Slidos y el estado cristalino

Los slidos cristalinos.

Las unidades estructurales de los slidos cristalinos, tales como hielo, cloruro de sodio, y mentol,
estn dispuestos en patrones o formas geomtricas fijas. Los slidos cristalinos, a diferencia de los
lquidos y gases, tienen formas definidas y una disposicin ordenada de unidades. Los gases se
comprimen, mientras que los slidos, como los lquidos son prcticamente incompresibles. Los
slidos cristalinos muestran puntos de fusin definido, en lugar de pasar bruscamente desde el
slido al estado lquido. Las diversas formas cristalinas se dividen en seis formas distintas de cristal.
Estn junto con ejemplos de cada uno, cbico (cloruro de sodio), tetragonal (urea), Yodoformo
hexagonal, rmbicas (yodo), monoclnico (sacarosa), y (cido brico).

Las unidades que constituyen la estructura de cristal pueden ser tomos, molculas, o iones. El
cristal de cloruro de sodio, se compone de una red cbica de iones de sodio interpretados por un
enrejado de iones cloruro, la fuerza vinculante del cristal es la atraccin electrosttica de los iones
de carga opuesta. En el diamante y el grafito, las unidades de celosa se componen de tomos unidos
por enlaces covalentes.

El dixido de carbono, cloruro de hidrgeno, y cristales de la forma naftaleno compuestas de

molculas como las unidades de construccin. En los compuestos orgnicos, las molculas estn en
manos de los Van der Waals y enlaces de hidrgeno que representan la unin dbil y por los bajos
puntos de fusin de estos cristales. Alyphatic Hydrocarbonds se cristalizan con sus cadenas se
extiende en una disposicin en paralelo, mientras que los cidos grasos se cristalizan en capas de
dmeros de las cadenas mentir inclinado en un ngulo respecto al plano de base. Mientras que los
cristales inicos y atmicos en general son duros y quebradizos una tiene puntos de fusin elevados,
cristales moleculares son suaves y tienen bajos puntos de fusin.

Metallic crystals are composed of positively charged ion son a field of freely moving electrons,
sometimes called the electron of gas. Metals are good conductors of electricity because of the free
movement in electrons in the lattice. Metals may be soft or hard and have low or high melting
points. The hardess and the strength depend in part on the kind of imperfections, or lattice defects,
in crystals.

X- ray Diffraction.

X-rays are diffracted by crystals just as the visible light is dispersed into a color spectrum by a ruled
grating (a piece of glass with fine parallel lines of equal width drawn on it). This is due to the fact
that x-rays have wavelenghts of about of the same magnitude as the distance between the atoms
or molecules of crystals. The x-ray diffraction patern is photograpyhed on a sensitive plate arranged
behind the crystal, and by such a method the structure of the crystal may be investigated. Employing
a later modification of this principle, involving reflection of the x-ray beam from the atomic planes
of the crystal, it has posible to determine distances of the various planes of the crystal lattice. The
structure of various compounds can be determined in this way.

Where whole crystals are unavilable or unsuitable for analysis, a poder of the substance may be
investigated. Comparing the position and the intensity of the line on such a diagram with the
corresponding lines on the potograph on a known sample allows one to conduct a qualitative and
a quantitaive chemical analysis.
The lectron density and, accordingly, the position of the atoms in complex structures such as
penicillim may be determined from a mathemathical study of the data obteined by the x-ray
diffraction. The electron density map of cristallyne potassium benzylpenicillin is shown in figure 2-
5. The elucidation of this structure by x-ray crystallography paved the way for the later synthesis of
penicillin by the organic chemist. Certeins aspects of x-ray cristallography of pharmaceutical interest
have been reviewed by Biles and by Lien and Kennon.

MELTING POINT AND HEAT OF FUSION.

The temperatura at which a liquid pasases into the solid state is known as the freezing point. It is
also the melting point of a pure cristallyne compound. The freezing point or melting point of a pure
cristallyne solid is strictly defined as the temperatura at wich the pure liquid and solid exist in
equilibrium. In practice, it is taken as the temperature of the equilibrium mixture at an external
pressure of 1atm; this is sometimes known as the normal freezing or melting point.

The heat absorbed when a gream of a solied melts or ther heat liberated when it freezees is known
as the laten heat of fusin, and for wter at 0 c it is about 80 cal/ the heat added during thre melting
process does not bring a change about temperature. Untill all of the solid has disappeared, since
this heat is converted into potencial enrgy of the molecules that have escaped from the solid into
the liquid state.

Changes of the freezing or melting point with pressure may be obteined by using one form of the
clapeyron equation

In which V1 and V8 are the molar volumes of then liquid and the solid, respectively. Molar volumen
(Volume in cm3 per mole) is computed by dividing the gram molecular weight by the density of the
compound.