Proposal To Carry Out Research Papers PDF

A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE CONTENT
Useful steps for writing research papers,

theses, and dissertations.
Author: Msc. Roxana Leonor Villeda de
Trigueros
English Teacher at English Language Department,
PROPOSAL TO CARRY OUT University of El Salvador, Western University Campus
Santa Ana, El Salvador , October 19, 2015
RESEARCH PAPERS, THESIS,
AND DISSERTATIONS
INDEX
PROPOSAL TO CARRY OUT RESEARCH PAPERS, THESIS, AND
DISSERTATIONS ................................................................................................... 4
I: STEPS TO FOLLOW IN A SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PROJECT ........................ 5
Front page ........................................................................................................... 5
Index .................................................................................................................... 6
Abstract................................................................................................................ 6
Introduction .......................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER I: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ..................................................... 7
Description of the problem ................................................................................... 7
Research question(s) ........................................................................................... 7
Research objectives ............................................................................................ 8
Hypothesis ........................................................................................................... 0
Operationalization of variables............................................................................. 2
Justification .......................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OR STATE OF ART ........................ 5
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN ......................................................... 6
Quantitative research ........................................................................................... 7
The observational type ..................................................................................... 7
Experimental .................................................................................................... 7
Retrospective and prospective type ................................................................. 7
Descriptive, analytic or explanatory and experimental type ................................. 8
Qualitative research ............................................................................................. 9
Participatory research and action research ...................................................... 9
Ethnografic Research ....................................................................................... 9
Description of the environment .......................................................................... 10
Units of observation (population) ....................................................................... 10
Sampling procedure ........................................................................................... 10
The Level of Precision .................................................................................... 11
Degree of Variability ....................................................................................... 12
Probability sampling ........................................................................................... 12
Simple random sampling ................................................................................... 13
Stratified random sampling ................................................................................ 15
Systematic random sampling ............................................................................. 17
Cluster (area) random sampling ........................................................................ 20
Multi-stage sampling .......................................................................................... 21
Nonprobability sampling .................................................................................... 22
Accidental, haphazard or convenience sampling ............................................... 23
Purposive sampling ........................................................................................... 23
Modal instance sampling ................................................................................... 24
Expert sampling ................................................................................................. 25
Quota Sampling ................................................................................................. 25
Nonproportional quota sampling ........................................................................ 26
Heterogeneity sampling ..................................................................................... 26
Snowball sampling ............................................................................................. 27
Research techniques (data collection instruments) ........................................... 27
Methods to analyze the information, .............................................................. 28
Validation of data collection instruments ............................................................ 28
Descriptive validity ......................................................................................... 29
Interpretative validity ...................................................................................... 29
Baseline ......................................................................................................... 29
Triangulation .................................................................................................. 30
Reliability ........................................................................................................... 30
Stability of measurement, or test-retest reliability ........................................... 30
Internal consistency ........................................................................................... 30
Internal reliability (also called interobserver agreement) .................................... 30
Ethical aspects................................................................................................... 31
Time line ............................................................................................................ 31
Budget ............................................................................................................... 31
THESIS INDEX PROPOSAL ............................................................................. 32
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA......................... 35
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................... 35
HOW TO PLAN THE ORAL PRESENTATION...................................................... 36
HOW TO PLAN AND DESIGN YOUR THESIS CONFERENCE ....................... 37
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 39
PROPOSAL TO CARRY OUT RESEARCH PAPERS, THESIS, AND
DISSERTATIONS
If you are looking for the exact way to carry out and write scientific research
papers, thesis and dissertations let me tell you that such a thing does not exist at all.
However, there are steps that can guide you in your research process. The
American Psychological Association (APA) style is very useful when it comes to this
matter. Since it unifies the format or style you use for scientific research.
Here, I do not plan to abolish all those useful pieces of advice that other
authors give. Instead, I just plan to propose to you some useful steps you might
need when planning research papers, theses, and dissertations; and when trying to
get your degree at the university, and it might also serve to those that really love
doing research. You are also going to find here other authors ideas which usually
have helped me and my students succeed when doing research.
This guide present in a briefly manner steps and pieces of advice of how to
write the parts of a research project which includes: FRONT PAGE, INDEX,
ABSTRACT, INTRODUCTION, CHAPTER I: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM: 1.1
Description of the problem, 1.2 Research question(s), 1.3 Objectives of the
research(general and specific objective), 1.4 Hypothesis, 1.5 Operationalization of
variables, 1.6 Justification; CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OR STATE
OF ART, CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN, 3.1 Paradigm and design
(type of study), 3.2 Description of the environment, 3.3 Units of observation
(population), 3.3.1 Sampling procedure, 3.4 Research techniques (data collection
instruments), 3.5 Methods to analyze the information, 3.6 Validation of data
collection instruments, 3.7 Validity and reliability, 3.8 Ethical aspects, time line,
budget; THESIS INDEX PROPOSAL, BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES,
GLOSSARY, ANNEX AND APPENDIX.
On the other hand, when beginning and finishing a research project we have
just started the thesis work which contains all the information used in the project plus
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA; CHAPTER V:
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. Of course the majority of the
dissertation goes in past tense. Use your logic when writing it.
Finally, you will deal with your thesis dissertation. Here you will find how to
present your thesis, how to plan the oral presentation, how to design it electronically
and how to plan your conference proposal. All this elements help you clarify any
doubts you might have about the writing of your scientific research work and oral
presentation.
I: STEPS TO FOLLOW IN A SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PROJECT
Front page
In the front page you may write the generalities of the institution, like name of
the institution, the undergraduate topic proposal of your research, name of the
degree it is submitted to obtain, complete name of the authors, complete name of
your thesis tutor or advisor, place, and date (month and year). At this point remember
to mention in the topic proposal the variables or indicators of your study, the place
and year of your research work.
Example of a topic proposal:
EFFECTIVENESS OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES OF INTENSIVE

BASIC ENGLISH AND FRENCH I STUDENTS OF LICENCIATURA EN IDIOMA
INGLES OPCION ENSEANZA DURING SEMESTER I-2015
Index
The index is ordered by titles and subtitles. You must number where each
titles or subtitles begins. The titles go in capital letter, bold pen and centered. The
subtitles go justified, not centered and not in bold pen. Only the first word goes with
capital letter at the beginning of the word. Both titles and subtitles follow a correlative
number.
Abstract
In the abstract you must state what you are investigating, the objective of the
investigation, the methodology to carry out the research and the results you expect
to find. It must not be longer than 250 words or so (Grijalva, 2015).
Introduction
The introduction is a brief presentation of the content of the index. As a

matter of fact, in the introduction you must establish the reasons of your research,
motivation and essential aspects which will be developed in the process (Grijalva,
2015). The reader must clearly identify the problem of the research, the objectives
and the main results you are expecting to get.
The introduction must always briefly explain:
a) The title of the research and the type of research you are going to carryout.
b) The purpose of the research and the significance of it.
c) The statement of the problem and the research objectives of it.
d) A brief explanation of the methodology used in the research.
e) Each single part that is included in the index or main sections of the project.
f) And finally a closing sentences of the introduction and a connecting sentence

to the rest of the work.
CHAPTER I: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Description of the problem
Here remember to delimit the research problem to make it possible to

investigate. It is not so important the order of the content but the content itself. On
the other hand, in this chapter, no matter if it is a qualitative or quantitative research
or the type of problem you are about to investigate or the writing style you have, you
may usually include the following content:
Include other studies related with the studied the phenomenon, since and
from when it has been investigated and the spatial and temporary
delimitation of the research (Flores Godoy & Colocho Borja, 2014).
Include the research questions and sub research questions you have.
Present and past data that justifies or evidences the existence of the
problem.
The problem must express the relationship among variables (Navas

Hurtado, 2014) or concepts that guide the research, as well as theories
which guide, explain and clarify those variables or concepts.
Include the importance of the research and remember that any data or
reference you include must be scientifically proved.
Research question(s)
The research questions are related with the objectives, with the topic or
problematic situation, and with the hypothesis. The research question(s) guides the
research to the expected results. It questions the existing relationship between the
variables in the hypothesis. A simple way of writing a research question is to change
the objectives into questions (Flores Godoy & Colocho Borja, 2014).
Here is an example of an action research question:

To what extend do pronunciation activities help improve students
pronunciation of the sounds /s/-/z/ in context (Castillo, Menndez Girn,
Pereira Rodriguez, Sandoval Garca, & Tenas de Garca, 2015)?
Research objectives
The objectives make you have a clear idea of what you pretend through the
research. They must be written in a direct, clear and feasible form to a sure their
development and achievement.
They are divided in general objective and specific one. The general objective
must have the same elements or variables from the topic or problem, from the
justification, from the research question and from the hypothesis. You cannot have
a topic very different from your research question, general objective or hypothesis.
In this manner the general objective will agree with the statement of the problem,
main research question, and hypothesis if there is one; and the specific objectives
will go in harmony with the research questions (Navas Hurtado, 2014).
This is an example of an action research topic, objectives, research question

and hypothesis of change:
Topic:
PRONUNCIATION ACTIVITIES TO HELP INTENSIVE BASIC ENGLISH

STUDENTS PRODUCE THE FRICATIVE SOUNDS /S/-/Z/ AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF EL SALVADOR,, WESTERN MULTIDISCIPLINARY
CAMPUS, SEMESTER I, 2015 (Castillo, Menndez Girn, Pereira
Rodriguez, Sandoval Garca, & Tenas de Garca, 2015).
General objective:
To have Basic English students pronounce properly the fricative sounds /s/
and /z/ through pronunciation activities.
Specific objectives:
To have students learn the cases when they have to pronounce the /s/ and
/z/ in context.
To motivate students to pronounce naturally the sounds /s/-/z/ through
pronunciation activities in context.
Research question:
To what extend do pronunciation activities help improve students

pronunciation of the sounds /s/-/z/ in context?
Hypothesis of change:
Students will produce the sounds /s/-/z/ if they are exposed to pronunciation
activities in context (Castillo, Menndez Girn, Pereira Rodriguez, Sandoval
Garca, & Tenas de Garca, 2015) .
ACTION VERBS FOR USE IN DEVELOPING
OBJECTIVES (Medicine, 2016)
THESE VERBS ARE BETTER AVOIDED

Those that are often used but are open
to many interpretations:
appreciate, have faith in, know, learn,
understand, believe
COGNITIVE
LEVEL OF LEARNING LEARNING
The participant should
be able to...
characterize, cite, count, define, describe, draw,
Knowledge identify, indicate, label, list, match, name, outline,
(remember information) point, quote, read, recall, recite, recognize, record,
relate, repeat, reproduce, select, state, tabulate, tell,
trace, write
associate, classify, compare, compute, contrast,
Comprehension convert, defend, derive, describe, differentiate,
(understand or organize stored info.) discuss, distinguish, estimate, explain, express,
extend, extrapolate, generate, give examples,
illustrate, infer, interpolate, interpret, locate,
paraphrase, predict, reorder, report, restate, review,
rewrite, summarize, translate
apply, calculate, change, choose, classify, complete,
Application compute, demonstrate, discover, dramatize, employ,
examine, illustrate, interpolate, interpret, locate,
(use info. to solve problems) manipulate, modify, operate, order, practice, predict,
prepare, produce, relate, report, restate, review,
schedule, select, show, sketch, solve, translate, use,
utilize
Analysis analyze, appraise, break down, conclude, contract,
criticize, debate, deduce, detect, determine,
(consider evidence to reach conclusion)
diagram, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish,
experiment, identify, illustrate, infer, inspect,
inventory, outline, point out, question, regroup,
relate, separate, select, separate, subdivide,
summarize
arrange, assemble, categorize, codify, collect,
Synthesis combine, compile, compose, construct, create,
(break down info. To understand design, detect, develop, devise, draw, explain,
formulate, generalize, generate, integrate, manage,
components) modify, organize, originate, plan, predict, prepare,
prescribe, produce, propose, rearrange, reconstruct,
relate, reorganize, revise, rewrite, solve, specify,
summarize, synthesize, tell, write
appraise, argue, assess, choose, compare, conclude,
Evaluation contrast, criticize, critique, decide, describe,
(judge merit) discriminate, determine, estimate, explain, evaluate,
grade, interpret, judge, justify, measure, rank, rate,
recommend, relate, revise, score, select, summarize,
support, test
LEVEL OF LEARNING PSYCHOMOTOR

LEARNING
The participant should be
able to ...
Motor skills auscultate, diagnose, hold, measure, palpate, pass,

percuss, project, visualize, etc.
AFFECTIVE
LEVEL OF LEARNING LEARNING
The participant should
be able to...
Receive ask, choose, describe, follow, give, hold, identify, locate,
name, pick, point to, select, reply,
(attend to stimuli) use
Respond aid, answer, assist, comply, conform, discuss

(react to stimuli) greet, help, label, perform, practice, present, read,
recite, report, select, tell, write
Value complete, describe, differentiate, explain, follow,

(attach significance form, initiate, invite, join, justify, propose, read,
to ideas) report, select, share, start, study, work
adhere, alter, arrange, assemble, combine,

Organization compare, complete, defend, explain, generalize,
(build value systems) identify , integrate, modify , order, organize,
prepare, relate,
synthesize
act, convince, discriminate, display, exemplify ,

Characterization
influence, listen, modify , perform, practice, question,
(develop person reflect, revise, serve, solve, use, verify
style)
Hypothesis
If your research is quantitative or if it is a mixmethod research you certainly will

need a hypothesis; if it is an action research you will need a hypothesis of change. The
hypothesis is related with the topic or research problem, research objectives, and
research question(s., One of the simplest forms of writing a hypothesis or hypothesis of
change 1is to transform the general objective into a hypothesis. Remember that a
hypothesis is accepted when it is a solution to the problem, and they are based in the
theoretical framework or state of art, and they are related to the objectives (Grijalva, 2015).
The hypotheses are not necessary true, they can be false too. Moreover, they can be or
not be proved with scientific facts (Zacaras Ortez, 2001). Below you will find an example
of an action research general objective rewritten into a hypothesis of change.
General objective:
To have Basic English students pronounce properly the fricative sounds /s/ and
/z/ through pronunciation activities.
Hypothesis of change:
Students will produce the sounds /s/-/z/ if they are exposed to pronunciation
activities in context (Castillo, Menndez Girn, Pereira Rodriguez, Sandoval
Garca, & Tenas de Garca, 2015) .
The main components of a hypothesis are:
1. The units of observation: This refers to the objects, population or phenomenon

being studied.
2. The variables: These are factors that may acquire certain values and this variation
can be measured.
3. The connectors: This are the terms that relate the units of observation with the
variables and the variables themselves (Zacaras Ortez, 2001).
1According to Boggino & Rosekrans (2004) the hypothesis of change is used in action research to relate,
aprove or disaprove an idea and affect an action to generate certain change in students attitude. However
other authors confirm that it is not necessary to use a hypothesis of change in action research to have the
natural esence of the spiral cycle that this qualitative research has to reflect after each intervention.
1
There are two types of hypothesis according to Zacaras Ortez (2001):
1. One variable hypothesis. They are easy to write, but with less chance to go deep
into the field of study.
Example:
Salvadorans are violent.
FMOcc teachers are careless.
2. Two relation of association or covariance variable hypothesis: This is a simple

association or covariance between variables. That means that a change in one
variable is related to a change in the other one, without establishing what variable
made the change in one another (Sierra Bravo, 1989).
Examples:
If students are less stressed their learning will increase.
Elders bones resistance decreases with age (Zacaras Ortez, 2001).
3. Two or more dependent variable hypothesis: It explains and lets researchers know
the cause and effect of the phenomenon. If one variables changes the other one
does too.
Example:
Childrens knowledge about respect depends on their parents instruction (Zacaras Ortez,
2001).
Operationalization of variables
Being a research teacher and doing research, I have come to the conclusion that
the operationalization of variables must be done as soon as you have written your
objectives, and have a clear idea of the research question and hypothesis (if required).
2
Why? Well because you, as researcher, need to know which are the variables you have,
where will the variables guide you, what exact meaning or definition will you give to each
one of them in your research, and which are the indicators you find in them? Knowing
this, you can decide which instruments you will use to observe them and the time you will
spend doing so.
That is why I consider important to write this along with the objectives and
hypothesis (if needed). This clears up the road to write the justification, theoretical
framework or state of art, methodological design, timeline, budget and bibliography. Also
remember that the operationalization of variables is done in qualitative and quantitative
research as well. Here is an example of a qualitative operationalization of variables you
could use.
The operationalization of variables also depends on the State of Art or Theoretical

Frame Work you have. Since this gives you the clues on what to observe from the
variables, objectives or research question you have. When you do not have a hypothesis
you can get the variables from your research objectives or research question. You can
add other structural elements as hypothesis, and operational definitions if necessary:
3
Operationalization of variables
Units of Definition of
General objective Specific Objectives Variables Indicators Instruments Time
observation variables
To describe Intensive
Basic English and
French I students
language learning
strategies to attain the
target languages at the *skills In-Depth
University of El 2 hours
To identify the development Interview
language learning Salvador Western
Multidisciplinary Specific
strategies that
Campus, semester I - actions,
Intensive Basic
2015. behaviors,
English and
steps, or
French I students Basic English
Learning techniques
apply to learn the and French I
Strategies used by
target languages at To indicate the Students
students to
the University of El effectiveness of enhance their
Salvador Western Intensive Basic English own learning
Multidisciplinary and French I students (Oxford, 2003)
Campus, semester language learning Non-
I - 2015. *academic
strategies to attain the Participant
performance 48 hours
target languages at the Observation
University of El
Salvador Western
Multidisciplinary
Campus, semester I -
2015.
Source: Gallegos Escamilla, Lemus Peate, Menndez Gallegos, & Mina Perez (2015)
4
Justification
To justify a problem is to expose what motivates the researcher to investigate the

problem. That means, the important to establish the convenience of the study, its social
relevance, the practical implications and its theoretical value (Flores Godoy & Colocho
Borja, 2014). In other words, to justify means to argument and convince the public of the
importance of the study and its relevance.
You may also want to answer the following questions in your justification: Why it is
so useful, which are the goals you will achieve with it? Is it useful for the community or
for the researchers? Who will be the benefited? In what way? What is its social
projection? Will it help to solve any real problem from any institution, community or
society? Will it enrich any existing theory? Will the methodology help you establish how
to study certain type of population? Will you need to invent any instrument to observe the
population (Zacaras Ortez, 2001)?
To make it simple remember to describe the importance of the study with the
institutional policies, expected findings, who get benefits from the study, possible impact
on the studied population, society or persons involved, and possible scientific
contributions it might give to the existing knowledge there is on the topic (Grijalva, 2015).
Include the ideal answer to the problem and compare it to the reality you are have.
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OR STATE OF ART
You may ask yourself if there is a difference between a State of Art and a
Theoretical Framework. Well as a matter of fact, there is. A State of Art is used in
qualitative and mixed research. A Theoretical Framework is used in a quantitative study
and deals with scientific proved theories and scientific readings related with the topic. On
the other hand, a State of Art includes all the new and old information related to the topic.
They can be resent studies and experience from other serious authors as related readings
5
from books, magazines, websites and other resources that deal with the problem you are
trying to figure out and state as a thesis work.
The Theoretical Framework or State of Art is an explanation of the problem through

previous studies found in bibliography or through websites, magazines and other
resources which will help the researcher to observe the problem objectively through
appropriate instruments and to analyze the findings according to the objectives
established and explained in the theory.
The topics and subtopics used in this part go along with the research topic,
research question, research objectives and research hypothesis. It also includes
etymology and scientific meaning of the variables used in the research work and a deep
scientific research theory of them.
As a matter of fact, a history background of the problems is important in this kind

of work. Here, include all the previous studies on the topic or related scientific or serious
readings that different author have done.
You might also consider including the actual situation of the problem, how people
face and manage the problem up to now. Here you could state your hypothesis, research
question or main objective and include information dealing with possible solutions to the
problem. Write it as you were having a dialogue between you and the reader. Remember
to include references whenever necessary. Finally, always end your chapters with a
concluding phrase, sentence or paragraph.
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN
This chapter deals with a very well detailed description of the materials, methods,
procedures and instruments used in your research, and it is divided as follows:
6
Paradigm and design (type of study): In this section you just mention the type of
study and describe the characteristics is has. This type of study or paradigm and design
is also related with the research objective, that is what you intend to achieve through the
research. In quantitative research Hernndez Sampieri, Fernndez Collado, & Baptista
Lucio (1998) divide it in four types: exploratory, descriptive, correlational and explicative.
On the other hand, in qualitative and quantitative research, Zacaras Ortez (2001) adds
the retrospective and prospective study, as well as the experimental study. Conversely,
Grijalva ( 2015) preffers to divide them into four cathegories: a) according to the
researchers intervention (obserational and experimental); b) according to the of data
collection plan (retrospetive and prospective); c) according to the numbe of times each
variable was observed (transversal and longitudinal) ; and d) according to the number of
research variables involved (descriptive and nalitical).
Quantitative research
In quantitative research there are different types of study to do your research study.
The most commond are mentioned as follows:
The observational type

The researcher does not get involved. He is just an observer of the natural
enviornment where the research problem is taking place. In other words, he observes,
classifies and consignates the events that are taking place according to a guide or plan
already stablished as in quantitative research or it mighr not be planned or figuered out
as in qualitative research.
Experimental
It is usually used in quantitative research and the researcher manipulates and
controlles any changes in any variables. Therefor, the resoults are casaual explanations
(Grijalva, 2015).
Retrospective and prospective type

In the retrospective type the researcher investigates events that have occurred in
the past: In contrast, in the prospective type the events are recorded as they occure.
7
Transversal type and logitudinal type: These types of researches are due to the
period and sequence of the study. The transversal type is when the researcher studies
the variables simultaniously, making cut in the period of time. The time is not so importan
in relation to the form or manner when or where the events take place. However, the
logitudianl type is when the researcher studies one or more variables in a period of time
which changes along with the studied problem and characteristics of the varibal is taking
place in the field of study (Pineda, Alvarado, & de Canales, 1994).
Descriptive, analytic or explanatory and experimental type
In the descriptive type of study, the researcher only stablishes in what situation
the studied variables are in a population, the absence or presence of an event , frequency
in which the fenomenons take place, whom, where and when they are being observed.
This type of study can also be transversal and longitudinal, retrospective and prospective
or both at the same time (Pineda, Alvarado, & de Canales, 1994). This can generate
possible hypothesis for future studies.
According to Pineda, Alvarado, & de Cnales (1994) the descriptive studies can also
be exploratory since the researcher only intends to familiarize himself/herself with
problematic situation. In those cases where there is not enough theory related to the
problem being studied , the type of research can also be considered as a descriptive one.
If it is a descriptive study you might consider to answer the following questions:

What are you investigating, which are its the characteristics?, which results are you
expecting to find? and which are the boarders you might find? (Pineda, Alvarado, & de
Canales, 1994).
An analitic or explanatory type of study tries to answer the question why does
certain fenomenon occurs, its cause and risk or cause and effect. In other words they
look for the relationship between variables. In general a change in one variables makes
a change in another one. In other words the dependece that one variables has amoungh
the other one and a hypothesi is certainly needed in this type of research.
8
In the experimental type of study you can manipulate the variables for cause to
determine possible effects. For this you need to stablish two groups: one for the
experimental group and the other one for the controlled group. In the experimental one
you apply the independent variable or the risk factor to mesure later the dependent
variable. In the controlled group you just mesuare its the effect without applying the
independent variable.
Qualitative research
In qualitative research the most common types of study are as follows:
Participatory research and action research
Through participatory research the researchers pretend to help the studied

population in the identification, in the critical analysis of their own problems and needs
and in the search of possible solutions that the researchers pretend to study and solve.
Through this type of study researchers also pretend to generate knowledge and the
reserchers and the studied populatin are the ones who empower this knowledge through
the whole educational research study and action (Hernndez Sampieri, Fernndez
Collado, & Baptista Lucio, 1998).
The difference between this type of study and action research is that here
researchers present the project already made to the studied population: on the contrary
in action research the research problem and project is born and built with the studied
population. Also action research was born to serve educational purposes, to have a
change in peoples attitudes and behavior.
Ethnografic Research
This type of study has its principles in the antropology tradicion and it is oriented to
the study of social problems which objective is to describe then and understand them in
the research process. It presents to study social process and dinamic and dimensional
9
history. It pretends to know why people behave in certain manner in an apparent and
non-apparent way. While observing the reality, the researcher writes a hypothesis. It
gives importance to past events to build the present and the future that goes alone the
social process.
Description of the environment
It is as simple as it sounds; here you just describe the environment where the
research problem is taking place, country, geographical zone, urban or rural area,
location, size of the population and institution where the research will take place. However
the researcher is free to write any other detail that he considers important for the type of
research he will carry out, research problem, environment or conditions where its taking
place.
Units of observation (population)
First of all lets define what units of observation are, and according to Zacaras
Ortez (2001) it is the amount of individuals or elements which represent certain
characteristics supseptible of any research study. In that manner, you might consider to
talk about the inclusion and exclusion criteria you used to observe the phenomenon or
population and say why you took those criteria into account (Grijalva, 2015).
Sampling procedure
If the population is too big to be studied you might consider using a sampling
procedure. Then a sample is certain part of the units of observation which will be studied
and analyzed. In that way the results from your research can later be generalized. To do
this you must have in mind the universe you are planning to study and the sampling must
really represent the population to be studied for the generalizations to be valid (Zacaras
Ortez, 2001).
10
The information below was taken from different authors who give a clear idea of
steps to follow to determine the appropriate sample size and different forms to obtain a
sample size for your research project. I hope you find it as useful as I did with my students.
According to Explorable.com, (2009) there are three steps to determine the

appropriate samples size:
The Level of Precision
Also called sampling error , the level of precision, is the range in which the true
value of the population is estimated to be. This is range is expressed in
percentage points. Thus, if a researcher finds that 70% of farmers in the sample
have adopted a recommend technology with a precision rate of 5%, then the
researcher can conclude that between 65% and 75% of farmers in the
population have adopted the new technology.
2. The Confidence Level

The confidence interval is the statistical measure of the number of times out
of 100 that results can be expected to be within a specified range.
For example, a confidence interval of 90% means that results of an action will
probably meet expectations 90% of the time.
The basic idea described in Central Limit Theorem is that when a population is
repeatedly sampled, the average value of an attribute obtained is equal to the
true population value. In other words, if a confidence interval is 95%, it means
95 out of 100 samples will have the true population value within range of
precision (M.K. Trochim, 2006)..
11
Degree of Variability
Depending upon the target population and attributes under consideration, the
degree of variability] varies considerably. The more heterogeneous a
population is, the larger the sample size is required to get an optimum level of
precision. Note that a proportion of 55% indicates a high level of variability than
either 10% or 80%. This is because 10% and 80% means that a large majority
does not or does, respectively, have the attribute under consideration .
There are number of approaches to determine the sample size
including: using a census for smaller populations, using published tables,

imitating a sample size of similar studies, and applying formulas to calculate a
sample size (Explorable.com(ed), 2009) .
There are different designs to select the sample size and as M.K. Trochim (
2006) states you can use: probability sampling, simple random sampling,
stratified random sampling, systematic random sampling, cluster (area)
random sampling, multi-stage sampling, nonprobability sampling, accidental
haphazard or convenience sampling, purposive sampling, modal instance
sampling, expert sampling, quota sampling, heterogeneity sampling and the
snowball sampling (M.K. Trochim, 2006). .
Probability sampling
A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some

form of random selection. In order to have a random selection method, you must
set up some process or procedure that assures that the different units in your
population have equal probabilities of being chosen. Humans have long
practiced various forms of random selection, such as picking a name out of a
hat, or choosing the short straw. These days, we tend to use computers as the
mechanism for generating random numbers as the basis for random selection.
Some Definitions
12
Before I can explain the various probability methods we have to define some
basic terms. These are:
N = the number of cases in the sampling frame
n = the number of cases in the sample
NCn = the number of combinations (subsets) of n from N
f = n/N = the sampling fraction
That's it. With those terms defined we can begin to define the different
probability sampling methods (M.K. Trochim, 2006)..
Simple random sampling
The simplest form of random sampling is called simple random sampling. Pretty
tricky, huh? Here's the quick description of simple random sampling:
Objective: To select n units out of N such that each NCn has an equal chance
of being selected.
Procedure: Use a table of random numbers, a computer random number

generator, or a mechanical device to select the sample.
Source: Explorable.com(ed) (2009)
A somewhat stilted, if accurate, definition. Let's see if we can make it a little

more real. How do we select a simple random sample? Let's assume that we
13
are doing some research with a small service agency that wishes to assess
client's views of quality of service over the past year. First, we have to get the
sampling frame organized. To accomplish this, we'll go through agency records
to identify every client over the past 12 months. If we're lucky, the agency has
good accurate computerized records and can quickly produce such a list. Then,
we have to actually draw the sample. Decide on the number of clients you
would like to have in the final sample. For the sake of the example, let's say
you want to select 100 clients to survey and that there were 1000 clients over
the past 12 months. Then, the sampling fraction is f = n/N = 100/1000 = .10 or
10%. Now, to actually draw the sample, you have several options. You could
print off the list of 1000 clients, tear then into separate strips, put the strips in a
hat, mix them up real good, close your eyes and pull out the first 100. But this
mechanical procedure would be tedious and the quality of the sample would
depend on how thoroughly you mixed them up and how randomly you reached
in. Perhaps a better procedure would be to use the kind of ball machine that is
popular with many of the state lotteries. You would need three sets of balls
numbered 0 to 9, one set for each of the digits from 000 to 999 (if we select
000 we'll call that 1000). Number the list of names from 1 to 1000 and then use
the ball machine to select the three digits that selects each person. The obvious
disadvantage here is that you need to get the ball machines. (Where do they
make those things, anyway? Is there a ball machine industry?).
Neither of these mechanical procedures is very feasible and, with the

development of inexpensive computers there is a much easier way. Here's a
simple procedure that's especially useful if you have the names of the clients
already on the computer. Many computer programs can generate a series of
random numbers. Let's assume you can copy and paste the list of client names
into a column in an EXCEL spreadsheet. Then, in the column right next to it
paste the function =RAND() which is EXCEL's way of putting a random number
between 0 and 1 in the cells. Then, sort both columns -- the list of names and
14
the random number -- by the random numbers. This rearranges the list in
random order from the lowest to the highest random number. Then, all you
have to do is take the first hundred names in this sorted list. pretty simple. You
could probably accomplish the whole thing in under a minute.
Simple random sampling is simple to accomplish and is easy to explain to

others. Because simple random sampling is a fair way to select a sample, it is
reasonable to generalize the results from the sample back to the population.
Simple random sampling is not the most statistically efficient method of
sampling and you may, just because of the luck of the draw, not get good
representation of subgroups in a population. To deal with these issues, we
have to turn to other sampling methods (M.K. Trochim, 2006). .
Stratified random sampling
Stratified Random Sampling, also sometimes

called proportional or quota random sampling, involves dividing your population
into homogeneous subgroups and then taking a simple random sample in each
subgroup. In more formal terms:
Objective: Divide the population into non-overlapping groups (i.e., strata) N1,
N2, N3, ... Ni, such that N1 + N2 + N3 + ... + Ni = N. Then do a simple random
sample of f = n/N in each strata.
There are several major reasons why you might prefer stratified sampling over
simple random sampling. First, it assures that you will be able to represent not
only the overall population, but also key subgroups of the population, especially
small minority groups. If you want to be able to talk about subgroups, this may
be the only way to effectively assure you'll be able to. If the subgroup is
extremely small, you can use different sampling fractions (f) within the different
strata to randomly over-sample the small group (although you'll then have to
weight the within-group estimates using the sampling fraction whenever you
want overall population estimates). When we use the same sampling fraction
15
within strata we are conducting proportionate stratified random sampling. When
we use different sampling fractions in the strata, we call this disproportionate
stratified random sampling. Second, stratified random sampling will generally
have more statistical precision than simple random sampling. This will only be
true if the strata or groups are homogeneous. If they are, we expect that the
variability within-groups is lower than the variability for the population as a
whole. Stratified sampling capitalizes on that fact.
For example, let's say that the population of clients for our agency can be
divided into three groups: Caucasian, African-American and Hispanic-
American. Furthermore, let's assume that both the African-Americans and
Hispanic-Americans are relatively small minorities of the clientele (10% and 5%
respectively). If we just did a simple random sample of n=100 with a sampling
fraction of 10%, we would expect by chance alone that we would only get 10
and 5 persons from each of our two smaller groups. And, by chance, we could
get fewer than that! If we stratify, we can do better. First, let's determine how
many people we want to have in each group. Let's say we still want to take a
sample of 100 from the population of 1000 clients over the past year. But we
think that in order to say anything about subgroups we will need at least 25
cases in each group. So, let's sample 50 Caucasians, 25 African-Americans,
and 25 Hispanic-Americans. We know that 10% of the population, or 100
clients, are African-American. If we randomly sample 25 of these, we have a
within-stratum sampling fraction of 25/100 = 25%. Similarly, we know that 5%
or 50 clients are Hispanic-American. So our within-stratum sampling fraction
will be 25/50 = 50%. Finally, by subtraction we know that there are 850
Caucasian clients. Our within-stratum sampling fraction for them is 50/850 =
about 5.88%. Because the groups are more homogeneous within-group than
across the population as a whole, we can expect greater statistical precision
(less variance). And, because we stratified, we know we will have enough
16
cases from each group to make meaningful subgroup inferences (M.K.
Trochim, 2006)..
Source: M.K. Trochim ( 2006)
Systematic random sampling
Here are the steps you need to follow in order to achieve a systematic random
sample:
number the units in the population from 1 to N
decide on the n (sample size) that you want or need
k = N/n = the interval size
randomly select an integer between 1 to k
then take every kth unit
17
All of this will be much clearer with an example. Let's assume that we have a
population that only has N=100 people in it and that you want to take a sample
of n=20. To use systematic sampling, the population must be listed in a random
order. The sampling fraction would be f = 20/100 = 20%. in this case, the
interval size, k, is equal to N/n = 100/20 = 5. Now, select a random integer from
1 to 5. In our example, imagine that you chose 4. Now, to select the sample,
start with the 4th unit in the list and take every k-th unit (every 5th, because
k=5). You would be sampling units 4, 9, 14, 19, and so on to 100 and you would
wind up with 20 units in your sample (M.K. Trochim, 2006). .
For this to work, it is essential that the units in the population are randomly
ordered, at least with respect to the characteristics you are measuring. Why
would you ever want to use systematic random sampling? For one thing, it is
fairly easy to do. You only have to select a single random number to start things
off. It may also be more precise than simple random sampling. Finally, in some
situations there is simply no easier way to do random sampling. For instance,
I once had to do a study that involved sampling from all the books in a library.
Once selected, I would have to go to the shelf, locate the book, and record
18
when it last circulated. I knew that I had a fairly good sampling frame in the
form of the shelf list (which is a card catalog where the entries are arranged in
the order they occur on the shelf). To do a simple random sample, I could have
estimated the total number of books and generated random numbers to draw
the sample; but how would I find book #74,329 easily if that is the number I
selected? I couldn't very well count the cards until I came to 74,329! Stratifying
wouldn't solve that problem either. For instance, I could have stratified by card
catalog drawer and drawn a simple random sample within each drawer. But I'd
still be stuck counting cards. Instead, I did a systematic random sample. I
estimated the number of books in the entire collection. Let's imagine it was
100,000. I decided that I wanted to take a sample of 1000 for a sampling
fraction of 1000/100,000 = 1%. To get the sampling interval k, I divided N/n =
100,000/1000 = 100. Then I selected a random integer between 1 and 100.
Let's say I got 57. Next I did a little side study to determine how thick a thousand
cards are in the card catalog (taking into account the varying ages of the cards).
Let's say that on average I found that two cards that were separated by 100
cards were about .75 inches apart in the catalog drawer. That information gave
me everything I needed to draw the sample. I counted to the 57th by hand and
recorded the book information. Then, I took a compass. (Remember those from
your high-school math class? They're the funny little metal instruments with a
sharp pin on one end and a pencil on the other that you used to draw circles in
geometry class.) Then I set the compass at .75", stuck the pin end in at the
57th card and pointed with the pencil end to the next card (approximately 100
books away). In this way, I approximated selecting the 157th, 257th, 357th, and
so on. I was able to accomplish the entire selection procedure in very little time
using this systematic random sampling approach. I'd probably still be there
counting cards if I'd tried another random sampling method. (Okay, so I have
no life. I got compensated nicely, I don't mind saying, for coming up with this
scheme.) (M.K. Trochim, 2006).
19
Cluster (area) random sampling
The problem with random sampling methods when we have to sample a

population that's disbursed across a wide geographic region is that you will
have to cover a lot of ground geographically in order to get to each of the units
you sampled. Imagine taking a simple random sample of all the residents of
New York State in order to conduct personal interviews. By the luck of the draw
you will wind up with respondents who come from all over the state. Your
interviewers are going to have a lot of traveling to do. It is for precisely this
problem that cluster or area random sampling was invented.
In cluster sampling, we follow these steps:
divide population into clusters (usually along geographic boundaries)
randomly sample clusters measure all units within sampled clusters
For instance, in the figure we see a map of the counties in New York State.
Let's say that we have to do a survey of town governments that will require us
going to the towns personally. If we do simple random samples state-wide we'll
have to cover the entire state geographically. Instead, we decide to do a cluster
sampling of five counties (marked in red in the figure). Once these are selected,
we go to every town government in the five areas. Clearly this strategy will help
us to economize on our mileage. Cluster or area sampling, then, is useful in
situations like this, and is done primarily for efficiency of administration. Note
also, that we probably don't have to worry about using this approach if we are
conducting a mail or telephone survey because it doesn't matter as much (or
cost more or raise inefficiency) where we call or send letters to (M.K. Trochim,
2006)..
20
Multi-stage sampling
The four methods we've covered so far -- simple, stratified, systematic and
cluster -- are the simplest random sampling strategies. In most real applied
social research, we would use sampling methods that are considerably more
complex than these simple variations. The most important principle here is that
we can combine the simple methods described earlier in a variety of useful
ways that help us address our sampling needs in the most efficient and
effective manner possible. When we combine sampling methods, we call this
multi-stage sampling (M.K. Trochim, 2006). .
For example, consider the idea of sampling New York State residents for face-
to-face interviews. Clearly we would want to do some type of cluster sampling
as the first stage of the process. We might sample townships or census tracts
throughout the state. But in cluster sampling we would then go on to measure
everyone in the clusters we select. Even if we are sampling census tracts we
may not be able to measure everyone who is in the census tract. So, we might
set up a stratified sampling process within the clusters. In this case, we would
have a two-stage sampling process with stratified samples within cluster
21
samples. Or, consider the problem of sampling students in grade schools. We
might begin with a national sample of school districts stratified by economics
and educational level. Within selected districts, we might do a simple random
sample of schools. Within schools, we might do a simple random sample of
classes or grades. And, within classes, we might even do a simple random
sample of students. In this case, we have three or four stages in the sampling
process and we use both stratified and simple random sampling. By combining
different sampling methods we are able to achieve a rich variety of probabilistic
sampling methods that can be used in a wide range of social research contexts
(M.K. Trochim, 2006). .
Nonprobability sampling
The difference between nonprobability and probability sampling is that

nonprobability sampling does not involve random selection and probability
sampling does. Does that mean that nonprobability samples aren't
representative of the population? Not necessarily. But it does mean that
nonprobability samples cannot depend upon the rationale of probability theory.
At least with a probabilistic sample, we know the odds or probability that we
have represented the population well. We are able to estimate confidence
intervals for the statistic. With nonprobability samples, we may or may not
represent the population well, and it will often be hard for us to know how well
we've done so. In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random sampling
methods over nonprobabilistic ones, and consider them to be more accurate
and rigorous. However, in applied social research there may be circumstances
where it is not feasible, practical or theoretically sensible to do random
sampling. Here, we consider a wide range of nonprobabilistic alternatives.
We can divide nonprobability sampling methods into two broad

types: accidental or purposive. Most sampling methods are purposive in nature
22
because we usually approach the sampling problem with a specific plan in
mind. The most important distinctions among these types of sampling methods
are the ones between the different types of purposive sampling approaches
(M.K. Trochim, 2006)..
Accidental, haphazard or convenience sampling
One of the most common methods of sampling goes under the various titles
listed here. I would include in this category the traditional "man on the street"
(of course, now it's probably the "person on the street") interviews conducted
frequently by television news programs to get a quick (although
nonrepresentative) reading of public opinion. I would also argue that the typical
use of college students in much psychological research is primarily a matter of
convenience. (You don't really believe that psychologists use college students
because they believe they're representative of the population at large, do
you?). In clinical practice,we might use clients who are available to us as our
sample. In many research contexts, we sample simply by asking for volunteers.
Clearly, the problem with all of these types of samples is that we have no
evidence that they are representative of the populations we're interested in
generalizing to -- and in many cases we would clearly suspect that they are not
(M.K. Trochim, 2006). .
Purposive sampling
In purposive sampling, we sample with a purpose in mind. We usually would

have one or more specific predefined groups we are seeking. For instance,
have you ever run into people in a mall or on the street who are carrying a
clipboard and who are stopping various people and asking if they could
interview them? Most likely they are conducting a purposive sample (and most
23
likely they are engaged in market research). They might be looking for
Caucasian females between 30-40 years old. They size up the people passing
by and anyone who looks to be in that category they stop to ask if they will
participate. One of the first things they're likely to do is verify that the
respondent does in fact meet the criteria for being in the sample. Purposive
sampling can be very useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted
sample quickly and where sampling for proportionality is not the primary
concern. With a purposive sample, you are likely to get the opinions of your
target population, but you are also likely to overweight subgroups in your
population that are more readily accessible (M.K. Trochim, 2006). .
All of the methods that follow can be considered subcategories of purposive

sampling methods. We might sample for specific groups or types of people as
in modal instance, expert, or quota sampling. We might sample for diversity as
in heterogeneity sampling. Or, we might capitalize on informal social networks
to identify specific respondents who are hard to locate otherwise, as in snowball
sampling. In all of these methods we know what we want -- we are sampling
with a purpose (M.K. Trochim, 2006).
Modal instance sampling
In statistics, the mode is the most frequently occurring value in a distribution. In

sampling, when we do a modal instance sample, we are sampling the most
frequent case, or the "typical" case. In a lot of informal public opinion polls, for
instance, they interview a "typical" voter. There are a number of problems with
this sampling approach. First, how do we know what the "typical" or "modal"
case is? We could say that the modal voter is a person who is of average age,
educational level, and income in the population. But, it's not clear that using the
averages of these is the fairest (consider the skewed distribution of income, for
instance). And, how do you know that those three variables -- age, education,
24
income -- are the only or even the most relevant for classifying the typical voter?
What if religion or ethnicity is an important discriminator? Clearly, modal
instance sampling is only sensible for informal sampling contexts (M.K.
Trochim, 2006)..
Expert sampling
Expert sampling involves the assembling of a sample of persons with known or

demonstrable experience and expertise in some area. Often, we convene such
a sample under the auspices of a "panel of experts." There are actually two
reasons you might do expert sampling. First, because it would be the best way
to elicit the views of persons who have specific expertise. In this case, expert
sampling is essentially just a specific subcase of purposive sampling. But the
other reason you might use expert sampling is to provide evidence for the
validity of another sampling approach you've chosen. For instance, let's say
you do modal instance sampling and are concerned that the criteria you used
for defining the modal instance are subject to criticism. You might convene an
expert panel consisting of persons with acknowledged experience and insight
into that field or topic and ask them to examine your modal definitions and
comment on their appropriateness and validity. The advantage of doing this is
that you aren't out on your own trying to defend your decisions -- you have
some acknowledged experts to back you. The disadvantage is that even the
experts can be, and often are, wrong (M.K. Trochim, 2006). .
Quota Sampling
In quota sampling, you select people nonrandomly according to some fixed

quota. There are two types of quota sampling: proportional and non
proportional. In proportional quota sampling you want to represent the major
characteristics of the population by sampling a proportional amount of each.
For instance, if you know the population has 40% women and 60% men, and
that you want a total sample size of 100, you will continue sampling until you
25
get those percentages and then you will stop. So, if you've already got the 40
women for your sample, but not the sixty men, you will continue to sample men
but even if legitimate women respondents come along, you will not sample
them because you have already "met your quota." The problem here (as in
much purposive sampling) is that you have to decide the specific
characteristics on which you will base the quota. Will it be by gender, age,
education race, religion, etc.? (M.K. Trochim, 2006).
Nonproportional quota sampling
It is a bit less restrictive. In this method, you specify the minimum number of
sampled units you want in each category. here, you're not concerned with
having numbers that match the proportions in the population. Instead, you
simply want to have enough to assure that you will be able to talk about even
small groups in the population. This method is the nonprobabilistic analogue of
stratified random sampling in that it is typically used to assure that smaller
groups are adequately represented in your sample (M.K. Trochim, 2006). .
Heterogeneity sampling
We sample for heterogeneity when we want to include all opinions or views,

and we aren't concerned about representing these views proportionately.
Another term for this is sampling fordiversity. In many brainstorming or nominal
group processes (including concept mapping), we would use some form of
heterogeneity sampling because our primary interest is in getting broad
spectrum of ideas, not identifying the "average" or "modal instance" ones. In
effect, what we would like to be sampling is not people, but ideas. We imagine
that there is a universe of all possible ideas relevant to some topic and that we
want to sample this population, not the population of people who have the
ideas. Clearly, in order to get all of the ideas, and especially the "outlier" or
26
unusual ones, we have to include a broad and diverse range of participants.
Heterogeneity sampling is, in this sense, almost the opposite of modal instance
sampling (M.K. Trochim, 2006). .
Snowball sampling
In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria
for inclusion in your study. You then ask them to recommend others who they
may know who also meet the criteria. Although this method would hardly lead
to representative samples, there are times when it may be the best method
available. Snowball sampling is especially useful when you are trying to reach
populations that are inaccessible or hard to find. For instance, if you are
studying the homeless, you are not likely to be able to find good lists of
homeless people within a specific geographical area. However, if you go to that
area and identify one or two, you may find that they know very well who the
other homeless people in their vicinity are and how you can find them (M.K.
Trochim, 2006).
Research techniques (data collection instruments)
In this section you must name and describe the research techniques. Make
emphasis in the variables and indicators of the research study. You may want to consider
writing and instrument per objective or per variable. This helps you at the moment of
analyzing the information.
According to Navas Hurtado (2014), there are four types of qualitative techniques:
focus groups, projective techniques, individual indepth interviews, and finally the survie
technique.
27
Focus groups are used to discuss or to motivate. The group is a sample of the
population being studied. One of the reserchers or facilitator coordinates and orients the
participation of the members of the group to observe and achieve the research objectives.
Methods to analyze the information,

If it is a quantitative research you may want to use Microsoft Excel to make graphs
since they are nice and colorful. For me and my students it has been much better to use
the SPSS software or google drive when it comes to survives on line.
On the other hand, if it is a qualitative research, for the analysis and interpratation
of data, you may consider using NVIVO software or may consider reading Valles (2002).
This software and reading has help me a lot to comprehend how to analysise and
interprete qualitative data which is for its nature complecated to obtain, analize and
interprete.
Validation of data collection instruments
As Kimberlin (2008) says, validity is often defined as the extent to which an

instrument measures what it purports to measure. That is why it is common to have three
experts on the field of your research problem check the instruments you will use to gather
the information you are looking for. This is due to the fact that we need experts on the
field to see if we are going to measure what we pretend to in our research objectives. To
do this, it is necessary to give to the experts the operationalization of the variables and
the instruments to be used. This guides them in our research to certify if we are using the
proper instruments well developed to observe the target population.
There are research problems that do not need that experts to validate your
instruments as in operative research and action research. What you do here is that you
look for a similar situation and you applied them there and observe the results of the
variables. This may tell you if you are really measuring what you pretend to in the
28
objectives. In action research, you can also observe the variables with a small sample of
the target population and see their behavior and possible changes or you may want to
validate the instruments on the field of action and go along with the natural cycle that the
triangulation provides.
In other types of research as in qualitative research or action research you may

also consider the following types of validity that Boggino & Rosekrans, (2004)
recommend.
Descriptive validity
This is when two or more researchers perceive similar information of the variables
being studied. For example, if two or more researcher are observing a phenomenon both
of them should be describing similar facts.
Interpretative validity
On the contrary, interpretative validity evaluates the levels of subjectivity that the
researcher might have (Boggino & Rosekrans, 2004). In every single investigation you
will always fight against the researchers subjectivity. That means that the researchers
must be aware of the prejudice, paradigms and the researchers own conceptions about
the research problem, analyzing at the same time how this can affect the research itself.
For this Boggino & Rosekrans ( 2004) recommend to take a personal diary or to make up
group of reflexion to analyse the perceived data. Here, everysingle person involved can
say their own point of view of how they perceive or see the problem and finally end with
the subjectivity that might exist. In this way you give more importance to participants
interpretation of the research problem and diminish the subjectivity that might be present.
Baseline
This type of validity is when you describe the event before any intervention and
then after the intervation took place to see if their has occurd any change in the research
problem. In other words, it is like describing and taking a picture before and after the
intervation.
29
Triangulation
It is also used by Boggino & Rosekrans (2004) as a critiria to validate the results.
It can be changing according to the needs you find in your research problem. Its objective
is to to validate and understand the interpreted data.
Reliability
Validity helps to construct research instruments focusing on minimizing measurement

errors.
Then reliability estimates are used to evaluate the stability of measures

administered at different times to the same individuals or using the same standard
(test-retest reliability) or the equivalence of sets of items from the same test
(internal consistency) or of different observing the same instrument (interrater
reliability) or of different observers scoring a behavior or event using the same
instrument (interrater reliability).
Stability of measurement, or test-retest reliability
It is determined by administering a test at two different points in time to the

same individuals and determining the correlation or strength of association of the
two sets of scores.
Internal consistency
It gives an estimate of the equivalence of sets of items from the same test
(e.g., a set of questions aimed at assessing quality of life or disease severity).
The coefficient of internal consistency provides an estimate of the reliability of
measurement and is based on the assumption that items measuring the same
construct should correlate. Perhaps the most widely used method for estimating
internal consistency reliability is Cronbachs alpha (1951).
Internal reliability (also called interobserver agreement)
30
It establishes the equivalence of ratings obtained with an instrument when
used by different observers. If a measurement process involves judgments or
ratings by observers, a reliable measurement will require consistency between
different raters. Interrater reliability requires completely independent ratings for
the same event by more than one rater. No discussion or collaboration can occur
when reliability is being tested. Reliability is determined by the correlation of the
scores from two or more independent rates (for rating on a continuum) or the
coefficient of agreement of the judgments of the raters (Kimberlin, 2008).
Ethical aspects
Ethics plays an important role in research. No matter if it is qualitative or

quantitative research you must respect peoples identity and integrity. You must also be
careful with the objective of the research, with the instruments to be use, with the goal of
the data gotten in the research process and with the conclusions that the data can
generate. Ethics also implies respect to society, culture, ethnics, gender, age, sex, nature
and plagiarism.
Time line
The time line is a chart where you include all the activities related to your research
perfectly dated and timed. You may also include the place where each activity will take
place and the persons that will be involved. This goes from planning the project to its
execution and final work.
Budget
The budget is usually divided in human resources, supplies, and services. You
may name the human resource, supplies or services with its corresponding cot, cos per
item if necessary, number of items, detail and total. This is written according to your
needs.
31
THESIS INDEX PROPOSAL
There is no exact index proposal for your thesis presentation. This goes
according to your research. However, you may include:
1. The cover page
2. Double cover page
3. Index
4. Summary
5. Introduction
6. Chapter I. Statement of the problem
a. Description of the problem and a little historical background of the problem
b. Other authors opinions about the problem
c. Research questions
d. Research objectives
e. Impact that the research will give
f. Benefited population
g. Justification
h. Objectives (general and specific)
7. Chapter II. State of art or theoretical framework
i. Historical background about the research problem
j. Epistemological definition of the variables
k. Defining the units of observation
l. Actual situation of the problem
m. Hypothesis of change or main objective related with theory that defines your
problem
32
8. Chapter III. Methodology
n. Type of research and design
o. Description of the environment
p. Units of observation
q. Sampling procedure
r. Approaching the field of study
s. Data collection instruments or procedures
t. Data processing
u. Validity and reliability
v. Ethical aspects
9. Chapter IV. Analysis and interpretation of data
10. Chapter V. Conclusions and recommendations
11. References
a. Books
b. Magazines
c. Websites
d. Interviews
12. Annex
13. appendix
a. Time table
b. budget
3.1 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES
33
According to APA style the bibliographical references may include:
a. Books
Example:
Brown, H.D. (2007). Teaching by Principles. New York: Pearson

Longman Education.
b. Magazines
Example:
Sun, R.C., & Shek, D.T. (2012). Classroom Misbehavior in the Eyes of
Students: A Qualitative Study. The Scientific World Journal, 1-8.
c. Websites
Steinmayr, R., Meibner, A. Weidinger, A.F., & Wirthwein, L. (July 30,

2015). Oxford Bibliographies Your Best Research Starts Now.
Retrieved April 27, 2015, from http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/
d. Interviews
Example:
Bonilla, C.L. (April 24, 2015). Effectiveness of Basic English and French
Students Strategies to Acquire the Target Language. (P.G.E.,
Interviewer) Santa Ana, El Salvador.
3.2 GLOSSARY
All the vocabulary which you consider needs specific consideration may be
included here. Write down the definition as it is used in your research problem and as
any glossary it is written in alphabetical order.
You must have in mind that when beginning and finishing the research project we
have just started the thesis work which contains all the information used in the project plus
34
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA; CHAPTER V:
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. Of course you will exclude the thesis
proposal index and the majority of the dissertation goes in past tense. Use your logic
when writing it.
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
At this point you must be very careful when analysis and interpreting your data.
There is no exact way of doing it since it depends on the type of research you did, on the
target population and on the environment and social situation where it was carried out.
Just remember to respect ethics and validity of findings.
At this point you may do the following:
1. Order the information according to the variables you have, or you might want to do
it according to the objectives. Other researchers prefer to do it according to the
instruments they used. Even if you do it according to the instruments or objectives, you
must then divide it according to the variables you observed.
2. After ordering the information you may begin with the analysis of data. Go over the
theoretical frame work or state of art and keep in mind where each variable is mentioned
since you need to compare the theory with the data gotten in your research.
3. As soon as you finish comparing, you are ready to write your analysis and
interpretation of the data. Always include examples from your research. This gives the
analysis and interpretation more relevance. You can also guide the reader to go for
further information to the appendix. If you include graphs or charts, you need to write the
source of origin. The source is written with the author and year. With the graphs or charts
gotten in your research just write source: researcher findings. Some researcher
disagree on this and they say that you may write in the source the instrument where the
information was gotten.
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

35
The conclusions you give depend on the analysis and interpretation you did. Begin
with a short introduction of the research problems. Name the research problem. Then go
over the objectives and name them with a summary of the analysis and interpretation of
each one of them. This even goes in harmony with the research questions. If you have
a hypothesis, this is the time to say if it true or false, and the reasons according to the
objectives to say why you are confirming or denying it.
You may want to recommend other researchers how to make decisions, and to
value the effect of one phenomenon over the other in other to controlle the results. You
can also recommend on the acquisition of any equipment and the use of it and other
material. Authors as Navas Hurtado ( 2014) say that the recommendations must express
possible solutions to the stated problem.
HOW TO PLAN THE ORAL PRESENTATION
If you are presenting your thesis as a group, remember to dress formally and if you
can uniform your style that would give a sense of unity among your team. Prepare your
clothing a day before. Try to wear comfortable and formal shoes. Avoid tight clothes
because this makes your transpire more when you are nervous or when you hesitate.
Plan everything a month before your thesis oral presentation. Make sure to check
the room or place of the presentation. Be sure of making any reservation if necessary.
Check the protocol you must follow according to your place of study or country.
In the University of El Salvador, Western University Campus you need to have a

table where the main authorities will sit (the jury, the tutor, and the head of the
department). This table must be covered with a cloth table and you need a decoration of
flower in the middle of it. The names of the authorities must be well identified on card
board signaling them where to sit. Place a bottle of water properly presented in front of
each authority.
36
If you will use a computer and a projector, check them in the same place of the
presentation a few days before. Another time, make sure of any reservation you might
need. Write a map of the location of any furniture because this is the plan you will use
when arranging the furniture and equipment at the moment of the presentation. You will
also need a flag of your country and a flag of your campus. Your countries flag goes on
the right and the universitys goes on the left.
Visitors are always welcome even if they have not received any invitation. To avoid
disruption, write a chart were it says Do not disturb. Thesis presentation in progress.
Paste the chart on the door for anybody to see it.
Coffee is always welcome, but not an obligation. Before starting with your thesis
presentation ask the authorities and visitors if they would like coffee or anything to drink.
You may include some snacks at their table if you want. They wont eat because they are
usually busy paying attention to the dissertation you are giving, but just in case they get a
little hungry you may do it. As soon as you begin with your presentation you cannot let
anybody in or out and any coffee break stops. You may want to have background music
meanwhile you wait until everybody settles down.
Remember to welcome and great in order: fist the authorities, then the public.
Begin your presentation with the cover of your thesis projected on the board. Continue
with acknowledgments you may have (if you believe in God, he must be named at the
beginning of the acknowledgments). Go over the agenda very well timed and respect
time limits. Here at the Western Multidisciplinary Campus an estimate of 50 minutes are
allowed for the thesis presentation. Allow 20 to 30 minutes to questions and answers.
The authorities will need time in private to assess your work. Meanwhile you and
the visitors are out of the room you may want to share with them some coffee. Do not
have the table of snacks inside the room. When you come back they will read to you
your thesis grades.
HOW TO PLAN AND DESIGN YOUR THESIS CONFERENCE

37
In your presentation include the procedures of the preliminary phase, of the
planning phase and execution phase. Include the data analysis and interpretation phase
as well as the instrumentation. The finding are very important, so include the relevance
of findings, the connection of the findings with the objectives and with the hypothesis and
research questions. Talk about the achievement of the objectives and if you have a
hypothesis the verification of it. Discuss the analysis of gathered data and the analysis
and interpretation of results. Be careful with the quality of the conclusions and
recommendations you give.
Use appropriate vocabulary to communicate your message. Be coherent in your

discourse and command the content as well. Prove in your discourse that you have been
involved in the whole research process.
Be ready to answer any possible question and be accurate with your answers.
When answering try to clarify any doubt the authorities might have. Be clear and precise
when doing so. Show the audience that you command the research situation and process.
If you are working as a team, every single member of the each must give his or her opinion
about any possible questions the authorities or people in general might have.
Finally, thank the authorities for their time and observations and tell them that you
will include in your final draft all the remarks gotten. Thank the visitor for their presence
and enjoy the rest of the day.
When presenting the final draft take into account the mechanics of the written
report, the usage of the language, as well as the unity, coherence, and cohesion of it.
Remember to have in mind the APA documentation format and the APA reference format.
38
REFERENCES
Boggino, N., & Rosekrans, K. (2004). Investigacion-Accin Reflexin Crtica Sobre las
Prctica Educativa. Santa Fe: Hommo Sapiens Ediciones.
Brown, H. (2007). Teaching by Principles. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
Castillo, R. M., Menndez Girn, S. A., Pereira Rodriguez, J. M., Sandoval Garca, M. E.,
& Tenas de Garca, C. A. (2015). "PRONUNCIATION ACTIVITIES TO HELP
INTENSIVE BASIC ENGLISH STUDENTS, GROUP 6, PRODUCE THE
FRICATIVE SOUNDS /S/-/Z/ AT THE WESTRN MULTIDISCIPLINARY CAMPUS
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF EL SALVADOR, SEMESTER I-2015. Santa Ana: UES.
Cronbach, L. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika,
16:297-334.
Explorable.com(ed). (11 de April de 2009). Sample Size- The Number of Observations in
Research. Recuperado el 30 de Septiembre de 2015, de Sample Size- The
Number of Observations in Research: https;//explorable.com-samplesize
39
Flores Godoy, N. A., & Colocho Borja, L. A. (2014). Lineamientos para Presentacin de
Informe de Investigacin. Santa Ana: UES.
Gallegos Escamilla, P. P., Lemus Peate, G. P., Menndez Gallegos, I. I., & Mina Perez,
C. A. (2015). "Effectiveness of Language Learning Strategies of Intensive Basic
English and French I Students of Licenciatura En Idioma Ingls Opcin Enseanza
During Semester I-2015". Santa Ana, El Salvador: Universidad de El Salvador,
FMocc.
Grijalva, R. L. (2015). Mdulo 1 Manual Para la Elaboracin de un Proyecto de
Investigacin. San Salvador: EDIPRO.
Hernndez Sampieri, R., Fernndez Collado, C., & Baptista Lucio, P. (1998). Metodologa
de la Investigacin. Mexico: MacGraw Hill.
Kimberlin, C. L. (2008). Validity and Reliability of Mesurement Instruments Used in
Research. Gainesville: American Society of Health-System Pharma-DOI, Inc.
M.K. Trochim, W. (10 de Octubre de 2006). Research Methods Knowledge Base.
Recuperado el 9 de septiembre de 2015, de www.socialresearchmethods.net-
sampp
Navas Hurtado, V. M. (2014). La Investigacin Social Su Metodologa. San Salvador:
Talleres Grficos UCA.
Oxford, R. L. (2003). Language Learning Styles and Strategies: An Overview. Maryland:
Gala.
Pineda, E. B., Alvarado, E. L., & de Canales, F. H. (1994). Metodologia de la
Investigacin. Washington D.C.: Organizacin Panamericana de la Salud.
Sierra Bravo, R. (1989). Tcnicas de Investigacin Social. Argentina: Paraninfo.
Valles, M. S. (2002). Cuadernos Metodolgicos Entrevistas Cualitativas. Madrid: EFCA,
S.A.
Zacaras Ortez, E. (2001). Asi Se Investiga Pasos para hacer una investigacin. Santa
Tecla: Clsicos Roxsil.
40

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A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE CONTENT

Useful steps for writing research papers,

I: STEPS TO FOLLOW IN A SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PROJECT

Example of a topic proposal:

EFFECTIVENESS OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES OF INTENSIVE

The introduction is a brief presentation of the content of the index. As a

The introduction must always briefly explain:

b) The purpose of the research and the significance of it.

c) The statement of the problem and the research objectives of it.

d) A brief explanation of the methodology used in the research.

f) And finally a closing sentences of the introduction and a connecting sentence

Description of the problem

Here remember to delimit the research problem to make it possible to

The problem must express the relationship among variables (Navas

Here is an example of an action research question:

This is an example of an action research topic, objectives, research question

PRONUNCIATION ACTIVITIES TO HELP INTENSIVE BASIC ENGLISH

To what extend do pronunciation activities help improve students

THESE VERBS ARE BETTER AVOIDED

LEVEL OF LEARNING PSYCHOMOTOR

Motor skills auscultate, diagnose, hold, measure, palpate, pass,

Respond aid, answer, assist, comply, conform, discuss

Value complete, describe, differentiate, explain, follow,

adhere, alter, arrange, assemble, combine,

act, convince, discriminate, display, exemplify ,

If your research is quantitative or if it is a mixmethod research you certainly will

The main components of a hypothesis are:

1. The units of observation: This refers to the objects, population or phenomenon

Salvadorans are violent.

FMOcc teachers are careless.

2. Two relation of association or covariance variable hypothesis: This is a simple

If students are less stressed their learning will increase.

Elders bones resistance decreases with age (Zacaras Ortez, 2001).

The operationalization of variables also depends on the State of Art or Theoretical

To justify a problem is to expose what motivates the researcher to investigate the

CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OR STATE OF ART

The Theoretical Framework or State of Art is an explanation of the problem through

As a matter of fact, a history background of the problems is important in this kind

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN

The observational type

Retrospective and prospective type

Descriptive, analytic or explanatory and experimental type

If it is a descriptive study you might consider to answer the following questions:

In qualitative research the most common types of study are as follows:

Participatory research and action research

Through participatory research the researchers pretend to help the studied

Description of the environment

Units of observation (population)

According to Explorable.com, (2009) there are three steps to determine the

The Level of Precision

2. The Confidence Level

There are number of approaches to determine the sample size

including: using a census for smaller populations, using published tables,

A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some

N = the number of cases in the sampling frame

n = the number of cases in the sample

NCn = the number of combinations (subsets) of n from N

f = n/N = the sampling fraction

Simple random sampling

Procedure: Use a table of random numbers, a computer random number

Source: Explorable.com(ed) (2009)

A somewhat stilted, if accurate, definition. Let's see if we can make it a little

Neither of these mechanical procedures is very feasible and, with the