DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Note: the digestive system has been less significant for comparative morphology than have most
other organ systems. It tends to reveal primarily general dietary habits (a lot of convergence).
Some of the organs are too constant in structure to offer a phylogenetic story.

A. Function and general structure.

Receive ingested food. Where?

Store food temporarily. Where?

Reduce food physically. Where?

Reduce food chemically. Where?

Absorb products of digestion. Where?

Eliminate undigested waste. Where?

1. Most vertebrates are intermittent feeders. Stomach principal storage organ (crop in
birds).

2. Physical reduction (increase surface contact between food and digestive juices).

a. Chewing, grinding teeth.

b. Moistening of food by fluids. Secreted where?

c. Churning by peristalsis, reverse peristalsis, and segmentation.

d. Emulsification of fats by liver secretions.

3. Chemical reduction.

a. Principally by stomach and small intestine by enzymes produced in those organs

or the pancreas (also: bacterial fermentation as found in ungulates,
dermopterans, some marsupials, etc.).

4. Absorption requires great surface contact.

a. long intestine.

b. folds in gut lining.

c. villi.

d. microvilli.

5. Where are the digestive organs located? What cavity/ies?

B. Development of the gut.

As embryo lengthens, endoderm is drawn out into tube; initially the tube is more-or-less
straight, but soon establishes outgrowths (diverticula) which become lining of associated
organs posterior to the stomach: liver, gall bladder, pancreas, and various ducts of these
organs; allantois.
Muscular and connective tissue associated with gut--mesodermal origin.

What about THE FOREGUT, MIDGUT, AND HINGUT?

THE DIFFERENCES IN THE ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT CAN BE CORRELATED

TO?

C. Mouth and oral cavity the oral cavity begins at the mouth and ends at the pharynx.

Ancestral vertebrate probably a filter feeder with small mouth; large pharynx to remove
particles from water.
Agnatha no jaws; therefore ingest small or soft food; cyclostomes with rasping organ.

Cartilaginous and bony fishes mouth parts may be protrusible; firm tongue that is
usually immobile; oral glands restricted to scattered mucous cells; oropharyngeal cavity
with teeth and gill slits terminates at a short esophagus.

Tetrapods buccal cavity with teeth and tongue that leads to pharynx; evolutionary
trends have been to first increase oral lubrication and then to add physical and chemical
digestion.
 o Tongue and lips present.

o Multicellular oral glands with ducts.

o Secretions required to lubricate dry food.

o Certain glands with special functions: Venomous, Anticoagulant, and Salt

excretion.

How different are the vertebrates base on the presence or absence of the secondary
palate?

D. Tongue

o Capturing or gathering food.

o Receptor for taste.

o Stereognosis.

o Manipulation of food.

o Swallowing.

o Thermoregulation.

o Cleaning eyelids.

o Grooming.

o Human speech.

What are the different components of the tongue? How different are the vertebrates
base on these components?

E. Salivary glands

mucus of varying viscosity (stickiness) & chemical composition.

moistens food (bolus to manipulate); lubricates passageway to pharynx and

esophagus.

moisture for taste buds to function.

other secretions serous fluids, toxins, venoms, amylase enzyme.

the term saliva is the mixture of oral secretions (mammals).

 aquatic craniates have goblet cells for taste buds; no digestive enzymes.

Examples of salivary glands?

F. Teeth

Derivatives of bony dermal armor.

Placoid scales show gradual transition to teeth at the edge of the jaw.

Composed primarily of dentin surrounded by enamel (self-sharpening).

Vary among vertebrates in number, distribution in the oral cavity, degree of permanence,
mode of attachment, & shape.

Enamel is > 95% inorganic matter (the hardest substance in vertebrates), harder than
dentine; Dentine is harder than Cement.

toothless vertebrates agnathans, sturgeons, turtles, birds, & baleen whales.

fish (numerous, widely distributed); early tetrapods (widely distributed palate, vomers);
crocodiles, toothed birds, & mammals limited to jaws.

Significance to Vertebrate Morphology:

o Durability important part of fossil records.

o The diet of MOST VERTEBRATES can be predicted from their teeth.

o Can be used for identifying the particular species.

o Can be used to trace the general course of evolution within and among different
taxa.

Questions:

o Types of teeth according to attachment?

o Types of teeth according to succession?

o Types of teeth according to shape?

o Types of cheek teeth according to size & shape of crown?

o What is Dental Formulae?

o What is kinesis in snakes?

G. Fine structure of gut in general gut constructed in 3 layers.

Mucosa innermost layer (in 3 parts):

o Epithelium cells usually columnar; villi and microvilli increase surface area.

o Lamina propria network of loose tissue.

o Muscularis mucosae thin layer of smooth muscle; not always present.

Submucosa stratum of loose connective tissue containing nerves, capillaries, lymphatic

ducts, etc.

Muscularis externa smooth muscle.

o Inner portion circular layer.

o Outer portion longitudinal layer.

Figure from Kent & Miller, courtesy of WCB/McGraw-Hill

H. Esophagus and stomach.

Histology of esophagus distinctive in two ways:

o Stratified squamous cells (may be cornified).

 o Muscularis externa of anterior part (particularly mammals) may have striated
muscle. What about the smooth muscles? Function of esophagus?

The lining of stomach may be divided into several regions:

o Esophageal region only secretion is mucus.

o Cardiac region only mammals, columnar cells.

o Fundus digestive region.

o Pyloric region coiled tubular glands that secrete mucus.

o Muscularis externa of stomach thick; cardiac sphincter at anterior end, pyloric

sphincter at posterior end.

o What is bolus? chyme?

Agnatha neither esophagus nor stomach can be identified.

Jawed fishes esophagus short; stomach relatively straight.

Amphibians short esophagus with mucous glands.

Reptiles Have longer esophagus; stomachs of both groups straight or gently curved
(exception: crocodilians).
 Birds long esophagus; lining usually
cornified; a storage organ often present
in the lower part the crop.
Stomach in two parts the
proventriculus produces digestive
enzymes; the ventriculus (also called the
gizzard) may be muscular for grinding
food; these two regions least distinctive
in carnivorous birds, most distinct in
granivorous species. Why do you think
so?

Figure from Kent & Miller, courtesy of

WCB/McGraw-Hill

Mammals
o esophagus long; may be cornified in roughage-eaters. What about the bats?

o Stomach simple and sac-like (humans) or complexly compartmentalized.

o Cardiac region found only in mammals.

An example of a compartmentalized stomach: ruminant.

o Food required prolonged processing.

o What are the different compartments and their function/s?

 Figure from Kent & Miller, courtesy of WCB/McGraw-Hill

I. Intestine and Caeca.

 pyloric sphincter to cloaca or anus; chief site of digestion and absorption of
nutrients.

secretion of liver and pancreas empty into duodenum.

small & large segments undifferentiated in fishes.

living agnathans, chondrichthyes, & primitive teleosts relatively straight &

short; presence of spiral valve (typhlosole).

presence of pyloric ceca in most teleosts.

small and large intestines relatively distinct in tetrapods.

in amphibians, reptiles, & birds differentiated into coiled small intestine &
short, straight large intestine (that empties into the cloaca).

tetrapods have 1 or 2 small diverticula at the juncture between small and large
intestines called colic caeca.

Mammals

o small intestine long & coiled and differentiated into duodenum, jejunum,
& ileum.

o The large intestine is often relatively long (but not as long as the small
intestine).

o A cecum is often present at the junction of the small & large intestines in
herbivores.

Large intestine

o commences at ileocolic sphincter to rectum.

o rarely coiled, ileocolic ceca common in herbivores (e.g. koala has a

cecum 6 ft. long diet of low nutritional value).

o chiefly water (w/c is absorbed) and undigestible roughage.

J. Cloaca.

common chamber of the digestive, urinary, and genital systems.

common in fishes, and most tetrapods.

in therian mammals, partitioned into 2-3 separate passageways.

 Cyclostomes.
o Intestine relatively straight, region differentiation slight.

o Lampreys with single fold of intestinal mucosa that runs lengthwise in gentle
spiral.

Sharks.

o Shape of gut?

o Posteriorly a spiral intestine; functional advantage: increase in surface

epithelium.

o Short rectum joins the cloaca.

o Rectal gland dorsal appendage from rectum.

Bony fishes.

o General shape of gut?, occasionally coiled.

o Length up to 12 times body length.

o Spiral intestine present in all modern bony fishes except?

o Ray-finned fishes have diverticula called pyloric caeca.

o Only dipnoans and coelecanth (Latimeria) have cloaca.

o No rectal gland.

Amphibians.

o Tadpoles with long coiled gut, but adult amphibians have relatively short and
simple digestive tracts from 1.5 to 3.5 times body length.

o Single colic caecum.

o Cloaca present.

Reptiles.

o Intestine straight in most snakes and amphisbaenians, but moderately coiled in

others.

o Length usually about 1-2 times body length.

 o Dorsal colic caecum present in some species.

Birds.

o Duodenum always forms long narrow loop and tightly joined to pancreas.

o Remainder of small intestine long in complicated pattern.

o Two colic caeca usual.

o Cloaca present with dorsal diverticulum called cloacal bursa (also called bursa
of Fabricius) site of maturation of B-lymphocytes.

Mammals.

o Many insectivores and carnivores: intestine 2-6 times body length.

o Some artiodactyls and marine mammals: intestine 20-25 times body length.

o Pattern of folding irregular; large intestine bulky.

o Usually single ventral colic caeca.

K. Functional adaptation of gut.

o If vertebrate feeds on nutritious food, if food is ingested in small particles, and feeding is slow
but frequent what kind of gut?

Examples: cyclostomes, nectar-feeding birds, vampire bat.

o Carnivores, scavengers, and fish-eaters what kind of gut?

Short gut, capacious for temporary storage.

o If food ingested is low in food value what kind of gut?

Mechanical grinding, bacterial fermentation, capacious storage, long gut, perhaps a crop or
gizzard.

o The folds, villi, and microvilli increase surface area roughly 600-fold.
o The lining of the gut may be replaced every 2-3 days.

L. Liver and gall bladder.

o Liver unique to subphylum; varies little among the classes; largest organ of the body.
o Storage for carbohydrates and fats; release of nitrogenous wastes.
o Embryonic liver produces blood cells.

o Bile is secreted and delivered to duodenum.

o Liver and gall bladder develop from ventral hepatic diverticula.

o Liver is typically lobed.

o Bile at times backs up into gall bladder where it is stored and concentrated.

o Cystic duct from gall bladder joins hepatic duct from liver to form common bile duct.

M. Pancreas.

o Only in vertebrates, and in all vertebrates.

o Compound organ having both exocrine and endocrine functions.

o Endocrine secretions: insulin and glucagon.

o Pancreas forms from pancreatic diverticula that fuse.

o Endocrine tissue consists of cells that form scattered aggregations call the islets of Langerhans.

References:
From comparative anatomy textbooks listed in the syllabus and from the internet.
Pictures and/or plates and figures from the internet or scanned from the comparative anatomy textbooks.