semiconductor diode

semiconductor diode in ScienceExpand

semiconductor diode
A diode made of semiconductor components, usually silicon. The cathode,which is negatively charged and has
an excess of electrons, is placedadjacent to the anode, which has an inherently positive charge, carrying anexces
s of holes. At this junction a depletion region forms, with neitherholes nor electrons. A positive voltage at the a
node makes the depletionregion small, and current flows; a negative voltage at the anode makes thedepletion re
gion large, preventing current flow.
The American Heritage Science Dictionary
Copyright 2002. Published by Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved.
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ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

Semiconductor PN Junction Diode Theory

- a summary, overview or tutorial about the basics of the PN junction and semiconductor diode
BASIC SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGY INCLUDES

Semiconductor basics

Electrons & holes

Semiconductor types

PN junction
See also

Diode types

Transistor
Semiconductor diode theory is at the very centre of much of today's electronics industry. In fact semiconductor
technology is present in almost every area of modern day technology and as such semiconductor theory is a very
important element of electronics.

One of the fundamental structures within semiconductor technology is the PN junction. It is the fundamental building
block of semiconductor diodes and transistors and a number of other electronic components.

The semiconductor diode has the valuable property that electrons only flow in one direction across it and as a result
it acts as a rectifier. As it has two electrodes it receives its name - diode. In view of this, it is one of the most
fundamental structures in semiconductor technology. Vast numbers of diodes are manufactured each year, and of
course the semiconductor diode is the basis of many other devices apart from diodes. The bipolar junction transistor,
junction FET and many more all rely on the PN junction for their operation. This makes the semiconductor PN junction
diode one of the key enablers in today's electronics technology.
PN Junction
In its basic form a semiconductor diode is formed from a piece of silicon by making one end P type and the other end
N type. This means that both ends have different characteristics. One end has an excess of electrons whilst the other
has an excess of holes. Where the two areas meet the electrons fill the holes and there are no free holes or electrons.
This means that there are no available charge carries in this region. In view of the fact that this area is depleted of
charge carriers it is known as the depletion region.

The semiconductor diode PN junction with no bias applied

Even though the depletion region is very thin, often only few thousandths of a millimetre, current cannot flow in the
normal way. Different effects are noticed dependent upon the way in which the voltage is applied to the junction. If the
voltage is applied such that the P type area becomes positive and the N type becomes negative, holes are attracted
towards the negative voltage and are assisted to jump across the depletion layer. Similarly electrons move towards
the positive voltage and jump the depletion layer. Even though the holes and electrons are moving in opposite
directions, they carry opposite charges and as a result they represent a current flow in the same direction.

The semiconductor diode PN junction with forward bias

If the voltage is applied to the semiconductor diode in the opposite sense no current flows. The reason for this is that
the holes are attracted towards the negative potential that is applied to the P type region. Similarly the electrons are
attracted towards the positive potential which is applied to the N type region. In other words the holes and electrons
are attracted away from the junction itself and the depletion region increases in width. Accordingly no current flows.

The semiconductor diode PN junction with reverse bias

PN junction characteristics
The PN junction is not an ideal rectifier diode having infinite resistance in the reverse direction and no resistance in
the forward direction.

The characteristic of a diode PN junction

In the forward direction (forward biased) it can be seen that very little current flows until a certain voltage has been
reached. This represents the work that is required to enable the charge carriers to cross the depletion layer. This
voltage varies from one type of semiconductor to another. For germanium it is around 0.2 or 0.3 volts and for silicon
it is about 0.6 volts. In fact it is possible to measure a voltage of about 0.6 volts across most small current diodes
when they are forward biased. Power rectifier diodes normally have a larger voltage across them but this is partly due
to the fact that there is some resistance in the silicon, and partly due to the fact that higher currents are flowing and
they are operating further up the curve.

From the diagram it can be seen that a small amount of current flows in the reverse direction (reverse biased). It has
been exaggerated to show it on the diagram, and in normal circumstances it is very much smaller than the forward
current. Typically it may be a pico amps or microamps at the most. However it is worse at higher temperatures and it
is also found that germanium is not as good as silicon.

This reverse current results from what are called minority carriers. These are a very small number of electrons found
in a P type region or holes in an N type region. Early semiconductors has relatively high levels of minority carriers, but
now that the manufacture of semiconductor materials is very much better the number of minority carriers is much
reduced as are the levels of reverse currents.

Summary
Even though the basic semiconductor diode may appear to have limited applications, it finds uses in a great variety
of applications. Specialised versions of the diode are used for particular applications. The light emitting diode (LED)
and photodiode are but two examples. However the PN junction is also the basis of the bipolar junction transistor, and
the junction FET. There are also many many other examples of its use. As a result many billions of the semiconductor
diodes are manufactured each year, and it is the most fundamental structure to today's semiconductor electronics
scene.

By Ian Poole
http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/data/semicond/semiconductor/diodes-theory-basics-tutorial.php
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

Semiconductor Materials Types List

- there are many different types of semiconductor materials which are often classified by their groups
and other , but all have slightly different properties.
BASIC SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGY INCLUDES

Semiconductor basics

Electrons & holes

Semiconductor types

PN junction
See also

Diode types

Transistor
There are many different types of semiconductor material.

These different types of semiconductor have slightly different properties and lend themselves to different applications
in various forms of semiconductor devices.

Some may be applicable for standard signal applications, others for high frequency amplifiers, while other types may
be applicable for power applications and harsh environments or others for light emitting applications. All these different
applications tend to utilise different types of semiconductor materials.

Semiconductors types / classifications

There are two basic groups or classifications that can be used to define the different semiconductor types:

Intrinsic material: An intrinsic type of semiconductor material made to be very pure chemically. As a result
it possesses a very low conductivity level having very few number of charge carriers, namely holes and
electrons, which it possesses in equal quantities.

Extrinsic material: Extrinisc types of semiconductor are those where a small amount of impurity has been
added to the basic intrinsic material. This 'doping' uses an element from a different periodic table group and
in this way it will either have more or less electrons in the valence band than the semiconductor itself. This
creates either an excess or shortage of electrons. In this way two types of semiconductor are available:
Electrons are negatively charged carriers.

o N-type: An N-type semiconductor material has an excess of electrons. In this way, free electrons are
available within the lattices and their overall movement in one direction under the influence of a
potential difference results in an electric current flow. This in an N-type semiconductor, the charge
carriers are electrons.
 o P-type: In a P-type semiconductor material there is a shortage of electrons, i.e. there are 'holes' in
the crystal lattice. Electrons may move from one empty position to another and in this case it can be
considered that the holes are moving. This can happen under the influence of a potential difference
and the holes can be seen to flow in one direction resulting in an electric current flow. It is actually
harder for holes to move than for free electrons to move and therefore the mobility of holes is less than
that of free electrons. Holes are positively charged carriers.

Semiconductor material groups

Most commonly used semiconductor materials are crystalline inorganic solids. These materials are often classified
according to their position or group within the periodic table. These groups are determined by the electrons in the
outer orbit the particular elements.

While most semiconductor materials used are inorganic, a growing number of organic materials are also being
investigated and used.

Semiconductor materials list

There are many different types of semiconductor materials that can be used within electronic devices. Each has its
own advantages, disadvantages and areas where it can be used to offer the optimum performance.

MATERIAL CHEMICAL GROUP DETAILS

SYMBOL
/ FORMULA

Germanium Ge IV This type of semiconductor material was used in many early devices from radar detection diodes to the
first transistors. Diodes show a higher reverse conductivity and temperature coefficient meant that
early transistors could suffer from thermal runaway. Offers a better charge carrier mobility than silicon
and is therefore used for some RF devices. Not as widely used these days as better semiconductor
materials are available.

Silicon S IV Silicon is the most widely used type of semiconductor material. Its major advantage is that it is easy to
fabricate and provides good general electrical and mechanical properties. Another advantage is that
when it is used for integrated circuits it forms high quality silicon oxide that is used for insulation layers
between different active elements of the IC.

Gallium GaAs III-V Gallium arsenide is the second most widely used type of semiconductor after silicon. It is widely used in
arsenide high performance RF devices where its high electron mobility is utilised. It is also used as substrate for
other III-V semiconductors, e.g. InGaAs and GaInNAs. However it is a brittle material and has a lower
hole mobility than Silicon which makes applications such as P-type CMOS transistors not feasible. It is
also relatively difficult to fabricate and this increases the costs of GaAs devices.

Silicon SiC IV Silicon carbide finds uses in a number of applications. It is often used in power devices where its losses
carbide are significantly lower and operating temperatures can be higher than those of silicon based devices.
Silicon carbide has a breakdown capability which is about ten times that of silicon itself. Forms of silicon
carbide were types of semiconductor material that were used with some early forms of yellow and blue
LEDs.

Gallium GaN III-V This type of semiconductor material is starting to be more widely in microwave transistors where high
Nitride temperatures and powers are needed. It is also being used in some microwave ICs. GaN is difficult to
dope to give p-type regions and it is also sensitive to ESD, but relatively insensitive to ionising radiation.
Has been used in some blue LEDs.

Gallium GaP III-V This semiconductor material has found many uses within LED technology. It was used in many early low
phosphide to medium brightness LEDs producing a variety of colours dependent upon the addition of other
 MATERIAL CHEMICAL GROUP DETAILS
SYMBOL
/ FORMULA

dopants. Pure Gallium phosphide produces a green light, nitrogen-doped, it emits yellow-green, ZnO-
doped it emits red.

Cadmium CdS II-VI Used in photoresistors and also solar cells.

sulphide

Lead PbS IV-VI Used as the mineral galena, this semiconductor material was used in the very early radio detectors
sulphide known as 'Cat's Whiskers' where a point contact was made with the tin wire onto the galena to provide
rectification of the signals.

By Ian Poole
http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/data/semicond/semiconductor/semiconductor-materials-types-list.php

Semiconductor Diode Definition,

Characteristics, Applications
By admin On July 18, 2015 In Diodes Diodes anode, cathode, characteristics, MS junction, on semiconductor diode, PN
junction,Schottky diode, semiconductor, Semiconductor Diode, semiconductor diode characteristics, Semiconductor Diode
chracteristic,semiconductor diode definition, semiconductor diode laser, Semiconductor Diode structure, semiconductor diode
voltmeter,semiconductor diodes, semiconductor materials 1

Semiconductor diode definition type of diode, which contains p-n junction made of semiconductor
materials. Its double-ended, nonlinear element where the end attached to the p layer (+) is called anode and
n layer () cathode.

Semiconductor diode symbol

The main advantage of this electronic component is current flowing only in one direction (from anode to
thecathode) after forward-biasing the p-n junction. However, in the opposite direction (reverse bias) current
doesnt flow and we could call this as the electric valve. Diode is constructed from two semiconductors, which
were doped in different proportions p and n types. They together form the p-n junction. The n layer
with donor dopants has excess of electrons where the p layer (acceptor dopants) have deficiency of them.
After combining these on semiconductor diode together, a proportional distribution of electrons begins.
Electrons, which previously lacked in p layer are transferred there from n layer. In this way region
calleddepletion region that prevents the electric flow is formed. With passing time, technological requirements
were increasing what resulted in formation of new types of diodes.

When semiconductor is combined with the corresponding metal, we acquire MS junction (metal-
semiconductor), which also possesses rectifying properties (current conduction in one direction) it is used for
example in Schottky diode. MS junctions can have one of two current-voltage characteristics:
Unsymmetrical non-linear
Symmetrical, linear
MS junction properties depends mainly on the surface state of semiconductor and on the output work
difference of electrons from metal and semiconductor itself. Schottky diode is mainly used in systems that
require short switching time (small junction capacitance Cj of diode has decisive impact) with frequencies up
to several tens of GHz.

Current-Voltage characteristic of semiconductor diode

Illustration of differently biased P-N junctions:

 PN junction reverse-biased

PN junction in state of thermodynamic equilibrium

PN junction forward-biased

How to determine where is the anode and where is the cathode?

Simple multimeter can be used to determine the polarity of a diode. There are at least three ways to do this but I
will show two most popular that can be used with cheap multimeters:

a) Using ohmmeter (2k range):

Forward-bias: Ohmmeter will indicate approximate forward voltage of the diode (near 0,7V)

Reverse-bias: Ohmmeter indicates 1 what means very high resistance

You can also use diode check function (diode symbol on the multimeter) but the result will be the same as the
above with using ohmmeter.

b) Using VDC measurement function:

Forward-bias: Multimeter should indicate voltage drop of approximately 0,7V for silicon diodes
 Reverse-bias: Multimeter will indicate the approximate full voltage of the supply

Common types of semiconductor diodes (and their main functions):

Rectifying diode alternating current rectification,
Stabilizing diode (Zener diode) stabilization of voltage and current in systems, also used in circuits
Light Emitting Diode (LED) emits light in the infrared or visible zone,
Variable capacitance diode its capacity depends on the voltage applied in the reverse bias,
Switching diode used in pulse systems that are requiring very short switching times,
Tunnel diode specially designed diode characterized by a section of negative dynamic resistance,
Photodiode diode that works as photodetector it reacts to light radiation (visible, infrared or
ultraviolet),
Gunn Diode component used in high-frequency electronics.
http://911electronic.com/semiconductor-diode/

Home / Diodes / Semiconductor Basics

Semiconductor Basics
If Resistors are the most basic passive component in electrical or electronic circuits, then we have to consider the Signal
Diode as being the most basic Active component.
However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as it has an
exponential I-V relationship and therefore can not be described simply by using Ohms law as we do for
resistors.

Diodes are basic unidirectional semiconductor devices that will only allow current to flow through them in one
direction only, acting more like a one way electrical valve, (Forward Biased Condition). But, before we have a
look at how signal or power diodes work we first need to understand the semiconductors basic construction and
concept.

Diodes are made from a single piece of Semiconductor material which has a positive P-region at one end and
a negative N-region at the other, and which has a resistivity value somewhere between that of a conductor and
an insulator. But what is a Semiconductor material?, firstly lets look at what makes something either
aConductor or an Insulator.

Resistivity
The electrical Resistance of an electrical or electronic component or device is generally defined as being the
ratio of the voltage difference across it to the current flowing through it, basic Ohms Law principals. The
problem with using resistance as a measurement is that it depends very much on the physical size of the
material being measured as well as the material out of which it is made. For example, if we were to increase the
length of the material (making it longer) its resistance would also increase proportionally.

Likewise, if we increased its diameter or size (making it fatter) its resistance value would decrease. So we want
to be able to define the material in such a way as to indicate its ability to either conduct or oppose the flow of
electrical current through it no matter what its size or shape happens to be.

The quantity that is used to indicate this specific resistance is called Resistivity and is given the Greek symbol
of , (Rho). Resistivity is measured in Ohm-metres, ( -m ). Resistivity is the inverse to conductivity.

If the resistivity of various materials is compared, they can be classified into three main
groups, Conductors, Insulators and Semi-conductors as shown below.
Resistivity Chart

Notice that there is a very small margin between the

resistivity of the conductors such as silver and gold,
compared to a much larger margin for the resistivity of
the insulators between glass and quartz.
Note also that the resistivity of all materials at any one
time also depends upon their ambient temperature
because metals are also good conductors of heat.

Conductors
From above we now know that Conductors are materials that have very low values of resistivity, usually in the
micro-ohms per metre. This low value allows them to easily pass an electrical current due to there being plenty
of free electrons floating about within their basic atom structure. But these electrons will only flow through a
conductor if there is something to spur their movement, and that something is an electrical voltage.

When a positive voltage potential is applied to the material these free electrons leave their parent atom and
travel together through the material forming an electron drift, more commonly known as a current. How
freely these electrons can move through a conductor depends on how easily they can break free from their
constituent atoms when a voltage is applied. Then the amount of electrons that flow depends on the amount of
resistivity the conductor has.

Examples of good conductors are generally metals such as Copper, Aluminium, Silver or non metals such as
Carbon because these materials have very few electrons in their outer Valence Shell or ring, resulting in them
being easily knocked out of the atoms orbit.
This allows them to flow freely through the material until they join up with other atoms, producing a Domino
Effect through the material thereby creating an electrical current. Copper and Aluminium is the main
conductor used in electrical cables as shown.

An Electrical Cable
uses Conductors
and Insulators
Generally speaking, most metals are good conductors of electricity, as they have very small resistance values,
usually in the region of micro-ohms per metre. While metals such as copper and aluminium are very good
conducts of electricity, they still have some resistance to the flow of electrons and consequently do not conduct
perfectly.

The energy which is lost in the process of passing an electrical current, appears in the form of heat which is why
conductors and especially resistors become hot. Also the resistivity of conductors increases with ambient
temperature because metals are also generally good conductors of heat.

Insulators
Insulators on the other hand are the exact opposite of conductors. They are made of materials, generally non-
metals, that have very few or no free electrons floating about within their basic atom structure because the
electrons in the outer valence shell are strongly attracted by the positively charged inner nucleus.

In other words, the electrons are stuck to the parent atom and can not move around freely so if a potential
voltage is applied to the material no current will flow as there are no free electrons available to move and
which gives these materials their insulating properties.

Insulators also have very high resistances, millions of ohms per metre, and are generally not affected by normal
temperature changes (although at very high temperatures wood becomes charcoal and changes from an insulator
to a conductor). Examples of good insulators are marble, fused quartz, p.v.c. plastics, rubber etc.
Insulators play a very important role within electrical and electronic circuits, because without them electrical
circuits would short together and not work. For example, insulators made of glass or porcelain are used for
insulating and supporting overhead transmission cables while epoxy-glass resin materials are used to make
printed circuit boards, PCBs etc. while PVC is used to insulate electrical cables as shown.

Semiconductor Basics
Semiconductors materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide (GaAs), have electrical
properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a conductor and an insulator. They are not good
conductors nor good insulators (hence their name semi-conductors). They have very few free electrons
because their atoms are closely grouped together in a crystalline pattern called a crystal lattice but electrons
are still able to flow, but only under special conditions.

The ability of semiconductors to conduct electricity can be greatly improved by replacing or adding certain
donor or acceptor atoms to this crystalline structure thereby, producing more free electrons than holes or vice
versa. That is by adding a small percentage of another element to the base material, either silicon or germanium.

On their own Silicon and Germanium are classed as intrinsic semiconductors, that is they are chemically pure,
containing nothing but semi-conductive material. But by controlling the amount of impurities added to this
intrinsic semiconductor material it is possible to control its conductivity. Various impurities called donors or
acceptors can be added to this intrinsic material to produce free electrons or holes respectively.

This process of adding donor or acceptor atoms to semiconductor atoms (the order of 1 impurity atom per 10
million (or more) atoms of the semiconductor) is called Doping. The as the doped silicon is no longer pure,
these donor and acceptor atoms are collectively referred to as impurities, and by doping these silicon material
with a sufficient number of impurities, we can turn it into a semi-conductor.

The most commonly used semiconductor basics material by far is silicon. Silicon has four valence electrons in
its outermost shell which it shares with its neighbouring silicon atoms to form full orbitals of eight electrons.
The structure of the bond between the two silicon atoms is such that each atom shares one electron with its
neighbour making the bond very stable.

As there are very few free electrons available to move around the silicon crystal, crystals of pure silicon (or
germanium) are therefore good insulators, or at the very least very high value resistors.

Silicon atoms are arranged in a definite symmetrical pattern making them a crystalline solid structure. A crystal
of pure silica (silicon dioxide or glass) is generally said to be an intrinsic crystal (it has no impurities) and
therefore has no free electrons.
But simply connecting a silicon crystal to a battery supply is not enough to extract an electric current from it. To
do that we need to create a positive and a negative pole within the silicon allowing electrons and therefore
electric current to flow out of the silicon. These poles are created by doping the silicon with certain impurities.

A Silicon Atom Structure

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of a normal pure crystal of Silicon.

N-type Semiconductor Basics

In order for our silicon crystal to conduct electricity, we need to introduce an impurity atom such as Arsenic,
Antimony or Phosphorus into the crystalline structure making it extrinsic (impurities are added). These atoms
have five outer electrons in their outermost orbital to share with neighbouring atoms and are commonly called
Pentavalent impurities.

This allows four out of the five orbital electrons to bond with its neighbouring silicon atoms leaving one free
electron to become mobile when an electrical voltage is applied (electron flow). As each impurity atom
donates one electron, pentavalent atoms are generally known as donors.

Antimony (symbol Sb) as well as Phosphorus (symbol P), are frequently used as a pentavalent additive to
silicon. Antimony has 51 electrons arranged in five shells around its nucleus with the outermost orbital having
five electrons. The resulting semiconductor basics material has an excess of current-carrying electrons, each
with a negative charge, and is therefore referred to as an N-type material with the electrons called Majority
Carriers while the resulting holes are called Minority Carriers.

When stimulated by an external power source, the electrons freed from the silicon atoms by this stimulation are
quickly replaced by the free electrons available from the doped Antimony atoms. But this action still leaves an
extra electron (the freed electron) floating around the doped crystal making it negatively charged.
Then a semiconductor material is classed as N-type when its donor density is greater than its acceptor density,
in other words, it has more electrons than holes thereby creating a negative pole as shown.

Antimony Atom and Doping

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the donor impurity atom Antimony.

P-Type Semiconductor Basics

If we go the other way, and introduce a Trivalent (3-electron) impurity into the crystalline structure, such as
Aluminium, Boron or Indium, which have only three valence electrons available in their outermost orbital, the
fourth closed bond cannot be formed. Therefore, a complete connection is not possible, giving the
semiconductor material an abundance of positively charged carriers known as holes in the structure of the
crystal where electrons are effectively missing.

As there is now a hole in the silicon crystal, a neighbouring electron is attracted to it and will try to move into
the hole to fill it. However, the electron filling the hole leaves another hole behind it as it moves. This in turn
attracts another electron which in turn creates another hole behind it, and so forth giving the appearance that the
holes are moving as a positive charge through the crystal structure (conventional current flow).

This movement of holes results in a shortage of electrons in the silicon turning the entire doped crystal into a
positive pole. As each impurity atom generates a hole, trivalent impurities are generally known as Acceptors
as they are continually accepting extra or free electrons.

Boron (symbol B) is commonly used as a trivalent additive as it has only five electrons arranged in three shells
around its nucleus with the outermost orbital having only three electrons. The doping of Boron atoms causes
conduction to consist mainly of positive charge carriers resulting in a P-type material with the positive holes
being called Majority Carriers while the free electrons are called Minority Carriers.
Then a semiconductor basics material is classed as P-type when its acceptor density is greater than its donor
density. Therefore, a P-type semiconductor has more holes than electrons.

Boron Atom and Doping

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the acceptor impurity atom Boron.

Semiconductor Basics Summary

N-type (e.g. doped with Antimony)

These are materials which have Pentavalent impurity atoms (Donors) added and conduct by electron
movement and are therefore called, N-type Semiconductors.

In N-type semiconductors there are:

1. The Donors are positively charged.

2. There are a large number of free electrons.

3. A small number of holes in relation to the number of free electrons.

4. Doping gives:

o positively charged donors.

o negatively charged free electrons.

5. Supply of energy gives:

o negatively charged free electrons.

o positively charged holes.

P-type (e.g. doped with Boron)
These are materials which have Trivalent impurity atoms (Acceptors) added and conduct by hole movement
and are therefore called, P-type Semiconductors.

In these types of materials are:

1. The Acceptors are negatively charged.

2. There are a large number of holes.

3. A small number of free electrons in relation to the number of holes.

4. Doping gives:

o negatively charged acceptors.

o positively charged holes.

5. Supply of energy gives:

o positively charged holes.

o negatively charged free electrons.

and both P and N-types as a whole, are electrically neutral on their own.

Antimony (Sb) and Boron (B) are two of the most commonly used doping agents as they are more feely
available compared to other types of materials. They are also classed as metalloids. However, the periodic
table groups together a number of other different chemical elements all with either three, or five electrons in
their outermost orbital shell making them suitable as a doping material.

These other chemical elements can also be used as doping agents to a base material of either Silicon (Si) or
Germanium (Ge) to produce different types of basic semiconductor materials for use in electronic
semiconductor components, microprocessor and solar cell applications. These additional semiconductor
materials are given below.

Periodic Table of Semiconductors

Elements Group 13 Elements Group 14 Elements Group 15

3-Electrons in Outer Shell 4-Electrons in Outer Shell 5-Electrons in Outer Shell

(Positively Charged) (Neutrally Charged) (Negatively Charged)
(5) (6)

Carbon ( C )
Boron ( B )

(13) (14) (15)

Aluminium ( Al ) Silicon ( Si ) Phosphorus ( P )

(31) (32) (33)

Gallium ( Ga ) Germanium ( Ge ) Arsenic ( As )

(51)

Antimony ( Sb )

In the next tutorial about semiconductors and diodes, we will look at joining the two semiconductor basics
materials, the P-type and the N-type materials to form a PN Junction which can be used to produce diodes.
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_1.html

This is all well and good, but these newly doped N-type and P-type semiconductor materials do very little on
their own as they are electrically neutral. However, if we join (or fuse) these two semiconductor materials
together they behave in a very different way merging together and producing what is generally known as a PN
Junction.

When the N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined together a very large
density gradient exists between both sides of the PN junction. The result is that some of the free electrons from
the donor impurity atoms begin to migrate across this newly formed junction to fill up the holes in the P-type
material producing negative ions.
However, because the electrons have moved across the PN junction from the N-type silicon to the P-type
silicon, they leave behind positively charged donor ions ( ND ) on the negative side and now the holes from the
acceptor impurity migrate across the junction in the opposite direction into the region where there are large
numbers of free electrons.

Related Products: PIN | Varactor

As a result, the charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled with negatively charged acceptor ions
( NA ), and the charge density of the N-type along the junction becomes positive. This charge transfer of
electrons and holes across the PN junction is known as diffusion. The width of these P and N layers depends on
how heavily each side is doped with acceptor density NA, and donor density ND, respectively.

This process continues back and forth until the number of electrons which have crossed the junction
have a large enough electrical charge to repel or prevent any more charge carriers from crossing over the
junction. Eventually a state of equilibrium (electrically neutral situation) will occur producing a potential
barrier zone around the area of the junction as the donor atoms repel the holes and the acceptor atoms repel the
electrons.

Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a potential barrier, the regions on either sides
of the junction now become completely depleted of any more free carriers in comparison to the N and P type
materials further away from the junction. This area around the PN Junction is now called the Depletion Layer.

The PN junction
The total charge on each side of a PN Junction must be equal and opposite to maintain a neutral charge
condition around the junction. If the depletion layer region has a distance D, it therefore must therefore
penetrate into the silicon by a distance of Dp for the positive side, and a distance of Dn for the negative side
giving a relationship between the two of Dp.NA = Dn.ND in order to maintain charge neutrality also called
equilibrium.

PN Junction Distance

As the N-type material has lost electrons and the P-type has lost holes, the N-type material has become positive
with respect to the P-type. Then the presence of impurity ions on both sides of the junction cause an electric
field to be established across this region with the N-side at a positive voltage relative to the P-side. The problem
now is that a free charge requires some extra energy to overcome the barrier that now exists for it to be able to
cross the depletion region junction.

This electric field created by the diffusion process has created a built-in potential difference across the
junction with an open-circuit (zero bias) potential of:

Where: Eo is the zero bias junction voltage, VT the thermal voltage of 26mV at room temperature, ND and NA are
the impurity concentrations and ni is the intrinsic concentration.

A suitable positive voltage (forward bias) applied between the two ends of the PN junction can supply the free
electrons and holes with the extra energy. The external voltage required to overcome this potential barrier that
now exists is very much dependent upon the type of semiconductor material used and its actual temperature.

Typically at room temperature the voltage across the depletion layer for silicon is about 0.6 0.7 volts and for
germanium is about 0.3 0.35 volts. This potential barrier will always exist even if the device is not connected
to any external power source, as seen in diodes.
The significance of this built-in potential across the junction, is that it opposes both the flow of holes and
electrons across the junction and is why it is called the potential barrier. In practice, a PN junction is formed
within a single crystal of material rather than just simply joining or fusing together two separate pieces.

The result of this process is that the PN junction has rectifying currentvoltage (IV or IV) characteristics.
Electrical contacts are fused onto either side of the semiconductor to enable an electrical connection to be made
to an external circuit. The resulting electronic device that has been made is commonly called a PN junction
Diode or simplySignal Diode.

Then we have seen here that a PN junction can be made by joining or diffusing together differently doped
semiconductor materials to produce an electronic device called a diode which can be used as the basic
semiconductor structure of rectifiers, all types of transistors, LEDs, solar cells, and many more such solid state
devices.

In the next tutorial about the PN junction, we will look at one of the most interesting applications of the PN
junction is its use in circuits as a diode. By adding connections to each end of the P-type and the N-
type materials we can produce a two terminal device called a PN Junction Diode which can be biased by an
external voltage to either block or allow the flow of current through it.
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_2.html

However, if we were to make electrical connections at the ends of both the N-type and the P-type materials and
then connect them to a battery source, an additional energy source now exists to overcome the potential barrier.

The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being able to cross the depletion
region from one side to the other. The behaviour of the PN junction with regards to the potential barriers width
produces an asymmetrical conducting two terminal device, better known as the PN Junction Diode.

A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has the characteristic of
passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with
respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an exponential current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore
we can not described its operation by simply using an equation such as Ohms law.
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN junction, it can supply
free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross the junction as the width of the depletion
layer around the PN junction is decreased.

Related Products: PIN

By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away from the junction
resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the effect of increasing or decreasing the
effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking current flow through the diode.

Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage and narrows with an
increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due to the differences in the electrical properties on the
two sides of the PN junction resulting in physical changes taking place. One of the results produces rectification
as seen in the PN junction diodes static I-V (current-voltage) characteristics. Rectification is shown by an
asymmetrical current flow when the polarity of bias voltage is altered as shown below.

Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics.

But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device we need to firstly bias the
junction, ie connect a voltage potential across it. On the voltage axis above, Reverse Bias refers to an external
voltage potential which increases the potential barrier. An external voltage which decreases the potential barrier
is said to act in the Forward Bias direction.
There are two operating regions and three possible biasing conditions for the standard Junction Diode and
these are:

1. Zero Bias No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.

2. Reverse Bias The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material and positive, (+ve) to
the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Increasing the PN junction diodes width.

3. Forward Bias The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material and negative, (-ve) to
the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.

Zero Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to the PN junction.
However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority carriers) in the P-type material with
enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will move across the junction against this barrier potential.
This is known as the Forward Current and is referenced as IF

Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation favourable and move
across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the Reverse Current and is referenced as IR.
This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth across the PN junction is known as diffusion, as shown
below.

Zero Biased PN Junction Diode

The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority carriers across the junction.
However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few free electrons in the P-region and few holes in the N-
region) to drift across the junction.
Then an Equilibrium or balance will be established when the majority carriers are equal and both moving in
opposite directions, so that the net result is zero current flowing in the circuit. When this occurs the junction is
said to be in a state of Dynamic Equilibrium.

The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy so this state of equilibrium can be broken
by raising the temperature of the PN junction causing an increase in the generation of minority carriers, thereby
resulting in an increase in leakage current but an electric current cannot flow since no circuit has been
connected to the PN junction.

Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type material and
a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.

The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and away
from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction towards the
negative electrode.

The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a high
impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus preventing current
from flowing through the semiconductor material.

Increase in the Depletion Layer due to Reverse Bias

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current flows through
the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage current does flow through
the junction which can be measured in micro-amperes, ( A ).

One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high enough
value, it will cause the diodes PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around the junction.
This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current, and this
shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilising circuits where a series limiting
resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset maximum value thereby
producing a fixed voltage output across the diode. These types of diodes are commonly known as Zener
Diodes and are discussed in a later tutorial.

Forward Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-type material
and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of
the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition
will be overcome and current will start to flow.

This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them the energy to
cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction by the
positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called the
knee on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little increase in the external
voltage as shown below.
Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer becoming very
thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction thereby allowing high currents to
flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is represented on the static I-V
characteristics curve above as the knee point.

Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large currents to flow
through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual potential difference across the junction
or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v for germanium and
approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes.

Since the diode can conduct infinite current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a short circuit,
therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its maximum forward
current specification causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for
resulting in a very quick failure of the device.
Junction Diode Summary
The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following important characteristics:

Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, Holes andElectrons.

The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.

A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-type doping), so that it contains mobile
charges which are primarily electrons.

A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-type doping), so that it contains mobile
charges which are mainly holes.

The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion region.

The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the applied voltage.

When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a naturalPotential Barrier is developed across
a depletion layer which is approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for silicon diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for germanium
diodes.

When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion region reduces and the diode acts like a
short circuit allowing full current to flow.

When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region increases and the diode acts like an
open circuit blocking any current flow, (only a very small leakage current).

We have also seen above that the diode is two terminal non-linear device whose I-V characteristic are polarity
dependent as depending upon the polarity of the applied voltage, VD the diode is either Forward
Biased, VD > 0 or Reverse Biased, VD < 0. Either way we can model these current-voltage characteristics for
both an ideal diode and for a real diode.
Junction Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics

In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at the small signal diode sometimes called a switching diode
which is used in general electronic circuits. As its name implies, the signal diode is designed for low-voltage or
high frequency signal applications such as in radio or digital switching circuits.

Signal diodes, such as the 1N4148 only pass very small electrical currents as opposed to the high-current mains
rectification diodes in which silicon diodes are usually used. Also in the next tutorial we will examine
the Signal Diode static current-voltage characteristics curve and parameters.
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_3.html

Introduction to Diodes And Rectifiers

Chapter 3 - Diodes and Rectifiers

A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with far greater
ease than in the other. The most common kind of diode in modern circuit design is
the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist. Semiconductor diodes are
symbolized in schematic diagrams such as Figurebelow. The term diode is customarily reserved
for small signal devices, I 1 A. The term rectifier is used for power devices, I > 1 A.

Semiconductor diode schematic symbol: Arrows indicate the direction of electron current flow.
When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent current through
the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage. (Figure below)

Diode operation: (a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward biased. (b) Current flow is
prohibited; the diode is reversed biased.

When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the diode, the
diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is backward and the diode
blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode may be thought of as like a switch:
closed when forward-biased and open when reverse-biased.

Oddly enough, the direction of the diode symbols arrowhead points against the direction of
electron flow. This is because the diode symbol was invented by engineers, who predominantly
use conventional flownotation in their schematics, showing current as a flow of charge from the
positive (+) side of the voltage source to the negative (-). This convention holds true for all
semiconductor symbols possessing arrowheads: the arrow points in the permitted direction of
conventional flow, and against the permitted direction of electron flow.

Diode behavior is analogous to the behavior of a hydraulic device called a check valve. A check
valve allows fluid flow through it in only one direction as in Figure below.

Hydraulic check valve analogy: (a) Electron current flow permitted. (b) Current flow prohibited.
Check valves are essentially pressure-operated devices: they open and allow flow if the pressure
across them is of the correct polarity to open the gate (in the analogy shown, greater fluid
pressure on the right than on the left). If the pressure is of the opposite polarity, the pressure
difference across the check valve will close and hold the gate so that no flow occurs.

Like check valves, diodes are essentially pressure- operated (voltage-operated) devices. The
essential difference between forward-bias and reverse-bias is the polarity of the voltage dropped
across the diode. Lets take a closer look at the simple battery-diode-lamp circuit shown earlier, this
time investigating voltage drops across the various components in Figure below.

Diode circuit voltage measurements: (a) Forward biased. (b) Reverse biased.

A forward-biased diode conducts current and drops a small voltage across it, leaving most of the
battery voltage dropped across the lamp. If the batterys polarity is reversed, the diode becomes
reverse-biased, and drops all of the batterys voltage leaving none for the lamp. If we consider the
diode to be a self-actuating switch (closed in the forward-bias mode and open in the reverse-bias
mode), this behavior makes sense. The most substantial difference is that the diode drops a lot
more voltage when conducting than the average mechanical switch (0.7 volts versus tens of
millivolts).

This forward-bias voltage drop exhibited by the diode is due to the action of the depletion region
formed by the P-N junction under the influence of an applied voltage. If no voltage applied is across
a semiconductor diode, a thin depletion region exists around the region of the P-N junction,
preventing current flow. (Figurebelow (a)) The depletion region is almost devoid of available charge
carriers, and acts as an insulator:
 Diode representations: PN-junction model, schematic symbol, physical part.

The schematic symbol of the diode is shown in Figure above (b) such that the anode (pointing end)
corresponds to the P-type semiconductor at (a). The cathode bar, non-pointing end, at (b)
corresponds to the N-type material at (a). Also note that the cathode stripe on the physical part (c)
corresponds to the cathode on the symbol.

If a reverse-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, this depletion region expands,
further resisting any current through it. (Figure below)

Depletion region expands with reverse bias.

Conversely, if a forward-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, the depletion region
collapses becoming thinner. The diode becomes less resistive to current through it. In order for a
sustained current to go through the diode; though, the depletion region must be fully collapsed by
the applied voltage. This takes a certain minimum voltage to accomplish, called the forward
voltage as illustrated in Figure below.

Inceasing forward bias from (a) to (b) decreases depletion region thickness.

For silicon diodes, the typical forward voltage is 0.7 volts, nominal. For germanium diodes, the
forward voltage is only 0.3 volts. The chemical constituency of the P-N junction comprising the
diode accounts for its nominal forward voltage figure, which is why silicon and germanium diodes
have such different forward voltages. Forward voltage drop remains approximately constant for a
wide range of diode currents, meaning that diode voltage drop is not like that of a resistor or even a
normal (closed) switch. For most simplified circuit analysis, the voltage drop across a conducting
diode may be considered constant at the nominal figure and not related to the amount of current.

Actually, forward voltage drop is more complex. An equation describes the exact current through a
diode, given the voltage dropped across the junction, the temperature of the junction, and several
physical constants. It is commonly known as the diode equation:
The term kT/q describes the voltage produced within the P-N junction due to the action of
temperature, and is called the thermal voltage, or Vt of the junction. At room temperature, this is
about 26 millivolts. Knowing this, and assuming a nonideality coefficient of 1, we may simplify the
diode equation and re-write it as such:

You need not be familiar with the diode equation to analyze simple diode circuits. Just understand
that the voltage dropped across a current-conducting diode does change with the amount of current
going through it, but that this change is fairly small over a wide range of currents. This is why many
textbooks simply say the voltage drop across a conducting, semiconductor diode remains constant
at 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium. However, some circuits intentionally make use
of the P-N junctions inherent exponential current/voltage relationship and thus can only be
understood in the context of this equation. Also, since temperature is a factor in the diode equation,
a forward-biased P-N junction may also be used as a temperature-sensing device, and thus can
only be understood if one has a conceptual grasp on this mathematical relationship.

A reverse-biased diode prevents current from going through it, due to the expanded depletion
region. In actuality, a very small amount of current can and does go through a reverse-biased
diode, called theleakage current, but it can be ignored for most purposes. The ability of a diode to
withstand reverse-bias voltages is limited, as it is for any insulator. If the applied reverse-bias
voltage becomes too great, the diode will experience a condition known
as breakdown (Figure below), which is usually destructive. A diodes maximum reverse-bias
voltage rating is known as the Peak Inverse Voltage, or PIV, and may be obtained from the
manufacturer. Like forward voltage, the PIV rating of a diode varies with temperature, except that
PIV increases with increased temperature and decreases as the diode becomes coolerexactly
opposite that of forward voltage.

Diode curve: showing knee at 0.7 V forward bias for Si, and reverse breakdown.

Typically, the PIV rating of a generic rectifier diode is at least 50 volts at room temperature.
Diodes with PIV ratings in the many thousands of volts are available for modest prices.
 REVIEW:
A diode is an electrical component acting as a one-way valve for current.
When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode allows current, the diode is said to
be forward-biased.
When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode prohibits current, the diode is said
to be reverse-biased.
The voltage dropped across a conducting, forward-biased diode is called the forward voltage. Forward
voltage for a diode varies only slightly for changes in forward current and temperature, and is fixed by
the chemical composition of the P-N junction.
Silicon diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.7 volts.
Germanium diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.3 volts.
The maximum reverse-bias voltage that a diode can withstand without breaking down is called
thePeak Inverse Voltage, or PIV rating.

https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/semiconductors/chpt-3/introduction-to-diodes-and-rectifiers/

Semiconductor Diode
A p n junction is known as a Semiconductor Diode. The p n junction is used for the purpose of rectification as
it conducts only in one direction. It is also known as crystal diode as it is made of a crystal-like Silicon or
Germanium. The symbol of the semiconductor diode is shown below.

It has two terminals. It conducts only when it is forward biased.

This means when the terminal connected with the arrowhead is at a higher potential than the terminal connected
to the bar as shown in the above figure. When the semiconductor diode is reversed biased, practically it does not
conduct any current through it.

Volt Ampere Characteristics of a Semiconductor Diode

The volt-ampere or V- I characteristics of a semiconductor diode is a curve between the voltage across the
junction and the circuit current.

The circuit arrangement is shown below.

The resistor R is connected in series with the p n junction which limits the diode forward current from
exceeding the prescribed limit value. The characteristics are studied under three heads i.e. Zero external voltage,
Forward biasing and Reverse biasing. They are described below in detail.

Zero External Voltage

When no external voltage is applied that is the circuit is open at key K, no current flows through the circuit. It is
indicated by point 0 on the graph shown below.
Forward Biasing
When key K is closed and double throw switch is thrown to position 1 as shown in the above circuit diagram A.
The pn junction is forward biased as a p-type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal and n-type to
the negative terminal of the supply. Now when the supply voltage is increased by changing the variable resistor
Rh. The circuit current increases very slowly and the curve is non-linear shown in the above characteristic
figure B as OA.

The slow rise in the current in this region is because the external applied voltage is used to overcome the
potential barrier of 0.3 V for Ge and 0.7 for Si. Of the p n junction. However, once the potential barrier is
eliminated and the external supply voltage is increased further. The p n junction behaves like an ordinary
conductor and the circuit current rises very sharply represented by the region AB.

At this instant, the current is limited by the series resistance R and a small value of the junction forward
resistance Rf. The curve is almost linear. If the current rises more than the rated value of the diode, the diode
may be damaged.
Knee Voltage
The forward voltage (0.3 V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si diodes) at which the current through the diode or p n
junction starts rising abruptly is known as Knee Voltage.

Reverse Biasing
When the double pole double throw (DPDT) switch is thrown to position 2 as shown in the figure A. The p n
junction is reverse biased as p-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal and n type to the
positive terminal of the supply. Under this condition, the potential barrier at the junction is increased. Therefore,
the junction resistance Rr becomes very high and practically no current flows through the circuit.

However, in actual practice A very small current of the order of micro ampere flow in the circuit. This current is
known as Reverse Current and is due to minority carriers available at the room temperature.

The reverse current increases slightly when the increase in reverse bias supply voltage. If the reverse voltage is
increased continuously, a stage reaches when the kinetic energy of electrons (minority carriers) becomes so high
that they knock out electrons from the semiconductor bonds. At the point C the breakdown of the junction
occurs and the resistance of the barrier region Rr falls suddenly.

Consequently, the reverse current rises tremendously to a large value. This may destroy the junction
permanently. The reverse voltage at which p n junction breaks is known as Breakdown Voltage.

The following points are concluded from all the above discussion.

At zero external voltage, no current flows through the circuit or diode.

At forward bias, the current increases slightly till the barrier potential is wiped off.
After Knee voltage, the forward current rises drastically.
The forward current is limited by the series resistance R and a small value of junction resistance Rf.
The diode gets destroyed as the forward current increases beyond the rated value of the diode.
The reverse current increases slightly with the increase in voltage because of the minority carriers. The maximum
value of reverse current for Si diode is as low as 1 micro ampere. For Ge, it is about 100 micro ampere.
The reverse voltage at which junction breaks is known as breakdown voltage.
At reverse voltage, when the junction breaks the diode may be destroyed.

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Semiconductor Diode
A p n junction is known as a Semiconductor Diode. The p n junction is used for the purpose of rectification as
it conducts only in one direction. It is also known as crystal diode as it is made of a crystal-like Silicon or
Germanium. The symbol of the semiconductor diode is shown below.
 It has two terminals. It conducts only when it is forward biased.
This means when the terminal connected with the arrowhead is at a higher potential than the terminal connected
to the bar as shown in the above figure. When the semiconductor diode is reversed biased, practically it does not
conduct any current through it.

Volt Ampere Characteristics of a Semiconductor Diode

The volt-ampere or V- I characteristics of a semiconductor diode is a curve between the voltage across the
junction and the circuit current.

The circuit arrangement is shown below.

The resistor R is connected in series with the p n junction which limits the diode forward current from
exceeding the prescribed limit value. The characteristics are studied under three heads i.e. Zero external voltage,
Forward biasing and Reverse biasing. They are described below in detail.

Zero External Voltage

When no external voltage is applied that is the circuit is open at key K, no current flows through the circuit. It is
indicated by point 0 on the graph shown below.
Forward Biasing
When key K is closed and double throw switch is thrown to position 1 as shown in the above circuit diagram A.
The pn junction is forward biased as a p-type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal and n-type to
the negative terminal of the supply. Now when the supply voltage is increased by changing the variable resistor
Rh. The circuit current increases very slowly and the curve is non-linear shown in the above characteristic
figure B as OA.

The slow rise in the current in this region is because the external applied voltage is used to overcome the
potential barrier of 0.3 V for Ge and 0.7 for Si. Of the p n junction. However, once the potential barrier is
eliminated and the external supply voltage is increased further. The p n junction behaves like an ordinary
conductor and the circuit current rises very sharply represented by the region AB.

At this instant, the current is limited by the series resistance R and a small value of the junction forward
resistance Rf. The curve is almost linear. If the current rises more than the rated value of the diode, the diode
may be damaged.
Knee Voltage
The forward voltage (0.3 V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si diodes) at which the current through the diode or p n
junction starts rising abruptly is known as Knee Voltage.

Reverse Biasing
When the double pole double throw (DPDT) switch is thrown to position 2 as shown in the figure A. The p n
junction is reverse biased as p-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal and n type to the
positive terminal of the supply. Under this condition, the potential barrier at the junction is increased. Therefore,
the junction resistance Rr becomes very high and practically no current flows through the circuit.

However, in actual practice A very small current of the order of micro ampere flow in the circuit. This current is
known as Reverse Current and is due to minority carriers available at the room temperature.

The reverse current increases slightly when the increase in reverse bias supply voltage. If the reverse voltage is
increased continuously, a stage reaches when the kinetic energy of electrons (minority carriers) becomes so high
that they knock out electrons from the semiconductor bonds. At the point C the breakdown of the junction
occurs and the resistance of the barrier region Rr falls suddenly.

Consequently, the reverse current rises tremendously to a large value. This may destroy the junction
permanently. The reverse voltage at which p n junction breaks is known as Breakdown Voltage.

The following points are concluded from all the above discussion.

At zero external voltage, no current flows through the circuit or diode.

At forward bias, the current increases slightly till the barrier potential is wiped off.
After Knee voltage, the forward current rises drastically.
The forward current is limited by the series resistance R and a small value of junction resistance Rf.
The diode gets destroyed as the forward current increases beyond the rated value of the diode.
The reverse current increases slightly with the increase in voltage because of the minority carriers. The maximum
value of reverse current for Si diode is as low as 1 micro ampere. For Ge, it is about 100 micro ampere.
The reverse voltage at which junction breaks is known as breakdown voltage.
At reverse voltage, when the junction breaks the diode may be destroyed.

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http://circuitglobe.com/semiconductor-diode.html
Semiconductor diode
A two-
terminal electronic device that utilizes the properties of the semiconductor from which it is constructed. In asem
iconductor diode without a pn junction, the bulk properties of the semiconductor itself are used to make a devic
e whosecharacteristics may be sensitive to light, temperature, or electric field. In a diode with a pn junction, the
properties of the pnjunction are used. The most important property of a pn junction is that, under ordinary condi
tions, it will allow electric currentto flow in only one direction. Under the proper circumstances, however, a pn j
unction may also be used as a voltage-
variablecapacitance, a switch, a light source, a voltage regulator, or a means to convert light into electrical powe
r. SeeSemiconductor
The conductivity of a semiconductor is proportional to the number of electrical carriers (electrons and holes) it c
ontains. In atemperature-
compensating diode, or thermistor, the number of carriers changes with temperature. See Thermistor
In a photoconductor the semiconductor is packaged so that it may be exposed to light. Light photons whose ener
gies aregreater than the band gap can excite electrons from the valence band to the conduction band, increasing
the number ofelectrical carriers in the semiconductor. See Photoconductivity
In some semiconductors the conduction band has more than one minimum. This results in a region of negative d
ifferentialconductivity, and a device operated in this region is unstable. The current pulsates at microwave frequ
encies, and thedevice, a Gunn diode, may be used as a microwave power source.
A rectifying junction is formed whenever two materials of different conductivity types are brought into contact.
Mostcommonly, the two materials are an n-type and a p-
type semiconductor, and the device is called a junction diode. However,rectifying action also occurs at a bounda
ry between a metal and a semiconductor of either type. If the metal contacts alarge area of semiconductor, the d
evice is known as a Schottky barrier diode; if the contact is a metal point, a point-
contactdiode is formed. See Schottky effect
The contact potential between the two materials in a diode creates a potential barrier which tends to keep electro
ns on the nside of the junction and holes on the p side. When the p side is made positive with respect to the n sid
e by an applied field,the barrier height is lowered and the diode is forward biased. Majority electrons from the n
side may flow easily to the p side,and majority holes from the p side may flow easily to the n side. When the p s
ide is made negative, the barrier height isincreased and the diode is reverse-
biased. Then, only a small leakage current flows: Minority electrons from the p side flowinto the n side, and mi
nority holes from the n side flow into the p side. The current-
voltage characteristic of a typical diode isshown in the illustration. Rectifying diodes can be made in a variety o
f sizes, and much practical use can be made of thefact that such a diode allows current to flow in essentially one
direction only.

Current-voltage characteristic of a pn junction

McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Physics. 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The following article is from The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1979). It might be outdated or ideologically biased.

Semiconductor Diode

a two-
electrode electronic device based on a semiconductor crystal. The term is applied to various devices that havedif
ferent principles of operation and different uses. Semiconductor diodes are classified according to the generalcla
ssification system for semiconductor devices. The most widespread class is that of electric-
conversion semiconductordiodes, which includes rectifier diodes, pulse diodes, voltage-
stabilizing diodes, and microwave diodes such as videodetectors, mixer diodes, parametric diodes, amplifier dio
des, oscillator diodes, multiplier diodes, and switching diodes.Examples of optical electronic semiconductor dio
des are photo-diodes, light-emitting diodes, and semiconductor lasers.

Figure 1. Structure of a semiconductordiode with a p-

n junction: (1) crystal, (2)terminals (contact conductors), (3)electrodes (ohmic contacts), (4) plane ofthe p-n junction

The most numerous semiconductor diodes are those whose operation is based on the properties of a p-
n junction. If aforward voltage, or forward bias, is applied to a p-n junction diode (Figure 1)
that is, if a positive potential is supplied to thep- region of the junction
the potential barrier at the junction is lowered, and there begins an intensive injection of holes fromthe p-
region into the n-region and of electrons from the n-region into the p-
region. A high forward current results (Figure 2). Inthe case of a reverse bias, where the voltage is applied in the
reverse direction, the potential barrier is raised, and only avery small reverse current of minority carriers flows
across the p-n junction. Figure 3 shows the equivalent circuit for such asemiconductor diode.

Figure 2.

Note on Figure 2. Typical volt-ampere characteristic of a semiconductor diode with a p-

n junction: (U) voltage across thediode, (l) current through the diode, maximum permissible reverse volta
ge, current corresponding to stabilization voltage
The operation of rectifier power diodes is based on a pronounced asymmetry of the volt-
ampere characteristic.Semiconductor diodes for rectifying devices and for other high-
current circuits are manufactured for permissible rectifiedcurrents Ir of up to 300 amperes (A) and for maximum
permissible reverse voltages U*rev from 2030 volts (V) to 1
2kilovolts (kV). Semiconductor diodes for similar applications in low-
current circuits have an Ir of less than 0.1 A and arecalled general-
purpose diodes. At voltages greater than U*rev. the current rises drastically, and an irreversible (thermal)breakdo
wn of the p-n junction occurs that results in the breakdown of the diode.
In order to increase U*rev to several tens of kV, rectifier stacks are used. In such a stack, several identical rectify
ingsemiconductor diodes are connected in series and are mounted in a common plastic casing. The time lag exhi
bited byrectifier diodes depends on the lifetime of the injected holes, which is greater than 10-5-10-
4
sec. This time lag limits thefrequency range within which semiconductor diodes can be used to, usually, 50 to
2,000 hertz.
The use of special techniquesprimarily the doping of germanium and silicon with gold
has permitted a reduction in theswitching time to 10-71010 sec and the construction of fast-
acting pulsed semiconductor diodes. Such diodes, as well asdiode matrices, are used mostly in the low-
current signal circuits of electronic computers.

Figure 3. Small-signal (for low signal levels) equivalent circuit ofa semiconductor diode with a p-n junction: (rp-
n) nonlinearresistance of the p-n junction; (rb) bulk resistance of thesemiconductor (diode base); (rleak) surface-
leakage resistance;(CB) barrier capacitance of the p-
n junction; (Cdif) diffusioncapacitance, which is caused by the accumulation of mobilecharges in the base when a forward
voltage is applied; (Co)casing capacitance; (Lr) inductance of contact conductors; (A)and (B) terminals. The solid lines sho
w the connections ofelements that are part of the p-n junction proper.

If the breakdown voltages are low, there usually occurs not a thermal breakdown but a reversible avalanche brea
kdown ofthe p-
n junction, that is, an abrupt increase of current at an almost constant voltage called the stabilization voltage Ust.
Theoperation of semiconductor voltage-stabilizing diodes is based on this kind of breakdown. General-
purpose voltage-stabilizing diodes with a Ust from 35 V to 100
150 V are used predominantly in regulators and limiters of constant andpulsed voltages. Precision voltage-
stabilizing diodes can be provided with compensating elements to achieve exceptionallyhigh temperature stabili
ty of USt, (up to 1 10-5-5 10-6 per degree Kelvin). Such voltage-
stabilizing diodes are used assources of reference voltages.
The reverse current of a diode is subject to considerable fluctuations in the prebreakdown region. This property
of the p-
njunction is made use of to construct noise generators. The time lag during the development of an avalanche bre
akdown in ap-n junction is 10-9-10
10 sec. It leads to a phase shift between the current and the voltage in the diode and thus can causethe generatio
n of ultrahigh-
frequency oscillations if the diode is connected to an appropriately designed electric circuit. Thisproperty has be
en successfully made use of in avalanche transit time diodes, which have permitted the construction ofoscillator
s with frequencies up to 150 gigahertz.
Mixer diodes and video detectors are used for the detection and conversion of electric signals in the microwave
region. Inmost of these devices the p-
n junction is formed under a point contact. This design provides a low value of the capacitanceCB (Figure 3). Al
so, as in all microwave diodes, structural features that are specific to each type provide low values of theparasiti
c inductance Lc and capacitance Cc and permit the diode to be installed in wave-guide systems.
When a reverse bias not exceeding U*rev is applied to the p-n junction, the junction behaves as a high-
Q capacitor, whosecapacitance CB depends on the magnitude of the applied voltage. This property is made use o
f in varicaps, which are usedprimarily for electronic tuning of the resonant frequency of oscillatory circuits; in p
arametric semiconductor diodes, which areused to amplify microwave oscillations; and in varactors and multipli
er diodes, which are used to multiply the frequency ofoscillations in the microwave range. In such diodes efforts
are made to reduce the magnitude of the resistance rb (the basicsource of active energy losses) and to increase t
he dependence of the capacitance CB on the voltage Urev.
In a p-n junction made with a very low-
ohm (degenerate) semiconductor, the region depleted of charge carriers is very thin (>10-
2
micron). For such a region, tunneling becomes an important mechanism for the passage of electrons and holes
acrossthe potential barrier. The operation of the tunnel diode is based on this effect. Tunnel diodes are used in s
uperfast pulsedevices, such as multivibrators or triggers, and in amplifiers and generators of microwave oscillati
ons. The same effectprovides the basis for the operation of backward diodes, which are used as detectors of wea
k signals and as mixers ofmicrowave oscillations. The volt-
ampere characteristics of tunnel and backward diodes (Figure 4)

Figure 4. Volt-
ampere characteristics: (1)tunnel diode, (2) backward diode, (U)voltage across the diode, (l) currentthrough the diode

differ substantially from the volt-

ampere characteristics of other semiconductor diodes. The differences include theexistence of a region of negati
ve conductivity, which is strongly pronounced in the case of the tunnel diode, and highconductivity at zero volta
ge.
Diode thyristors, that is, semiconductor devices with two terminals and an uncontrolled four-layer p-n-p-
n structure, are alsoclassified as semiconductor diodes. Another type of semiconductor diode is the Gunn diode,
which makes use of thevolume effect of domain instability in semiconductor structures without a p-
n junction. Two other semiconductor structuresused in diodes are metal-
semiconductor contact, which is the basis for the Schottky diode, and the p-i-
n structure. Thecharacteristics of these structures are in many regards similar to those of a p-n junction.
The p-i-n-
structure has the property of changing its characteristics when irradiated. This property is made use of, inparticu
lar, in photodiodes and nuclear radiation detectors. These devices are constructed in such a way that the photons
ornuclear particles can be absorbed in the crystals active region, which is immediately adjacent to the p-
n junction, and canchange the magnitude of the reverse current of the junction. Light-
emitting diodes make use of the effect of radiativerecombination of electrons and holes: because of this effect, c
ertain p-
n junctions exhibit luminescence when a forwardcurrent passes through them. Semiconductor lasers can also be
classified as semiconductor diodes.
Most semiconductor diodes are fabricated through the use of planar and epitaxial techniques, which permit the s
imultaneousproduction of up to several thousand semiconductor diodes. Si is the chief semiconductor used in se
miconductor diodes,but such materials as Ge, GaAs, and GaP are also used. Au, Al, Sn, Ni, and Cu are used as
contact materials. The crystalof a semiconductor diode is usually protected by packaging within a metal-
glass, metal-ceramic, glass, or plastic casing.
In the USSR, semiconductor diodes are identified by a six-
character code. The first two characters are letters: the firstdenotes the semiconductor being used, and the secon
d letter indicates the class of the diode. Three digits follow that showthe number of the type. The sixth character
is a letter that identifies the group of the diode. For example, GD402A is agermanium general-
purpose diode, and KS196B is a silicon voltage-stabilizing diode.
Semiconductor diodes are superior to their electron-tube analogssuch as kenotrons, gas-
discharge voltage stabilizingtubes, and gas-discharge indicators
in that they have considerably greater reliability, a longer service life, smaller size,better technical characteristic
s, and lower cost. For these reasons, semiconductor diodes are supplanting electron-
tubedevices in most areas of application.
The development of semiconductor electronics has brought about a transition to the production not only of discr
etesemiconductor diodes but also of diode structures in monolithic integrated circuits and of functional devices
where thesemiconductor diode is an inseparable part of the devices structure.
REFERENCES
Poluprovodnikovye diody: Parametry: Metody izmerenii. Moscow, 1968.
Fedotov, la. A., Osnovy fiziki poluprovodnikovykh priborov. Moscow, 1970.
Pasynkov, V. V., L. K. Chirkin, and A. D. Shinkov. Poluprovodnikovye pribory. Moscow, 1973.
Sze, S. M. Fizika poluprovodnikovykh priborov. Moscow, 1973. (Translated from English.)

IU. R. NOSOV
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Semiconductor+Diode

How Semiconductors Work

BY MARSHALL BRAIN

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Clockwise from top: A chip, an LED and a transistor are all made from semiconductor material. See
moreelectronics parts pictures.
Semiconductors have had a monumental impact on our society. You find semiconductors at
the heart of microprocessor chips as well as transistors. Anything that's computerized or
uses radio wavesdepends on semiconductors.

Today, most semiconductor chips and transistors are created withsilicon. You may have
heard expressions like "Silicon Valley" and the "silicon economy," and that's why -- silicon is
the heart of any electronic device.

A diode is the simplest possible semiconductor device, and is therefore an excellent

beginning point if you want to understand how semiconductors work. In this article, you'll learn
what a semiconductor is, how doping works and how a diode can be created using
semiconductors. But first, let's take a close look at silicon.

Silicon is a very common element -- for example, it is the main element in sand and quartz. If
you look "silicon" up in the periodic table, you will find that it sits next to aluminum, below
carbon and above germanium.

Silicon sits next to aluminum and below carbon in the periodic table.

Carbon, silicon and germanium (germanium, like silicon, is also a semiconductor) have a
unique property in their electron structure -- each has four electrons in its outer orbital.
This allows them to form nice crystals. The four electrons form perfect covalent bonds with
four neighboring atoms, creating a lattice. In carbon, we know the crystalline form
as diamond. In silicon, the crystalline form is a silvery, metallic-looking substance.

In a silicon lattice, all silicon atoms bond perfectly to four neighbors, leaving no free electrons to conduct
electric current. This makes a silicon crystal an insulator rather than a conductor.
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Semiconductor diode
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A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that has a low resistance to the flow of current in one direction
thus allowing the passage of current in one direction whereas a high resistance in the other, thus restricting the
flow of current in that direction. Semiconductor diodes are two terminal devices that consist of a p-n junction and
metallic contacts at their two ends.

A p-n junction is denoted by the symbol shown in the figure above. Here, the direction of the arrow indicates the
permissible direction of the current.

Semiconductor Diode:

A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction diode. It is a two terminal device which conducts current only
in one direction.
The figure above represents the symbol for p-n junction diode which symbolizes the direction of the current. By
applying an external voltage V we can vary the potential barrier.

P-N Junction diode under forward bias:

When we apply the external voltage across the semiconductor diode in such a way that the p-side is connected to
the positive terminal of the battery and the n-side is connected to the negative terminal, then the semiconductor
diode is said to be forward biased. In this case, the built-in potential of the diode and thus the width of the depletion
region decreases and the height of the barrier gets reduced. The overall barrier voltage, in this case, comes out to
be V0-V, which is the difference between the built-in potential and the applied potential. As we supply a small
amount of voltage, the reduction in the barrier voltage from the above-given formula is very less and thus only a
small number of current carriers cross the junction in this case. Whereas, if the potential is increased by a
significant value, the reduction in the barrier height will be more thus allowing the passage of more number of
carriers.
P-N Junction diode under reverse bias:

When we apply the external voltage across the semiconductor diode in such a way that the positive terminal of
the battery is connected to its n-side and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-side of the diode,
then it is said to be in the condition of reverse bias. When an external voltage is applied across the diode, as the
direction of the external voltage is the same as that of the barrier potential, the total voltage barrier sums up to be
(V0+V). Also, the width of the depletion region increases. As a result of this, the motion of carriers from one side
of the junction to another decreases significantly.

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