwasasmashhit.At29,Gordonbecameanovernightsensation.ThecriticscomparedhertoJaneAusten,DorisLessing,andFlanneryO'Connor.
FinalPayments
ThenovelopenswiththefuneralofJosephMoore,aconservativeCatholicwhohadbeenaliteratureprofessor.Hisdaughter,Isabel,now30,haslivedathomefor
thepast11years,nursinghimthroughaseriesofstrokes:"IgaveupmylifeforhimonlyifyouunderstandmyfatherwillyouunderstandthatImakethatstatement
notwithselfpitybutwithextremeprideThisstrikeseveryoneinourdecadeasunusual,barbarous,cruel.Tome,itwasnotonlyinevitablebutnatural.TheChurch
existsandhasenduredforthis,notonlytopreserveitselfbuttokeepcertainscenesintact:MyfatherandmelivingbyourselvesinaonefamilyhouseinQueens."
Isabelthensetsouttodevelopanewlifeforherself.Alongtheway,shequestionsthenatureofdevotionandsacrificeandmakeschoicesbetweenthepulloftheflesh
andtheclaimsofthespirit.
ReligiousRite
AfterthesuccessofFinalPayments,Gordonpublishedhersecondnovel,TheCompanyofWomen,in1981.Inthisbook,GordontriestominimizetheCatholic
overtonesofherwork.Continuingthistrend,hersubsequentbookshavefocusedlessovertlyonreligion.MenandAngels(1985),forexample,portraysanart
historianwhohiresapsychoticreligiousfanaticasamother'shelper.Thisnovelexaminesthecommonstrugglesofdomesticityandcompanionship.
Gordon'snextnovel,TheOtherSide(1989),isamultigenerationalimmigrantsaga.Gordonalsocameoutwithacollectionofshortstories,TemporaryShelter
(1987),avolumeofessays,GoodBoysandDeadGirls(1992),andabookofnovellas,TheRestofLife(1993).Inadditiontowriting,Gordoncurrentlyteachesat
BarnardCollege.
StephenKing(b.1947)
"PeoplewanttoknowwhyIdothis,whyIwritesuchgrossstuff.IliketotellthemthatIhavetheheartofasmallboyandIkeepitinajaronmydesk."
StephenKing
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StephenKing'smacabretaleshavemadehimAmerica'sbestsellingauthorever.Buthistalesaremorethanmerebloodbaths.Athisbest,Kingcreatesgripping
psychologicalstudiesthatprobetheAmericansubconscious.DoloresClaiborne(1992),RoseMadder(1995),andBagofBones(1998)inparticularshowthe
depthofKing'stalent.
KingMe
WhenStephenKingwasthreeyearsold,hisfatherleftonedayandnevercameback.Stephenturnedtofictionforsolace,writinghisfirstshortstoryjustafewyears
later.King'slifebecamelessintrospectivewhenhejoinedthefootballteamandalocalrockbandinhighschool.HegraduatedfromtheUniversityofMaineatOrono
in1970withaB.AinEnglishandqualifiedtoteachonthehighschoollevel.
HeandfellowwriterTabithaSprucemarriedsoonafter.SinceKingcouldn'tfindateachingjob,thecouplelivedonhisearningsasalaboreratanindustriallaundry
alongwithherstudentloanandsavings,withanoccasionalboostfromashortstorysaletomagazines.
InSeptemberof1971,KingbeganteachinghighschoolEnglish.Inhissparetime,hecontinuedtowriteshortstoriesandnovels.In1974,Carriewaspublishedand
Kingembarkedonawildlyprolificandlucrativecareer.Sofar,he'ssoldwellover100millioncopiesofhisterrifyingtalesandhasbecometherichestwriterinworld
history.In1989,KingsignedadealwithVikingthatnettedhim$35millionforfourbooksanewrecord.In1997,Simon&Schustertoppedthatoffer.
Whennotwriting,themasterofthemacabreenjoysbowling,poker,andgettingtogetherwithDaveBarry,AmyTan,RobertFulghum,MattGroening,andRoy
Blount,Jr.ina''hardlistening"band(sodubbedbyBarry)calledthe"RockBottomRemainders."
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FrightNight
Here'saquickreferencelistforsomeofStephenKing'smostpopularbooks.CheckoutyourlocalbookestablishmentforevenmoreStephenKingtalesofterror.
Carrie(1974)Ayoungwomanfindsthatshehastelekineticpowers.
Salem'sLot(1975)VampirestakeoverasmalltowninMaine.
TheShining(1977)Apossessedhoteltriestodestroyafamily.
TheStand(1978)Mostofhumanityiswipedoutbyaplague,andthesurvivorsfighttheultimatebattleofgoodversusevil.
TheDeadZone(1979)Amanwakesfromhiscomawithphysicpowers.
Firestarter(1980)Ayounggirltriestodealwithheramazingpyrokineticpowers.
Cujo(1981)ArabiddogcausesterrorinasmalltowninMaine.
Christine(1983)Acarwithamindofitsownseeksvengeance.
PetSematary(1983)PetsreturnfromthedeadtoterrorizepeopleinasmalltowninMaine.
Misery(1987)A"numberonefan"savesthelifeofanauthorandkeepshimaprisonerforherowntwistedpurposes.
TheTommyknockers(1987)AgroupofpeopledigsupaUFO,withunsettlingresults.
NeedfulThings(1991)HavingitseveryneedfulfilledtearsasmallMainetownapart.
DoloresClaiborne(1992)Anoldwomancomestotermswithherlifebyconfrontingherabusivehusbandandtheestrangementfromherdaughter.
RoseMadder(1995)Anabusedwomantriestostartanewlife,butherhusbandhasadifferentidea.
BagofBones(1998)Awriterdealswiththelossofhiswifeinahauntedhouse.
JoyceCarolOates(b.1938)
"Theworstcynicism:abeliefinluck."
JoyceCarolOates
JoyceCarolOatescertainlyhastalent,butshemadeherownluck.Forstarters,sincetherewerefewbooksinLockport,NewYork,theworkingclasstownwhere
shewasraised,Oatesmadeherownbooksbybindingherstorieswithcoversshedesignedherself.Tomakethebookslookbetter,shelearnedtotypebytheageof
12.
Page399
Hertalentwasrecognizedearly:WhileattendingSyracuseUniversityonscholarship,OateswonthecovetedMademoisellemagazinefictioncontest.Aftergraduating
attheheadofherclass,OatesearnedanM.A.inEnglishattheUniversityofWisconsin,whereshemetandmarriedRaymondJ.Smith.
Between1968and1978,OatestaughtattheUniversityofWindsorinCanada.Tremendouslyproductive,Oatespublishedtwoorthreebooksayearevenwhile
teachingfulltime.
In1978,PrincetonUniversityluredOatestoNewJerseytoteachintheircreativewritingprogram.Inaddition,sheandherhusbandoperateahighlyrespected
publishingcompanyandproducealiterarymagazine,TheOntarioReview.
ShortlyafterarrivinginPrinceton,OateswroteBellefleur,thefirstinaseriesofambitiousGothicnovelsthatreworktraditionalliterarygenresandreimaginelarge
swathsofAmericanhistory.Publishedintheearly1980s,thesenovelsmarkadeparturefromthepsychologicalrealismofherearlierwork.Oatesreturnedpowerfully
totherealisticmodewithambitiousfamilychronicles(YouMustRememberThis,BecauseItIsBitter,andBecauseItIsMyHeart),compellingcontemporary
novels(Solstice,Marya:ALife),andaseriesofsuspensenovels.Allthesebooksshowhergreatversatilityasawriter.
Page401
APPENDIXA
THEAUTHORSANDTHEIRMOSTFAMOUSWORKS
Alvarez,Julia
Homecoming(1984)
HowtheGarciaGirlsLostTheirAccents(1990)
IntheTimeoftheButterflies(1994)
Homecoming:NewandCollectedPoems(1996)
TheOtherSide:ElOtroLado(1996)
!Yo!(1997)
EnElTiempoDeLasMariposas(1998)
SomethingtoDeclare:Essays(1998)
Atwood,Margaret
Poetry
"TheCircleGame"(1964)
"TheAnimalsinThatCountry"(1969)
"TheJournalsofSusannaMoodie"(1970)
"ProceduresforUnderground"(1970)
"PowerPolitics"(1971)
"YouAreHappy"(1974)
"SelectedPoems"(1976)
"TwoHeadedPoems"(1978)
"TrueStories"(1981)
"Interlunar"(1984)
SelectedPoemsII:PoemsSelectedandNew,19761986(1986)
SelectedPoems19661984(1990)
MargaretAtwoodPoems19651975(1991)
EatingFireSelectedPoems,19651995(1998)
Novels
TheEdibleWoman(1969)
Surfacing(1972)
LadyOracle(1976)
LifeBeforeMan(1980)
BodilyHarm(1981)
TheHandmaid'sTale(1986)
Cat'sEye(1989)
TheRobberBride(1993)
MorningintheBurnedHouse(1995)
AliasGrace(1996)
Baldwin,James
AnotherCountry(1962)
Giovanni'sRoom(1955)
NotesofaNativeSon(1955)
GoTellItontheMountain(1953)
TellMeHowLongtheTrain'sBeenGone(1968)
JustAboveMyHead(1979)
Page402
Bellow,Saul
TheDanglingMan(1944)
TheVictim(1947)
TheAdventuresofAugieMarch(1953)
SeizetheDay(1956)
HendersontheRainKing(1959)
Herzog(1964)
Mr.Sammler'sPlanet(1970)
Humboldt'sGift(1975)
TheDean'sDecember(1982)
MoreDieofHeartbreak(1987)
ATheft(1989)
TheBellarosaConnection(1989)
SomethingtoRememberMeBy(1991)
Brooks,Gwendolyn
PoetryAStreetinBronzeville(1945)
AnnieAllen(1949)
NovelMaudMartha(1953)
BronzevilleBoysandGirls(1956)
TheBeanEaters(1960)
SelectedPoems(1963)
IntheMecca(1968)
Riot(1969)
FamilyPictures(1970)
Aloneness(1971)
ReportFromPartOne(1972)
TheTigerWhoWoreWhiteGloves,or,WhatYouAreYouAre,(1974)
Beckonings(1975)
PrimerforBlacks(1980)
ToDisembark(1981)
BlackLove(1982)
TheNearJohannesburgBoyandOtherPoems(1987)
Burroughs,WilliamS.
NakedLunch(1959
Capote,Truman
OtherVoices,OtherRooms(1948)
TheGrassHarp(1951)
BreakfastatTiffany's(1958)
InColdBlood(1965)
Cather,Willa
OPioneers!(1913)
TheSongoftheLark(1915)
MyAntonia(1921)
OneofOurs(1922)
ALostLady(1923)
TheProfessor'sHouse(1925)
MyMortalEnemy(1926)
DeathComesfortheArchbishop(1927)
ShadowsontheRock(1931)
LucyGayheart(1935)
SapphiraandtheSlaveGirl(1940)
Chvez,Denise
TheLastoftheMenuGirls(1986)
TheWomanWhoKnewtheLanguageofAnimals(1992)
FaceofanAngel(1994)
Novitiates(1973)
TheFlyingTortillaMan(1975)
PlagueTime(1985)
NovenaNarrative(1987)
LanguageofVision(1988)
WomenintheStateofGrace(1989)
Page403
Chopin,Kate
AtFault(1890)
BayouFolk(1894)
ANightinAcadie(1897)
TheAwakening(1899)
Cisneros,Sandra
TheHouseonMangoStreet(1983)
MyWickedWickedWays(1987)
WomanHolleringCreekandOtherStories(1991)
LooseWoman:Poems(1994)
Clemens,Samuel
InnocentsAbroad(1869)
RoughingIt(1872)
TheGildedAge(1873)
TheAdventuresofTomSawyer(1876)
ATrampAbroad(1880)
ThePrinceandthePauper(1881)
LifeontheMississippi(1883)
TheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn(1884)
MarkTwain'sLibraryofHumor(1888)
AConnecticutYankeeinKingArthur'sCourt(1889)
Pudd'nheadWilson(1894)
PersonalRecollectionsofJoanofArc(1895)
FollowingtheEquator(1897)
TheManThatCorruptedHadleyburg(1900)
ExtractsfromAdam'sDiary(1904)
WhatisMan?(1906)
TheMysteriousStranger(1916)
LettersfromtheEarth(1939)
Cooper,JamesFenimore
Precaution(1820)
TheSpy(1821)
ThePilot(1823)
ThePioneers(1823)
LionelLincoln(1825)
TheLastoftheMohicans(1826)
ThePrairie(1827)
TheRedRover(1827)
TheWeptofWishtonWish(1829)
TheWaterWitch(1830)
TheBravo(1831)
TheHeidenmauer(1832)
TheHeadsman(1833)
TheMonikins(1835)
HomeasFound(1838)
HomewardBound(1838)
MercedesofCastile(1840)
ThePathfinder(1840)
TheDeerslayer(1841)
TheTwoAdmirals(1842)
TheWingandWing(1842)
Wyandotte(1843)
AfloatandAshore(1844)
MilesWallingford(1844)
TheChainbearer(1845)
Satanstoe(1845)
TheRedskins(1846)
TheCrater(1847)
JackTier(1848)
TheOakOpenings(1848)
TheSeaLions(1849)
TheWaysoftheHour(1850)
Page404
Crane,Stephen
TheBlackRiders(1895)
TheRedBadgeofCourage(1895)
"TheBlueHotel"(1896)
"TheBrideComestoYellowSky"(1896)
"George'sMother"(1896)
"TheLittleRegiment"(1896)
"TheThirdViolet"(1897)
"TheOpenBoat"(1898)
"ActiveService"(1899)
TheMonsterAndOtherStories(1899)
WarIsKind(1899)
WhilomvilleStories(1900)
WoundsintheRain(1900)
Men,WomenandBoats(1921)
CollectedWorks,12Vol.(192526)
Letters(1960)
Cullen,Counte
Colors(1925)
CopperSun(1927)
TheBalladoftheBrownGirl(1927)
OneWaytoHeaven(1932)
TheLastZoo(1940)
MyLivesandHowILostThem(1942)
cummings,e.e.
TheEnormousRoom(1922)
TulipsandChimneys(1923,1925)&(1925)
XLIPoems(1925)
Is5(1926)
W(1931)
Eimi(1933)
nothanks(1935)
CollectedPoems(1938)
50Poems(1940)
11(1944)
XAIPE(1950)
95Poems(1958)
73Poems(1963)
Dickinson,Emily
PoemsbyEmilyDickinson(1890)
Douglass,Frederick
TheLifeandTimesofFrederickDouglass(1882)
Dreiser,Theodore
SisterCarrie(1900)
JennieGerhardt(1911)
TheFinancier(1912)
ATraveleratForty(1913)
TheTitan(1914)
TheGenius(1915)
AHoosierHoliday(1916)
AnAmericanTragedy(1925)
TragicAmerica(1931)
TheBulwark(1946)
TheStoic(1947)
Eliot,T.S.
PrufrockandOtherObservations(1917)
Poems(1920)
TheSacredWood(1920)
TheWasteLand(1922)
MurderintheCathedral(1935)
FourQuartets(193643)
TheFamilyReunion(1939)
TheCocktailParty(1950)
TheConfidentialClerk(1954)
TheElderStatesman(1958)
Page405
Ellison,Ralph
InvisibleMan(1952)
Emerson,RalphWaldo
Nature(1836)
Essays,FirstSeries(1841)
Essays,SecondSeries(1844)
Poems(1847)
RepresentativeMen(1850)
TheConductofLife(1860)
Journals(10volumes)
Erdrich,Louise
Imagination(1981)
Jacklight(1984)
LoveMedicine(1984)
TheBeetQueen(1986)
Tracks(1988)
BaptismofDesire:poems(1989)
TheBingoPalace(1994)
TheBlueJay'sDance:ABirthYear(1995)
AntelopeWoman(1998)
Faulkner,William
TheMarbleFaun(1924)
Soldier'sPay(1926)
Mosquitoes(1927)
Sartoris(1929)
TheSoundandtheFury(1929)
AsILayDying(1930)
Sanctuary(1931)
These13(1931)
LightinAugust(1932)
DoctorMartinoandOtherStories(1934)
Pylon(1935)
Absalom,Absalom!(1936)
TheUnvanquished(1938)
TheWildPalms(1939)
TheHamlet(1940)
GoDown,Moses(1942)
IntruderintheDust(1948)
Knight'sGambit(1949)
CollectedStoriesofWilliamFaulkner(1950)
RequiemforaNun(1951)
AFable(1954)
BigWoods(1955)
TheTown(1957)
TheMansion(1959)
TheReivers(1962)
Fitzgerald,F.Scott
ThisSideofParadise(1920)
FlappersandPhilosophers(1921)
TheBeautifulandtheDamned(1922)
TalesoftheJazzAge(1922)
TheVegetable,OrfromthePostmantoPresident(1923)
TheGreatGatsby(1925)
AlltheSadYoungMen(1926)
TenderIstheNight(1934)
TapsAtReveille(1935)
TheLastTycoon(unfinished)ed.EdmundWilson(1941)
TheCrackUped.byEdmundWilson(1945)
Freeman,MaryWilkins
AHumbleRomanceandOtherStories(1887)
ANewEnglandNunandOtherStories(1891)
Pembroke(1894)
Page406
Frost,Robert
ABoy'sWill(1913)
NorthofBoston(1914)
MountainInterval(1916)
NewHampshire(1923)
WestRunningBrook(1928)
AFurtherRange(1936)
AWitnessTree(1942)
SteepleBush(1947)
IntheClearing(1962)
Gallant,Mavis
TheOtherParis(1956)
MyHeartIsBroken(1964)
AFairlyGoodTime(1970)
ThePegnitzJunction(1973)
TheEndoftheWorldandOtherStories(1974)
FromtheFifteenthDistrict:ANovellaandEightStories(1979)
Gilman,CharlottePerkins
WomenandEconomics(1898)
TheYellowWallpaper(1899)
"TheManMadeWorld"(1911)
HisReligionandHers(1923)
TheLivingofCharlottePerkinsGilman(1935)
Ginsberg,Allen
HowlandOtherPoems(1956)
SiestainXbalbaandReturntotheStates(1956)
EmptyMirror:EarlyPoems(1961)
KaddishandOtherPoems,19581960(1961)
TheChange(1963)
RealitySandwiches:19531960(1963)
AStrangeNewCottageinBerkeley(1963)
KralMajales(KingofMay)(1965)
WichitaVortexSutra(1965)
TVBabyPoems(1967)
AirplaneDreams:CompositionsFromJournals(1968)
TheHeartIsaClock(1968)
HouseofAnansi(1968)
MessageII(1968)
ScrapLeavesHastyScribbles,(1968)
FortheSoulofthePlanetIsWakening(1970)
BixbyCanyonOceanPathWordBreeze(1972)
OpenHead(1972)
TheFallofAmerica:PoemsofTheseStates,19651971(1973)
TheGatesofWrath:RhymedPoems19481952(1973)
FirstBlues:Rags,BalladsandHarmoniumSongs,19711974(1974)
CarelessLove:TwoRhymes(1978)
PoemsAllOverthePlace:MostlySeventies(1978)
Gordon,Mary
TheCompanyofWomen(1982)
FinalPayments(1983)
MenandAngels(1986)
TheOtherSide(1990)
RestofLifeThreeNovellas(1994)
TheShadowMan(1996)
Harte,Bret
CondensedNovels(1860)
TheLuckofRoaringCamp,andOtherSketches(1870)
AhSin(1877)(drama)
Page407
Hawthorne,Nathaniel
"YoungGoodmanBrown"(1835)
TwiceToldTales(1837,1842)
TheWholeHistoryofGrandfather'sChair(1840)
MossesfromanOldManse(1846,1854)
TheScarletLetter(1850)
TheHouseoftheSevenGables(1851)
TheBlithedaleRomance(1852)
TheLifeofFranklinPierce(1852)
TheSnowImage,andOtherTwiceToldTales(1852)
AWonderBookforGirlsandBoys(1852)
TanglewoodTales(1853)
TheMarbleFaun(1860)
"ChieflyAboutWarMatters"(1862)
Hemingway,Ernest
ThreeStories&TenPoems(1923)
InOurTime(1924)
TheSunAlsoRises(1926)
TheTorrentsofSpring(1926)
MenWithoutWomen(1927)
AFarewelltoArms(1929)
DeathintheAfternoon(1932)
WinnerTakeNothing(1933)
GreenHillsofAfrica(1935)
ToHaveandHaveNot(1937)
TheFifthColumnandtheFirstFortyNineStories(1938)
ForWhomtheBellTolls(1940)
MenatWar:TheBestWarStoriesofAllTime(1942)
AcrosstheRiverandIntotheTrees(1950)
TheOldManandtheSea(1952)
AMoveableFeast(1964)
ByLine:ErnestHemingway(1967)
IslandsintheStream(1970)
TheNickAdamsStories(1972)
TheGardenofEden(1986)
TheCompleteShortStoriesofErnestHemingway(1987)
Hughes,Langston)
TheNewNegro(1925)
TheWearyBlues(1926)
NotWithoutLaughter(1930)
OneWayTicket(1949)
Hurston,ZoraNeale
Jonah'sGourdVine(1934)
MulesandMen(1935)
TheirEyesWereWatchingGod(1937)
DustTracksonaRoad(1942)
Irying,Washington
AHistoryofNewYorkFromtheBeginningoftheWorldtotheEndoftheDutchDynasty(1809)
TheSketchBook(1820)
BracebridgeHall(1822)
TalesofaTraveler(1824)
TheAlhambra(1832)
James,Henry
WatchandWard(1871)
RoderickHudson(1875)
TheAmerican(1877)
DaisyMiller(1879)
TheEuropeans(1879)
Hawthorne(1880)
WashingtonSquare(1881)
ThePortraitofaLady(1881)
TheBostonians(1886)
Page408
ThePrincessCasamassima(1886)
TheAspernPapers(1888)
TheReverberator(1888)
TheTragicMuse(1890)
TheSpoilsofPoynton(1897)
WhatMaisieKnew(1897)
IntheCage(1898)
TheTurnoftheScrew(1898)
TheAwkwardAge(1899)
TheSacredFount(1901)
TheWingsoftheDove(1902)
TheAmbassadors(1903)
TheGoldenBowl(1904)
TheAmericanScene(1907)
NewYorkEditionofJames'sWork(19079)
ASmallBoyandOthers(1913)
NotesofaSonandBrother(1914)
Jewett,SarahOrne
Deephaven(1877)
TheCountryofPointedFirs(1896)
Jong,Erica
Novels
FearofFlying(1973)
Parachutes&Kisses(1984)
InventingMemory:ANovelofMothersandDaughters(1997)
Poetry
Fruits&Vegetables(1971)
HalfLives(1973)
AttheEdgeoftheBody(1979)
Kerouac,Jack
TheTownandtheCity(1950)
OntheRoad(1957)
TheDharmaBums(1958)
TheSubterraneans(1958)
DoctorSax(1959)
MaggieCassidy(1959)
BigSur(1962)
VisionsofGerard(1963)
DesolationAngels(1965)
VanityofDulouoz(1968)
King,Stephen
Carrie(1974)
Salem'sLot(1975)
TheShining(1977)
TheStand(1978)
TheDeadZone(1979)
NightShift(1979)
Firestarter(1980)
Cujo(1981)
DifferentSeasons(1982)
Christine(1983)
PetSematary(1983)
It(1986)
Misery(1987)
TheTommyknockers(1987)
TheDarkHalf(1989)
FourPastMidnight(1991)
NeedfulThings(1991)
DoloresClaiborne(1992)
Insomnia(1994)
RoseMadder(1995)
BagofBones(1998)
StormoftheCentury(1999)
TheGirlWhoLovedTomGordon(1999)
Page409
UndertheName''RichardBachman"
Rage(1977)
TheLongWalk(1979)
Roadwork(1981)
TheRunningMan(1982)
Thinner(1984)
TheRegulators(1996)
Kingston,MaxineHong
TheWomanWarrior(1976)
ChinaMen(1980)
TripmasterMonkey:HisFakeBook(1989)
Leacock,Stephen
LiteraryLapses(1910)
NonsenseNovels(1911)
MoonbeamsfromtheLargerLunacy(1915)
FurtherFoolishness(1916)
EssaysandLiteraryStudies(1916)
FrenziedFiction(1918)
TheUnsolvedRiddleofSocialJustice(1920)
MyDiscoveryofEngland(1922)
TheGardenofFolly(1924)
WinnowedWisdom(1926)
ShortCircuits(1928)
LincolnFreestheSlaves(1934)
Humor:ItsTheoryandTechnique(1935)
HumorandHumanity(1937)
MyDiscoveryoftheWest(1937)
TooMuchCollege(1939)
OurHeritageofLiberty(1942)
RemarkableUncle(1942)
HappyStories(1943)
HowtoWrite(1943)
LastLeaves(1945)
TheBoyILeftBehindMe(1946)
London,Jack
TheCalloftheWild(1903)
ThePeopleoftheAbyss(1903)
TheSeaWolf(1904)
MartinEden(1909)
JohnBarleycorn(1913)
Lowell,Robert
LordWeary'sCastle(1946)
LifeStudies(1959)
TheDolphin(1973)
DaybyDay(1977)
SelectedPoems(1976)
Mailer,Norman
TheNakedandtheDead(1948)
TheDeerPark(1955)
TheWhiteNegro(1957)
AdvertisementsforMyself(1959)
ThePresidentialPapers(1963)
AnAmericanDream(1965)
CannibalsandChristians(1966)
TheBullfight(1967)
WhyAreWeinVietnam?(1967)
TheArmiesoftheNight(1968)
TheIdolandtheOctopus(1968)
MiamiandtheSiegeofChicago(1968)
RunningAgainsttheMachine(1969)
OfaFireontheMoon(1970)
KingoftheHill(1971)
TheLongPatrol(1971)
ThePrisonerofSex(1971)
ExistentialErrands(1972)
Page410
St.GeorgeandtheGodfather(1972)
Marilyn(1973)
TheFlight(1975)
GeniusandLust(1976)
SomeHonorableMen(1976)
TheExecutioner'sSong(1979)
OfWomenandTheirElegance(1980)
TheEssentialMailer(1982)
PiecesandPontifications(1982)
AncientEvenings(1984)
ToughGuysDon'tDance(1984)
HuckleberryFinn(1985)
Harlot'sGhost(1991)
PabloandFernande(1994)
Oswald'sTale:AnAmericanMystery(1995)
PortraitofPicassoasaYoungMan(1995)
TheGospelAccordingtotheSon(1997)
TheTimeofOurTime(1998)
Malamud,Bernard
TheNatural(1952)
TheAssistant(1957)
TheMagicBarrel(1958)
ANewLife(1961)
IdiotsFirst(1963)
TheFixer(1966)
PicturesofFidelman(1969)
TheTenants(1971)
Rembrandt'sHat(1973)
God'sGrace(1982)
McKay,Claude
Poetry
SongsofJamaica(1912)
HarlemShadows(1922)
Prose
HometoHarlem(1928)
Banjo(1929)
Gingertown(1932)
BananaBottom(1933)
Harlem:ANegroMetropolis(1940)
Melville,Herman
Typee(1846)
Omoo(1847)
Mardi(1849)
Redburn(1849)
WhiteJacket(1850)
MobyDick(1851)
Pierre(1852)
IsraelPotter(1855)
ThePiazzaTales(1856)
TheConfidenceMan(1857)
Momaday,N.Scott
HouseMadeofDawn(1968)
TheWaytoRainyMountain(1969)
Montgomery,LucyMaud
AnneofGreenGables(1908)
AnneofAvonlea(1909)
KilmenyoftheOrchard(1910)
TheStoryGirl(1911)
ChroniclesofAvonlea(1912)
TheGoldenRoad(1913)
Anne'sHouseofDreams(1917)
RainbowValley(1919)
RillaofIngleside(1921)
EmilyofNewMoon(1923)
EmilyClimbs(1925)
TheBlueCastle(1926)
Page411
Emily'sQuest(1927)
MagicforMarigold(1929)
ATangledWeb(1931)
PatofSilverBush(1933)
MistressPat(1935)
AnneofWindyPoplars(1936)
JaneofLanternHill(1937)
AnneofIngleside(1939)
Morrison,Toni
TheBluestEye(1970)
Sula(1973)
SongofSolomon(1977)
TarBaby(1981)
DreamingEmmett(1986)
Beloved(1987)
Jazz(1992)
Paradise(1998)
Munro,Alice
DanceoftheHappyShades(1968)
LivesofGirlsandWomen(1971)
WhoDoYouThinkYouAre?(1978)
SomethingI'veBeenMeaningtoTellYou(1974)
TheProgressofLove(1986)
FriendofMyYouth(1990)
OpenSecrets(1994)
Norris,Frank
Yvernelle[verse](1891)
Blix(1899)
McTeague(1899)
AMan'sWoman(1900)
TheOctopus(1901)
ThePit(1903)
VandoverandtheBrute(1914)
O'Connor,Flannery
WiseBlood(1952)
AGoodManIsHardtoFind(1955)
TheViolentBearItAway(1960)
EverythingThatRisesMustConverge(1965)
MysteryandManners:OccasionalProse(1969)
TheCompleteStoriesofFlanneryO'Connor(1972)
TheHabitofBeing:TheLettersofFlanneryO'Connor(1979)
ThePresenceofGrace,andOtherBookReviews(1983)
CollectedWorks(1988)
Ondaatje,Michael
Poetry
"TheDaintyMonsters"(1967)
"TheManwithSevenToes"(1969)
"RatJelly"(1973)
"EliminationDance"(1978)
"ClaudeGlass"(1979)
There'saTrickwithaKnifeI'mLearningtoDo:Poems19631978(1979)
RatJellyandOtherPoems(1980)
"TinRoof"(1982)
"SecularLove"(1984)
TwoPoems(1986)
TheCinnamonPeeler:SelectedPoems(1991)
Prose
TheCollectedWorksofBillytheKid(1970)
ComingThroughSlaughter(1976)
RunningintheFamily(1982)
IntheSkinofaLion(1987)
TheEnglishPatient(1992)
Page412
Plath,Sylvia
Colossus(1960)
Ariel(1965)
CrossingtheWater(1971)
TheBellJar(1973)[prose]
WinterTrees(1972)
Poe,EdgarAllan
"Ligeia"(1838)
TheNarrativeofArthurGordonPym(1838)
"TheFalloftheHouseofUsher"(1839)
"TheMurdersintheRueMorgue(1841)
"TheMasqueoftheRedDeath"(1842)
"TheGoldBug"(1843)
"ThePitandthePendulum"(1843)
"TheTellTaleHeart"(1843)
"ThePurloinedLetter"(1845)
"TheRaven"(1845)
"TheCashofAmontillado"(1846)
"AnnabelLee"(1849)
Pound,Ezra
ALumeSpentoandOtherEarlyPoems(1908)
Personae(19091926)
TheSpiritofRomance(1910)
Cathay(1915)
Lustra(1916)
HughSelwynMauberly(1920)
MakeItNew(1934)
Jeffersonand/orMussoliniL'ideastatalefascismasIhaveseenit(1936)
SelectedPoems(1948)
TheCantosofEzraPound(1948)
Richler,Mordecai
TheApprenticeshipofDuddyKravitz(1959)
TheIncomparableAtuk(1963)
Cocksure(1968)
HuntingTigersUnderGlass(1968)
TheStreet(1969)
St.Urbain'sHorseman(1971)
ShovellingTrouble(1972)
NotesonanEndangeredSpecies(1974)
JoshuaThenandNow(1980)
HomeSweetHome:MyCanadianAlbum(1984)
Roth,Philip
Goodbye,Columbus(1959)
LettingGo(1962)
WhenSheWasGood(1967)
Portnoy'sComplaint(1969)
OurGang(1970)
TheBreast(1971)
MyLifeasaMan(1974)
TheProfessorofDesire(1977)
ZuckermanBound(1985)
TheCounterlife(1987)
Salinger,J.D.
TheCatcherintheRye(1951)
NineStories(1953)
FrannyandZooey(1961)
RaiseHightheRoofbeams,CarpentersandSeymour:AnIntroduction(1963)
Sexton,Anne
ToBedlamandPartWayBack(1960)
AllMyPrettyOnes(1962)
LiveorDie(1966)
Page413
LovePoems(1969)
Transformations(1971)
TheBookofFolly(1972)
TheDeathNotebooks(1974)
TheAwfulRowingTowardGod(1975)
45MercyStreet(1976)
WordsforDr.Y.:UncollectedPoems(1978)
TheCompletePoems(1981)
Silko,LeslieMarmon
LangunaWomenPoems(1974)
Ceremony(1977)
Storyteller(1981)
AlmanacoftheDead:ANovel(1991)
YellowWoman(1993)
YellowWomanandaBeautyoftheSpiritEssays(1996)
Steinbeck,John
CubofGold(1929)
ThePasturesofHeaven(1932)
ToaGodUnknown(1933)
TortillaFlat(1935)
InDubiousBattle(1936)
OfMiceandMen(1937)
TheGrapesofWrath(1939)
TheMoonisDown(1942)
CanneryRow(1945)
ThePearl(1947)
TheWaywardBus(1947)
BurningBright(1950)
EastofEden(1952)
TheWinterofOurDiscontent(1961)
Stowe,HarrietBeecher
TheMayflower:Or,SketchesOfScenesAndCharactersAmongtheDescendantsofthePilgrims(1843)
UncleTom'sCabin(1852)
TheKeytoUncleTom'sCabin(1853)
SunnyMemoirsofForeignLands(1854)
Dred(1856)
ATaleofGreatDismalSwamp(1856)
TheMinister'sWooing(1859)
ThePearlofOrr'sIsland(1862)
LittleFoxes(1866)
TheChimneyCorner(1868)
OldTownFolks(1869)
LadyByronVindicated(1870)
MyWifeandI(1871)
OldTownFiresideStories(1871)
SamLawson'sOldTownFiresideStories(1872)
PalmettoLeaves(1873)
WomaninSacredHistory(1873)
WeandOurNeighbours(1875)
CaptainKidd'sMoneyandOtherStories(1876)
PoqanucPeople(1878)
ADog'sMission(1881)
TheWritings(1896)
Thoreau,HenryDavid
"CivilDisobedience"(1849)
AWeekontheConcordandMerrimackRivers(1849)
Walden,or,LifeintheWoods(1854)
Page414
Thurber,James
IsSexNecessary?orWhyYouFeeltheWayYouDo(withE.B.White(1929)
TheOwlintheAtticandOtherPerplexities(1931)
MyLifeandHardTimes(1933)
TheMiddleAgedManontheFlyingTrapeze,(1935)
TheLastFlower:AParableinPictures(1939)
"TheSecretLifeofWalterMitty"(1939)
FablesforOurTime,andFamousPoemsIllustrated,(1940)
MyWorldandWelcometoIt(1942)
Thurber'sMen,WomenandDogs(1943)
TheThurberCarnival(1945)
TheWhiteDeer(1945)
TheBeastinMeandOtherAnimals:ACollectionofPiecesandDrawingsAboutHumanBeingsandLessAlarmingCreatures(1948)
The13Clocks(1950)
TheSealintheBedroom&OtherPredicaments(1950)
TheThurberAlbumANewCollectionofPiecesAboutPeople(1952)
ThurberCountry:ANewCollectionofPiecesAboutMalesandFemales,MainlyofOurOwnSpecies(1953)
Thurber'sDogs:ACollectionoftheMaster'sDogs,WrittenandDrawn,RealandImaginary,LivingandLongAgo(1955)
FurtherFablesforOurTime(1956)
AlarmsandDiversions(1957)
TheWonderfulO(1957)
TheYearswithRoss(1959)
LetYourMindAlon1andOtherMoreorLessInspirationalPieces(1960)
Lanterns&Lances(1961)
CredosandCurios(1962)
Toomer,Jean
Cane(1923)
Twain,Mark
SeeSamuelClemens
Updike,John
ThePoorhouseFair(1958)
Rabbit,Run(1960)
PigeonFeathers(1963)
TheCentaur(1964)
OftheFarm(1965)
Couples(1968)
RabbitRedux(1971)
MarryMe(1976)
RabbitIsRich(1981)
TheWitchesofEastwick(1984)
Roger'sVersion(1986)
S(1988)
RabbitatRest(1990)
Walker,Alice
TheThirdLifeofGrangeCopeland(1970)
Meridian(1976)
TheColorPurple(1982)
TheTempleofMyFamiliar(1989)
PossessingtheSecretofJoy(1992)
TheSaemRiverTwice:HonoringtheDifficult(1996)
Wharton,Edith
Fiction
TheGreaterInclination(1899)
TheTouchstone(1900)
Page415
CrucialInstances(1901)
TheValleyofDecision(1902)
Sanctuary(1903)
TheDescentofManandOtherStories(1904)
TheHouseofMirth(1905)
TheFruitoftheTree(1907)
MadamedeTreymes(1907)
TheHermitandtheWildWomanandOtherStories(1908)
TalesofMenandGhosts(1910)
EthanFrome(1911)
TheReef(1912)
TheCustomoftheCountry(1913)
XinguandOtherStories(1916)
Summer(1917)
TheMarne(1918)
TheAgeofInnocence(1920)
TheGlimpsesoftheMoon(1922)
ASonattheFront(1923)
OldNewYork(1924)
TheMother'sRecompense(1925)
HereandBeyond(1926)
TwelvePoems(1926)
TwilightSleep(1927)
TheChildren(1928)
HudsonRiverBracketed(1929)
CertainPeople(1930)
TheGodsArrive(1932)
HumanNature(1933)
TheWorldOver(1936)
Ghosts(1937)
TheBuccaneers(1938)
Nonfiction
TheDecorationofHouses(1897)
ItalianVillasandTheirGardens(1904)
ItalianBackgrounds(1905)
AMotorFlightThroughFrance(1908)
FightingFrance,fromDunkerquetoBelfort(1915)
FrenchWaysandTheirMeaning(1919)
InMorocco(1920)
TheWritingofFiction(1925)
ABackwardGlance(1934)
Wright,Richards
UncleTom'sChildren:FourNovellas(1938)
NativeSon(1940)
TwelveMillionBlackVoices:AFolkHistoryoftheNegrointheUnitedStates(1941)
BlackBoy:ARecordofChildhoodandYouth(1945)
TheOutsider(1953)
SavageHoliday(1954)
WhiteMan,Listen!(1957)
TheLongDream(1958)
EightMen(1961)
LawdToday(1963)
AmericanHunger(1977)
Page417
APPENDIXB
ADDITIONALREADING
Chapter1:
Aldridge,AlfredO.EarlyAmericanLiterature:AComparatistApproach.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1982.
Caldwell,Patricia.ThePuritanConversionNarrative:TheBeginningsofAmericanExpansion.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1983.
Cooper,JamesF.,Jr."HigherLaw,FreeConsent,LimitedAuthority:ChurchGovernmentandPoliticalCultureinSeventeenthCenturyMassachusetts."New
EnglandQuarterly69.2(Jun1996):201223.
Covici,Pascal,Jr.HumorandRevelationinAmericanLiterature:ThePuritanConnection.ColumbiaandLondon:UniversityofMissouriPress,1997.
Delbanco,Andrew.ThePuritanOrdeal.Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1989.
Gilmore,MichaelT.EarlyAmericanLiterature:ACollectionofCriticalEssays.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:PrenticeHall,1980.
Harlan,David.TheClergyandtheGreatAwakeninginNewEngland.AnnArbor:UMIResearchPress,1980.
Nelson,DanaD.TheWordinBlackandWhite:Reading"Race"inAmericanLiterature,16381867.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1992.
PromisOjeda,Jose.TheIdentityofHispanoamerica:AnInterpretationofColonialLiterature.TranslatedfromtheSpanishbyAlitaKelleyandAlecE.Kelley.
Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,1991.
Samuels,Shirley.RomancesoftheRepublic:Women,theFamily,andViolenceintheLiteratureoftheEarlyAmericanNation.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,
1996.
Spengemann,WilliamC.ANewWorldofWords:RedefiningEarlyAmericanLiterature.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1994.
Page418
Chapter2:
IntheBeginningAmerica'sFirstWriters(16071750)
General
Aldridge,AlfredO.EarlyAmericanLiterature:aComparatistApproach.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1982.
Bercovitch,Sacvan.TypologyandEarlyAmericanLiterature.Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,1972.
Caldwell,Patricia.ThePuritanConversionNarrative:TheBeginningsofAmericanExpansion.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1983.
Covici,Pascal,Jr.HumorandRevelationinAmericanLiterature:ThePuritanConnection.ColumbiaandLondon:UniversityofMissouriPress,1997.
Delbanco,Andrew.ThePuritanOrdeal.Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1989.
Gilmore,MichaelT.EarlyAmericanLiterature:ACollectionofCriticalEssays.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:PrenticeHall,1980.
Harris,Trudier.AfroAmericanWritersBeforetheHarlemRenaissance.DictionaryofLiteraryBiography.VolumeFifty.Detroit:Gale,1986.
Spengemann,WilliamC.ANewWorldofWords:RedefiningEarlyAmericanliterature.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1994.
AnneBradstreet
Piercy,JosephineK.AnneBradstreet.N.Y.:TwaynePublishers,1965.
Martin,Wendy.AnAmericanTriptych:AnneBradstreet,EmilyDickinson,AdrienneRich.ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1984.
Rosenmeier,Rosamond.AnneBradstreetRevisited.Boston:Twayne,1991.
Stanford,Ann.AnneBradstreet,TheWorldlyPuritan:AnIntroductiontoherPoetry.N.Y.:B.Franklin,1975.
White,Elizabeth.AnneBradstreet,"TheTenthMuse."N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1971.
Chapter3:
Don'tTreadonMeTheRevolutionaryPeriod(17501800)
Akers,CharlesW.AbigailAdams.Boston:Little,Brown,1980.
Gelles,EdithB.Portia:TheWorldofAbigailAdams.Bloomington,Ind.:IndianaUniversityPress,1992.
Levin,PhyllisLee.AbigailAdams.N.Y.:St.Martin'sPress,1987.
Withey,Lynne.DearestFriend.N.Y.:TheFreePress,1981.
Page419
Chapter4:
TheBigDaddyofAmericanLiteratureWashingtonIrving(17891851)
Aderman,Ralph,ed.CriticalEssaysonWashingtonIrving.Boston:G.K.Hall,1990.
Bowden,MaryW.WashingtonIrving.Boston:Twayne,1981.
Fetterly,Judith."RipVanWinkle."TheResistingReader.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1978.
Myers,AndrewB.,ed.ACenturyofCommentaryontheWorksofWashingtonIrving,18601974.Tarrytown,N.Y.:SleepyHollowRestorations,1976.
Pearce,ColinD."ChangingRegimes:TheCaseofRipVanWinkle."Clio22.2(Wntr1993):115(14).
Plummer,Laura"'GirlsCanTakeCareofThemselves':GenderandStorytellinginWashingtonIrving's'TheLegendofSleepyHollow.'"StudiesinShortFiction
30.2(Sprg1993):175(10).
Roth,Martin.ComedyandAmerica:TheLostWorldofWashingtonIrving.PortWashington,N.Y.:KennikatPress,1976.
Seelye,John."RootandBranch:WashingtonIrvingandAmericanHumor."NineteenthCenturyFiction38(1984):41525.
Wagenknecht,Edward.WashingtonIrving:ModerationDisplayed.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1962.
Young,Philip."FallenFromTime:TheMythicRipVanWinkle,"KenyonReview,22(August1960):54773.
Zlogar,RichardJ."AccessoriesthatCovertlyExplain:Irving'sUseofDutchGenrePaintingin'RipVanWinkle.'"AmericanLiterature54(1982):4462.
Chapter5:
FatheroftheAmericanNovelJamesFenimoreCooper(17891851)
McWilliams,John.TheLastoftheMohicans:CivilSavageryandSavageCivility(Twayne'sMasterworkStudies,No143),Twayne,1995.
Peck,Daniel.NewEssaysontheLastoftheMohicans(TheAmericanNovel).CambridgeUniversityPress,1992.
Ringe,DonaldA.JamesFenimoreCooper(Twayne'sUnitedStatesAuthors),Twayne,1998.
Romero,LoraandDonaldE.Pease.HomeFronts:NineteenthCenturyDomesticityandItsCritics.NewAmericanists,1997.
Page420
Chapter6:
LifeontheLedgeEdgarAllanPoe(18091849)
Abel,Darrel.RuinedEdenofthePresent:Hawthorne,Melville,andPoe:CriticalEssaysinHonorofDarrelAbel.eds.G.R.ThompsonandVirgilL.Lokke.
WestLafayette:PurdueUniversityPress,1981.
Andrews,WilliamL.LiteraryRomanticisminAmerica.BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1981.
Baym,Nina.''TheFalloftheHouseofUsher".EdgarAllanPoe.TheNortonAnthologyofAmericanLiterature.N.Y.:Norton,1995.
Bloom,Harold,ed.EdgarAllanPoe:ModernCriticalViews.NewHaven,Conn.:ChelseaHousePublishers,1985.
Buranelli,Vincent.EdgarAllanPoe:Twayne'sUnitedStatesAuthorsSeries.Boston:TwaynePublishers,1977.
Carlson,EricW.ACompaniontoPoeStudies.Greenwood,1996.
Knapp,BettinaL.EdgarAllanPoe.N.Y.:FredrickUngarPublishing,1984.
Meyers,Jeffrey.EdgarAllanPoe:HisLifeandLegacy.N.Y.:Scribner's,1992.
Silverman,Kenneth.EdgarA.Poe:MournfulandNeverEndingRemembrance.N.Y.:HarperCollins,1991.
Silverman,Robert.EdgarAllanPoe:ALongandMournfulRemembrance.SanFrancisco,1991.
Walker,I.M.,ed.EdgarAllanPoe:theCriticalHeritage.N.Y.:Routledge&K.Paul,1986.
Wilbur,Richard.TheHouseofPoe.N.Y.:ChelseaHousePublishers,1985.
Williams,J.S.Michael.AWorldofWords:LanguageandDisplacementintheFictionofEdgarAllanPoe.Durham:DukeUniversityPress,1988.
Chapter7:
TheSageofConcordRalphWaldoEmerson(18031882)
Allen,GayWilson.WaldoEmerson:ABiography.N.Y.:VikingPress,1981.
Bickman,Martin.AmericanRomanticPsychology:Emerson,Poe,Whitman,Dickinson.Dallas,Tex.:SpringPublications,1988.
Brantley,RichardE.AngloAmericanAntiphony:TheLateRomanticismofTennysonandEmerson.Gainesville,Fla.:UniversityPressofFlorida,1994.
Burkholder,RobertE.andJoelMyerson.CriticalEssaysonRalphWaldoEmerson.Boston:G.K.Hall,1983.
Cheyfitz,Eric.TheTransParent:SexualPoliticsintheLanguageofEmerson.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1981.
Ellison,JulieK.Emerson'sRomanticStyle.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1984.
Page421
Hednut,RobertK.TheAestheticsofRalphWaldoEmerson:TheMaterialsandMethodsofHisPoetry.Lewiston,N.Y.:Mellen,1996.
Howe,Irving.TheAmericanNewness:CultureandPoliticsintheAgeofEmerson.Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1986.
Ihrig,MaryAlice.Emerson'sTranscendentalVocabulary:AConcordance.N.Y.:Garland,1982.
Mott,WesleyT.andRobertE.Burkholder,eds.EmersonianCircles:EssaysinHonorofJoelMyerson.Rochester,N.Y.:UniversityofRochesterPress,1996.
Neufeldt,Leonard.TheHouseofEmerson.Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1982.
O'Keefe,Richard.MythicArchetypesinRalphWaldoEmerson:ABlakeanReading.Kent,Ohio:KentStateUniversityPress,1995.
Packer,B.L.Emerson'sFall:ANewInterpretationoftheMajorEssays.N.Y.:Continuum,1982.
Poirier,Richard,Jr.,ed.RalphWaldoEmerson.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1990.
.TheRenewalofLiterature:EmersonianReflections.N.Y.:RandomHouse,1987.
Porte,Joel,ed.Emerson,ProspectandRetrospect.Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1982.
Richardson,RobertD.,Jr.Emerson:TheMindonFire.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1995.
Chapter8:
NatureBoyHenryDavidThoreau(18171862)
Carton,Evan.TheRhetoricofAmericanRomance.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1985.
Chai,Leon.TheRomanticFoundationsoftheAmericanRenaissance.Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1987.
Golemba,Henry.Thoreau'sWildRhetoric.N.Y.:NewYorkUniversityPress,1990.
Chapter9:
NatetheGreatNathanielHawthorne(18041864)
Brown,Gillian.DomesticIndividualism:ImaginingSelfinNineteenthCenturyAmerica.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1990.
Budick,EmilyMiller.EngenderingRomance:WomenWritersandtheHawthorneTradition,18501990.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1994.
.FictionandHistoricalConsciousness:TheAmericanRomanceTradition.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1989.
Chai,Leon.TheRomanticFoundationsoftheAmericanRenaissance.Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1987.
Page422
Coale,SamuelChase.InHawthorne'sShadow:AmericanRomancefromMelvilletoMailer.Lexington,Ky.:UniversityPressofKentucky,1985.
Deamer,RobertGlen.TheImportanceofPlaceintheAmericanLiteratureofHawthorne,Thoreau,Crane,Adams,andFaulkner.Lewiston,N.Y.:E.Mellen
P,1990.
Decker,George.TheAmericanHistoricalRomance.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1987.
Dryden,EdgarA.TheFormofAmericanRomance.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1988.
Ellis,William.TheTheoryofAmericanRomance:AnIdeologyinAmericanIntellectualHistory.AnnArbor,Mich.:UMIResearchP,1989.
Gelpi,Albert.ACoherentSplendor:TheAmericanPoeticRenaissance.N.Y.:CambridgeUP,1987.
Gilmore,MichaelT.AmericanRomanticismandtheMarketplace.Chicago:UChicagoPress,1985.
Goodman,RusselB.AmericanPhilosophyandtheRomanticTradition.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1990.
Greenfield,Bruce.NarratingDiscovery:TheRomanticExplorerinAmericanLiterature,17901855.N.Y.:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1992.
Greenwald,Elissa.RealismandtheRomance.AnnArbor,Mich.:UniversityofMichiganResearchPress,1989.
Grey,Robin.TheComplicityofImagination:TheAmericanRenaissance,ContestsofAuthority,and17thCenturyEnglishCulture.N.Y.:Cambridge
UniversityPress,1997.
Harris,SusanK.19thCenturyAmericanWomen'sNovels:InterpretativeStrategies.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1990.
Johnston,KennethR.,ed.RomanticRevolutions:CriticismandTheory.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1990.
Kane,Paul.PoetryoftheAmericanRenaissance:ADiverseAnthology.N.Y.:G.Braziller,1995.
Levine,RobertS.ConspiracyandRomance:StudiesinBrockdenBrown,Cooper,Hawthorne,andMelville.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1989.
Luedtke,LutherS.NathanielHawthorneandtheRomanceoftheOrient.Bloomington,Ind.:IndianaUniversityPress,1989.
Morse,David.AmericanRomanticism.N.Y.:BarnesandNoble,1987.
Schirmeister,Pamela.TheConsolationsofSpace:ThePlaceofRomanceinHawthorne,Melville,andJames.Stanford,Calif.:StanfordUniversityPress,1990.
Stern,Milton.ContextsforHawthorne:TheMarbleFautandthePoliticalOpennessandClosureinAmericanLiterature.Urbana:UniversityIllinoisPress,
1991.
Voller,JackG.TheSupernaturalSublime:TheMetaphysicsofTerrorinAngloAmericanRomanticism.Dekalb:NorthernIllinoisUniversityPress,1994.
Wilson,JamesD.TheRomanticHeroicIdeal.BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1982.
Page423
Chapter10:
JustDon'tCallMeHermieHermanMelville(18191891)
Allen,GayWilson.MelvilleandHisWorld.N.Y.:TheVikingPress,1971.
Arvin,Newton.HermanMelville.N.Y.:WilliamSloaneAssociates,1950.
Budd,LouisJ.andEdwinCady,eds.Melville:TheBestFromAmericanLiterature.Durham,N.C.:DukeUniversityPress,1988,pp.19.
Garner,Stanton.TheCivilWarWorldofHermanMelville.Lawrence,Kans.:UniversityPressofKansas,1993.
Horth,Lynn."LettersLostLettersFound:AProgressReportonMelville'sCorrespondence."InMelvilleSocietyExtracts,no.81(May1990),pp.18.
Winslow,RichardE.,III,"NewReviewsTraceMelville'sReputation."InMelvilleSocietyExtracts,no.89(June1992),pp.712.
Chapter11:
TheLittleWomanWhoStartedThisGreatBigWarHarrietBeecherStowe(18111896)
Adams,JohnR.HarrietBeecherStoweUpdatedVersion.Boston:TwaynePub.,1989.
Ammons,ElizabethandDorothyBerkson.CriticalEssaysonHarrietBeecherStowe.Boston:Hall,1980.
Anderson,BeatriceA."UncleTom:AHeroatLast."AmericanTranscendentalQuarterly5.2(June1991):95108.
Askeland,Lori."RemodelingtheModelHomeinUncleTom'sCabinandBeloved."AmericanLiterature:AJournalofLiteraryHistory,Criticism,and
Bibliography64.4(Dec1992):785805.
Boyd,Richard."ViolenceandSacrificialDisplacementinHarrietBeecherStowe'sDred."ArizonaQuarterly:AJournalofAmericanLiterature,Culture,and
Theory50.2(Summer1994):5172.
Boydston,Jeanne,MaryKellyandAnneThroneMargolis.TheLimitsofSisterhood:theBeecherSistersonWomen'sRightsandWoman'sSphere.ChapelHill:
UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1988.
Brown,Gillian.DomesticIndividualism:ImaginingSelfinNineteenthCenturyAmerica.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1990.
Cherniavsky,Eva."RevivificationandUtopianTime:PoeversusStowe."TheAmericanFaceofEdgarAllenPoe.Eds.ShawnRosenheimandStephenRachman.
Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1995.12138.
Cole,Phyllis."Stowe,Jacobs,Wilson:WhitePlotsandBlackCounterplots."NewPerspectivesonGender,Race,andClassinSociety.Ed.AudreyT.
McCluskey.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1990:2345.
Page424
Davidson,CathyN.,ed.ReadinginAmerica:Literature&SocialHistory.Baltimore:TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1989.
Fritz,Jean.HarrietBeecherStoweandtheBeecherPreachers.N.Y.:G.P.Putnam'sSons,1994.
GablerHover,Janet.TruthinAmericanFiction.TheLegacyofRhetoricalIdealism.Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1990.
Goshgarian,G.M.ToKisstheChasteningRod:DomesticFictionandSexualIdeologyintheAmericanRenaissance.Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1992.
Greene,Gayle.ChangingtheStory,FeministFictionandtheTradition.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1991.
Harris,SusanK.19thCenturyAmericanWomen'sNovels.InterpretiveStrategies.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1990.
Hedrick,JoanD.HarrietBeecherStowe:ALife.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1994.
Johnston,Norma.Harriet:theLifeandWorldofHarrietBeecherStowe.N.Y.:BeechTree,1996.
Chapter12:
RebelwithaCauseFrederickDouglass(18171895)
Andrews,William,ed..CriticalEssaysonFrederickDouglass.Boston:G.K.Hall,1991.
.TheOxfordFrederickDouglassReader.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1996.
Bontemps,Arna.FreeatLasttheLifeofFrederickDouglass.N.Y.:Dodd,Mead,1971.
Martin,WaldoE.TheMindofFrederickDouglass.ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1984.
McFeely,WilliamS.FrederickDouglass.N.Y.:W.W.Norton,1991.
Chapter13:
ThatBarbaricYawpWaltWhitman(18191892)
Aspiz,Harold.WaltWhitmanandtheBodyBeautiful.Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1980.
Bove,PaulA.DestructivePoetics:HeideggerandModernAmericanPoetry.N.Y.:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1980.
Callow,Philip.FromNoontoStarryNight:ALifeofWaltWhitman.Chicago:I.R.Dee,1992.
Clarke,Graham.WaltWhitman:ThePoemAsPrivateHistory.St.Martin'sPress,1991.
Erkkila,Betsy.WhitmanthePoliticalPoet.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1989.
Gardner,Thomas.DiscoveringOurselvesinWhitman:TheContemporaryAmericanLongPoem.Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1989.
Page425
Hollis,C.Carroll.LanguageandStyleinLeavesofGrass.BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1983.
Kaplan,Justin.WaltWhitman,ALife.N.Y.:SimonandSchuster,1980.
Knapp,BettinaL.WaltWhitman.N.Y.:Continuum,1993.
Kuebrich,David.MinorProphecy:WaltWhitman'sNewAmericanReligion.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1989.
Loving,Jerome.Emerson,Whitman,andtheAmericanMuse.ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1982.
Miller,JamesE.WaltWhitman.Boston:TwaynePublishers,1990.
Schmidgall,Gary.WaltWhitman:AGayLife.N.Y.:Dutton,1997.
Woodress,JamesL.,ed.CriticalessaysonWaltWhitman.Boston:G.K.Hall,1983.
Zweig,Paul.WaltWhitman:TheMakingofthePoet.N.Y.:BasicBooks,1984.
WebSites
www.jefferson.village.Virginia.edu/whitman/
www.jefferson.village.Virginia.edu/whitman/reviews/index.html
www.lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/wwhome.html
www.liglobal.com/walt/waltbio.html
www.vive.com/connect/walt/whitback.htm
www.vive.com/connect/walt/whitnews.htm
Chapter14:
TheBigMamaofAmericanLiteratureEmilyDickinson(18301886)
Bloom,Harold,ed.EmilyDickinson(Bloom'sMajorPoets).N.Y.:ChelseaHouse,1999.
Cameron,Sharon.ChoosingNotChoosing:Dickinson'sFascicles.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1993.
Ferlazzo,PaulJ.EmilyDickinson(Twayne'sUnitedStatesAuthorsSeries).Twaynes,1984.
Kirkby,Joan.EmilyDickinson(WomenWriters).PrenticeHall,1993.
Miller,Cristanne.EmilyDickinson:APoet'sGrammar.HarvardUniversityPress,1989.
Orzeck,Martin,ed.DickinsonandAudience.AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,1996.
Stonum,GaryLee.TheDickinsonSublime.Madison,Wis.:UniversityofWisconsinPress,1990.
Wolosky,Shira.EmilyDickinson:AVoiceofWar.YaleUniversityPress,1984.
Page426
Chapter15:
SamuelClemensA.K.A.MarkTwain(18351910)
Bloom,Harold,ed.MarkTwain.N.Y.:ChelseaHousePress,1986.
Budd,LouisJ.,ed.CriticalEssaysonMarkTwain,18671910.Boston:G.K.Hall,1982.
Camfield,Gregg.SentimentalTwain:SamuelClemensintheMazeofMoralPhilosophy.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1994.
ChadwickJoshua,Jocelyn.TheJimDilemma:ReadingRaceinHuckleberryFinn.Jackson:UniversityPressofMississippi,1998.
Emerson,EverettH.TheAuthenticMarkTwain:ALiteraryBiographyofSamuelL.Clemens.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1984.
Fishkin,ShelleyF.WasHuckBlack?:MarkTwainandAfricanAmericanVoices.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1993.
.LightingOutfortheTerritory:ReflectionsonMarkTwainandtheAmericanCulture.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1997.
.GeneralEditor.TheOxfordMarkTwain.29Volumes.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1997.
Fulton,JoeB.MarkTwain'sEthicalRealism:TheAestheticsofRace,Class,andGender.Columbia:UniversityofMissouriPress,1997.
Gerber,JohnC.MarkTwain.Boston:TwaynePublishers,1988.
Harris,SusanK.TheCourtshipofOliviaLangdonandMarkTwain.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1997.(BookReview)
Haupt,ClydeV.HuckFinnonFilm:FilmandTelevisionAdaptationsofMarkTwain'sNovels,19201993.Jefferson,N.C.:McFarland,1994.
Hill,HamlinL."SamuelLanghorneClemens(MarkTwain)."DictionaryofLiteraryBiography:AmericanRealistsandNaturalists.Detroit:GaleResearch
Company,1982.
Hoffman,Andrew.InventingMarkTwain:TheLivesofSamuelLanghorneClemens.N.Y.:WilliamMorrowandCompany,1997.
Horn,JasonG.MarkTwainandWilliamJames:CraftingaFreeSelf.Columbia:UniversityofMissouriPress,1996.
Kaplan,Justin.MarkTwainandHisWorld.N.Y.:SimonandSchuster,1974.
Knoper,Randall.MarkTwainintheCultureofPerformance.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1995.
Leonard,Jamesandothers,eds.SatireorEvasion?:BlackPerspectivesonHuckleberryFinn.Durham:DukeUniversity,1992.
Michelson,Bruce.MarkTwainontheLoose:AComicWriterandtheAmericanSelf.Amherst:UniversityofMassachusetts,1995.
Miller,RobertKeith.MarkTwain.N.Y.:FrederickUngarPublishingCompany,1983.
Rasmussen,R.Kent.MarkTwainAtoZ:TheEssentialReferencetoHisLifeandWritings.N.Y.:FactsonFile,1995.
Page427
Robinson,ForrestG.,ed.TheCambridgeCompaniontoMarkTwain.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1995.
SkanderaTrombley,LauraE.MarkTwainintheCompanyofWomen.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1994.
Vallin,MarleneB.MarkTwain:ProtagonistforthePopularCulture.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress,1992.
Wilson,JamesD.AReader'sGuidetotheShortStoriesofMarkTwain.Boston:G.K.Hall,1987.
Chapter16:
Benfey,ChristopherE.G.TheDoubleLifeofStephenCrane.N.Y.:Knopf,1992.
Cady,EdwinH.StephenCrane.Boston:TwaynePublishers,1980.
Davis,LindaH.BadgeofCourage:TheLifeofStephenCrane.N.Y.:HoughtonMifflin,1998.
.TheRedBadgeofCourage:RedefiningtheHero.Boston:TwaynePublishers,1988.
Mariani,Giorgio.SpectacularNarratives:RepresentationsofClassandWarinStephenCraneandtheAmerican1890s.N.Y.:P.Lang,1992.
Nagel,James.StephenCraneandLiteraryImpressionism.UniversityPark:PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,1980.
Pizer,Donald,ed.CriticalEssaysonStephenCrane'sTheRedBadgeofCourage.Boston:G.K.Hall,1990.
Wolford,ChesterL.TheAngerofStephenCrane:FictionandtheEpicTradition.Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1983.
.StephenCrane:AStudyoftheShortFiction.Boston:TwaynePublishers,1989.
Chapter17:
ThreeonaMatchTheNaturalists,JackLondon,FrankNorris,andTheodoreDresier(18901925)
JackLondon
Auerbach,Johnathan.MaleCall:BecomingJackLondon.Durham,N.C.:DukeUniversityPress,1996.
Cassuto,LeonardandJeanneCampbellReesman,eds.RereadingJackLondon.Stanford,Calif.:StanfordUniversityPress,1996.
Labor,Earle.JackLondon.N.Y.:Twayne,1974.
Martin,Stoddard.CaliforniaWriters:JackLondon,JohnSteinbeck,TheToughGuys.N.Y.:St.Martin'sPress,1983.
Page428
Nuernberg,Susan,ed.TheCriticalResponsetoJackLondon.Westwood,Conn.:GreenwoodPress,1995.
Reesman,JeanneCampbell,ed.AmericanLiteraryRealism.Vol.24,Winter1992.
Sherman,Joan.JackLondon:AReferenceGuide.Boston:G.K.Hall,1977.
TavernierCourbin,Jacqueline,ed.CriticalEssaysonJackLondon.Boston,Mass.:G.K.Hall,1983.
.TheCalloftheWild:ANaturalisticRomance.N.Y.:Twayne,1994.
.Thalia:StudiesinLiteraryHumor.VolumeXII,1992.
Watson,CharlesN.,Jr.TheNovelsofJackLondon:AReappraisal.Madison,Wis.:UniversityofWisconsinPress,1983.
FrankNorris
Bevilacqua,WinifredFarrant."FromtheIdealtoItsReverse:KeySocioculturalConceptsinMcTeague."TheCentennialReview33.1(1989Winter)7588.
Bower,Stephanie."DangerousLiaisons:Prostitution,Disease,andRaceinFrankNorris'sFiction."ModernFictionStudies42.1(Spring1996):3161.
Campbell,DonnaM."FrankNorris's'DramainaBrokenTeacup':TheOldGrannisMissBakerPlotinMcTeague."AmericanLiteraryRealism26.1(Fall1993):
4049.
Caron,JamesE."GrotesqueNaturalism:TheSignificanceoftheComicinMcTeague."TexasStudiesinLiteratureandLanguage31.2(1989Summer)288317.
Cassuto,Leonard."'KeepingCompany'withtheOldFolks:UnravellingtheEdgesofMcTeague'sDeterministicFabric."AmericanLiteraryRealism25.2(1993
Winter)4655.
Civello,Paul."EvolutionaryFeminism,PopularRomance,andFrankNorris's'Man'sWoman'."StudiesinAmericanFiction24.1(Spring1996):2345.
Cook,DonL."McTeagueatNinety:TheNovelandItsTensions."FrankNorrisStudies11.(1991Spring)25.
Crow,CharlesL."RecentTrendsinMcTeagueScholarship."FrankNorrisStudies13(1992Spring):15.
Graham,Don,ed.CriticalEssaysonFrankNorris.Boston:G.K.Hall,1980.
Hochman,Barbara.TheArtofFrankNorris,Storyteller.Columbia:UniversityofMissouriPress,1988.
McElrath,JosephR.FrankNorrisRevisited.N.Y.:TwaynePublishers,1992.
Michaels,WalterBenn.TheGoldStandardandtheLogicofNaturalism.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1985.
TheodoreDreiser
Hakutani,Yoshinobu.YoungDreiser:ACriticalStudy.Rutherford,N.J.:FairleighDickinsonUniversityPress,1980.
Hussman,LawrenceE.DreiserandHisFiction:ATwentiethCenturyQuest.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1983.
Page429
Pizer,Donald.CriticalEssaysonTheodoreDreiser.Boston:G.K.Hall,1981.
Pizer,Donald,FredericE.RuschandRichardW.Dowell,eds.TheodoreDreiser:APrimaryBibliographyandReferenceGuide.Boston,Mass.:G.K.Hall,
1991.
Chapter18:
ColorMyWorldTheLocalColorists
KateChopin
Boren,LyndaS.andSaraDavis,eds.KateChopinReconsidered:BeyondtheBayou.BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1992.
Ewell,BarbaraC.KateChopin.N.Y.:UngarPub.Co.,1986.
Martin,Wendy,ed.NewEssaysonTheAwakening.N.Y.:Cambridge,1988.
Seyersted,Per.KateChopin.ACriticalBiography.BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress1969.
Showalter,Elaine.Sister'sChoice:TraditionandChangeinAmericanWomen'sWriting.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1991.
Skaggs,Peggy.KateChopin.Boston:TwaynePublishers,1985.
Springer,Marlene.EdithWhartonandKateChopin:AReferenceGuide.Boston:G.K.Hall,1976.
Taylor,Helen.Gender,Race,andRegionintheWritingsofGraceKing,RuthMcEneryStuart,andKateChopin.BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversity
Press,1989.
Toth,Emily.KateChopin.N.Y.:Morrow,1990.
Walker,Nancy,ed.TheAwakening:KateChopin.Boston:BedfordBooksofSt.Martin'sPress,1993.
CharlottePerkinsGillman
Golden,Catherine.ed.TheCaptiveImagination:ACasebookon"TheYellowWallpaper."FeministPress,1991.
Hedges,Elaine."Afterword,"TheYellowWallPaper.FeministPress,1973.
Knight,DeniseD.,ed."TheYellowWallPaper"andSelectedStoriesofCharlottePerkinsGilman.UniversityofDelawarePress,1994.
Lane,Ann,ed.TheCharlottePerkinsGilmanReader.N.Y.:Pantheon,1980.
Chapter19:
LifestylesoftheRichandFamousEdithWhartonandHenryJames
EdithWharton
Bauer,DaleM.EdithWharton'sBraveNewPolitics.Madison:TheUniversityofWisconsinPress,1994.
Page430
Bendixon,AlfredandAnnetteZilversmit,eds.EdithWharton:NewCriticalEssays.N.Y.:GarlandPublishing,Inc.1992.
Dwight,Eleanor.EdithWharton:AnExtraordinaryLife.N.Y.:HarryN.Abrams,Inc.,1994.
Springer,Marlene.EthanFrome:ANightmareofNeed.N.Y.:TwaynePublishers,1993.
WagnerMartin,Linda.TheAgeofInnocence:ANovelofIronicNostalgia.N.Y.:TwaynePublishers,1996.
.TheHouseofMirth:ANovelofAdmonition.Boston:TwaynePublishers,1990.
WebSites
www.history.hanover.edu/20th/wharton.htm(Electronicversionsofworks)
www.perry.stark.k12.oh.us/library/language/wharton.html
www.wharton.stark.k12.oh.us/library/language/wharton.html(homepage)
www.berkshireweb.com/themount/(EdithWharton'shomeandfoundation)
HenryJames
Berland,Alwyn.CultureandConductintheNovelsofHenryJames.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1981.
Bradley,JohnR.,ed.HenryJamesandHomoEroticDesire.N.Y.:St.Martin'sPress,1998.
Edel,Leon.HenryJames:ACollectionofCriticalEssays.EnglewoodCliffs:PrenticeHall,1963.
.HenryJames.Vols.15.Philadelphia:Lippincott,19531972.
.TheUntriedYears,18431870.1953.
.TheConquestofLondon,18701881.1962.
.TheMiddleYears,18821895.1962.
.TheTreacherousYears,18951901.1969.
.TheMaster,19011916.1972.
Gargano,JamesW.CriticalEssaysonHenryJames:TheEarlyNovels.Boston:G.K.Hall,1987.
Graham,Kenneth.IndirectionsoftheNovel:James,Conrad,andForster.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1988.
Greenwald,Elissa.RealismandtheRomance:NathanielHawthorne,HenryJames,andAmericanFiction.AnnArbor:UMIResearchPress,1989.
Hocks,RichardA.HenryJames:AStudyoftheShortFiction.Boston:TwaynePublishers,1990.
Hutchinson,Stuart.HenryJames,anAmerican,asModernist.Totowa,N.J.:Barnes&NobleBooks,1983.
Long,RobertE.HenryJames,theEarlyNovels.Boston:TwaynePublishers,1983.
Page431
Macnaughton,WilliamR.HenryJames:TheLaterNovels.Boston:TwaynePublishers,1987.
Wagenknecht,Edward.TheNovelsofHenryJames.N.Y.:F.UngarPub.Co.,1983.
Chapter20:
Macho,MachoManErnestHemingway(18991961)
Baker,Carlos.Hemingway,TheWriterAsArtist.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1972.
Beegel,Susan,ed.Hemingway'sNeglectedShortFiction.Tuscaloosa:UniversityofAlabamaPress,1992.
Burwell,RoseMarie.Hemingway:ThePostwarYearsandthePosthumousNovels.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996.
Comley,NancyandRobertScholes.Hemingway'sGenders:RereadingtheHemingwayText.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1994.
Eby,CarlP.Hemingway'sFetishism:PsychoanalysisandtheMirrorofManhood.Albany,N.Y.:StateUniversityofNYPress,1998.
Fleming,RobertE.TheFaceintheMirror:Hemingway'sWriters.UniversityofAlabamaPress,1994.
Flora,JosephM.ErnestHemingway:AStudyoftheShortFiction.Boston:Twayne,1989.
Hays,PeterL.ErnestHemingway.N.Y.:Continuum,1990.
Kert,Bernice.TheHemingwayWomen.N.Y.:Norton,1985.
Chapter21:
PartyHeartyF.ScottFitzgerald(18961940)
Bruccoli,Matthew,ed.NewEssaysonTheGreatGatsby.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1985.
Bruccoli,MatthewJ.SomeSortofEpicGrandeur:TheLifeofF.ScotFitzgerald.N.Y.:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1981.
Bruccoli,MatthewJ.andJudithS.Baughman,eds.F.ScottFitzgeraldonAuthorship.Columbia:UniversityofSouthCarolina,1996.
Bryer,JacksonR.TheShortStoriesofF.ScottFitzgerald:NewApproachesinCriticism.Madison,Wis.:UniversityofWisconsinPress,1982.
__,ed.NewEssaysonF.ScottFitzgerald'sNeglectedStories.Columbia:UniversityofMissouriPress,1996.
Donaldson,Scott,ed.CriticalEssaysonF.ScottFitzgerald'sTheGreatGatsby.Boston:Hall,1984.
Graham,Sheilah.BelovedInfidel:TheEducationofaWoman.N.Y.:Holt,1958.
Kuehl,JohnR.F.ScottFitzgerald:AStudyoftheShortFiction.Boston:Twayne,1991.
Page432
Chapter22:
MintJuleps,Moonlight,andMadnessWilliamFaulkner(18971962)
Brodhead,RichardH.Faulkner,NewPerspectives.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:PrenticeHall,1983.
Cox,LelandH.WilliamFaulkner:BiographicalandReferenceGuide.Detroit:GaleResearchCo.,1982.
Friedman,AlanW.WilliamFaulkner.N.Y.:F.UngarPub.Co.,1984.
Goldberg,WendyFay.Faulkner'sHauntedHouse:TheFigureoftheReclusein'LightinAugust'and'Absolom,Absolom!'AnnArbor,Mich.:Universityof
MichiganPress,1996.
Kinney,ArthurF.,ed.CriticalEssaysonWilliamFaulknertheSartorisFamily.Boston:G.K.Hall,1985.
Matthews,JohnT.ThePlayofFaulkner'sLanguage.Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1982.
Minter,DavidL.WilliamFaulkner:HisLifeandWork.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1980.
Mortimer,GailL.Faulkner'sRhetoricofLoss:AStudyinPerceptionandMeaning.Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1983.
Phillips,Gene.Fiction,FilmANDFaulkner:TheArtOfAdaptation.Knoxville:UniversityofTennesseePress,1988.
Pilkington,John.TheHeartofYoknapatawpha.Jackson:UniversityPressofMississippi,1981.
Rodden,Richard.FictionsofLabor:WilliamFaulknerandtheSouth'sLongRevolution.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1997.
Singal,DanielJ.WilliamFaulkner:TheMakingofaModernist.ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1997.
Sundquist,EricJ.Faulkner:TheHouseDivided.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1983.
Vanderwerken,DavidL.Faulkner'sLiteraryChildren:PatternsofDevelopment.N.Y.:PeterLang,1997.
WagnerMartin,Linda.NewEssaysonGoDown,Moses.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996.
Page433
Chapter23:
ThreeBigDealsEzraPound,T.S.Eliot,andJohnSteinbeck
EzraPound
Ackroyd,Peter.EzraPoundandhisWorld.N.Y.:Scribner,1980.
Bacigalupo,Massimo.TheFormedTrace:theLaterPoetryofEzraPound.N.Y.:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1980.
Beach,Christopher.ABCofInfluence:EzraPoundandtheRemakingofAmericanPoeticTradition.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1992.
Bell,IanF.A.CriticasScientist:theModernistPoeticsofEzraPound.N.Y.:Methuen,1981.
Bloom,Harold,ed.EzraPound.N.Y.:Chelsea,1987.
Bornstein,George,ed.EzraPoundAmongthePoets.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1985.
Coyle,MichaelandWendyS.EzraFlory.TheAmericanEzraPound.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1989.
Froula,Christine.AGuidetoEzraPound'sSelectedPoems.N.Y.:NewDirections,1983.
Gibson,MaryE.EpicReinvented:EzraPoundandtheVictorians.Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1995.
Kaye,Jacqueline,ed.EzraPoundandAmerica.N.Y.:St.Martin's,1992.
Kearns,George.GuidetoEzraPound'sSelectedCantos.NewBrunswick,N.J.:RutgersUniversityPress,1980.
Korn,Marianne,ed.EzraPoundandHistory.Orono:UniversityofMaine,1985.
Kuberski,Philip.ACalculusofEzraPound:VocationsoftheAmericanSign.Gainesville:UniversityPressofFlorida,1992.
Levy,Alan.EzraPound,theVoiceofSilence.SagHarbor,N.Y.:PermanentPress,1983.
Robinson,Alan.SymboltoVortex:Poetry,Painting,andIdeas,18851914.N.Y.:St.Martin'sPress,1985.
Schwartz,Sanford.TheMatrixofModernism:Pound,Eliot,andEarlyTwentiethCenturyThought.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1985.
Tiffany,Daniel.RadioCorpse:ImagismandtheCryptaestheticofEzraPound.Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1995.
Wilhelm,J.J.EzraPoundinLondonandParis:19081925.UniversityPark:PennStateUniversityPress,1990.
Page434
T.S.Eliot
Canary,RobertH.T.S.Eliot:ThePoetandHisCritics.Chicago:AmericanLibraryAssociation,1982.
Frye,Northrop.T.S.Eliot:AnIntroduction.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1981.
Gish,NancyK.TimeinthePoetryofT.S.Eliot:AStudyinStructureandTheme.London:Macmillan,1981.
Grant,Michael,ed.T.S.Eliot:TheCriticalHeritage.Boston:Routledge&KeganPaul,1982.
Roby,KinleyE.CriticalEssaysonT.S.Eliot:TheSweeneyMotif.Boston:G.K.Hall,1985.
Schwartz,Sanford.TheMatrixofModernism:Pound,Eliot,andEarlyTwentiethCenturyThought.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1985.
Scofield,Martin.T.S.Eliot:ThePoems.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1988.
Spurr,David.ConflictsinConsciousness:T.S.Eliot'sPoetryandCriticism.Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1984.
JohnSteinbeck
Benson,JacksonJ.(ed)TheShortNovelsofJohnSteinbeck:CriticalEssayswithaChecklisttoSteinbeckCriticism.Durham:DukeUniversityPress,1990.
Bloom,HaroldandWilliamGolding.JohnSteinbeck(ModernCriticalViews).NewYork:ChelseaHousePublishers,1988.
Bloom,Harold.JohnSteinbeck:ComprehensiveResearchandStudyGuide(Bloom'sMajorShortStoryWriters).NewYork:ChelseaHousePublishers,1999.
Davis,RobertCon.TheGrapesofWrath:ACollectionofCriticalEssays.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1982.
Ditsky,John.JohnSteinbeck:Life,Work,andCriticism.Fredericton,N.B.,Canada:YorkPress,1985.
Ditsky,John,ed.CriticalEssaysonSteinbeck'sTheGrapesofWrath.Boston:G.K.Hall,1989.
French,Warren,ed.ACompaniontoTheGrapesofWrath.NewYork:Penguin,1989.
French,Warren.JohnSteinbeck'sFictionRevisited(Twayne'sUnitedStatesAuthors,No638)Twayne,1994.
Hughes,R.S.JohnSteinbeck:AStudyoftheShortFiction.R.S.Hughes.Boston:Twayne,1989.
Meyer,MichaelJ.et.al.TheHayashiSteinbeckBibliography:19821996(ScarecrowAuthorBibliographies,No99).ScarecrowPress1998.
Railsback,BrianE.ParallelExpeditions:CharlesDarwinandtheArtofJohnSteinbeck.UniversityofIdahoPress,1997.
Wyatt,Davided.NewEssaysontheGrapesofWrath.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1991.
Page435
Chapter24:
RobertFrost
Fleissner,RobertF.Frost'sRoadTaken.N.Y.:PeterLang,1996.
Gerber,PhilipL.,ed.CriticalEssaysonRobertFrost.Boston:G.K.Hall,1982.
.RobertFrost.Boston:Twayne,1982.
Ingebretsen,Edward,S.J.RobertFrost'sStarinaStoneBoat:AGrammarofBelief.Bethesda,Md.:Internat.Scholars,1996.
Meyers,Jeffrey.RobertFrost:ABiography.N.Y.:HoughtonMifflin,1996.
Monteiro,George.RobertFrost&theNewEnglandRenaissance.Lexington:UniversityPressofKentucky,1988.
Oster,Judith.TowardRobertFrost:TheReaderandthePoet.Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1991.
Potter,JamesL.RobertFrostHandbook.UniversityPark:PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,1980.
Pritchard,WilliamH.Frost:ALiteraryLifeReconsidered.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1984.
e.e.cummings
Firmage,GeorgeJ.,ed.e.e.cummingsCompletePoems19041962.N.Y.:LiverightPublishingCorporation,1991.
Kennedy,RichardS.e.e.cummingsRevisited.N.Y.:TwaynePublishers,1994.
.e.e.cummingsSelectedPoems.N.Y.:LiverightPublishingCorporation,1994.
McBride,KatherineWinters.AConcordancetotheCompletePoemsofe.e.cummings.Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1989.
E.A.Robinson
Barnard,Ellsworth.EdwinArlingtonRobinson:CentenaryEssays.Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1970.
Joyner,NancyCarol.EdwinArlingtonRobinson:AReferenceGuide.Boston:G.K.Hall,1978.
CarlSandburg
Callahan,North.CarlSandburg:HisLifeandHisWorks.PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,1987.
Mitchell,Barbara.GoodMorning,Mr.President:AStoryAboutCarlSandburg.CarolrhodaBooks,1988.
Niven,Penelope,CarlFetherling,DaleandDougFetherling,eds.CarlSandburgattheMovies:APoetintheSilentEra:1920to1927.Scarecrow,1985.
Page436
Hacker,JeffreyH.CarlSandburg.N.Y.:Watts,1984.
Perry,Lilla.MyFriend,CarlSandburg:TheBiographyofaFriendship.Scarecrow,1981.
Salwak,Dale.CarlSandburg:AReferenceGuide.N.Y.:Macmillan,1988.
Sandburg,Helga.WhereLoveBegins:APortraitofCarlSandburgandHisFamilyAsSeenThroughtheEyesofHisYoungestDaughter.N.Y.:DonaldI.
Fine,1989.
Yannella,PhilipR.TheOtherCarlSandburg.Jackson:UniversityPressofMississippi,1996.
Chapter25:
General
Baker,HoustonA.,Jr.ModernismandtheHarlemRenaissance.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1987.
Bassett,JohnE.HarleminReview:CriticalReactionstoBlackAmericanWriters,19171939.Selinsgrove:SusquehannaUniversityPress,1992.
Campbell,MaryS.HarlemRenaissance:ArtofBlackAmerica.N.Y.:Abrams,1987.
Carby,Hazel.ReconstructingWomanhood:TheEmergenceoftheAfroAmericanWomanNovelist.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1987.
Floyd,SamuelA.,ed.BlackMusicintheHarlemRenaissance:ACollectionofEssays.N.Y.:GreenwoodPress,1990.
Franklin,V.P.LivingOurStories,TellingOurTruths:AutobiographyandtheMakingoftheAfricanAmericanIntellectualTradition.N.Y.:Oxford
UniversityPress,1995.
Gates,HenryL.,Jr.TheSignifyingMonkey:ATheoryofAfricanAmericanLiteraryCriticism.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1988.
Greenberg,Cheryl.''OrDoesItExplode?":BlackHarlemintheGreatDepression.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1991.
Hamalian,LeoandJamesV.Hatch.TheRootsofAfricanAmericanDrama:AnAnthologyofEarlyPlays,18581938.Detroit:WayneStateUniversityPress,
1991.
Harris,Trudier.AfroAmericanWritersBeforetheHarlemRenaissance.DictionaryofLiteraryBiography.VolumeFifty.Detroit:Gale,1986.
Jones,Gayl.LiberatingVoices:OralTraditioninAfricanAmericanLiterature.Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1991.
RichardWright
Davis,CharlesT.andMichelFabre.RichardWright:APrimaryBibliography.Boston:G.K.Hall,1982.
Felgar,Robert.RichardWright.Boston:Twayne,1980.
Hakutani,Yoshinobu.CriticalEssaysonRichardWright.Boston:G.K.Hall,1982.
Macksey,RichardandFrankE.Moorer,eds.RichardWright,aCollectionofCriticalEssays.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:PrenticeHall,1984.
Page437
Miller,EugeneE.VoiceofaNativeSon:ThePoeticsofRichardWright.Jackson:UniversityPressofMississippi,1990.
LangstonHughes
AMeditationonLangstonHughesandtheHarlemRenaissance:WiththePoetryofEssexHemphillandBruceNugent.SankofaFilmandVideo.N.Y.:Water
BearerFilms,1992.
Andrews,WilliamL.ClassicFictionoftheHarlemRenaissance.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1994.
Baker,HoustonA.,Jr.AfroAmericanPoetics:RevisionsofHarlemandtheBlackAesthetic.Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress,1988.
.Blues,Ideology,andAfroAmericanLiterature:AVernacularTheory.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1984.
ClaudeMcKay
Cooper,WayneF.ClaudeMcKay:RebelSojournerintheHarlemRenaissance:ABiography.N.Y.:SchockenBooks,1990.
Chapter26:
TheBeats
Bartlett,Lee,ed.TheBeats:EssaysinCriticism.Jefferson,N.C.:McFarland,1981.
Charters,Ann."BeatPoetryandtheSanFranciscoPoetryRenaissance."inPariniJayed.TheColumbiaHistoryofAmericanPoetry.N.Y.:ColumbiaUniversity
Press,1993.
Charters,Ann,ed.TheBeats:LiteraryBohemiansinPrewarAmerica.Detroit:Gale,1983.
Stephenson,Gregory.TheDaybreakBoys:EssaysontheLiteratureoftheBeatGeneration.Carbondale:SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress,1990.
AllenGinsberg
Ball,Gordon,ed.AllenVerbatim:LecturesonPoetry,Politics,andConsciousness.N.Y.:McGrawHill,1974.
Bartlett,Lee.TheBeats:EssaysInCriticism.Jefferson,N.C.:McFarland,1981.
Bawer,Bruce."ThePhenomenonofAllenGinsberg."TheNewCriterion3.6(Feb1985):114.
Kraus,MichelleP.AllenGinsberg,AnAnnotatedBibliography19691977.Metuchen,N.J.:ScarecrowPress,1980.
Schumacher,Michael.DharmaLion:ACriticalBiographyofAllenGinsberg.N.Y.:St.Martin'sPress,1992.
Whitmer,PeterO.AquariusRevisited:SevenWhoCreatedtheSixtiesCountercultureThatChangedAmerica:WilliamBurroughs,AllenGinsberg,Ken
Kesey,TimothyLeary,NormanMailer,TomRobbins,HunterS.Thompson.N.Y.:Macmillan,1987.
Page438
SylviaPlath
Alexander,Paul.ArielAscending:WritingsAboutSylviaPlath.N.Y.:Harper&Row,1985.
Axelrod,StevenG.SylviaPlath:TheWoundandtheCureofWords.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1992.
Bundtzen,LyndaK.Plath'sIncarnations:WomanandtheCreativeProcess.AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,1983.
AnneSexton
Colburn,StevenE.,ed.TellingtheTale.AnnArbor:TheUniversityofMichiganPress,1988.
Hall,CarolineKingBarnard.AnneSexton.Boston:TwaynePublishers,1989.
Juhasz,Suzanne.NakedandFieryForms:ModernAmericanPoetrybyWomen,ANewTradition.N.Y.:OctagonBooks,1978.
Middlebrook,DianeWood.AnneSexton:ABiography.Boston:HoughtonMifflinCompany,1991.
RobertLowell
Mariani,Paul.LostPuritan:ALifeofRobertLowell.N.Y.:W.W.Norton,1994.
Perkins,David.AHistoryofModernPoetry:ModernismandAfter.CambridgeandLondon:TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,1987.
J.D.Salinger
Bloom,Harold,ed.J.D.Salinger.N.Y.:Chelsea,1987.
French,WarrenG.J.D.Salinger,revisited.Boston:TwaynePublishers,1988.
Hamilton,Ian.InSearchofJ.D.Salinger.N.Y.:RandomHouse,1988.
Salzberg,Joel.CriticalEssaysonSalinger'sTheCatcherintheRye.Boston,Mass.:G.K.Hall,1990.
Wenke,JohnP.J.D.Salinger:AStudyoftheShortFiction.Boston:TwaynePublishers,1991.
Chapter27:
FlanneryO'Connor
Asals,Frederick.FlanneryO'Connor,TheImaginationOfExtremity.Athens,Ga.:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1982.
,ed.FlanneryO'Connor,'AGoodManIsHardtoFind'.N.Y.:RutgersUniversityPress,1993.
Baumgaertner,JillP.FlanneryO'Connor:AProperScaring.Wheaton,III.:H.ShawPublishers,1988.
Page439
Bloom,Harold,ed.FlanneryO'Connor.ChelseaHouse,1986.
Brinkmeyer,RobertH.,Jr.TheArtandVisionofFlanneryO'Connor.BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1989.
Clark,BeverlyL.andMelvinJ.Friedman,eds.CriticalEssaysonFlanneryO'Connor.Boston:G.K.Hall,1985.
Coles,Robert.FlanneryO'Connor'sSouth.LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1980.
Desmond,JohnF.RisenSons:FlanneryO'Connor'sVisionofHistory.Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1987.
Driggers,StephenG.,RobertJ.DunnandSarahGordon.TheManuscriptsofFlanneryO'ConnoratGeorgiaCollege.Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1989.
Farmer,DavidR.FlanneryO'Connor,ADescriptiveBibliography.N.Y.:GarlandPub.,1981.
Chapter28:
SaulBellow
Bach,GerhardandJakobJ.Kollhofer,eds.SaulBellowatSeventyFive:ACollectionofCriticalEssays.Tubingen:Narr,1991.
Bakker,J.FictionasSurvivalStrategy:AComparativeStudyoftheMajorWorksofErnestHemingwayandSaulBellow.Amsterdam:Rodopi,1983.
Bloom,Harold,ed.SaulBellow.N.Y.:Chelsea,1986.
Bradbury,Malcolm.SaulBellow.N.Y.:Methuen,1982.
CroninGloriaL.andBenSiegel,eds.ConversationswithSaulBellow.Jackson:UniversityPressofMississippi,1994.
.andL.H.Goldman,eds.SaulBellowinthe1980s:ACollectionofCriticalEssays.EastLansing:MichiganStateUniversityPress,1989.
GoldmanL.H.et.al,eds.SaulBellow:AMosaic.N.Y.:PeterLang,1992.
Hyland,Peter.SaulBellow.N.Y.:St.Martin's,1992.
Kiernan,RobertF.SaulBellow.N.Y.:Continuum,1989.
Newman,Judie.SaulBellowandHistory.N.Y.:St.Martin's,1984.
Pifer,Ellen.SaulBellowAgainsttheGrain.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1990.
NormanMailer
Begiebing,RobertJ.TowardaNewSynthesis:JohnFowles,JohnGardner,NormanMailer.AnnArbor,Mich.:UMIResearchPress,1989.
Braudy,Leo.NormanMailer,aCollectionofCriticalEssays.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.,PrenticeHall,1972.
Gordon,Andrew.AnAmericanDreamer:APsychoanalyticStudyoftheFictionofNormanMailer.Rutherford,N.J.:FairleighDickinsonUniversityPress,
1980.
Page440
Kaufmann,DonaldL.NormanMailer:theCountdown:theFirstTwentyYears.Carbondale,SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress,1969.
Lennon,Michael.CriticalEssaysonNormanMailer.Boston:G.K.Hall,1986.
Manso,Peter.Mailer,HisLifeandTimes.N.Y.:SimonandSchuster,1985.
Mills,Hilary.Mailer:ABiography.N.Y.:EmpireBooks,1982.
Poirier,Richard.NormanMailer.N.Y.:VikingPress,1972.
Wenke,Joseph.Mailer'sAmerica.Hanover,N.H.:UniversityPressofNewEngland,1987.
BernardMalamud
Alter,IskaSheila.TheGoodMan'sDilemma:SocialCriticismintheFictionofBernardMalamud.AMSStudiesinModernLiterature,no.5.N.Y.:AMS
Press,1981.
Astro,RichardandJacksonJ.Benson,eds.TheFictionofBernardMalamud.Corvallis:OregonStateUniversityPress,1977.
Bloom,Harold.BernardMalamud.N.Y.:ChelseaHouse,1986.
Field,LeslieA.andJoyceW.Field,eds.BernardMalamudandtheCritics.N.Y.:NewYorkUniversityPressLondon:UniversityofLondonPress,1970.
,eds.BernardMalamud:ACollectionofCriticalEssays.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:PrenticeHall,1975.
Helterman,Jeffrey.UnderstandingBernardMalamud.UniversityofSouthCarolinaPress,1985.
Hershinow,SheldonJ.BernardMalamud.ModernLiteratureMonographs.N.Y.:FrederickUngarPublishingCo.,1980.
Kosofsky,RitaNathalie.BernardMalamud:ADescriptiveBibliography.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress,1991.
Lasher,LawrenceM.,ed.ConversationswithBernardMalamud.JacksonandLondon:UniversityPressofMississippi,1991.
Ochshorn,KathleenGillikin.TheHeart'sEssentialLandscape:BernardMalamud'sHero.N.Y.:PeterLang,1990.
Salzberg,Joel.BernardMalamud:AReferenceGuide.Boston:G.H.HallandCo.,1985.
.CriticalEssaysonBernardMalamud.EditedbyJoelSalzberg.Boston:G.K.HallandCo.,1987.
Solotaroff,Robert.BernardMalamud:AStudyoftheShortFiction.Twayne'sStudiesinShortFiction,SeriesNo.8.Boston:G.K.Hall,1989.
Page441
Chapter29:
JamesBaldwin
Burt,NancyV.andFredL.Standley,eds.CriticalEssaysonJamesBaldwin.Boston:G.K.Hall,1988.
Campbell,James.TalkingattheGatesaLifeofJamesBaldwin.N.Y.:PenguinBooks,1991.
GwendolynBrooks
Kent,GeorgeE.ALifeofGwendolynBrooks.Lexington:UniversityPressofKentucky,1990.
Kufrin,Joan."GwendolynBrooks."UncommonWomen,3551.Piscataway,N.J.:NewCenturyPublishers,1981.
Madhubuti,HakiR.,ed.SayThattheRiverTurns:TheImpactofGwendolynBrooks.Chicago:ThirdWorldPress,1987.
Melhem,D.H.GwendolynBrooks:PoetryandtheHeroicVoice.Lexington:UniversityPressofKentucky,1987.
Shaw,HarryB.GwendolynBrooks.Boston:Twayne,1980.
Wright,StephenCaldwell.TheChicagoCollective:PoemsforandInspiredbyGwendolynBrooks.Sanford,Fla.:ChristopherBurghardt,1990.
.OnGwendolynBrooks:ReliantContemplation.AnnArbor,Mich.:UniversityofMichiganPress,1996.
RalphEllison
Benston,KimberlyW.,ed.SpeakingforYou:TheVisionofRalphEllison.Washington,D.C.:HowardUniversityPress,1987.
Busby,Mark.RalphEllison.Boston:TwaynePublishers,1991.
DeJongh,James.ViciousModernism:BlackHarlemandtheLiteraryImagination.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1990.
Driskell,DavidC.andothers.HarlemRenaissance:ArtofBlackAmerica.N.Y.:Abrams,1987.
Fabre,Michel.FromHarlemtoParis:BlackAmericanWritersinFrance,18401980.Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1991.
Nadel,Alan.InvisibleCriticism:RalphEllisonandtheAmericanCanon.IowaCity:UniversityofIowaPress,1988.
O'Meally,RobertG.TheCraftofRalphEllison.Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1980.
O'Meally,Robert,ed.NewEssaysonInvisibleMan.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1988.
Page442
ToniMorrison
Bjork,PatrickB.TheNovelsofToniMorrison:TheSearchforSelfandPlaceWithintheCommunity.N.Y.:P.Lang,1996.
ButlerEvans,Elliott.Race,Gender,andDesire:NarrativeStrategiesintheFictionofToniCadeBambara,ToniMorrison,andAliceWalker.Philadelphia:
TempleUniversityPress,1989.
Carmean,Karen.ToniMorrison'sWorldofFiction.Troy,N.Y.:Whitston,1993.
McKay,NellieY.CriticalEssaysonToniMorrison.Boston:G.K.Hall,1988.
Samuels,WilfredD.andClenoraHudsonWeems.ToniMorrison.Boston:Twayne,1990.
Chapter30:
MargaretAtwood
Davidson,ArnoldandCathy,ed.TheArtofMargaretAtwood:EssaysinCriticism.HouseofAnansiPress,1980.
Grace,Sherill.ViolentDualityAStudyofMargaretAtwood.VehiculePress,1980.
Grace,SherrillandLorraineWeir,eds.MargaretAtwood:Language,TextandSystem.UniversityofBritishColumbiaPress,1983.
Ingersoll,EarlG.,ed.MargaretAtwood:Conversations.Princeton,N.J.:OntarioReviewPress,1990.
Irvine,Lorna.CollectingClues:MargaretAtwood'sBodilyHarm.Toronto:ECWPress,1993.
McCombs,Judith,ed.CriticalEssaysonMargaretAtwood.Boston:G.K.Hall&Co.,1988.
Rao,Eleonora.StrategiesforIdentity:TheFictionofMargaretAtwood.N.Y.:PeterLandPublishing,1994.
Rosenberg,JeromeH.MargaretAtwood.Boston:Twayne,1984.
Staels,Hilda.MargaretAtwood'sNovels:AStudyofNarrativeDiscourse.Tubingen,Germany:FranckeVerlag,1995.
VanSpanckeren,KathrynandJanGardenCastro,eds.VisionandForms.SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress,1988.
Wilson,SharonRose.MargaretAtwood'sFairyTaleSexualPolitics.UniversityPressofMississippi,1993.
York,LorraineM.,ed.VariousAtwoods:EssaysontheLaterPoems,ShortFiction,andNovels.HouseofAnansiPress,1995.
Page443
Chapter31:
Butcher,Philip.TheEthnicImageinModernAmericanLiterature.Washington,D.C.:HowardUniversityPress,1984.
Dearborn,MaryV.Pocahontas'sDaughters:GenderandEthnicityinAmericanCulture.N.Y.:OxfordUniversityPress,1986.
Enriquez,Evangelina.TowardsaDefinitionof,andCriticalApproachestoChicanoaLiterature.ThesisPh.D.Riverside:UniversityofCalifornia.
Hoffman,Donald."WhoseHomeontheRange?FindingRoomforNativeAmericans,AfricanAmericans,andLatinoAmericansintheRevisionistWestern."Melus
22.2(Sumr1997):4561.
HornoDelgado,Asuncion.BreakingBoundaries:LatinaWritingandCriticalReadings.Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,1989.
Lim,Shirley.TheForbiddenStitch:AnAsianAmericanWomen'sAnthology.Corvallis,Oreg.:CalyxBooks,1989.
Wardrop,Stephanie."LastoftheRedHotMohicans:MiscegenationinthePopularAmericanRomance."Melus22.2(Sumr1997):6175.
Chapter32:
NewFrontiers
Arac,Jonathan,ed.PostmodernismandPolitics.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1986.
Callinicos,Alex.AgainstPostmodernism:aMarxistCritique.N.Y.:St.Martin'sPress,1990.
Caviola,Hugo.IntheZone:PerceptionandPresentationofSpaceinGermanandAmericanPostmodernism.Boston:Birkhauser,1991.
Falck,Colin.Myth,Truth,andLiterature:TowardsATruePostModernism.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1989.
McGowan,John.PostmodernismandItsCritics.Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1991.
McHale,Brian.PostmodernistFiction.N.Y.:Methuen,1987.
Perloff,Marjorie.PoeticLicense:EssaysonModernistandPostmodernistLyric.Evanston,Ill.:NorthwesternUniversityPress,1990.
Rose,MargaretA.ThePostModernandthePostIndustrial:ACriticalAnalysis.N.Y.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1991.
Ruland,RichardandMalcolmBradbury.FromPuritanismtoPostmodernism:AHistoryofAmericanLiterature.N.Y.:Viking,1991.
JohnUpdike
Gullette,MargaretM.SafeatLastintheMiddleYears:TheInventionoftheMidlifeProgressNovel:SaulBellow,MargaretDrabble,AnneTyler,John
Updike.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1988.
Page445
APPENDIXC
TIMELINE
1492
ChristopherColumbussightslandintheBahamas,"discovers"theNewWorld
1503
LeonardodaVincipaintstheMonaLisa
1509
MichelangelopaintstheceilingoftheSistineChapel
1520
ChocolateintroducedtoEurope
1605
ShakespearecompletesMacbeth
1607
Jamestownsettled
1616
JohnSmith'sADescriptionofNewEngland
1620
MayflowerlandsatPlymouth
1621
FirstThanksgiving,atPlymouth
1630
JohnWinthropdeliversthelaysermonAModelofChristianCharitywhileaboardtheshipArabella
WilliamBradfordbeginswritingOfPlymouthPlantation
1636
HarvardUniversityestablished
1640
BayPsalmBookpublished,firstbookprintedinthecolonies
1644
China'sMingdynastyends
1650
AnneBradstreet'sTheTenthMuse
1667
Milton,thegreatEnglishwriter,publishesParadiseLost
1692
Salemwitchcrafttrialsbytheendofthehysteria,19peopleandthreedogshanged
1735
GreatAwakening,areligiousrevival,sweepsacrossthecolonies
1741
FirstAmericanmagazinesappear:AndrewBradford'sAmericanMagazineandBenjaminFranklin'sGeneralMagazine,andHistoricalChronicle
JonathanEdwardsdelivershis"fireandbrimstone"sermon,"SinnersintheHandsofanAngryGod"
1749
Signlanguageinvented
1752
BenjaminFranklinconductshiskiteandkeyexperimentswithlightning
1765
InEngland,JamesWattinventsthesteamengine
Page446
1776
ThomasPaine'sCommonSensehelpsspurthemovementforAmericanindependence
1789
BeginningsofshortfictioninAmericanmagazines:"Azakia:ACanadianStory"inMonthlyMiscellanyandVermontMagazine"TheStoryoftheCaptain'sWifeand
anAgedWoman"inGentlemanandLady'sTownandCountryMagazine
1800
InEngland,Coleridgefinishes"KulbaKhan"
1803
LouisianaPurchaseextendsnation'sterritorytotheRockyMountains
1804
LewisandClarkbeginexpeditionexploringandmappingthevastWest
Napoleonproclaimshimselfemperor
1805
Beethoven'sThirdSymphony
1807
RobertFulton'ssteamboatmakesfirsttrip
1809
WashingtonIrving'sAHistoryofNewYork
1812
U.S.declareswaronGreatBritain
1813
InEngland,JaneAusten'sPrideandPrejudicepublished
1814
FrancisScottKeywrites"TheStarSpangledBanner"
1815
BattleofNewOrleans
TheNorthAmericanReviewestablished
1817
WilliamCullenBryant's"Thanatopsis"
1818
InEngland,MaryWollestonecraftShelley'sFrankenstein
1819
WashingtonIrving'sTheSketchBookSpainrelinquishesFlorida
JohnKeats'"OdetoaNightingale"and"OdeonaGrecianUrn"
ReneLaennecinventsthestethoscopeSirWalterScott'sIvanhoe
1820
MissouriCompromisebalancesslaveandfreestatesadmittedtotheUnion
JamesMonroeelectedoverJohnQuincyAdamsaspresident
DanielBoonediesatage85
U.S.population:9,638,453
WashingtonIrving'sTheSketchBook
1821
MissourientersUnionas24thstate,thusbalancingtheunionat12slaveand12freestates
OpeningofSantaFetrail
JamesFenimoreCoopergainsfamewithTheSpy
Firstwomen'scollegefounded
TheSaturdayEveningPostestablished
1822
WashingtonIrving'sBracebridgeHall:or,TheHumoristspublishedinEngland
1823
JamesFenimoreCooper'sThePioneersintroducesNattyBumppo
MonroeDoctrinewarnsEuropeanpowerstokeeptheirhandsoffLatinAmerica
Page447
1824
JohnQuincyAdamselectedpresident(18241828)
WashingtonIrving'sTalesofaTraveler
1825
ErieCanalfinished
Russia:Decembristuprisingcrushedbyczaristforces
1826
JamesFenimoreCooper'sTheLastoftheMohicans
DeathofThomasJeffersonandJohnAdamsonJuly4,hoursapart
1827
EdgarAllanPoe'sfirstcollectionofpoems,Tamberlane
1828
NoahWebster'sAnAmericanDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage
AndrewJacksonelectedpresident
BirthofEmilyDickinson
1830
''TomThumb,"wasAmerica'sfirststeamdrivenlocomotive
NathanielHawthorne'searliesttales("ProvincialTales"and"SevenTalesofMyNativeLand")publishedindividuallyinToken,SalemGazette,andAtlantic
Souvenir.
18301865:RomanticPeriod
1831
VictorHugo'sTheHunchbackofNotreDame
NatTurnerleadsslaveuprisinginwhich70whitesarekilled100blacksarekilledinasearchforTurner
1832
WashingtonIrving'sTheAlhambra
Grimm'sFairyTalestranslatedintoEnglish
AndrewJacksonreelectedpresident
SeminolechiefscedeFloridatotheU.S.andagreetomovewestoftheMississippi
TheOregonTrailbecomesamainrouteforsettlers
NewEnglandAntiSlaverySociety
NathanielHawthorne's"RogerMalvin'sBurial"
1833
EdgarAllanPoe's"MS.FoundinaBottle"
FirstissueofKnickerbockerMagazine
AmericansinTexasterritoryvotetoseparateTexasfromMexico
Britainprohibitsslaveryinhercolonies
OberlinCollegeopens,thefirstcoeducationalcollegeandthefirsttoadmitblacks
1834
CyrusHallMcCormick'smechanicalreaper
1835
Nationaldebtispaidoff
MobinCharleston,S.C.,burnsabolitionistliterature,andabolitionistwritersareexpelledfromSouthernstates
AlexisdeTocquevillepublishesDemocracyinAmericainFrance
SamuelL.Clemens(MarkTwain)borninFlorida,Missouri
1836
TheBattleoftheAlamo(SantaAnnaleads3,000meninasiegeoftheAlamo,killingall187TexansinsideonMarch6onMarch27,histroopskill300soldiers
defendingGoliad.TexanscaptureSantaAnnaattheBattleofSanJacinto.)
Page448
RalphWaldoEmerson'sNaturekicksoffNewEnglandRenaissance
SettlersledbyDr.MarcusWhitmanreachWallaWallainpresentdayWashington
MassachusettsSupremeCourtrulesthatanyslavebroughtwithinitsbordersbyamasterisfree
TranscendentalClub(18361844)
BretHarteborn
1837
SamuelF.B.Morseinventstelegraph
CharlesDickens'OliverTwist
MartinVanBurenelectedpresident
FinancialPanicof1837
BirthofWilliamDeanHowellsinOhio
NathanielHawthorne'sTwiceToldTales(including"MyKinsman,MajorMolineux")
1838
Removalof15,000to17,000CherokeeIndiansfromGeorgiaonthe"TrailofTears"resultsin4,000deaths
RepublicofTexaswithdrawsitsofferofannexationwiththeU.S.
UndergroundRailroadorganized
RalphWaldoEmerson's"AnAddress"(revisedin1841as"TheDivinitySchoolAddress")
AlexisDeTocqueville'sDemocracyinAmerica(firstAmericanedition)
1839
EdgarAllanPoe's"TheFalloftheHouseofUsher"
SpanishslaveshipAmistad,carrying53slaves,istakenoverinamutinybytheirleader,Cinque
EdgarAllanPoe'sTalesoftheGrotesqueandArabesque
1840
WilliamHenryHarrison("OldTippecanoe")defeatsMartinVanBurenforthepresidency
TranscendentalistClubbeginstopublishitsmagazine,TheDial
UpperandLowerCanadaareunited
1841
SupremeCourtupholdslowercourtrulingandallowstheAmistadmutineerstoreturntoAfrica
WilliamHenryHarrisondiesJohnTylerbecomespresident
BrookFarmInstituteisfounded(18411847)
RalphWaldoEmerson'sEssays,FirstSeries
HermanMelvillesailsonwhalerAcushnetandjumpsshipintheMarquesasinJuly1842
1842
ColonelJohnC.FremontleadsanexpeditiontoexploretheRockyMountains
EdgarAllanPoe,ReviewsofHawthorne'sTwiceToldTales
HongKongbecomesaBritishcolony
1843
Beginningoflargemigrationwestward
SecondSeminoleWarends
EdgarAllanPoe's"TheGoldBug""TheBlackCat"
InEngland,DickenspublishesAChristmasCarol.
1844
JamesK.PolkdefeatsHenryClayforthepresidency
RalphWaldoEmerson'sEssays:SecondSeries(including"Experience"and"ThePoet")
InFrance,DumaspublishesTheThreeMusketeers
Page449
1845
TexasjoinstheUnionasthe28thstate
PotatofamineinIrelandbringsgreatnumbersofIrishimmigrants
EdgarAllanPoe'sTheRavenandOtherPoems
MargaretFuller'sWomanintheNineteenthCentury
HenryDavidThoreaubeginslivingatWaldenPond
FrederickDouglass'NarrativeoftheLifeofFrederickDouglass,anAmericanSlave
1846
Mexicanwarbegins
TreatywithGreatBritainextendstheOregonTerritoryboundaryatlatitude40degreestoPugetSound
JamesRussellLowellpublishesthefirstof"TheBigelowPapers"
EdgarAllanPoe's"ThePhilosophyofComposition"
NathanielHawthorne'sMossesfromanOldManse(includes"RogerMalvin'sBurial"and"YoungGoodmanBrown")
HermanMelville'sTypee
1847
FrederickDouglassfoundsTheNorthStar,anabolitionistnewspaper
RalphWaldoEmerson'sPoems(includes"Hamatreya"and"EachandAll")
HenryWadsworthLongfellow'sEvangeline
HermanMelville'sOmoo
InEngland,EmilyBrontepublishesWutheringHeights
1848
MexicanWarendswiththeTreatyofGuadalupeHidalgo
LucretiaMottandElizabethCadyStantonorganizethefirstAmericanwomen'srightsconventioninSenecaFalls,NewYork
1849
JamesFenimoreCooper'sThePathfinder
1849
AmeliaBloomerbeginspublishingtheLily,ajournalsupportingtemperanceandwomen'srights
FirstgoldseekersarriveatSanFrancisco
ZacharyTaylorinauguratedas12thpresident
HenryDavidThoreau'sResistancetoCivilGovernmentAWeekontheConcordandMerrimackRivers
EdgarAllanPoe's"TheBells""AnnabelLee"
PoediesinBaltimore
SarahOrneJewettborn
HermanMelville'sRedburnMardi
1850
FugitiveSlaveActprovidesforthereturnofslavesbroughttofreestates
Compromiseof1850admitsCaliforniaasafreestateandTexasasaslavestateNewMexicoandUtahorganizedwithnorestrictionsonslavery
NathanielHawthorne'sTheScarletLetter
RalphWaldoEmerson'sRepresentativeMen
HermanMelville'sWhiteJacket
1851
HoraceGreeleyadvises,"GoWest,youngman."
HermanMelville'sMobyDick
NathanielHawthorne'sTheHouseoftheSevenGables
BirthofKateChopin
Page450
1852
FranklinPierceelectedpresident
"KnowNothing"PartyopposesCatholicsandforeigners
HermanMelville'sPierre
NathanielHawthorne'sTheBlithedaleRomance
HarrietBeecherStowe'sUncleTom'sCabin
1853
NathanielHawthorne'sTanglewoodTalesforGirlsandBoys
1854
KansasNebraskaActpasses,allowing"popularsovereignty"
HenryDavidThoreau'sWalden
HermanMelville's"TheEncantadas"
1855
FrederickDouglass'MyBondageandMyFreedom
WaltWhitman'sLeavesofGrass
HenryWadsworthLongfellow'sHiawatha
HermanMelville's"BenitoCereno"
1856
AbolitionistJohnBrownkillsfiveproslaverymenatPottawatamieRiver
JamesBuchananelectedpresident
HermanMelville'sThePiazzaTalesand"Bartleby,theScrivener"
1857
DredScottdecisionbytheSupremeCourt
HermanMelville'sTheConfidenceManAtlanticMonthlyfounded
1858
LincolnDouglasdebates
Financialpanicof1858
OliverWendellHolmes'TheAutocratoftheBreakfastTable
1859
JohnBrownleadsanarmedgroupof21toseizethearsenalatHarpersFerry,Virginiaiscapturedandisexecuted
HarrietE.Wilson'sOurNig:or,SketchesintheLifeofaFreeBlack,firstnovelbyanAfricanAmericanwoman
1860
AbrahamLincolnelectedpresident
SouthCarolinavotestosecedefromtheUnion
NathanielHawthorne'sTheMarbleFawn
1861
AttackonFortSumteronApril12signalsthebeginningoftheCivilWar
BattleofBullRun
HenryWadsworthLongfellow'sPaulRevere'sRide
1862
PresidentLincolnsignstheHomesteadAct,allowingcitizenstoacquireupto160acresafterfarmingitforfiveyears
RobertE.LeecommandstheConfederateArmiesofNorthernVirginia
BirthofEdithWharton
1863
HenryWadsworthLongfellow'sTalesofaWaysideInn
AbrahamLincoln's"GettysburgAddress"
NathanielHawthorne'sOurOldHome
1864
AbrahamLincolnreelected
GeneralShermantakesAtlanta
NathanielHawthornedies
1865
CivilWarofficiallyendswhenRobertE.LeesurrenderstoUlyssesS.GrantatAppomattoxCourthouse
Page451
April14,Lincolnassassinated
ThirteenthAmendmentabolishesslavery
MarkTwain's"TheCelebratedJumpingFrogofCalaverasCounty"
WaltWhitman's"WhenLilacsLastintheDooryardBloom'd"andDrumTaps
1866
Atlanticcablecompleted
HermanMelville'sBattlePiecesandAspectsoftheWar(poems)
JohnGreenleafWhittier'sSnowBound
RalphWaldoEmerson's"Terminus"
InRussia,DostoyevskypublishesCrimeandPunishment
1867
ReconstructionAct
U.S.purchasesAlaskafromRussiafortwocentsanacre
1868
FourteenthAmendmentguaranteescivilrights
LouisaMayAlcott'sLittleWomen
BretHarte's"TheLuckofRoaringCamp"
1869
UlyssesS.Grantelectedpresident(186977)
UnionPacificCentralPacifictranscontinentalrailroadcompleted
Wyomingpassesfirstwoman'ssuffrageact
MarkTwain'sTheInnocentsAbroad
HarrietBeecherStowe'sOldtownFolks
BretHarte's"TheOutcastsofPokerFlat"
1870
FrancoPrussianWar
JohnD.RockefellerfoundstheStandardOilCompany
BirthofFrankNorrisinChicago
BretHarte'sTheLuckofRoaringCampandOtherSketches
1871
Chicagodestroyedbyfire
CharlesDarwin'sTheDescentofManandSelectioninRelationtoSex
BirthofStephenCrane
WaltWhitman'sDemocraticVistas
APassagetoIndia
LouisaMayAlcott'sLittleMen
1872
MarkTwain'sRoughingIt
BirthofPaulLaurenceDunbar
1873
FinancialPanicof1873
BirthofWillaCather
1874
Women'sChristianTemperanceUnionfounded
FirstimpressionistpaintingexhibitioninParis
1875
WilliamDeanHowells'AForegoneConclusion
1876
AlexanderGrahamBellinventsthetelephone
GeorgeArmstrongCusterdefeatedatLittleBigHorn
MarkTwain'sAdventuresofTomSawyer
WaltWhitman'sLeavesofGrass(CentennialEdition)
HermanMelville'sClarel(poems)
BirthofJackLondonandSherwoodAnderson
1877
ChiefJoseph'srevolt:theNezPercwar
HenryJames'TheAmerican
SarahOrneJewett'sDeephaven
Page452
1878
ThomasEdisonestablishesTheEdison
ElectricLightCo.inNewYorkCity
HenryJames'TheEuropeans
1879
ThomasEdisoninventsthelightbulb
HenryJames'DaisyMiller
1880
JamesA.Garfieldelectedpresident
JoelChandlerHarris'UncleRemusHisSongsandHisSayings
1881
GarfieldassassinatedonJuly2,1881
ChesterA.Arthurbecomespresident
TuskegeeInstitutefoundedbyBookerT.Washington
HenryJames'WashingtonSquareThePortraitofaLady
FrederickDouglass'LifeandTimesofFrederickDouglass
1882
ImmigrationofChineselaborsuspended
JohnD.RockefellerorganizestheStandardOiltrust
MarkTwain'sThePrinceandthePauper
DeathofEmerson
WaltWhitman'sSpecimenDays
1883
BrooklynBridgecompleted
MarkTwain'sLifeontheMississippi
A10storybuildinginChicagoistheworld'sfirsttrueskyscraper
1884
SarahOrneJewett'sACountryDoctor
MarkTwain'sTheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn
1885
GroverClevelandelectedpresident
WashingtonMonumentdedicated
WilliamDeanHowells'TheRiseofSilasLapham
BirthofSinclairLewisandEzraPound
InGermany,KarlBenzbuildsthefirstcarpoweredbyaninternalcombustionengine
1886
HaymarketSquareRiot:11peoplewerekilledandmorethan100wounded.Eightanarchistsweretried,butnoevidencewasfoundtolinkthemtothebomb.
StatueofLibertydedicatedinNewYorkHarbor
HenryJames'ThePrincessCasamassima
TheBostonians
DeathofEmilyDickinson
1887
DawesSeveraltyActprovidesfor160acrestobegiventoeachIndianfamily,breakingupthesystemofcommunallandholdings
1888
GreatBlizzardof1888
SecretballotsystemintroducedtoU.S.
DeathofBronsonandLouisaMayAlcott
HenryJames'TheAspernPapers
WaltWhitman'sNovemberBoughsCompletePoemsandProse
EdwardBellamy'sLookingBackward(Utopiannovel)
BirthofT.S.EliotandEugeneO'Neill
1889
BenjaminHarrisonelectedpresident
Johnstown(Pennsylvania)floodOklahomalandrush
Page453
TheodoreRoosevelt'sTheWinningoftheWest
MarkTwain'sAConnecticutYankeeinKingArthur'sCourt
JaneAddamssetsupHullHouse,thefirstofmanysettlementhousestoaidthepoor
1890
ShermanAntiTrustAct
YosemiteParkcreatedbyActofCongressBattleofWoundedKnee,SouthDakota
HenryJames'TheTragicMuse
1891
Firstinternationalcopyrightlaw
AcresofIndianlandinOklahomaopenedtowhitesettlers
DeathofHermanMelvilleinobscurityinNewYork
EmilyDickinson'sPoems:SecondSeries(posthumous)
1892
Homestead(Pennsylvania)steelworkersstrikegovernorcallsinthemilitia
DeathofWaltWhitman
1893
Financialpanicof1893
StephenCrane'sMaggie:AGirloftheStreets
Coxey'sArmy,agroupofunemployedmen,marchesfromOhiotoWashington,D.C.Arelatedgroup,Kelly'sIndustrialArmy,setsoutfromtheWestCoastoneof
themisJackLondon.
MarkTwain'sPudd'nheadWilson
KateChopin'sBayouFolk
1895
DeathofFrederickDouglass
StephenCrane'sTheRedBadgeofCourage
"BlackRidersandOtherLines"
1896
Klondikegoldrush
WilliamJenningsBryangivesthe"CrossofGold"speechsupportingfreesilver(insteadofthegoldstandard)
InPlessyv.Ferguson,theSupremeCourtupholdsthe"separatebutequal"doctrine
EmilyDickinson'sPoems:ThirdSeries
BirthofF.ScottFitzgerald
1897
WilliamMcKinleypresident
AnnexationofHawaii
BirthofWilliamFaulkner
HenryJames'WhatMaisieKnewTheSpoilsofPoynton
1898
ThesinkingofthebattleshipMaineresultsin260deaths
AssistantSecretaryoftheNavyTheodore
RooseveltsendsthePacificfleettothe
Philippines
SpanishAmericanWar(AprilDecember)
HenryJames'"TheTurnoftheScrew"
StephenCrane's"TheOpenBoat"
1899
StephenCrane's"TheMonster""WarIsKind"
ThorsteinVeblen'sTheTheoryoftheLeisureClass
HenryJames'TheAwkwardAge
FrankNorris'McTeagueBlix
1900
HawaiigrantedterritorialstandingU.S.population:75,994,575
TheodoreDreiser'sSisterCarrie
JackLondon'sTheSonoftheWolf
StephenCrane'sWhilomvilleStories
DeathofStephenCrane
Page454
MarkTwain'sTheManWhoCorruptedHadleyburgandOtherStories
JackLondon'sTheSonoftheWolf:TalesoftheFarNorth
19001910:NaturalisticPeriod
1900
WomencompeteintheOlympicsforthefirsttime
1901
FrankNorris'TheOctopus
EdithWharton'scollectionofshortstories,CrucialInstances
1903
FrankNorris'ThePit
HenryJames'TheAmbassadors
1904
EdithWharton'sTheDescentofManandOtherStories
HenryJames'TheGoldenBowl
EdithWharton'sTheHouseofMirth
1905
WillaCather'sTheTrollGarden(including"Paul'sCase")
1906
O.Henry'sTheFourMillion(including"TheGiftoftheMagi")
19101945:Modernism
1910
HenryJames'TheFinerGrain
1911
EdithWharton'sEthanFrame
TheodoreDreiser'sJennieGerhardt
1912
TheodoreDreiser'sTheFinancier
1913
WillaCather's0Pioneers!
ModelTFordproducedonassemblyline
1915
EdwardJ.O'BrienbeginspublishingTheBestAmericanShortStoriesannualseries
1916
EdithWharton'sXinguandOtherStories
CarlSandburg'sChicagoPoems
1917
HamlinGarland'sASonoftheMiddleBorder
RingLardner'sGullible'sTravels
AmericaentersthefirstWorldWar
1918
TheodoreDreiser'sFreeandOtherStories
WillaCather'sMyAntonia
1919
SherwoodAnderson'sWinesberg,Ohio
Prohibitionbecomeslaw
TreatyofVersaillesendsWorldWarI
1920
F.ScottFitzgerald'sFlappersandPhilosophersThisSideofParadise
EdithWharton'sTheAgeofInnocence
SinclairLewis'MainStreet
NineteenthAmendmentgiveswomentherighttovote
1921
SherwoodAnderson's"TheTriumphoftheEgg"
1922
F.ScottFitzgerald'sTalesoftheJazzAge
SinclairLewis'Babbitt
T.S.Eliot'sTheWasteLand
Ireland'sJamesJoycepublishesUlysses
1923
EllenGlasgow'sTheShadowyThirdandOtherStories
JeanToomer'sCane
WillaCather'sALostLady
Page455
1924
RingLardner'sHowtoWriteShortStories(withSamples)
1925
ErnestHemingway'sInOurTime(including"BigTwoHeartedRiver")
TheNewYorkerestablished
Timemagazineestablished
TheodoreDreiser'sAnAmericanTragedy
F.ScottFitzgerald'sTheGreatGatsby
SinclairLewis'Arrowsmith
EllenGlasgow'sBarrenGround
1926
Fitzgerald'sAlltheSadYoungMen
Lardner'sTheLoveNestandOtherStories
ErnestHemingway'sTheSunAlsoRises
LangstonHughes'WearyBlues
1927
ErnestHemingway'sMenWithoutWomen(including"TheKillers")
BabeRuthhits60homeruns
1929
WilliamFaulkner'sTheSoundandtheFury
TheBestofO.Henry
RingLardner'sRoundUp
ErnestHemingway'sAFarewelltoArms
ThomasWolfe'sLookHomeward,Angel
1930
KayBoyle'sWeddingDayandOtherStories
KatherineAnnePorter'sFloweringJudas
1932
WilliamFaulkner'sLightinAugust
JamesT.Farrell'sYoungLonigan
ErnestHemingway'sWinnerTakeNothing(including"AClean,WellLightedPlace")
1933
SherwoodAnderson'sDeathintheWoodsandOtherStories
1934
WilliamFaulkner'sDoctorMartino
JamesT.Farrell'sCalicoShoes
ConradAiken'sAmongtheLostPeople
WilliamSaroyan'sTheDaringYoungManontheFlyingTrapeze
LangstonHughes'TheWaysofWhiteFolks
F.ScottFitzgerald'sTenderistheNight
JohnO'Hara'sAppointmentinSamara
1935
KatherineAnnePorter'sFloweringJudasandOtherStories
JohnO'Hara'sTheDoctor'sSonandOtherStories
ThomasWolfe'sFromDeathtoMorning
SinclairLewis'SelectedShortStories
F.ScottFitzgerald'sTapsatReveille(including"BabylonRevisited")
ThomasWolfe'sOfTimeandtheRiver
1936
EdithWharton'sTheWorldOver(including"RomanFever")
MargaretMitchell'sGonewiththeWind
WilliamFaulker'sAbsalom,Absalom!
1937
JohnSteinbeck'sOfMiceandMen
1938
JohnSteinbeck'sTheLongValley(including"TheChrysanthemums")
RichardWright'sUncleTom'sChildren
WilliamFaulkner'sTheUnvanquished
ErnestHemingway'sTheFifthColumnandtheFirstFortyNineStories(including"TheShortHappyLifeofFrancisMacomber""TheSnowsofKilimanjaro")
Page456
1939
KatherineAnnePorter'sPaleHorse,PaleRider
DorothyParker'sHereLies:TheCollectedStories
TheKenynReviewestablished
JohnSteinbeck'sTheGrapesofWrath
1940
ErnestHemingway'sForWhomtheBellTolls
ThomasWolfe'sYouCan'tGoHomeAgain
CarsonMcCullers'TheHeartisaLonelyHunter
RichardWright'sNativeSon
1941
EudoraWelty'sACurtainofGreenandOtherStories(including"AWornPath")
ThomasWolfe'sTheHillsBeyond
AmericaentersWorldWarII
1942
WilliamFaulkner'sGoDown,Moses(including"TheBear")
JamesThurber'sMyLifeandWelcometoIt(including"WalterMitty")
JamesT.Farrell's$1000AWeekandOtherStories
1943
JohnCheever'sTheWaySomePeopleLive
DashiellHammett'sTheAdventuresofSamSpadeandOtherStories
1944
KatherineAnnePorter'sTheLeaningTowerandOtherStories
RaymondChandler'sFiveMurderers
JamesT.Farrell'sToWhomItMayConcern
1945
GwendolynBrooks'AStreetinBronzeville
AtomicbombsdroppedonJapan
WorldWarIIends
UnitedNationsformed
1946
RobertPennWarren'sAlltheKing'sMen
1948
JamesMichener'sTalesoftheSouthPacificwinsthePulitzerPrize
NormanMailer'sTheNakedandtheDead
ThestateofIsraelestablished
Gandhiassassinated
1949
ShirleyJackson's"TheLottery"publishedintheNewYorkerelicitsthelargestreaderresponseinthemagazine'shistory
ArthurMiller'sDeathofaSalesmanwinsPulitzerPrizefordrama
NATOestablished
1950
WilliamFaulkner'sCollectedStories
WilliamCarlosWilliams'MakeLightofIt:CollectedStories
PresidentHarryTrumansendstroopstoSouthKoreaafterNorthKoreainvasion
1951
CarsonMcCullers'TheBalladoftheSadCafandOtherStories
J.D.Salinger'sTheCatcherintheRye
1952
FlanneryO'Connor'sWiseBlood
RalphEllison'sInvisibleMan
ElizabethIIassumesEngland'sthrone
1953
JohnCheever'sTheEnormousRadioandOtherStories
J.D.Salinger'sNineStories
1954
SupremeCourtholdsschoolsegregationunconstitutional
Page457
1955
FlanneryO'Connor'sAGoodManisHardtoFind
VladimirNabokov'sLolita
TennesseeWilliams'CatonaHotTinRoofappearsonBroadway
1957
IsaacBashevisSinger'sGimpeltheFoolandOtherStories
BernardMalamud'sTheMagicBarrel
1959
PhilipRoth'sGoodbye,ColumbusandFiveShortStories
GracePaley'sTheLittleDisturbancesofMan
AlaskaandHawaiiadmittedtotheUnionasthe49thand50thstates,respectively
FidelCastrooverthrowstheBastistaregimeandbecomesCuba'sdictator
InCanada,MordecaiRichlerpublishesTheApprenticeshipofDuddyKravitz
1960
JohnUpdike'sRabbit,Run
FlanneryO'Connor'sTheViolentBearItAway
1961
JosephHeller'sCatch22
BerlinWallbuilt
RogerMarisbreaksBabeRuth'srecordbyhitting61homerunsinoneseason
1962
KatherineAnnPorter'sShipofFools
JohnUpdike'sPigeonFeathersandOtherStories
JohnGlennfirstAmericantoorbitearth
Cubanmissilecrisis
1963
ThomasPyncheon'sV
KurtVonnegut'sCat'sCradle
PresidentJohnFitzgeraldKennedyassassinated
1964
SaulBellow'sHerzog
1965
KatherineAnnePorter'sCollectedShortStorieswinstheNationalBookAward
MalcolmXassassinated
1966
BernardMalamud'sTheFixer
Firstartificialheartinplanted
1967
ChaimPotok'sTheChosen
WilliamStyron'sTheConfessionsofNatTurner
1968
KurtVonnegut'sWelcometotheMonkeyHouse
MartinLutherKing,Jr.assassinated
RobertKennedyassassinated
1969
PhilipRoth'sPortnoy'sComplaint
KurtVonnegut'sSlaughterhouseFive
N.ScottMomaday'sTheWaytoRainyMountain
Momadaywinsthe1969PulitzerforHouseMadeofDawn
JohnCheever'sBulletPark
Firstmenonthemoon,AmericansNeilArmstrongandBuzzAldrin
1970
SaulBellow'sMr.Sammler'sPlanet
ToniMorrison'sTheBluestEye
1971
TheCompleteShortStoriesofFlanneryO'Connor(posthumous)
JohnUpdike'sRabbitRedux
JohnGardner'sGrendel
Page458
1972
ErnestHemingway'sTheNickAdamsStories(posthumous)
ToniCadeBambara'sGorilla,MyLove
JohnGardner'sTheSunlightDialogues
1973
AliceWalker'sInLoveandTrouble:StoriesofBlackWomen
TimO'Brian'sGoingafterCacciato
1974
PresidentNixonresigns
1975
SaulBellow'sHumboldt'sGift
NorthandSouthVietnamunitedasonecountry
1976
RudolphoAnaya'sBlessMeUltima
1977
LeslieMarmonSilko'sCeremony
ToniMorrison'sSongofSolomon
1978
TheStoriesofJohnCheeverwinsthePulitzerPrize
IsaacBashevisSingerwinstheNobelPrize
AnnBeattie'sNewYorkerstoriescollectedinSecretsandSurprises
1980
TheCollectedShortStoriesofEudoraWelty
FrankO'Connor'sCollectedShortStories
PolishstrikeinspiresSolidaritymovement
1981
RaymondCarver'sWhatWeTalkAboutWhenWeTalkAboutLove
1982
BobbieAnnMason'sShilohandOtherStories
AliceWalker'sTheColorPurple
BriefwarintheFalklands
1983
CynthiaOzick'sArt&Ardor
JamaicaKincaid'sAttheBottomoftheRiver
1984
RaymondCarver'sCathedral
LouiseErdrich'sLoveMedicine
1985
AliceAdams'ReturnTrips
AnneTyler'sTheAccidentalTourist
DonDeLillo'sWhiteNoise
BobbieAnnMason'sInCountry
1986
Challengerexplodes,allsevencrewmemberskilled
AIDSvirusidentified
1987
ToniMorrison'sBeloved
1989
AmyTan'sTheJoyLuckClub
BerlinWalltorndown
1990
TimO'Brien'sTheThingsTheyCarried
JuliaAlvarez'HowtheGarciaGirlsLostTheirAccents
1991
SovietUniondissolved
SouthAfricanschoolsintegrate
1992
ToniMorrison'sJazz
1995
MargaretAtwood'sMorningintheBurnedHouse
1998
MarkMcGwirehits70homeruns,themosteverinoneseason
PresidentBillClintonimpeached
Page459
INDEX
''ABoy'sWill,"291.
AFarewelltoArms,236.
"ANoiselessPatientSpider,"142.
Seealsopoetry
abolitionistmovement,131.
Seealsoslavery
Adams,Abigail,2527
Adams,John,2527
adventurestories,JamesFenimoreCooper,4960
AdventuresofHuckleberryFinn,The,5,171176
AdventuresofTomSawyer,The,171176
AfricanAmericanwriters
19151929,303314
contemporary,353363
AlgonquinGroup,335336
allegories,244
"YoungGoodmanBrown"(Hawthorne),105
allusions,79.
Seealsoliteraryreferences
almanacs,PoorRichard's,3031
Alvarez,Julia,384
AmericanBooksellersAward,283
Americanliterature,characteristics,312
AmericanRevolution.SeeRevolutionaryperiod
AmericanTories,37
AnAmericanCrisis,36
AnAmericanTragedy,204
analyzing
poetry,11
prose,1011
antagonists,10
Anderson,Sherwood,235
Angelou,Maya,359
AnglicanChurch,14
"AnnabelLee,"6870
AnthonyEvergreen,Gent.SeeWashingtonIrving
ApolloTheater,304
ApprenticeshipofDuddyKravitz,The,372373
AsianAmericanwriters,385388
Atavism,196
AtlanticMonthly,The,380
Atwood,Margaret,373374
autobiographies,9
SherwoodAnderson,235
FrederickDouglass,129136
BenjaminFranklin,30
RichardRodriguez,383
RichardWright,305308
Awakening,The,213
Baldwin,James,358
ballads,10
Barton,Pierre,370
Beatmovement,The,315327
BellJar,The,322
"BelleofAmherst,The"150
Bellow,Saul,343344
Benchley,Robert,336
BiggerThomas,307308
biographies,9
RobertFrost,291
GeorgeWashington,43
WaltWhitman,146
BlackBoy,305.
Seealsoautobiographies
BlackTuesday,255
blackwriters.SeeAfricanAmericanwriters
blankverse,11,290
BlithedaleRomance.SeeNathanielHawthorne
BollingenPrize,276
Bowen,Elizabeth,3
Bradbury,Brad,140
Bradford,William,1617
Bradstreet,Anne,1719
broadsides,36
Brooks,Gwendolyn,357358
Page460
Brown,John,88
Bruchac,Joseph,379
Burr,Aaron,41
Burroughs,WilliamS.,316317
CalebTrask,284.
SeealsoEastofEden
CalloftheWild,The,198201
Calvinism,120
CanadaAustraliaLiteraryPrize,373
Canadianwriters,365375
Cane,312
CanneryRow,284
Cantos,274
Capote,Truman,392395
CaptainAhab,110113
Carraway,Nick,247,255259
Carrie,396398
"CaskofAmontillado,The,"7071
CatcherintheRye,The,325327
Cather,Willa,216217
"CelebratedJumpingFrogofCalaverasCounty,The,"167171
Chancellorsville,battleof,188
characteristics,Americanliterature,312
Chvez,Denise,383384
Cheever,John,390
Chesnutt,CharlesWaddell,313
children'sbooks,CounteCullen,311
Chopin,Kate,212214
ChurchofEngland,14.
SeealsoAnglicanChurch
Cisneros,Sandra,385
CityLightsBookstore,317
CivilWar.SeeWarBetweentheStates
Clemens,Samuel.SeeMarkTwain
Collier's,325
ColorPurple,The,362
colorists,local,207218
CommonSense,36
conflict,10
Congo,The,300
contemporaryliterature,339389
Cooper,JamesFenimore,4960
Covey,Edward,132
Crane,Stephen,7,179191
Crayon,Geoffrey.SeeWashingtonIrving
Crvecoeur,J.HectorSt.Jeande,2728
Crews,Frederick(critic),331
criticism
FrederickCrews,331
T.S.Eliot,278
EdmundWilson,248
Crucible,The,21
Cullen,Counte,310311
cummings,e.(Edward)e.(Estlin),293296
CupofGold,282
"Daddy,"322
DailyWorker(newspaper),306
darkromantics.SeeHawthorneMelvillePoe
Darwinism,196
datesofpublication,JamesFenimoreCooper,54
DayofDoom,The,19
deathassubjectofpoetry,EmilyDickinson,157159
DeclarationofIndependence,3236
Deerslayer,The,5658
Delancy,Susan.SeeJamesFenimoreCooper
detectivestories,EdgarAllanPoe,6173
determinism,196.
Seealsonaturalism
StephenCrane,179191
DevilandTomWalker,The,40,4748
dialect,5
Dickinson,Emily,149160
didacticheresy,67
DiedrichKnickerbocker.SeeWashingtonIrving
Diedrich,Marlene,237
DivinitySchoolAddress,8283.
SeealsoRalphWaldoEmerson
"DoingHardTime,"151
Douglass,Frederick,129136
drama,8
dramaticmonologues,278
DreamKeeper,The,310
Page461
Dred.SeeHarrietBeecherStowe
Dreiser,Theodore,203205
DuBois,W.E.B.,313
EastofEden,284
Eden,Martin,198
Edwards,Jonathon,15
Eliot,T.S.,276282
Ellison,Ralph,355357
Emerson,RalphWaldo,7586
EnglishPatient,The,374375
"EnormousRoom,The,"294
epicmania,67
epitaphs,299
Erdrich,Louise,381382
Esquire,325
essays,9
"BackwardGlance"(Whitman),140
"Nature"(Emerson),8081
"OntheDutyofCivilDisobedience"(Thoreau),9294
"SelfReliance"(Emerson),83
"TheCollectedEssaysofRalphEllison,"355
"WhyIWrotetheYellowWallpaper"(Gilman),216
EthanFrome,222224.
SeealsoEdithWharton
Europeaninfluence,312
Executioner'sSong,The,346
F.ScottFitzgerald,247259
fables,9
FamilyMoskat,The,349
fatheroftheAmericannovel.SeeJamesFenimoreCooper
Faulkner,William,261270
FearofFlying,344345
fiction,9
filmadaptations
HenryJames,226
StephenKing,397
FrankNorris,203
JohnSteinbeck,284
JamesThurber,333
firstpersonpointofview,10.
Seealsopointofview
Fitzgerald,F.Scott,247259
flappers,249
flashbacks,10
Fleming,Henry,186.
SeealsoStephenCraneTheRedBadgeofCourage
folktales,9
foot(poetry),11
foreshadowing,10
Franklin,Benjamin,2831
Fraser,Simon,266
freeverse,11,140
Freeman,MaryWilkins,210211
Frost,Robert,289293
Gallant,Mavis,371
GaryGilmore.SeeTheExecutioner'sSong
genres
detectivestories,72
horror,329338
romance,103
Gibson,William,375
GildedAge,221
Gilman,CharlottePerkins,214216
Ginsburg,Allen,316322
GoTellItontheMountain,358
"GoldBug,The,"7172
GoodbyeColumbus,347348
Gordon,Mary,395396
GothicLiterature,48
WilliamFaulkner,261270
JoyceCarolOates,398399
Southern,330332
GovernorGeneral'sAward,373
GrapesofWrath,The,283,284288
GreatDepression,The,284288
WPAWriters'Project,306
GreatGatsby,The,255259
Greed(film),FrankNorris,203
Hammond,Jupiter,132
Handmaid'sTale,The,374
HarlemRenaissance,303314
Harte,Bret,208210
Hawkeye.SeeTheLastoftheMohicans
Page462
Hawthorne,Nathaniel,4,95106
Hearne,Samuel,366
Hemingway,Ernest,231246
HeraldofFreedom(newspaper),134
HesterPrynne.SeeNathanielHawthorneTheScarletLetter
HistoryofPlymouthPlantation,17
Holocaust,350351
HoldenCaufield,325327
horror,329338
StephenKing,396398
HouseMadeofDawn,379
HouseoftheSevenGables,The,98
"Howl,"319322
Hughes,Langston,309310
humor,9,329338
Hurston,ZoraNeale,311
Huswifery,20
"IHearAmericaSinging,"138
"IKnowWhytheCagedBirdSings,"359
"ISingtheBodyElectric,"140
iamb,158
IchobodCrane.SeeWashingtonIrving
imagism,273
impressionist,188.
SeealsoStephenCrane
InColdBlood,392395
influence,European,312
intercalarychapters,286
inventions,BenjaminFranklin,2829
InvisibleMan,355357
irony,12
Irving,John,40,391
Irving,Washington,3948
Ishmael.SeeMobyDick
James,Henry,224228
JazzAge,253255
AfricanAmericanwriters(19151929),303314
Jefferson,Thomas,3136
DeclarationofIndependence,3236
JewishAmericanwriters,341351
Joad,Tom(TheGrapesofWrath),284288
Johnson,JamesWeldon,313
Jonah'sGourdVine,311
JonathonOldstyle,Gent.SeeWashingtonIrving
Jong,Erica,344345
JoyLuckClub,The,387388
Juneteenth,357
Jungle,The,6
KansasCityStar(newspaper),233
Kerouac,Jack,318
Kincaid,Jamaica,362363
KingHenryVIII,14
KingJr.,MartinLuther,354
King,Stephen,396398
Kingston,MaxineHong,386387
Langdon,Olivia,166
LastoftheMohicans,The,5356
LatinoAmericanwriters,382385
Laurence,Margaret,371372
Leacock,Stephen,368369
LeatherstockingTales,the,53
LeavesofGrass,138141
"LegendofSleepyHollow,The,"40
Legree,Simon,123
letters
AbigailAdams,27
J.HectorSt.JeandeCrvecoeur,28
Lewis,Sinclair,222
Liberator,The(newspaper),131
LifeandTimesofFrederickDouglass,The,129136
"LifeWithoutPrinciple,"87
Lincoln,Abraham,117
Lindbergh,AnneMorrow,91
Lindsay,Vachel,300301
literarycriticism,EdmundWilson,248
literaryreferences,279
LiveorDie,323
localcolorists,207218
Page463
London,Jack,197201
lostgeneration,254
LoveMedicine,381
"LoveSongofJ.AlfredPrufrock,The,"277278
Lowell,Amy,273
Lowell,Robert,324325
lyricpoems,10
magazines
Salmagundi,41
SaturdayEveningPost,332
TheAtlanticMonthly,380
TheNewYorker,332,390
TheOntarioReview,399
VanityFair,335
Vogue,335
Maggie:AGirloftheStreets,183185
MagnaliaChristiAmericana,20
Mailer,Norman,345346
Malamud,Bernard,347
MalcolmX,354
MarxBrothers,The,337
Masters,EdgarLee,299300
Mather,Cotton,2022
MayflowerCompact,The,16
McCarthy,SenatorJoseph,316
McKay,Claude,312313
Melville,Herman,4,107116
memoirs,9
metaphors,EmilyDickinson,156157
meter,11
Millay,EdnaSt.Vincent,300
MobyDick,109113
modernAmericanliterature,229329
modernAmericanpoetry,EmilyDickinson,149160
modernism,240
Momaday,NatacheeScott,379
monologues,dramatic,278
Montgomery,LucyMaud,367
Moon,WilliamLeastHeat,380
Morgan,J.P.,195
Morrison,Toni,360361
Munro,Alice,373
MyAntonia,217
MyBondageandMyFreedom.SeeFrederickDouglass
myths,9
NAACP(NationalAssociationoftheAdvancementofColoredPeople),313
NakedandtheDead,The,345346
NakedLunch,317
narrative,103
poems,10
NarrativeoftheLifeofFrederickDouglass.SeeFrederickDouglass
NationalBookAward,283,355
NationalInstituteofArtsandLetters,283
NativeSon,305308
NativeAmericanwriters,377382
NattyBumpo,53,5860
Natural,The,347
naturalism,193206
StephenCrane,179191
"Nature,"8081
navitism,196
NewEnglandRenaissance,The,7586
NewYorker,The,325,332,390
newspapers
DailyWorker,306
HeraldofFreedom,134
KansasCityStar,233
TheLiberator,131
NickCarraway,247,255259
Nietzscheism,196
Night,351
NobelPrize,281
Norris,Frank,201203
"NorthofBoston,"291
novelists,9
JuliaAlvarez,384
SherwoodAnderson,235
MargaretAtwood,373374
PierreBarton,370
SaulBellow,343344
WilliamS.Burroughs,316317
TrumanCapote,392395
WillaCather,216217
JohnCheever,390
JamesFenimoreCooper,4960
StephenCrane,179191
Page464
e.e.cummings,293296
TheodoreDreiser,204
RalphEllison,355357
LouiseErdrich,381382
MaryGordon,396
ErnestHemingway,236
ZoraNealeHurston,311
WashingtonIrving,4048
HenryJames,224228
JackKerouac,318
JamaicaKincaid,362363
StephenKing,396398
MargaretLaurence,371372
SinclairLewis,222
JackLondon,198201
BernardMalamud,347
HermanMelville,110113
NatacheeScottMomaday,379
ToniMorrison,360361
FrankNorris,210203
FlanneryO'Connor,330332
MichaelOndaatje,374375
MordecaiRichler,372373
PhilipRoth,347348
J.D.Salinger,325327
UptonSinclair,6
IsaacBashevisSinger,348350
JohnSteinbeck,282288
HarrietBeecherStowe,119127
AmyTan,387388
HenryDavidThoreau,8794
JamesThurber,332335
MarkTwain,171176
AliceWalker,361362
EdithWharton,219224
RichardWright,305308
"OCaptain!MyCaptain!,"146147
O'Connor,Flannery,330332
O.Henryshortstoryaward,336
Oates,JoyceCarol,398399
OfMiceandMen,283
OldManandtheSea,The,243245
OldPossum'sBookofPracticalCats,277
Omoo.SeeHermanMelville
"OntheDutyofCivilDisobedience,"9294
OntheRoad,318
Ondaatje,Michael,374375
OntarioReview,The,399
"OpenBoat,The,"188191
oraltraditions,9.
Seealsotalltales
"OutoftheCradle,EndlesslyRocking,"145146
OutcastsofPokerFlat,The,209
Paine,Thomas,5,3638
pamphlets
AnAmericanCrisis(ThomasPaine),36
CommonSense(ThomasPaine),36
Parker,Dorothy,335336
PasturesofHeaven,282
Pearl,The,284
pennames.Seepseudonyms
Pequod,111
persona,274
philosophy,transcendentalism,7879
"PhilosophyofComposition,The,"6768
Plath,Sylvia,322
plot,10
PlymouthColony,16
Poe,EdgarAllan,6173
poetry,8,289302
analyzing,10
Beatmovement,315327
Canadian,366367
didacticheresy,67
epicmania,67
types,10
poets,289302
JuliaAlvarez,384
MayaAngelou,359
AnneBradstreet,1719
GwendolynBrooks,357358
JosephBruchac,379
SandraCisneros,385
StephenCrane,179191
CounteCullen,311
Page465
e.e.cummings,293296
EmilyDickinson,149160
T.S.Eliot,276282
RalphWaldoEmerson,8485
RobertFrost,289293
AllenGinsburg,319322
LangstonHughes,309310
EricaJong,344345
VachelLindsay,300301
AmyLowell,273
RobertLowell,324325
EdgarLeeMasters,299300
ClaudeMcKay,312313
HermanMelville,107114
EdnaSt.VincentMillay,300
FrankNorris,201203
MichaelOndaatje,374375
DorothyParker,336
SylviaPlath,322
EdgarAllanPoe,6173
EzraPound,272276
AlfredPurdy,369
EdwinArlingtonRobinson,296297
CarlSandburg,296297
AnneSexton,323324
LeslieMarmonSilko,380381
JeanToomer,312
WaltWhitman,137148
MichaelWigglesworth,20
WilliamCarlosWilliams,296
pointofview,10
polemics,124
PoorRichard'sAlmanac,3131
Portnoy'sComplaint,347348
Pound,Ezra,272276
presidents
JohnAdams,2527
ThomasJefferson,3136
prose,89
analyzing,1011
MobyDick,107114
protagonists,10
pseudonyms,165
publishing,EmilyDickinson,153154
PulitzerPrize,283,290
Purdy,Alfred,369
Puritans,1315
Rabbit,Run,391
racialism,196
"Raven,The,"6568
realism,161219
StephenCrane,179191
realisticfiction.Seefiction
RedBadgeofCourage,The,185188
refrain,11
reviewers,RobertFitzgerald,276
Revolutionaryperiod,2538
rhyme,11
rhythm,11
EdgarAllanPoe,64
"RichardCory,"206
Richardson,John,366
Richler,Mordecai,372373
ringtailedroarers,170
RipVanWinkle,40,4547
"RoadNotTaken,The,"292
robberbarons,195
Robinson,EdwinArlington,296297
Rockefeller,JohnD.,195
Rodriguez,Richard,382383
Rogers,Will,337
Roth,Philip,347348
Salemwitchcrafttrials,20
Salinger,J.D.,325327
Salmagundi,41
SanFranciscoRenaissance,317
Sandburg,Carl,290,297299
SaturdayEveningPost,332
SavoyBallroom,304
scan(poetry),11
ScarletLetter,The,97103
scientism,196
scriveners,113
SecretLifeofWalterMitty,The,334
SeizetheDay,343344
"SelfReliance,"83
Page466
series
Cantos,274275
TheLeatherstockingTales,53
Sexton,Anne,323324
shortstorywriters,9
TrumanCapote,392395
DeniseChvez,383384
JohnCheever,390
StephenCrane,179191
MavisGallant,371
CharlottePerkinsGilman,215
NathanielHawthorne,103104
ErnestHemingway,231246
HenryJames,227
SarahOrneJewitt,210211
JackLondon,197203
BernardMalamud,347
HermanMelville,114
O.Henryaward,336
EdgarAllanPoe,6173
J.D.Salinger,325327
JamesThurber,332335
RichardWright,306
SideofParadise,The,248
Silko,LeslieMarmon,380381
Sinclair,Upton,6
Singer,IsaacBashevis,348350
SisterCarrie,205.
SeealsoTheodoreDreiser
SketchBook,43
slavery,119127
FrederickDouglass,129136
MarkTwain,163178
Smith,John,22
socialDarwinism,196
"SongofMyself,"6,137138
SongofSolomon,360
SongsofJamaica,312313
sonnets,10,290
SoundandtheFury,The,266270
SouthernGothic,330332
Spectator,The,31
SpoonRiverAnthology,299
stanzas,11,66
Steinbeck,John,282288
Stelle,Richard,TheSpectator,31
"StoppingbyWoodsonaSnowyEvening,"292
stories.Seealsoshortstorywriters
adventure,4960
TrumanCapote,392395
JohnCheever,390
StephenCrane,179191
MavisGallant,371
NathanielHawthorne,103104
ErnestHemingway,231246
WashingtonIrving,3948
HenryJames,227
SarahOrneJewitt,210211
JackLondon,197203
BernardMalamud,347
HermanMelville,114
O.Henryaward,336
EdgarAllanPoe,6173
J.D.Salinger,325327
JamesThurber,332335
RichardWright,306
Stowe,HarrietBeecher,199127
styles,Faulkner,265
suffragettes,135
SunAlsoRises,The,241
symbolism,191
TailgunnerJoe.SeeSenatorJosephMcCarthy
talltales,9,167
Tan,Amy,387388
Taylor,Edward,1920
theaters,Apollo,304
thirdpersonlimitedpointofview,10.
Seealsopointofview
Page467
thirdpersonomniscientpointofview,10.
Seealsopointofview
Thomas,Bigger,307308
Thoreau,HenryDavid,8794
Thurber,James,332335
ToaGodUnknown,283
Toomer,Jean,312
Tories,American,37
TortillaFlat,283
transcendentalism,7879
trials,Salemwitchcraft,20
TurnoftheScrew,The,227
Twain,Mark,171176
Typee.SeeHermanMelville
typesofpoetry,10
Uglow,Jennifer(critic),361
UncleTom'sCabin,119127
Unitarianism,80
Updike,John,390391
VanityFair,335
vernacular,167
verse.Seealsostanzas
blank,11,290
free,11
Victim,The,343
Victorianera
HenryJames,224228
EdithWharton,219224
Vogue,335
Walden,8791
Walker,Alice,361362
WarBetweentheStates
period,117161
StephenCrane,185188
Washington,BookerT.,313
"WasteLand,The,"279282
Wharton,Edith,219224
"WhatisanAmerican"(letter),J.HectorSt.JeandeCrvecoeur,28
Wheatley,Phillis,132
"WhenLilacsintheDooryardBloom'd,"143146
WhiteHeron,The,211212.
SeealsoSarahOrneJewitt
Whitman,Walt,6,137148
Wiesel,Elie,350351
Wigglesworth,Michael,19
Williams,WilliamCarlos,272,296
Wilson,Edmund,248
Winesburg,Ohio,235
witchcraft,Salemtrials,20
WithoutFeathers,150
WomanWarrior,The,387
womenwriters
JuliaAlvarez,384
MayaAngelou,359
MargaretAtwood,373374
GwendolynBrooks,357358
WillaCather,216217
DeniseChvez,383384
KateChopin,212214
SandraCisneros,385
MaryWilkinsFreeman,210211
MavisGallant,371
MaryGordon,395396
SarahOrneJewett,211212
EricaJong,344345
MaxineHongKingston,386387
MargaretLaurence,371372
LucyMaudMontgomery,367
ToniMorrison,360361
AliceMunro,373
FlanneryO'Connor,330332
DorothyParker,335336
SylviaPlath,322
AnneSexton,323324
LeslieMarmonSilko,380381
HarrietBeecherStowe,119127
AmyTan,387388
AliceWalker,361362
EdithWharton,219224
Page468
WorldAccordingtoGarp,The,391
WorldWarI
WilliamFaulkner,262
ErnestHemingway,233
WPAWriters'Project,306
Wright,Richard,305308
WriteAway,151
X,Malcolm,354
YellowWallpaper,The,215216
Yiddishwriters,341351.
SeealsoJewishAmericanwriters
YoknapatawphaCounty,263270
"YoungGoodmanBrown,"104105
Page469
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Pageaa

Title DateofPublication DateofAction Name Age

ThePioneers 1823 1793 Nattyor 70s

TheLastofthe 1826 1757 Hawkeye mid30s

ThePrairie 1827 1804 TheTrapperorThe late70sto

ThePathfinder 1840 1759 Pathfinder late30s

TheDeerslayer 1841 1740s Deerslayer mid20s

Element DetectiveStories HorrorTales

Language Unemotionalandrational Emotional,shrill

Plot Actioninfirstpart Buildstoclimax

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