GENERAL NAVIAGATION

Latitude and Longitude

In order to read a chart -- and, of course, in order to do any plotting on a

chart -- one must be familiar with latitude and longitude (Figure 1.5). Lines of
latitude run east-west and are used to measure position on the globe in the
north-south direction. Because lines of latitude drawn on the globe appears as
concentric circles, a line of latitude is also referred to as a parallel. Latitude is
measured as a number between 0 and 90, where 0 is the Equator, 90
north (N) is the North Pole, and 90 south (S) is the South Pole.

Lines of longitude run north-south and are used to measure position on the
globe in the eastwest direction. Lines of longitude drawn on the globe appear
like the sectional lines of an orange, coming together at the north and south
poles. A line of longitude is also referred to as a meridian and can take on a
value between 0 and 180; 0 is the Prime Meridian and runs through the
Royal Observatory in Greenwich (London) and 180 is the International Date
Line.
.

Nautical charts are oriented so that geographic (true) north is towards the
top. The vertical lines are the meridians (longitude) and the markings on the
left and right border measure latitude. The horizontal lines are the parallels
(latitude) and the markings on the top and bottom border measure longitude.
Note that the latitude and longitude scales are not the same (except at the
Equator). Latitude and longitude are measured in degrees (), minutes ('),
and seconds ("). A degree is composed of 60 minutes, which, in turn,
comprises 60 seconds. Nautical charts generally express latitude and
longitude in a degree, minute, second (DMS) format, sometimes denoted
DDMM'SS".
Variation

It has long been known to geologists and geographers that the magnetic
north pole is not in the same place as the geographic north pole. The
difference between true and magnetic north called the variation will
depend upon where you are located on the globe. The problem is exacerbated
by the fact that the magnetic north pole is actually constantly moving, a
phenomenon is known as the wandering magnetic pole. Thus, the variation
between magnetic and true north at any given spot is changing every year.

Deviation

The compass rose indicates how the compass pointing to magnetic north
relates to true, geographic north. Metal near a compass, however, affects the
compass reading. Most recreational boaters have vessels that are made of
wood, fiber glass, and/or other non-magnetic materials, thus the construction
of the vessel has minimal affect on the compass. Ships that are made of
metal, however, may have a significant additional impact on the compass
reading. This additional affect is called the deviation.
 GENERAL NAVIAGATION
(Lesson Plan No.1)

INFORMATION CONTAINED ON CHARTS AND

SURVEY METHODS

1. Chart Number.

(a) It is shown out side the bottom right hand and top left hand
corner of the chart
(b) On the thumb label on the reverse of the chart

2. Chart Title

(a) It shown in the most convenient place so that no essential

navigational information is oberserved by it,

(b) On the thumb label on the reverse of the chart

3. Thumb Label/Chart Label.

It is a small label printed on the back of each chart. Thumb label

shows the number, title of the chart. It provides the space for notation of the
folio number and consecutive number.

4. Consecutive Number.

It is the serial number of the chart, which is written with soft black lead
pencil on the folio list and chart label by the Navigators Yeoman on receipt of
new folio/new chart from Naval Chart Depot. It enables the user to locate &
pyull out the required chart from the folio without wasting time.

5. Survey Data

This will be given under the title of the chart

6. Source Data Diagram.

Will be published on the chart, these diagram indicate the

sources, data and scale of the survey in each part of the chart.

7. Satellite Derived Position.

Satellite derived positions are referred to World Geodetic System

1984 (WGS84) Datum. The majority of charts are currently drawn to
local or region datums such as OSGB36 or ED50. Plotting a WGS84
 position on a chart drawn to a different datum can result in large errors
often in excess of 150 metres.

When the extent of this difference has been established by the

United Kingdom Hydrographic Office (UKHO) a "SATELLITE-DERIVED
POSITION" note is added to the chart, providing a latitude and
longitude shift value to apply to a WGS84 position before plotting onto
the chart.

This note must be studied carefully by mariners, as the largest

current known shift is seven miles. HOWEVER the absence of such a
note must not be taken to imply that WGS84 Datum positions can be
directly plotted on a chart. It simply means that the chart has not been
examined and updated since 1981 and therefore the size of the shift
could be very large or insignificant. Mariners must take extreme caution
when using WGS84 positions on such charts, if possible other forms of
fixing such as visual or radar would be advisable. Charts are being
updated by the UKHO so as to be referred to WGS84, such charts will
carry the prominent legend "WGS84 POSITIONS can be plotted directly
on this chart". Most GPS receivers are able to apply corrections to the
WGS84 position generated. These corrections are generalised and may
differ from the parameters used by the UKHO. This could result in the
positions not agreeing with the chart even if the stated datum is the
same. It is therefore recommended that the GPS receiver is kept
referenced to WGS84 Datum and the position shift values provided on
the chart are applied before plotting.

8. Date of Publication.

This is shown outside the bottom border of the chart.

9. Date of New Edition.

When a chart is completely or partly revised, a new edition is

published, the date is shown to the right of the date of publication.

e.g New Edition 23rd March 1986

10. Date of Printing.

(a) Once a number of permanent corrections are done on chart by

violet ink, the chart is re-printed. The corrections are accounted for in
the new print. The date of new print is shown on top right hand side
 border is in this fashion (219.86). It means this chart was printed on
two hundred and nineteenth day of eightysix.

11. Corner Coordinates.

12. Scale of the chart.

The natural scale is shown beneath the title (1:1,50,000). It

indicates that 1 inch area on the chart covers 1, 50,000 inches . It can
be expresessed in inches, meters or centimetres. (Scale No.= Distance
on earth in nautical milex6080x12/representative distance on chart in
inches).

13. Depth.

On all charts the position of sounding is the center of the space

occupied by the sounding figure. Depths are marked on chart in meters
and decimetres up to 21 meters, every half meter up to 31 meter and
every meter thereafter. These are marked below chart datum.

12. Tidal Stream.

All information about tidal streams, whether in tables or in notes

giving the time of slack water and rate of tidal stream is given in some
convenient place on the chart and referred to by a special symbol. This
information may be shown by means of tidal stream arrows on certain
charts when insufficient data for constructing tables are available.

13. Reference to adjoining Chart.

14. Chart Dimensions.

The figures in parentheses shown out the lower right hand border
of the chart thus 630.0 x 9000 or 38.43 x 25.19 express the dimension
in millimetres or inches of the plates from which the chart is printed.
15. Heights.

All heights given on charts in feet/meters are above Mean High

Water Springs or Mean Higher High Water.

16. Drying Heights

Underlined figures on rocks and banks, which uncover given the

drying heights above chart datum in meters/feets as applicable.

17. Method of Survey.

(a) Hand Lead Line

Early hydrographic surveys involved measuring depths using a

hand-held lead line with positions determined by three-point
sextant fixes to mapped reference points. Lead lines were ropes,
or lines, with graduated depth-markings and a lead
weight attached to the end.

Lead line soundings were usually taken from a slow-moving

vessel. Soundings could only be taken in depths where the
leadsman could heave the lead far enough ahead of the vessel so
that the line could be vertical by the time the vessel caught
up. This depth limit would vary considerably, depending on the
skill of the leadsman and the height of the sounding chair above
the water.

Collecting hydrographic data using lead lines was a labor-

intensive and time-consuming process. While the soundings may
have been accurate, they were limited in number, and thus
coverage between the individual soundings was lacking.

(b) Single Beam Survey

Most ports and harbours have dredged channels, berths and

anchorages, which suffer from siltation, thereby reducing the
depth of water available for navigation. Ports operate with a
minimum under keel clearance that must be maintained by a ship
transiting a port. Routine maintenance dredging refers to the
removal of accumulated sediments from channel beds to maintain
the design depths of existing public-use facilities. Given multiple
sets of bathymetric survey data and modelling the seafloor levels,
 sediment volumes can be estimated to determine the level of
sediment accumulation in a navigation channel. In general the
layers thicknesses that will be removed during maintenance
dredging are small. Therefore, accurate determination and
modelling of the seafloor levels are essential to avoid
unnecessary over-dredging and extra costs. The required
accuracy is increased and becomes critical in the case of
environmental dredging of the contaminated sediments. At which,
accurate removal of the required layers without excessively
removing clean material is significant for cost-effective
environmental dredging.

The SBES, as soundings, are only acquired directly underneath

the transducer. Survey lines run perpendicular to the underwater
slopes and the line spacing between the survey lines is
dependent on the scale of the final product and the required
resolution. Tie lines (longitudinal lines) are run perpendicular to
the primary survey lines but at wider spacing and act as a quality
assurance cross-check on the acquired field data. The major
disadvantage of SBES is that it illuminates only a narrow portion
of the seafloor. Also the depths between survey lines will be
omitted from the bathymetric data

(c) Multi Beam Survey

Hibbard Inshores survey team has been performing multibeam

bathymetric surveys with a specific focus on delivering high-
quality data that affords maximum suitability for a variety of
design and visualization applications. We survey ports, harbors,
rivers, lakes and reservoirs inshore, as well as in the open ocean
offshore. Working in accordance with the standards set by the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the International Hydrographic
Organization, we aim to meet or exceed the standards of
accuracy, resolution, survey coverage, and delivery requirements
set for every project.

while MBES can provide continuous coverage as shown in Fig. 1(a

and b). Consequently, accurate modelling bathymetric models are
crucial to interpolate the depths and fill the gaps between the
survey lines.
(d) Side Scan

Side Scan Sonar operates by emitting a narrow beam of high

frequency acoustic energy in a plane orthogonal to both the
direction of ship travel and the sea surface, then recording the
acoustic returns from the sea bed. Typically the acoustic
transceivers are mounted in a streamlined housing (towfish), that
is towed behind the survey vessel. Side Scan Sonar systems
employed for site surveys utilise high frequency acoustic pulses in
the range 100-600 kHz, which result in strong reflection from
seabed features and rapid attenuation of any energy transmitted
into the seabed. Any reflections detected are therefore due to
features located either on or above the seabed. System resolution
is divided into range (track-perpendicular) and transverse (track-
parallel) components. Range resolution is a function of pulse
frequency content, whilst transverse resolution is defined by
beam width, determined by transceiver geometry and pulse
content. Modern systems may employ either simple pulses or
swept frequency (Chirp) signals, which offer improved resolution
at the expense of repetition rates.