Cover Control Systems Engineer (CSE)

Control Systems Engineer

Control Systems Engineering

Exam Reference Manual:
A Practical Study Guide
Third Edition

For the NCEES Professional Engineering

(PE) Licensing Examination
Bryon Lewis, PE, CMfgE, CET, CCST
Control Systems Engineering Exam Reference Manual: A Practical Study Guide

Third Edition A New Plant Design Approach

Controls engineering encompasses a broad range of industries: power, paper and pulp, pharmaceuticals,
manufacturing and chemical plants. Although this third edition has been expanded to further include the
many different applications used by all of the above, the book will focus on petrochemical applications.

The Professional Engineer Control Systems Engineer (CSE) examination tends to be concentrated
toward the application of chemical and pharmaceutical plant design applications of code and control
systems. I have tried to introduce the new upcoming engineer to the depth of knowledge they will need to
acquire in order to tackle very large projects that may present themselves in the future of their career.

I have tried to present a firsthand view of what a large plant looks like and how to break it down into small
parts that are easily engineered and designed, while combining these many small parts into a large and
complex working system that will run safe and smoothly.

The style of this book has a layout for reading on a computer. To maintain this easily read format when
printing the book, use skip blank pages in your printer setup.

Cover Concept and Design by Bryon Lewis, CSE/PE Copyright 2016

Notice from Publisher

The information presented in this publication is for the general education of the reader. Because neither
the author nor editor nor the publisher has any control over the use of the information by the reader, both
the author and the publisher disclaim any and all liability of any kind arising out of such use. The reader is
expected to exercise sound professional judgment in using any of the information presented in a
particular application.

Additionally, neither the author nor editor nor the publisher have investigated or considered the effect of
any patents on the ability of the reader to use any of the information in a particular application. The reader
is responsible for reviewing any possible patents that may affect any particular use of the information
presented.

Any references to commercial products in the work are cited as examples only. Neither the author nor the
publisher endorses any referenced commercial product. Any trademarks or trade names referenced
belong to the respective owner of the mark or name. Neither the author nor editor nor the publisher
makes any representation regarding the availability of any referenced commercial product at any time.
The manufacturer's instructions on use of any commercial product must be followed at all times, even if in
conflict with the information in this publication.

Copyright 2016 by ISA

67 Alexander Drive
P.O. Box 12277
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709

All Rights Reserved

ISBN: 978-1-941546-56-7

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.
 Welcome to Control Systems Engineering

Licensing as a PE (Professional Engineer) / CSE (Control Systems Engineer)

A Professional Engineering license must be obtained to perform engineering work for the public and
private sectors, in the United States and most countries in the world. In order to protect the health, safety,
and welfare of the public, the first engineering licensure law was enacted in 1907 in Wyoming. Now every
state regulates the practice of engineering to ensure public safety by granting only Professional Engineers
(PEs) the authority to sign and seal engineering plans and offer their services to the public. The title of
Engineer cannot be used to advertise for engineering work, without a PE license.

The CSE (Control Systems Engineer) takes on responsibilities beyond those of most other disciplines of
professional engineering. If the pump quits working, you just dont have water. If the electrical panelboard
fails, you just replace the components. In plant control systems, a failure can mean absolute disaster.
Plants explode and many people can die. Even the failure of systems can mean the loss of hundreds of
thousands of dollars and up into the millions for loss of product and production. There may also be class
action and environmental lawsuits into the billions of dollars.

This is why I have taken a complete plant design approach to show the vastness of exposure and
experience needed to be a control systems engineer. Just like the saying in the Spiderman movie, With
great power comes great responsibility. The control systems engineers job cannot be taken lightly.
Peoples lives depend on you knowing what you are doing and getting it right the first time. You cannot
guess at control systems engineering. You must know! Being a Professional Engineer is not just
answering a minimum of 54 questions on an eight hour examination.

The CSE cant just say the bottle is in place, now fill it. The CSE has to ask questions like:
1. Is the bottle in place 6. Did the bottle fill
2. Is the valve open 7. Did the valve close
3. Is there fluid available to fill the bottle in the tank 8. Did the fluid stop flowing
4. Is the pump running 9. Did the pump stop
5. Is the fluid flowing 10. Did something fail

The CSE must be ready to handle abnormal conditions and upsets at any time. This will be a major part of
the programming and a large part of the instrumentation, with increasing concern for safety today and
compliance with government regulations now requiring Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS) installed.

Explosions can occur in petrochemical and other similar hazardous plants, even though the electrical and
process systems are designed explosion proof per NFPA, ANSI/ISA, API, OSHA, ISO and other codes.

1
A highly modular plant with complex motion controls and industrial networks using advanced diagnostics.

The In Singapore, ExxonMobil shown below, owns and operates a 592,000-barrel-per-day (bpd) refinery
as one of the largest in the world. Singapore employs almost 3,000 people and Exxon resides in 200
countries.

The typical petrochemical plant will require around 1000 workers to build and will take years to complete.
Most large petrochemical plants will have land coverage in the upward range of 2,000 to 7,500 acres.
2
3
Why Become a Professional Engineer?
Being licensed as a Professional Engineer is an important distinction and can enhance your career
options. Many engineering jobs require a PE license to work as an engineering consultant or senior
engineer, testify as an expert witness, conduct patent work, work in public safety, or advertise to provide
engineering services. Although you may never need to be registered for legal reasons, you may find that
you need to be a PE to be eligible for engineering management positions.

On the average, PEs make significantly more money than unlicensed engineers. Even if your first job does
not require a PE license, you may need it later in your career. In today's economic environment, it pays to
be in a position to move to new jobs and compete with others who have a PE license or are on a
professional engineering track. It is also highly unlikely that a job requiring a PE license will be outsourced
overseas.

The following was taken from the NCEES website: What makes a PE different from an engineer?

Only a licensed engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings
to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients.

PEs shoulder the responsibility for not only their work, but also for the lives affected by that work
and must hold themselves to high ethical standards of practice.

Licensure for a consulting engineer or a private practitioner is not something that is merely
desirable; it is a legal requirement for those who are in responsible charge of work, be they
principals or employees

Licensure for engineers in government has become increasingly significant. In many federal,
state, and municipal agencies, certain governmental engineering positions, particularly those
considered higher level and responsible positions must be filled by licensed professional
engineers.

Many states require that individuals teaching engineering must also be licensed. Exemptions to state laws
are under attack, and in the future, those in education, as well as industry and government, may need to
be licensed to practice. Also, licensure helps educators prepare students for their future in engineering.

I
Graduate
with foreign
degree

I-a
Satisfy any The path to follow to be a licensed PE (Professional Engineer)
course
deficiencies

II III IV V VI VII
4 years FE, intern Pass FE, 4 years PE, Pass PE,
qualifying certificate become qualifying licensing receive
experience application certified EIT experience application license

I II-a V-a
Graduate With NO With NO
with ABET degree meet degree meet
degree your states your states
FE / EIT PE / CSE
requirements requirements
4
5
This is the third edition of this study manual

This review reference manual has been greatly expanded at the request of the NCEES CSE (Control
Systems Engineer) PE examination committee chairman. It now includes new and expanded chapters on
numerous control systems subjects.

I have taken a complete systematic approach to understanding how to design a complete plantwide
control system, for multiple processes, as might be encountered throughout the control engineers career.

The new and expanded sections include:

Updated NCEES PE (CSE) option examination content

Expanded section on pressure measurement and calibration
Expanded section on flow measurement and calibration
Expanded section on weight and load cell applications
New section on process analyzers
Expanded section on process control valve sizing, applications and how to
size them for installed real world flow control systems
Expanded section on pressure relief and safety valves, their applications
and federal regulations and requirements for installation
Expanded section on process control modes
Expanded section on discrete control subjects
Expanded section on analog control signals
New section on electrical systems and power quality
New section on overview of conveying systems
Expanded section on ISA standards for documentation
Expanded section on SIS safety instrumented systems, explanation of OSHA
requirements, definitions and their application and calculations for installations
New section on overview of networks and communications
New section on hydraulics and pneumatics
New section on overview of motion controller applications
New section on motor controls and logic functions
New section on chemical processes and equipment
New section on applications of basic fluid mechanics in piping systems
New section on pumping applications
New Putting It All Together section on how real plants are built

6
 Tips on How to Use This Study Guide

To make the most of this study guide, it may be of interest to use the features built into Adobe Reader.
The image below shows where to click, for the display of Page Thumbnails and Bookmarks in this guide.
The Bookmarks are a dynamic Table of Contents. See the following images below for illustrations of how
thumbnails and bookmarks work. (There is a formula sheet for the exam in the attachments)

7
 Using Page Thumbnails to Navigate

The Page Thumbnail shows a preview of the pages in this guide. Just click on any thumbnail image to
instantly jump to the page in the preview.

The default viewing mode in Adobe Reader is one column. If you want to view two columns at the same
time as shown below, move your mouse over the divider between the thumbnails and the viewing page
and drag the column splitter till you show as many columns as you would like to view at once. I
recommend viewing only two columns.

8
 Using Bookmarks to Navigate

The Bookmarks in this guide are the same as the Table of Contents collapsed. Quickly navigate to the
subject of interest and click on the + to expand the contents of the subject matter under the subject
heading. Click on the - to collapse the subject topics.

The default viewing mode in Adobe Reader shows wrap around text in the bookmark column. If you would
like to read your bookmarks as shown below, move your mouse over the divider between the bookmarks
and the viewing page and drag the column splitter till you show as much text width as you desire to view.

9
Important File Attachments - Open by clicking on the paper clip!

The instructions are on the next page.

Files attached to this PDF file:

Formula Sheet.pdf
Avery Tabs ready to print for this third edition manual for quick reference in the CSE examination

Avery Printable Self-Adhesive Tabs 16281, 96 Tabs, 1-1/4" x 1"

http://www.avery.com/

See the section in this book Preparing this Guide for the Exam for recommended pages to tab for quick
reference in the NCEES CSE/PE Examination.

Print this Document Using Skip Blank Pages

The style of this book has a layout for reading on a computer. To maintain this easily read format when
printing the book, use skip blank pages in your printer setup.

Most printers have an option to skip blank pages in the printer setup dialog box. If your printer does not
support this option, then just do not print the one blank page that immediately follows this books cover
page.

All other pages are preformatted for printing this book.

10
 Table of Contents

Cover Control Systems Engineer (CSE) ................................................................................................ i

Notice from Publisher ........................................................................................................................... ii

Welcome to Control Systems Engineering .......................................................................................... 1

Licensing as a PE (Professional Engineer) / CSE (Control Systems Engineer) ....................................... 1
This is the third edition of this study manual ....................................................................................... 6
The new and expanded sections include: ............................................................................................. 6

Tips on How to Use This Study Guide .................................................................................................. 7

Using Page Thumbnails to Navigate...................................................................................................... 8
Using Bookmarks to Navigate ............................................................................................................... 9
Important File Attachments - Open by clicking on the paper clip! ..................................................... 10
Print this Document Using Skip Blank Pages....................................................................................... 10

Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................. 11

Preface ................................................................................................................................................... 27
About the Author ................................................................................................................................ 27
People who have contributed to the previous editions of this manual ............................................. 28

Reference Materials for the Exam ....................................................................................................... 29

Recommended books and materials to take to the exam .................................................................. 29
Books for additional study .................................................................................................................. 29
NCEES on LinkedIn .............................................................................................................................. 30
Courses for additional study ............................................................................................................... 31
ISA Control Systems Engineer (CSE) PE Review .................................................................................. 31
Industrial Network Training ................................................................................................................ 31
Control Systems Engineer (CSE) Supplement Course ......................................................................... 32
Online Process Plant @ Learn Control Systems.com .......................................................................... 32

Examination General Information ....................................................................................................... 33

State Licensing Requirements ............................................................................................................. 33
Eligibility .............................................................................................................................................. 33
Exam schedule .................................................................................................................................... 33
Exam format ........................................................................................................................................ 34
Exam content ...................................................................................................................................... 34

Review of Process Control Subjects .................................................................................................. 39

Overview of process measurement, control and calibration ............................................................. 39
Process signal and calibration terminology ........................................................................................ 40
Definition of the Range of an instrument ........................................................................................... 40
Definition of the Span of an instrument ............................................................................................. 41
Definition of the use of zero in instrumentation ................................................................................ 42
Live-Zero.......................................................................................................................................... 42
Elevated-Zero .................................................................................................................................. 42
Suppressed-Zero ............................................................................................................................. 42
Illustrations of range and span terminology ....................................................................................... 43
Illustrations of measured variable, measured signal, range and span ............................................... 44

Applications of Fluid Mechanics in Process Control ........................................................................ 45

11
 Relationship of pressure and flow ...................................................................................................... 45
Applications of the formulas ............................................................................................................... 48
Summary of fluid mechanics for process control ............................................................................... 53

Temperature Measurement and Calibration ....................................................................................... 55

Temperature measurement devices and calibration.......................................................................... 55
Thermocouple worked examples (how to read the thermocouple tables) ........................................ 57
RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) ............................................................................................ 58
RTD worked examples......................................................................................................................... 58
Installing RTDs and Thermocouples into a process stream ................................................................ 61
Typical RTD and thermocouple applications....................................................................................... 62

Pressure Measurement and Calibration ............................................................................................. 63

Pressure measurement and head pressure ........................................................................................ 63
Applying pressure measurement and signals Worked examples ...................................................... 63
Differential pressure and meter calibration ....................................................................................... 64
Pressure change in a pipe for a given flow rate .................................................................................. 65
Pressure change across the flow element for a given flow rate ......................................................... 65
Pressure calibration of transmitter ..................................................................................................... 66

Level Measurement and Calibration ................................................................................................... 67

Applying level measurement and calibration Worked examples ....................................................... 67
Level displacer (Buoyancy) .................................................................................................................. 70
Bubbler level measurement ................................................................................................................ 71
Density measurement ......................................................................................................................... 73
Interface level measurement .............................................................................................................. 73
Radar and Ultrasonic level measurement........................................................................................... 75
Time of flight technology ................................................................................................................ 75
Ultrasonic level measurement ........................................................................................................ 75
Radar (non-contact) ........................................................................................................................ 75
Guided Wave Radar (GWR) ............................................................................................................. 76
Capacitance level measurement ......................................................................................................... 76
Radiometric (gamma) level measurement ......................................................................................... 77
Level gauging system in a tank farm ................................................................................................... 77
Calculating the volume in tanks .......................................................................................................... 78

Flow Measurement and Calibration .................................................................................................... 79

Applying flow measurement devices .................................................................................................. 79
Turndown ratio in a flow meter .......................................................................................................... 79
ISA Standard flow meter symbols ....................................................................................................... 79
Flow meter applications chart ............................................................................................................ 80
Pressure tappings (Impulse Line Taps)................................................................................................ 80
Orifice tap dimensions and impulse line connections ........................................................................ 81
Applying the Bernoulli principal for flow control................................................................................ 84
Differential head meter calculations .................................................................................................. 85
Classic fluid mechanics model......................................................................................................... 85
K value flow coefficients .......................................................................................................... 85
The beta ratio .............................................................................................................................. 88
Important Remember! ................................................................................................................ 89
Standard Flow Measurement Equations......................................................................................... 90
Spink - Flow Measurement Equation .......................................................................................... 90
The basic Spink equation derived ........................................................................................... 91
The basic Spink equation for liquid ......................................................................................... 92
12
 The basic Spink equation for gas and vapor............................................................................ 92
Applications of the Beta and Spink factors ............................................................................. 93
Table 3 The Spink Factor (S) ................................................................................................. 94
ISO 5167 - Flow Measurement Equation .................................................................................... 95
The expansibility factor ........................................................................................................... 95
The discharge coefficient ........................................................................................................ 96
The ISO 5167 equation explained ........................................................................................... 96
Solve for the Reynolds number Re ........................................................................................ 97
Solve for the coefficient C ..................................................................................................... 97
Solve for mass flow rate .......................................................................................................... 98
Solve for volumetric flow rate ................................................................................................. 98
Equation Comparison Summary.................................................................................................. 99
Types of Pressure-based meters ................................................................................................. 99
Venturi meter .......................................................................................................................... 99
ISO 5167 Orifice Plate & Orifice plate ..................................................................................... 99
Dall tube .................................................................................................................................. 99
Pitot-Static tube ...................................................................................................................... 99
Multi-hole pressure probe .................................................................................................... 100
Cone meters .......................................................................................................................... 100
Annubar meters (also see averaging pitot tubes) ................................................................. 100
Sizing orifice type devices for flow measurement Worked examples .............................................. 101
Mass flow measurement and control ............................................................................................... 103
Applying mass flow measurement with an orifice - worked example .............................................. 106
Turbine meter applications ............................................................................................................... 108
Turbine flow meter - worked example ............................................................................................. 109

Weight Measurement and Calibration ............................................................................................... 113

Weight measurement devices and calibration ................................................................................. 113
Load cells ........................................................................................................................................... 113
Load cells for (flow, level, force) applications in process ................................................................. 114

Process Analyzers .............................................................................................................................. 115

Electrical conductivity and ph correction ......................................................................................... 115
How are pH and electrical conductivity measured? ......................................................................... 115
Control of pH values in processes ..................................................................................................... 115
Typical pH correction control scheme .......................................................................................... 116
Control of conductivity ..................................................................................................................... 116
Instrument specifications and operating parameters .................................................................. 116
Common Plant Analyzers .................................................................................................................. 117
Boiling Point Analyzers .................................................................................................................. 117
Vacuum Distillation Analyzer ........................................................................................................ 117
Flash Point Analyzer ...................................................................................................................... 117
Cloud Point Analyzer ..................................................................................................................... 117
Freeze Point Analyzer.................................................................................................................... 117
Pour Point Analyzer ....................................................................................................................... 117
Color Analyzer ............................................................................................................................... 117
Combustion and Analyzers ............................................................................................................... 118
Combustion furnace and air-fuel ratio control ............................................................................. 118
Air-Fuel ratio control utilizing CO and O2 concentrations ........................................................... 118
BMS - Burner Management Safety ............................................................................................... 119
OSHA Requirements...................................................................................................................... 119
Carbon dioxide (CO2) reading ....................................................................................................... 120
13
 Select the appropriate analyzer and configuration .......................................................................... 120
Examples of Process Analyzers ......................................................................................................... 121

Sizing Process Control Valves .......................................................................................................... 123

Process control valves ....................................................................................................................... 123
Turndown ratio in valves................................................................................................................... 123
ISA standard valve symbols............................................................................................................... 124
ISA standard pressure regulating valve symbols .............................................................................. 124
Valve actuators ................................................................................................................................. 125
ISA standard actuator symbols ..................................................................................................... 125
ISA standard symbol for limit switches on valve actuator ............................................................ 126
Calculating the size of the actuator .............................................................................................. 126
Example actuator sizing ................................................................................................................ 127
Split ranging control valves ............................................................................................................... 129
Valve positioner applications ............................................................................................................ 130
ISA standard valve positioner symbols ......................................................................................... 130
Summary of positioners ................................................................................................................ 131
When should a positioner be used? ............................................................................................. 131
Control valve application comparison chart ..................................................................................... 132
Sizing Control Valves ......................................................................................................................... 133
Installed valve characteristics ....................................................................................................... 133
Graph of the Installed valve characteristics .................................................................................. 134
The Valve Sizing Equations ................................................................................................................ 135
The Basic equation for liquid flow ................................................................................................ 135
The basic equation for gas flow .................................................................................................... 135
The basic equation for steam flow................................................................................................ 135
Sizing Valves for Liquid...................................................................................................................... 137
Sizing Valves for Gas ......................................................................................................................... 139
The basic equation for gas flow through a control valve is: ............................................................. 139
Sizing Valves for Vapor and Steam.................................................................................................... 142
Sizing Valves for Two Phase Flow ..................................................................................................... 145
Worked Example Mass Flow ......................................................................................................... 147

Sizing Pressure Relief Valves and Rupture Disks ........................................................................... 149

Pressure Relief Valves (PRV) and Pressure Safety Valves (PSV)........................................................ 149
Important Note: (Do Not Throttle Pressure Relief Valves) ........................................................... 149
Pilot operated safety valve ........................................................................................................... 150
Bellow or balanced bellow and diaphragm................................................................................... 151
Weight loaded PRV operation....................................................................................................... 151
Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks ................................................................... 153
API Standards for pressure relieving systems ................................................................................... 156
CFR Standards for pressure relief required by federal law ............................................................... 157
API Standard 2000 Venting atmospheric and low-pressure storage tanks ............................... 158
API Standard 2003 Protection against ignitions fromf static, lightning, and stray currents ...... 158
API Standard 2350 Overfill protection for storage tanks in petroleum facilities ....................... 158
API Standard 2510 Design and construction of LPG installations .............................................. 159
NFPA 30 Flammable and combustible liquids code ................................................................... 160
Important excerpts from NFPA 30 code: .................................................................................. 160
Chapter 4: Tanks Storage .......................................................................................................... 160
Chapter 5: Piping Systems ......................................................................................................... 161
Chapter 6: Container and Portable Storage Tanks .................................................................... 161
Chapter 7: Operations ............................................................................................................... 162
14
 ASME VIII code for sizing relief valves and rupture disks ............................................................. 163
Introduction to ASME VIII.......................................................................................................... 165
Overview Section VIII - Pressure Vessels................................................................................... 165
ASME VIII Pressure relief requirements ................................................................................. 165
ASME VIII - Pressure limits in sizing........................................................................................... 166
Table 5 - ASME standard nozzle orifice data..................................................................................... 166
ISA pressure relief valve and rupture disc symbols .......................................................................... 167
Sizing equations for relief valves and rupture disks ......................................................................... 168
ASME VIII code equations USCS units ........................................................................................... 168
A Note about sonic or choked flow ............................................................................................... 169
Variables for PRV and PSV sizing equations .................................................................................. 169
Sizing rupture disks worked examples .............................................................................................. 171
Sizing pressure relief valves worked examples ................................................................................. 174

Process Control Theory and Controller Tuning............................................................................... 179

Degrees Of Freedom in Process Control Systems ............................................................................. 179
Controllers and control strategies (models-modes) ......................................................................... 181
Time Proportional Control Mode ...................................................................................................... 183
Process Characteristics from the transfer function .......................................................................... 183
Poles, Zeros and Dampening from the Transfer Function ............................................................ 184
Tuning of Process Controllers ........................................................................................................... 186
Closed Loop Tuning of the Controller ........................................................................................... 187
Example: Tune Using Ultimate Gain (continuous cycling) ........................................................ 187
Open Loop Tuning of the Controller ............................................................................................. 188
Tables for Tuning Standard PID Controllers .............................................................................. 189
Example: Tuning using Process Reaction Curve (Step Response) ............................................. 190
Advanced Methods for Tuning Controllers ................................................................................... 191
The Integral Criteria Method .................................................................................................... 191
Lambda Tuning Concepts .......................................................................................................... 191
Example Reactor Ratio Timing .................................................................................................. 194
Summary Lambda Tuning Rules ................................................................................................ 195
IMC Tuning Method .................................................................................................................. 195
PID Controller Models ................................................................................................................... 196
Trial and Error Tuning Method...................................................................................................... 196
Dead Time and PID Control ........................................................................................................... 196
PID Tuning Parameters in Action (click to view movie controls) .................................................. 196
Block Diagram Algebra ...................................................................................................................... 197
Example of Block Diagram Algebra Reduction .................................................................................. 198
Nyquist Stability Criterion ................................................................................................................. 199
Routh Stability Criterion.................................................................................................................... 200
Check for Stability using Routh (Example) ........................................................................................ 203

A First Analysis of Feedback Control ............................................................................................... 205

Compare Open Loop Control to Closed Loop Control ...................................................................... 205
Open Loop Example A Mathematical Analysis............................................................................... 205
Closed Loop Example A Mathematical Analysis............................................................................. 207
The Transfer Function for the Automobile ....................................................................................... 209

A First Analysis of Frequency Response ......................................................................................... 211

Electrical Application A First Order System.................................................................................... 211
Bode Plot of First Order System ........................................................................................................ 212
Calculate the data for the Bode Plot ................................................................................................. 213

15
 Creating a Bode Plot First Order System using Frequency ............................................................ 216
Hydraulic Application A First Order System ................................................................................... 217

The Application of Digital Logic in Control Systems ...................................................................... 219

Overview of Digital Logic................................................................................................................... 219
Digital Logic Gate Symbols ................................................................................................................ 219
Digital Logic Gate Truth Tables ......................................................................................................... 220
ISA Binary Logic ................................................................................................................................. 221
Relay Ladder Logic............................................................................................................................. 222
Standard RLL Symbols ....................................................................................................................... 223
Sealing Circuits .................................................................................................................................. 223
Control System Architectures ........................................................................................................... 224
DCS Plant Wide Control System Architecture - Networked .......................................................... 224
DCS Plant Wide Control System Architecture Analog and Discrete Wiring ............................... 224
PLC Control System Architecture .................................................................................................. 225
PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) vs PAC (Process Automation Controller) .......................... 226
SCADA Control System Architecture ............................................................................................. 227
Controller Application Function Comparison Chart ...................................................................... 227
PLC Programming Languages ....................................................................................................... 227
PLC Programming (LD) ladder diagram or (RLL) relay ladder logic ............................................... 229
PLC Programming (ST) structured text.......................................................................................... 229
PLC Programming (FBD) functional block diagram ....................................................................... 230
PLC Programming (SFC) sequential function chart ....................................................................... 230
Writing a Program and Developing a HMI for a Small Systems .................................................... 231
RSLogix 5000, ControlLogix PIDE (PID Enhanced) Function Block Diagram .................................. 232

The Application of Analog Circuits in Control Systems ................................................................. 235

Overview of Analog Signals ............................................................................................................... 235
Typical Analog Loop Wiring Diagram ................................................................................................ 235
Constant Current Loops and Ohms Law........................................................................................... 236
Current Loop Fundamentals ......................................................................................................... 236
The 4-20 mA Current Loop ........................................................................................................ 236
Using Current to Transmit Transducer Data ............................................................................. 237
Current Loop Components ........................................................................................................ 237
Current Loop System ................................................................................................................. 237
Designing a Current Loop System ................................................................................................. 238
Choosing a Power Supply .......................................................................................................... 238
Adding More Transducers and Instruments ............................................................................. 239
Devices in Series ........................................................................................................................ 240
A typical Current Loop Repeater ............................................................................................... 241
Active and Passive Current Loops ................................................................................................. 242
Sinking and Sourcing Devices ........................................................................................................ 243
What is the difference between PNP and NPN? ....................................................................... 243
PNP Sensor verses NPN Sensor ................................................................................................. 244
Signal Filtering in Process Control ..................................................................................................... 245
Appling Signal Filters ..................................................................................................................... 245
Filter Time Constant and Sample Time ......................................................................................... 246
Example of Filter Time Selection ................................................................................................... 247

Electrical Systems and Power Quality .............................................................................................. 249

Filtering Power and Harmonics ......................................................................................................... 249
Harmonic Neutralizing Transformers ............................................................................................ 249

16
 Filtering of a Harmonics in Power Systems ................................................................................... 250
Passive Filter.................................................................................................................................. 250
Active Filter ................................................................................................................................... 251
Proper Grounding Procedures .......................................................................................................... 253

Emergency Standby Systems ............................................................................................................ 255

Article 700 Emergency Systems ..................................................................................................... 255
Article 701 Legally Required Standby Systems .............................................................................. 255
Article 702 Optional Standby Systems ........................................................................................... 255
UPS (uninterruptible power supply) ................................................................................................. 255
UPS and Battery Bank Sizing ..................................................................................................... 256
Load Profile Calculation............................................................................................................. 259
Battery Sizing Calculation .......................................................................................................... 260
Worked Example Sizing the Battery Bank .............................................................................. 261
Backup Generator ......................................................................................................................... 263
BMCS Implementation (Building Monitoring and Controls System) ................................................ 264

Overview of Conveying Technologies .............................................................................................. 265

Heavy Duty Roller Conveyors ............................................................................................................ 265
Flexible Conveyors ............................................................................................................................ 265
Vertical Conveyors and Spiral Conveyors ......................................................................................... 266
Spiral Conveyors ............................................................................................................................ 266
Vertical conveyor with forks ......................................................................................................... 266
Vibrating Conveyors ...................................................................................................................... 266
Pneumatic and Vacuum Conveyors .................................................................................................. 267
Pneumatic Tube Conveyor Systems .............................................................................................. 267
Large Complex Pneumatic Conveying Systems ............................................................................. 268
Typical Plant Pneumatic Conveying System .............................................................................. 268
HMI for Pneumatic Conveying System ...................................................................................... 268
Dilute Phase Systems ................................................................................................................ 269
Dense Phase Systems ................................................................................................................ 269
Conveying Phase Diagram ......................................................................................................... 270
Pressure Distance Relationships ............................................................................................... 271
Vacuum Conveying ........................................................................................................................ 271
A typical vacuum product transportation system ..................................................................... 272
Vacuum conveying systems and HMI display ........................................................................... 272
Vacuum conveying system HMI display .................................................................................... 272
Blower operating cost of pneumatic systems ............................................................................... 273
Screw conveying systems .............................................................................................................. 273
Screw conveyor instruments ..................................................................................................... 274
Mass or bulk flow measurement .................................................................................................. 274
Radiometric measurement for mass flow rate ......................................................................... 274
Load cell measurement for mass flow rate ............................................................................... 274
Mass flow control of conveying system .................................................................................... 275
Radiometric measurement for mass flow rate ......................................................................... 275
Load Cell (Strain Gauge) measurement for mass flow rate ...................................................... 275
Typical scale systems used on manufacturing lines and in plants ............................................ 276

ISA Standards for Documentation .................................................................................................... 277

ISA Instrument or Function Symbol .................................................................................................. 277
ISA Line Type Symbols ....................................................................................................................... 278
Standard line types: .......................................................................................................................... 278

17
 ISA Identification Letters ................................................................................................................... 279
ISA P&ID Identification (Controllers & Readouts) ............................................................................. 280
ISA P&ID Identification (Transmitters, Switches & Alarms) .............................................................. 281
ISA P&ID Identification (Compute, Relay & Elements) ..................................................................... 282
ISA Standard P&ID (Piping and Instrumentation Diagram)............................................................... 283
P&ID Sample 1 (Functions)............................................................................................................ 283
P&ID Sample 2 (Alarms) ................................................................................................................ 284
P&ID Sample 3 (Separator) ........................................................................................................... 284
EM (equipment modules) as in ISA S88 standard ......................................................................... 285
Cross limiting control of furnace ................................................................................................... 285
ISA Simplified P&ID ........................................................................................................................... 286
Simplified P&ID Sample 1 .............................................................................................................. 286
Simplified P&ID Sample 2 .............................................................................................................. 286
ISA Standard PFD (Piping Flow Diagram) .......................................................................................... 287
PFD (Piping Flow Diagram) Sample 1 ............................................................................................ 287
PFD (Piping Flow Diagram) Sample 2 ............................................................................................ 288
BFD (Block Flow Diagram) ................................................................................................................. 288
BFD Sample 1 ................................................................................................................................ 289
BFD Sample 2 ................................................................................................................................ 289
ISA Standard Loop Diagram .............................................................................................................. 290
ISA Standard (HMI) Graphical Display Symbols & Designations ....................................................... 292
HMI Sample 1 ................................................................................................................................ 292
HMI Sample 2 ................................................................................................................................ 293
NFPA 79 Colors for Graphical Displays (Industrial Machinery) ......................................................... 293
Battery Limits of the Plant ................................................................................................................ 294

Overview of Safety Instrumented Systems ...................................................................................... 295

Overview of process safety and shutdown ....................................................................................... 295
SIS (Safety Instrumented Systems) ................................................................................................... 295
Complying with IEC 61511 / ISA 84 ............................................................................................... 295
Other codes related to SIS systems............................................................................................... 296
Initiating events of safety instrumented systems ......................................................................... 296
The difference between BPCS and SIS systems ............................................................................ 297
SIF and SIL ......................................................................................................................................... 299
Risk analysis and protection layers ............................................................................................... 299
Designing a SIS System ...................................................................................................................... 300
SIL (Safety Integrity Level) Unit for Functional Safety ................................................................ 300
SFF Safe Failure Fraction ............................................................................................................ 301
PFD) Probability of Failures on Demand ....................................................................................... 302
(PFH) Probability of Failures per Hour .......................................................................................... 302
SIL Capability and Safety System................................................................................................... 303
SIF (Safety Instrumented Function) .............................................................................................. 304
A typical P&ID of the (SIF) Instrumentation .............................................................................. 304
Voting or (Polling of the System) .............................................................................................. 305
A typical voting system and its instrumentation for the above P&ID ....................................... 305
Types of Voting (X out of X)....................................................................................................... 305
Voting Probabilities ................................................................................................................... 306
The SIS calculations ....................................................................................................................... 306
Quantification of Reliability in almost absolute terms ............................................................. 306
Failure Models The Bathtub Curve......................................................................................... 307
Reliability Laws .......................................................................................................................... 308
Improving the reliability of a measurement system ................................................................. 308
18
 Safety Integrity Level (SIL) and Availability ............................................................................... 309
Sample of SIL Evaluation ........................................................................................................... 309
Acronyms................................................................................................................................... 309
Metrics used in the reliability engineering field involving SIS .................................................. 310
1. Reliability R(t) .................................................................................................................... 310
2. MTTR = Mean Time to Repair............................................................................................ 310
3. MTBF Mean Time Between Failures............................................................................... 310
4. Availability A(t) and Unavailability U(t) ............................................................................. 311
5. Probability of Failure on Demand (PFDavg) and Periodic Test and inspection ................. 311
Worked examples: .................................................................................................................... 313
Calculating PFD (Probability of Failure on Demand) ............................................................. 314
Calculating MTTF (Mean Time To Failure) based on failure rates ...................................... 314
Calculating MTBF based on failures ...................................................................................... 314
Practical examples: ................................................................................................................ 315
Example 1: Pump Failure Rate (FR) ....................................................................................... 315
Example 2: MTBF over 10 years ............................................................................................ 315
Example 3: PFD and Test Interval .......................................................................................... 315
Recommended SIS Study Material .................................................................................................... 316

Overview of Networks and Communications ................................................................................... 319

Overview of Corporate and Plant Networks ..................................................................................... 319
Open System Interconnect (OSI) and TCP/IP network layer model ................................................. 321
7 Layers of networking in the OSI model ...................................................................................... 321
Physical (Layer 1) ....................................................................................................................... 321
Data Link (Layer 2) ..................................................................................................................... 321
Network (Layer 3)...................................................................................................................... 321
Transport (Layer 4) .................................................................................................................... 321
Session (Layer 5)........................................................................................................................ 322
Presentation (Layer 6) ............................................................................................................... 322
Application (Layer 7) ................................................................................................................. 322
The typical network model ........................................................................................................... 322
The Network Essentials ................................................................................................................. 325
Overview of Industrial Networks ...................................................................................................... 326
HART Networks ............................................................................................................................. 327
Traditional HART Network ........................................................................................................ 327
A Wired HART Network ............................................................................................................. 328
A Wireless HART Network ......................................................................................................... 328
PROFIBUS and AS-I Networks........................................................................................................ 329
Reasons for choosing PROFIBUS ............................................................................................... 329
PROFIBUS DP ............................................................................................................................. 329
PROFIBUS PA ............................................................................................................................. 330
PROFINET................................................................................................................................... 330
AS-I ............................................................................................................................................ 330
PROFIsafe .................................................................................................................................. 331
PROFIdrive ................................................................................................................................. 331
Use of the OSI Networking Layers............................................................................................. 331
PROFIBUS/AS-I/PROFINET Certifications: ................................................................................. 331
FOUNDATION Fieldbus ..................................................................................................................... 332
Reasons for choosing FOUNDATION Fieldbus .............................................................................. 332
H2 or HSE (High Speed Ethernet) .............................................................................................. 332
FOUNDATION H1........................................................................................................................... 332
Typical FOUNDATION Segments ................................................................................................... 333
19
 Use of the OSI Networking Layers ............................................................................................. 333
Rockwell and ODVA (CIP) Networks.............................................................................................. 334
ControlNet ............................................................................................................................. 334
DeviceNet .............................................................................................................................. 335
EtherNet/IP............................................................................................................................ 336
CompoNet ............................................................................................................................. 336
DH485, DH+, RIO ................................................................................................................... 336
Modbus Networks ......................................................................................................................... 337
Traditional Modbus Networks .................................................................................................. 337
Communication and Devices ..................................................................................................... 337
Protocols ................................................................................................................................... 337
EtherCAT ....................................................................................................................................... 338
SERCOS .......................................................................................................................................... 338
Summary - Automation and Process Control Networks ............................................................... 338
Plant Facility Monitoring & Control System (FMCS) ......................................................................... 339
BACnet........................................................................................................................................... 340
LonWorks ...................................................................................................................................... 340
Networked intelligent and smart devices ..................................................................................... 341
PID control in intelligent networked devices ................................................................................ 341
The Rosemount 333 Tri-Loop to split multiple variable signals .................................................... 342

Overview of Motion Controller Applications .................................................................................... 343

Motion Control Systems ................................................................................................................... 343
The basic architecture of a motion control system contains: ....................................................... 343
Stepper Motor............................................................................................................................... 343
Stepper motor advantages........................................................................................................ 344
Linear motion control................................................................................................................ 344
Series vs. parallel connection .................................................................................................... 344
Servo motor systems..................................................................................................................... 345
Advanced motion controls ........................................................................................................ 345
Position plus velocity system .................................................................................................... 345
Electro-hydraulic Servo System..................................................................................................... 346
Position and pressure/force control ......................................................................................... 346
Position transducers.................................................................................................................. 346
Fieldbus interfaces .................................................................................................................... 347
Applications of servo systems ....................................................................................................... 347
Soft Starter ........................................................................................................................................ 347
How does a soft starter work? ...................................................................................................... 347
Benefits of choosing a soft starter ................................................................................................ 348
Variable Frequency Drive .................................................................................................................. 348
How does a variable frequency drive work? ................................................................................. 348
Conversion from AC to DC to AC PWM ......................................................................................... 349
Volts to Hertz Relationship ........................................................................................................... 352
Important Note about Low Frequency in VFDs............................................................................. 353
VFDs put Noise into the Electrical System .................................................................................... 353
PID Control with VFD or DC Drive ................................................................................................. 354
Closed loop control with drive electronics................................................................................ 354
Block diagram of PID control with feedback operation available on some VFDs ..................... 354
Drive with built-in PID tension control of web or winding reel operation................................ 354

Hydraulics and Pneumatics ............................................................................................................... 355

Fluid Power Systems ......................................................................................................................... 355
20
 Hydraulic Systems ......................................................................................................................... 355
Pneumatic Systems ....................................................................................................................... 356
Typical Pneumatic System (this type may be found in a manufacturing or chemical plant) ........ 357
Mechanical Flow Diagram of a Large Compressor .................................................................... 357
Instrumentation Air Header (Fluid Distribution Header or Manifold) ...................................... 357
Pneumatic Schematic of Valve Controller................................................................................. 358
I/P Current to Pneumatic Positioner ......................................................................................... 358
Instrument Air Cost - Engineering Economics................................................................................... 359
Assumption ................................................................................................................................... 359
Peak air demand ........................................................................................................................... 359
Vendor data................................................................................................................................... 359
Include Total Demand ................................................................................................................... 360
Instrument Air Piping and Cost ..................................................................................................... 360
Pipe sizing is just like sizing electrical lines ....................................................................................... 361
Caution Using Charts and Graphs ................................................................................................. 361
Interconnects and headers ........................................................................................................... 361
The Target Objectives ................................................................................................................... 361
Eliminate the pressure drop.......................................................................................................... 362
Air Velocity .................................................................................................................................... 362
Crunching the Numbers ................................................................................................................ 363
Recover Wasted Heat to Save Money .............................................................................................. 364

Fluid Power Schematic Symbols ....................................................................................................... 365

Motor Control and Logic Functions .................................................................................................. 373

Plant Electrical System ...................................................................................................................... 373
Motor Control Center (MCC)......................................................................................................... 373
Typical MCC Design ....................................................................................................................... 374
Typical Motor Controller ............................................................................................................... 374
How to Control a Motor .................................................................................................................... 375
Starter Auxiliary Contacts.............................................................................................................. 375
Overload and Fault ........................................................................................................................ 375
The basic NEMA stop-start station ............................................................................................... 376
Typical Motor Control Schematic.................................................................................................. 376
NEMA and IEC Terminal Designations....................................................................................... 377
NEMA Standards Publication ICS 19-2002 (R2007)................................................................... 377
Relays and Contacts .................................................................................................................. 377
Coil Lettering and Relay Socket Numbers (NEMA & IEC Numbers) .......................................... 377
NEMA ICS 19-2002 (R2007) Definitions .................................................................................... 377
Standard Symbols...................................................................................................................... 379
NEMA and IEC Comparisons...................................................................................................... 381
Control Circuit Schematic .......................................................................................................... 382
Control Circuit Schematic.................................................................................................................. 382
Relay Ladder Logic (RLL) and Function Blocks................................................................................... 383
RLL and Their Boolean Functions .............................................................................................. 383
Putting Ladder Logic into the PLC ............................................................................................. 384
Example of a Safety System in a PLC ......................................................................................... 385
Safety Logic in the PLC .............................................................................................................. 386
Alarming on Sensor Input Failure .............................................................................................. 386
The PLC Logic for Valve and Alarm Monitoring......................................................................... 387
Schematic to Programming Languages ..................................................................................... 387

21
Chemical Processes and Equipment ................................................................................................ 389
Separation Processes ........................................................................................................................ 389
A Typical Horizontal 3-Phase Separator ........................................................................................ 389
Industrial Distillation ..................................................................................................................... 389
A Typical Industrial Distillation Process ........................................................................................ 390
A Typical Distillation Unit .............................................................................................................. 390
ISO 9000 ........................................................................................................................................ 391
Heat Exchangers................................................................................................................................ 392
Flow Arrangement ........................................................................................................................ 392
Shell and Tube Heat exchanger..................................................................................................... 393
Dynamic scraped surface heat exchanger .................................................................................... 393
Phase-change heat exchangers ..................................................................................................... 393
Condenser (heat transfer) ............................................................................................................. 394
Heat Exchanger BTU Calculation and Control ............................................................................... 394
Example of how to control the heat exchanger:........................................................................... 395
Evaporation Processes ...................................................................................................................... 396
What is evaporation? .................................................................................................................... 396
What is water latent heat? ........................................................................................................... 396
What is the boiling point? ............................................................................................................. 396
Using the Psychrometric Chart ..................................................................................................... 397
Calculate the Dry Bulb Temperature............................................................................................. 397
Cooling Towers.................................................................................................................................. 399
Cooling tower calculations ............................................................................................................ 399
Cooling tower water loss and make-up ........................................................................................ 401
Cooling tower control scheme and operating cost ....................................................................... 402
Typical pH correction system ........................................................................................................ 403
Chemical Reactors and Control ......................................................................................................... 404
What is a reactor? ..................................................................................................................... 404
Types of reactors ....................................................................................................................... 404
Basic control scheme for a reactor ........................................................................................... 405
CSTR (Constant Stirred Tank Reactor) ................................................................................... 405
Hydrocracking reactor controls ............................................................................................. 405
Chemical Scrubbers ........................................................................................................................... 406
Wet exhaust gas cleaning.............................................................................................................. 406
Wet gas scrubber .......................................................................................................................... 407
Dry scrubbing ................................................................................................................................ 408
Scrubber waste products .............................................................................................................. 408
Bacteria spread ............................................................................................................................. 408

Overview of NEC / NFPA and Other Codes ...................................................................................... 409

Public Safety Standards United States (Federal Government) CFR .................................................. 409
List of NFPA codes (be familiar with these codes) ............................................................................ 412
NFPA 70 NEC (National Electrical Code)......................................................................................... 412
Voltage Drop Calculations ............................................................................................................. 413
Substitute specific resistance (k) for resistance (R) of wire ...................................................... 413
Wire and cable sizing formulas for voltage drop ...................................................................... 413
Example: voltage drop calculation 1 ........................................................................................ 414
Example: voltage drop calculation 2 ........................................................................................ 414
Practical applications of voltage drop ........................................................................................... 415
Example: Application of the VD calculation 1 .......................................................................... 415
Example Application of the VD calculation 2 ............................................................................ 415
Example: Application of the VD calculation 3 .......................................................................... 415
22
 Explosion Proof Installations NEC Article 500 ............................................................................... 416
Class I Hazardous Location NEC Article 501 .............................................................................. 416
Class I Location Definition ..................................................................................................... 416
Class I Division Definitions ..................................................................................................... 416
Class I Group Definitions ....................................................................................................... 417
Class I Temperature Definition .............................................................................................. 417
Class II Hazardous Location NEC Article 502 ......................................................................... 418
Class II Location Definition .................................................................................................... 418
Class II Division Definitions.................................................................................................... 418
Class II Group Definitions ...................................................................................................... 419
Class II Temperature Class..................................................................................................... 419
Class III Hazardous Location NEC Article 503 ............................................................................ 420
Class III Location Definition ................................................................................................... 420
Class III Division Definitions................................................................................................... 420
Class III Group Definitions ..................................................................................................... 420
Use of Zone Classifications ............................................................................................................ 421
Classification Comparison (Zone/Division) for a Class I Location ............................................. 421
Group Comparison (Zone/ Division) for a Class I Location........................................................ 421
Protection Methods Comparison Class ..................................................................................... 422
Example: Designation of NEC/CEC Classification ...................................................................... 423
Example: Hazardous Location Classification ............................................................................. 424
Purged and pressurized systems ............................................................................................... 425
Intrinsically safe systems ........................................................................................................... 425
Zener diode barrier (configurations) ......................................................................................... 425
Conventional passive is zener barriers .................................................................................. 425
Active (powered) is isolation barriers ................................................................................... 425
Electrical Enclosures Types and Uses ................................................................................................ 426
Non-hazardous location NEMA enclosure types....................................................................... 426
Table 10 Indoor Nonhazardous Locations.............................................................................. 427
Table 11 - Outdoor Nonhazardous Locations ........................................................................... 428
Table 12 - Hazardous Locations................................................................................................. 429
Determining Temperature Rise ................................................................................................. 429
NFPA 77 Static Electricity .................................................................................................................. 430
1.2 Purpose ................................................................................................................................... 430
8.1 General overview .................................................................................................................... 430
8.3.1 Charge generation ................................................................................................................ 431
G.1 Grounding diagrams ............................................................................................................... 432
NFPA 780 Lightning Protection (formerly NFPA 78) ......................................................................... 433
Air terminal height ........................................................................................................................ 433
Conductor bends ........................................................................................................................... 433
Conductor size and material ......................................................................................................... 434
Transient Protection from Lightning Strikes ................................................................................. 434
NFPA 79 Industrial Machinery .......................................................................................................... 436
Conductor sizing ............................................................................................................................ 436
Conductor colors ........................................................................................................................... 436
Pushbutton functions for color ..................................................................................................... 436
Colors for Machine Indicator Lights and Icons Table 10.3.2 ......................................................... 436
NFPA 496 Purged and Pressurized Systems ...................................................................................... 437
Overview of the NFPA 496 articles ............................................................................................... 437
Factors to consider (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-3) ...................................................................................... 437
Location of the control room (NFPA 496, Secs. 5-3.1(c) and 5-3.2).............................................. 437
Positive pressure air systems (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.1) ................................................................... 438
23
 Type X equipment (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.4)..................................................................................... 438
Type Y equipment (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.5)..................................................................................... 438
Type Z equipment (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.5) ..................................................................................... 438
Basic design of purged enclosures ................................................................................................ 439

Useful Equations for Pumping and Piping ....................................................................................... 441

Find pipe diameter with velocity of flow known .............................................................................. 441
Find flow velocity with pipe diameter known................................................................................... 441
Find pipe diameter with temperature and pressure correction ....................................................... 441
Find flow velocity with temperature and pressure correction ......................................................... 441
Find the Reynolds Number for the flow............................................................................................ 442
Find the pressure loss in piping system ............................................................................................ 442
Find the pump motor size (break horsepower) ................................................................................ 442

Applications of Pumping Systems .................................................................................................... 443

Pump Basics ...................................................................................................................................... 443
Applying variable frequency drives to pumps to realize savings ...................................................... 443
Pumps with variable frequency drive (VFD) ..................................................................................... 444
Typical pump applications with variable frequency drive ................................................................ 444
When can you save with a VFD? ....................................................................................................... 445
Sizing pump head with specific gravity of the pumped fluid ............................................................ 446

Calculating Volume in Tanks ............................................................................................................. 447

Cylindrical Tanks Upright .................................................................................................................. 447
Cylindrical Tanks on Side ................................................................................................................... 447
Spherical Tanks ................................................................................................................................. 448
Bullet Tanks ....................................................................................................................................... 448

The Fisher Control Valve Handbook ................................................................................................. 449

Guide to Using the Control Valve Handbook .................................................................................... 449
Important Sections to Review ........................................................................................................... 449
Important Pages to Tab..................................................................................................................... 449
Valve and materials Selection ....................................................................................................... 449
Actuator Sizing Methods ............................................................................................................... 450
Valve Sizing Methods .................................................................................................................... 450
Electrical Apparatus ...................................................................................................................... 450
Engineering Data ........................................................................................................................... 450
Piping System Applications ........................................................................................................... 451
Conversions and Equivalents ........................................................................................................ 451

Putting It All Together......................................................................................................................... 453

Define the Scope of the Plant ........................................................................................................... 453
Define the Control Systems Architecture ......................................................................................... 454
Some Typical Large DCS Architectures.............................................................................................. 455
More on DCS Cabinets and I/O Distribution ..................................................................................... 456
Distributing the Power and Control .................................................................................................. 457
Routing the Cable Trays .................................................................................................................... 458
Choose the Wiring Method ............................................................................................................... 459
Field Distribution Systems................................................................................................................. 460
Class I, Division 2 Installations....................................................................................................... 461
Class I, Division 1 Installations....................................................................................................... 461
Modular Wiring Distribution Systems ........................................................................................... 462
Instrument Air Supply and Pneumatic Tubing .................................................................................. 463
24
 Instrument Air Consumption ........................................................................................................ 463
Compressor Types ......................................................................................................................... 464
Piping System and Manifold.......................................................................................................... 464
Air Pipe Header ......................................................................................................................... 464
Pneumatic Tubing...................................................................................................................... 464
Air Distribution Manifold (Header) ........................................................................................... 465
Routing of Pneumatic Tubing .................................................................................................... 465
Heat Tracing Systems ........................................................................................................................ 466
Electric Heat Tracing ..................................................................................................................... 466
Steam Heat Tracing ....................................................................................................................... 467
Free Heat Tracing Software........................................................................................................... 468
Determine Scope of Design............................................................................................................... 468
Electrical Scope ............................................................................................................................. 469
Instrumentation and Mechanical Scope ....................................................................................... 469
Design of Electrical Plans .............................................................................................................. 470
Sample of a possible design for the control network and communications in plant ................... 471
Sample of a possible plan for routing of cable tray and conduit in plant ................................... 472
Locations of Instruments and Piping Design ..................................................................................... 479

Preparing this Guide for the Exam .................................................................................................... 485

An Avery tab template is included with this guide ........................................................................... 485
Suggested tabbing the guide ............................................................................................................ 485

Examination Sample Questions ........................................................................................................ 487

Sample Questions ............................................................................................................................. 487
Answers to Examination Sample Questions ..................................................................................... 494
Explanations and Proofs of Examination Sample Questions ............................................................ 495

Appendix and Data Tables ................................................................................................................. 507

Table A1 - Thermocouple Table (Type J) ........................................................................................... 508
Table A2 - Thermocouple Table (Type K) .......................................................................................... 510
Table A3 - Thermocouple Table (Type E) .......................................................................................... 513
Table A4 - Thermocouple Table (Type T) .......................................................................................... 515
Table A5 - Platinum 100 Ohm RTD Table in ohms............................................................................. 516
Table A6 - Properties of Water Specific Gravity and LBs/HR to GPM ............................................... 517
Table A7 - Properties of Water Specific Volume and Density ........................................................... 518
Table A8 Properties of Water Kinematic Viscosity centistokes ..................................................... 519
Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam ........................................................................................ 520
Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam (continued) ..................................................................... 521
Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam (continued) ..................................................................... 522
Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam (continued) ..................................................................... 523
Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam (continued) ..................................................................... 524
Table A10 - Specific Gravity and Gas Constants for Some Common Gases ...................................... 525
Table A11 Properties and Sizing Coefficients for Globe Valves .................................................... 527
Table A12 Properties and Sizing Coefficients for Rotary Valves .................................................... 528
Table A13 - Numerical Constants for Control Valve Sizing Formulas .............................................. 528
Table A14 Service Temperature Limits for Non-Metallic Materials............................................... 530
Table A15 Standard Pipe Dimensions and Data ............................................................................. 531
Table A16 NEC Wire Ampacity Table 310.16 ................................................................................. 532
Table A17 NEC Table 8 Conductor Properties ................................................................................ 533
Table A18 NEC Full Load Motor Currents....................................................................................... 534
Table A19 Valve Seating Shutoff Pressure .................................................................................... 534

25
 Table A20 Valve Stem Packing Friction Values .............................................................................. 536
Table A21 - Specific Gravity Common Fluids ................................................................................... 537
Table A22 - The kinematic viscosity common fluids ......................................................................... 540
Table A23 - The absolute viscosity common liquids ......................................................................... 547
Table A24 - The absolute viscosity common gases ........................................................................... 549
(SI Units) Metric conversions ............................................................................................................ 550

References ........................................................................................................................................... 551

26
 Preface

Most state licensing boards in the United States recognize the Control System Engineering (CSE) and
offer the NCEES exam in this branch of engineering. There are, however, three states that do not offer the
CSE examAlaska, Hawaii, and Rhode Island. If you live in one of these states, you may choose to
pursue licensing in another discipline (such as electrical, mechanical, or chemical engineering). Or you
can try to arrange to take the CSE exam in a neighboring state.

The Control Systems Engineering (CSE) exam covers a broad range of subjects, from the electrical,
mechanical and chemical engineering disciplines. This exam is not on systems theory, but on process
control and basic control systems. Experience in engineering or designing process control systems is
almost a necessity to pass this exam.

Study of this reference manual should adequately prepare the experienced engineer or designer to take
the CSE exam. However, passing the exam depends on an individual applicants demonstrated ability and
cannot be guaranteed.

I have included a list of recommended books and material. The recommended books contain information,
invaluable to passing the exam. Even if you could take as many books as you want into the exam site, it is
better not to overwhelm yourselftoo much information can become distracting. Remember you will be
under pressure to beat the clock. Study your reference books and tab the tables and information you
need. This will ensure you do not waste time.

Study of the Fisher Control Valve Handbook or another equivalent book is strongly recommended, to
obtain the full benefits of this study review guide. The Fisher Control Valve Handbook can be obtained
free or for minimal cost from your local Fisher Valve representative. The book is also available from
Browns Technical Book Shop http://www.browntechnical.org. Address: 1517 San Jacinto, Houston,
Texas, 77002. The book can be downloaded in PDF format from the Emerson-Fisher web site as well.

About the Author

Bryon Lewis, CSE / PE, CMfgE, CET, CCST
Professional Engineer (PE)
Certified Manufacturing Engineer (CMfgE)
Certified Journeyman Electronics Technician in Industrial electronics (CET)
Certified Control System Technician Level III (CCST)
Certified Profibus Network Engineer
State of Texas Master Electrician
bryon.lewis@integrated.cc
http://www.linkedin.com/in/bryonlewis

Bryon Lewis is a licensed in Control Systems Engineering (CSE). He is also a Senior Member of ISA. Mr.
Lewis has over 30 years of experience in electrical, mechanical, instrumentation, and control systems.

He holds letters of recommendation from Belcan Engineering, S & B Engineers and Constructors, Enron
Corporation and Lee College. His design experience is in electrical and lighting systems design;
pharmaceutical and petrochemical plant design and installation, instrumentation and electrical systems
design for compressor stations and food manufacturing plants and maintenance.

Visit the site: http://www.integrated.cc for free study aid materials and utilities, as well as online training.
If there are any questions, please contact Bryon Lewis at his email address.

27
People who have contributed to the previous editions of this manual

Chad Findlay, PE
Chad graciously reviewed this manual for errors and made numerous suggestions to
improve its content. Chad Findlay is a Lead Controls Engineer for General Electric
Company where he has worked for 7 years. He develops gas turbine control systems
applied to simple and combined cycle power plants. Chad holds a Masters degree in
Mechanical Engineering from the University of California, Davis.

Daniel Masso, PE
Daniel also contributed to the review of this manual for errors and made suggestions to
improve its content.

Daniel Masso has worked as a DCS engineer for Westinghouse and Emerson Electric for
20 years in sales, project and field/start-up engineering capacities in system, control logic
and graphic design and programming capacities. He earned a B.Ch.E from Cleveland
State University and continued on a M.S. Ch.E at Case Western Reserve University and
is employed by Emerson Process Management Power and Water Solutions.

Neil Frihart, PE
I would like to thank Neil for his encouragement in writing this manual and his friendship
and help over the years. We met while I was employed by Advance Control and Technical
Services in 1996 in Tulsa.

Neil Frihart is a Senior Controls Engineer for John Zink and was the Director of Business
Development for Power & Control Engineering Solutions. He was employed a as a Senior
Controls Engineer for Callidus Technologies (Honeywell) and was also Manager of
Systems Engineering at Power Flame, Inc. He earned a BSEE from Kansas State
University and MBA from Pittsburg State University.

Susan Colwell
I would like to thank Susan for her patience and help in the publication of this manual. She
was extremely helpful in the publication of the first edition. Susan Colwell is the Publishing
Director for ISA, International Society of Automation.

Susan holds a BA from Franklin Pierce University.

Richard Tunstall
I would like to thank Richard for giving me the opportunity to design the first draft of the
Lee College process pilot plant under the advisement of the DuPont training department
in Deer Park, Texas and the opportunity to study real processes and their associated
control systems in 1994. Richard has been a faculty member of the Instrumentation
Technology Program at Lee College - Baytown, Texas for since 1991.

Richard has earned the following:

B.S.Ed from Baylor University
Don Thompson Award - 2010 from ISA (International Society of Automation)
Lee College Outstanding Faculty with over Ten Years of Experience 2012

28
 Reference Materials for the Exam

Recommended books and materials to take to the exam

The list of recommended books and materials for testing will be necessary to help you pass the CSE
examination. Use a book you are comfortable with. A substitution with the same material and information
may be used.

The list of recommended books and materials for additional study can be helpful in the review of subjects
and preparation for the examination.

Remember to keep the review simple. The test is not on control systems theory studies, but rather on
simple general functional design. Again keep your studies simple and practical; control systems theory will
only encompass about 3% of the examination.
Boks and Materials for Testing

NCEES APPROVED CALCULATOR (Have a spare with new batteries installed). I

recommend the TI-36X Solar (any light). Practice with the calculator you will be using.
(See http://www.ncees.org for a current list of approved calculators.)

ISA-5.1-1984 (R1992) - INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS AND IDENTIFICATION

ISA-5.2-1976 (R1992) - BINARY LOGIC DIAGRAMS FOR PROCESS OPERATIONS

ISA-5.3-1983 - GRAPHIC SYMBOLS FOR DISTRIBUTED CONTROL/ SHARED

DISPLAY INSTRUMENTATION, LOGIC, AND COMPUTER SYSTEMS

ISA-5.4-1991 - STANDARD INSTRUMENT LOOP DIAGRAMS

Fisher Control Valve Handbook / Valve Sizing Book (most data in this study guide)

A Safety Relief Valve Book (could be useful)

Books for additional study

The CSE Study Guide from ISA, (I highly recommend purchasing this 4 hour review exam)

Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control

(3rd Ed.), CRC Press LLC, Norman A. Anderson (FOXBORO)

Basic and Advanced Regulatory Control: Systems Design and Application

nd
(2 Ed.), ISA Dr. Harold Wade

Fisher Control Valve Handbook

Masoneilan Control Valve Sizing Handbook

Crosby Pressure Relief Valve Engineering Handbook

Pentair Pressure Relief Valve Engineering Handbook

Alfa Laval Pump Handbook

29
National Council of
Examiners for
Engineering and Surveying
Non-profit organization

The National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying is a national non-profit
organization composed of engineering and land surveying licensing boards representing all
U.S. states and territories.

Founded: 1920

NCEES on Wikipedia

NCEES on LinkedIn

Click on any link above to visit the site

30
Courses for additional study

ISA Control Systems Engineer (CSE) PE Review

ISA (International Society of Automation) offers an instructor-led Control Systems Engineer (CSE)
PE exam review course at different locations across the nation.

The ISA Control Systems Engineer (CSE) information page:

http://www.isa.org/isa-certification/cse-licensure-preparation

This course is typically taught by Gerald Wilbanks, P.E. He is a registered

professional engineer in four states, a member of NSPE, and ASQ, and an
International Former President (1995) of the International Society of
Automation (ISA). Gerald is a graduate of Mississippi State University with
a B.S. in electrical engineering and was recognized as the Engineer of the
Year in 1991 by the Engineering Council of Birmingham.

He is a Distinguished Engineering Fellow of MSU and is a Life Fellow

member of ISA. He has served as an instructor in many courses, seminars,
and other educational sessions for ISA and in his own business.
Gerald Wilbanks, P.E.

See the ISA web site http://www.isa.org for more books and training materials on advanced and
basic subjects. ISA offers webinars with instructor-led training in many aspects and topics of process
control and networking, as well as the popular topic of networking security. They offer several online
study courses specializing in instrumentation and process control for people needing an introduction
to the fundamentals of instrumentation. As an ISA member, many of the training videos and ISA /
ANSI standards are free.

Industrial Network Training

Siemens Automation

Free Training
PROFINET and PROFIBUS one-day seminars PI North America and the PROFI Interface Centers
throughout North America. Webinars are also available on-demand.

Certified Courses
PROFItech certification courses are available to allow attendees to gain the designation "Certified
Network Engineer."

On-Demand Training
Developer, installers, and other courses are available for both PROFINET and PROFIBUS
technology and training is also available for AS-I networks.

Fieldbus Center

The Fieldbus Center at Lee College, Baytown, Texas offers instructor-led training in the study and
certification of FOUNDATION Fieldbus and other process control systems. The training center uses
industrial standard equipment and instruments, utilizing the Emerson Delta V DCS (distributed
Control System) for programming and as a host system.

The Fieldbus Center at Lee College was the first national FOUNDATION Fieldbus training center,
established by Chuck Carter with a grant from the National Science Foundation. It is supporting most
31
 manufacturers in the instrumentation industry.

Control Systems Engineer (CSE) Supplement Course

Integrated Systems offers online study courses in Controls Systems Engineering (CSE) as a
supplement to the ISA (CSE) PE REVIEW course. It includes study materials and streaming videos
of instructor-led training. These courses use a live small scale online process plant to demonstrate
real world applications of calculations and the tuning and response of real process systems. The
online plant is live and interactive at scheduled times during your studies. The plant includes a small
MCC and multiple Automation PLCs utilizing typical plant control systems, instrumentation and I/O as
seen every day in a large plant or manufacturing environments.

Topics include PLC programming, process equipment sizing, instrumentation calculations and
calibration procedures, industrial networking configuration and troubleshooting, motor controls,
electrical installations and codes, instrumentation and electrical safety grounding, applications of fluid
mechanics for process control and measurement. The student has three months to complete their
studies and the courses are led by the author of this exam reference manual.

Visit http://learncontrolsystems.com or http://www.integrated.cc for more information on training and

to run the process plant online for free.

Online Process Plant @ Learn Control Systems.com

Integrated Systems uses the plant shown to teach process and manufacturing control systems to
engineers and technicians in the Learn Control Systems courses. It is used to demonstrate in depth
training on various applications of industrial instrumentation and industrial networking, including
multivariable control systems.

The plant is accessible through a standard web browser and uses live video feed of high definition
web cameras, with a wide view and a zoomed close up view of the instrumentation readings.

All variables are set and read over the internet in real time via a web browser. The full course work
will be in an HMI format, just like you would use in a real process plant. Desktop remote sessions can
be scheduled for personal programming of the PLCs.

(The free online demo mode has limited access to control functions. It serves as a course preview.)

32
 Examination General Information

State Licensing Requirements

Licensing of engineers is intended to protect the public health, safety, and welfare. State licensing boards
have established requirements to be met by applicants for licenses which will, in their judgment, achieve
this objective.

Licensing requirements vary somewhat from state to state but have some common features. In all states,
candidates with a 4-year engineering degree from an ABET/EAC-accredited program and four years of
acceptable experience can be licensed if they pass the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam and the
Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) exam in a specific discipline. References must be supplied to
document the duration and nature of the applicants work experience.

Eligibility

Some state licensing boards will accept candidates with engineering technology degrees, related-science
(such as physics or chemistry) degrees, or no degree, with indication of an increasing amount of work
experience. Some states will allow waivers of one or both of the exams for applicants with many years (6
20) of experience. Additional procedures are available for special cases, such as applicants with degrees
or licenses from other countries. Most states have abandoned the no degree statute and will only accept
as minimal, an accredited associate degree.

Note: Recipients of waivers may encounter difficulty in becoming licensed by reciprocity or comity in
another state where waivers are not available. Therefore, applicants are advised to complete an ABET
accredited degree and to take and pass the FE/EIT exam. Some states require a minimum of four year
experiences after passing the FE/EIT exam, before allowing a candidate to sit for the PE (principles and
practices) exam. Some states will not allow experience incurred before the passing of the FE/EIT exam.

It is necessary to contact your licensing board for the up-to-date requirements of your state. Phone
numbers and addresses can be obtained by calling the information operator in your state capital, or by
checking the Internet at www.ncees.org or nspe.org.

Exam schedule

The CSE exam is offered once per year, on the last weekend in October, (typically on Friday). Application
deadlines vary from state to state, but typically are about three or four months ahead of the exam date.

Requirements and fees vary among state jurisdictions. Sufficient time must be allotted to complete the
application process and assemble required data. PE references may take a month or more to be returned.
The state board needs time to verify professional work history, references, and academic transcripts or
other verifications of the applicant's engineering education.

After accepting an applicant to take one of the exams, the state licensing board will notify him or her where
and when to appear for the exam. They will also describe any unique state requirements such as allowed
calculator models or limits on the number of reference books taken into the exam site.

33
Description of Examination
Exam format

The NCEES Principles-and-Practice of Engineering examination (commonly called the PE examination) in

Control Systems Engineering (CSE) is an eight-hour examination. The examination is administered in a
four hour morning session and a four hour afternoon session.

Each session contains forty (40) questions in a multiple-choice format.

Each question has a correct or best answer. Questions are independent, so an answer to one question
has no bearing on the following questions.

All of the questions are compulsory; applicants should try to answer all of the questions. Each correct
answer receives one point. If a question is omitted or the answer is incorrect, a score of zero will be given
for that question. There is no penalty for guessing.

Exam content

The subject areas of the CSE exam are described by the exam specification and are given in six areas.
ISA supports Control Systems Engineer (CSE) licensing and the examination for Professional
Engineering. ISA is responsible for the content and questions in the NCEES examination. Refer to the ISA
web site (http://www.isa.org) for the latest information concerning the CSE examination.

For a copy of the latest CSE / PE examination format and content, visit NCEES at: (http://www.ncees.org)

The following is an overview of what categories and content might be expected on the examination. The
NCEES website will have the latest specifications of what exactly will be the focus of the exam, as the
format and specifications change over the years.

I. MEASUREMENT

Sensor technologies applicable to the desired type of measurement (e.g., flow, pressure, level,
temperature, analytical, counters, motion, vision)
Sensor characteristics (e.g., rangeability, accuracy and precision, temperature effects, response
times, reliability, repeatability)
Material compatibility
Calculations involved in: pressure drop
Calculations involved in: flow element sizing
Calculations involved in: level, differential pressure
Calculations involved in: unit conversions
Calculations involved in: velocity
Calculations involved in: linearization
Installation details (e.g., process, pneumatic, electrical, location)

34
II. SIGNALS, TRANSMISSION, AND NETWORKING

Signals

Pneumatic, electronic, optical, hydraulic, digital, analog, buses

Transducers (e.g., analog/digital [A/D], digital/analog [D/A], current/pneumatic [I/P]
conversion)
Intrinsically Safe (IS) barriers
Grounding, shielding, segregation, AC coupling
Basic signal circuit design (e.g., two-wire, four-wire, isolated outputs, loop powering,
buses)
Circuit Calculations (voltage, current, impedance)
Calculations: unit conversions

Transmission

Different communications systems architecture and protocols (e.g., fiber optics, coaxial
cable, wireless, paired conductors, buses, Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
[TCP/IP], OLE Process Control [OPC])
Distance considerations versus transmission medium (e.g., data rates, sample rates)

Networking

Networking (e.g., routers, bridges, switches, firewalls, gateways, network loading, error
checking, bandwidth, crosstalk, parity)

III. FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS

Valves

Types (e.g., globe, ball, butterfly)

Characteristics (e.g., linear, low noise, equal percentage, shutoff class)
Calculation (e.g., sizing, split range, noise, actuator, speed, pressure drop, air/gas
consumption)
Selection of motive power (e.g., hydraulic, pneumatic, electric)
Applications of fluid dynamics (e.g., cavitation, flashing, choked flow, Joule-Thompson
effects, two-phase)
Material selection based on process characteristics (e.g., erosion, corrosion, plugged,
extreme pressure, temperature)
Accessories (e.g., limit switches, solenoid valves, positioners, transducers, air regulators,
servo amp)
Environmental constraints (e.g., fugitive emissions, packing, special sealing)
Installation practices (e.g., vertical, horizontal, bypasses, location, troubleshooting)

Pressure Relieving Devices

Pressure Relieving Valve Types (e.g., conventional spring, balanced bellows, pilot
operated)
Pressure Relieving Valve Characteristics (e.g., modulating, pop action)
Pressure Relieving Valve Calculations (e.g., sizing considering inlet pressure drop, back
pressure, multiple valves)
Pressure Relieving Device Material Selection based on process characteristics
Pressure Relieving Valve Installation Practices (e.g., linking valves, sparing the valves,
accessibility for testing, car sealing inlet valves, piping installation)
35
 Rupture discs (e.g., types, characteristics, application, calculations)

Motor Controls

Types (e.g., motor starters, variable speed drives)

Applications (e.g., speed control, soft starters, valve actuators)
Calculations (e.g., sizing, tuning, location)
Accessories (e.g., encoders, positioners, relays, limit switches)
Troubleshooting (e.g., root cause failure analysis and correction)

Other Final Control Elements

Solenoid Valves (e.g., types, sizing)

On-Off Devices/relays (e.g., types, applications)
Self-Regulating Devices (e.g., types, sizing, pressure, temperature, level and flow
regulators)

IV. CONTROL SYSTEMS

Drawings

Drawings (e.g., PFD-process flow diagrams, P&IDspiping and instrumentation drawings,

loop diagrams, ladder diagrams, logic drawings, cause and effects drawings, electrical
drawings.)

Theory

Basic processes (e.g., compression, combustion, evaporation, distillation, hydraulics,

reaction, dehydration, heat exchangers, crystallization, filtration)
Process dynamics (e.g., loop response, P-V-T pressure volume temperature
relationships, simulations)
Basic control (e.g., regulatory control, feedback, feed forward, cascade, ratio, PID, split-
range)
Discrete control (e.g., relay logic, Boolean algebra)
Sequential control (e.g., batch, assembly, conveying, CNC)

Implementation

HMI (e.g., graphics, alarm management, trending, historical data)

Configuration and Programming (e.g., PLC, DCS, hybrid systems, SQL, ladder logic,
sequential function chart, structured text, function block programming, data base
management, specialized controllers)
Systems Comparisons and Capabilities (e.g., advantages and disadvantages, of systems
architecture, distributed architecture, remote I/O, buses)
Installation Requirements (e.g., shielding, constructability, input/output termination,
environmental, heat load calculations, power load requirements, purging, lighting)
Network Security (e.g., firewalls, routers, switches, protocols)
System Testing (e.g., FAT-factory acceptance test, integrated systems test, site
acceptance test)
Commissioning (e.g., performance tuning, loop checkout)
Troubleshooting (e.g., root cause failure analysis, and correction)

36
V. SAFETY SYSTEMS

Basic Documentation

Basic Documentation (e.g., safety requirements specification, logic diagrams, test

procedures, SIL selection report)

Theory

Reliability (e.g., bathtub curve, failure rates)

SIL selection (e.g., risk matrix, risk graph, LOPA)

Implementation

Safety Systems Design (e.g., I/O assignments, redundancy, segregation, software design)
Safety Integrity Level (SIL) verification calculations
Testing (e.g., methods, procedures, documentation)
Management of changes (e.g., scope of change, impact of change)

VI. CODES, STANDARDS, REGULATIONS

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

American Petroleum Institute (API)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
International Society of Automation (ISA)
National Electrical Code (NEC)
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

Exam Scoring
NCEES exams are scored independently. There are no pre-specified percentages of candidates that must
pass or fail.

Assisted by a testing consultant, a panel of licensed CSEs uses recognized psychometric procedures to
determine a passing score corresponding to the knowledge level needed for minimally-competent practice
in the discipline.

The passing score is expressed as the number of questions out of 80 that must be answered correctly.
The method used for pass-point determination assures that the passing score is adjusted for variations in
the level of exam difficulty and that the standard is consistent from year to year.

Starting in October 2005, candidates have received results expressed either as Pass or Fail; failing
candidates no longer receive a numerical score. Published passing rates are based on first-time takers
only, omitting the results for repeat takers.

37
38
 Review of Process Control Subjects

Overview of process measurement, control and calibration

The process control industry covers a wide variety of applications: petrochemical; pharmaceutical; pulp
and paper; food processing; material handling; even commercial applications. Experience designing
process control systems is almost a necessity to pass the Control Systems Engineer PE examination.

Process control in a plant can include discrete logic, such as relay logic or a PLC; analog control, such as
single loop control or a DCS (distributed control system) as well as pneumatic; hydraulic and electrical
systems. The Control Systems Engineer must be versatile and have a broad range of understanding of the
engineering sciences. The CSE is typically referred to as I & E (Instrumentation and Electrical), though the
CSE must have in-depth knowledge of mechanical and process systems.

The Control Systems Engineer (CSE) examination encompasses a broad range of subjects to ensure
minimum competency. This book will review the foundations of process control and demonstrate the
breadth and width of the CSE examination. We will then review the basic process control elements, their
theory of operation and then apply the elements to real-world application. We will then review the
calculations for sizing of the elements, as well as the applicable laws, standards and codes governing the
installation of a process control system.

39
Process signal and calibration terminology

The most important terms in process measurement and calibration are range, span, zero, accuracy and
repeatability. Let us start by first defining Span; Range; Lower Range Value (LRV); Upper Range Value
(URV); Zero; Elevated Zero; Suppressed Zero.

Definition of the Range of an instrument

Range: The region in which a quantity can be measured, received, or transmitted, by an element,
controller or final control device. The range can usually be adjusted and is expressed by stating the lower
and upper range values.

NOTE 1: For example:

Full Range Adjusted Range LRV URV
a) 0 to 150F None 0F 150F
b) 20 to +200F 10 to +180F 10F +180F
c) 20 to 150C 50 to 100C 50C 100C

NOTE 2: Unless otherwise modified, input range is implied.

NOTE 3: The following compound terms are used with suitable modifications in the units: measured
variable range, measured signal range, indicating scale range, chart scale range, etc. See Tables 1 and 2.

NOTE 4: For multi-range devices, this definition applies to the particular range that the device is set to
measure.

Range-limit, lower: LRV (Lower Range Value) The lowest value of the measured variable that a device is
adjusted to measure.

Range-limit, upper: URV (Upper Range Value) The highest value of the measured variable that a device is
adjusted to measure.

NOTE 5: The following compound terms are used with suitable modifications to the units: measured
variable lower range-limit, measured signal lower range-limit, etc. See Tables 1 and 2. Range-limit, upper:
URV (Upper Range Value) The highest value of the measured variable that a device is adjusted to
measure.

NOTE 6: The following compound terms are used with suitable modifications to the units: measured
variable upper range-limit, measured signal upper range-limit, etc. See Tables 1 and 2, Span: The
algebraic difference between the upper and lower range-values.

NOTE 1: For example:

Range: 0 to 150F, Span 150F
Range: 10 to 180F, Span 190F
Range: 50 to 100C, Span 50C

40
NOTE 2: The following compound terms are used with suitable modifications to the units: measured
variable range, measured signal range, etc.

NOTE 3: For multi-range devices, this definition applies to the particular range that the device is set to
measure. See Tables 1 and 2.

Range-limit, lower: LRV (Lower Range Value) The lowest value of the measured variable that a device is
adjusted to measure.

Range-limit, upper: URV (Upper Range Value) The highest value of the measured variable that a device is
adjusted to measure.

NOTE 4: The following compound terms are used with suitable modifications to the units: measured
variable lower range-limit, measured signal lower range-limit, etc. See Tables 1 and 2. Range-limit, upper:
URV (Upper Range Value) The highest value of the measured variable that a device is adjusted to
measure.

NOTE 5: The following compound terms are used with suitable modifications to the units: measured
variable upper range-limit, measured signal upper range-limit, etc. See Tables 1 and 2.

Definition of the Span of an instrument

Span: The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range-values.

NOTE 1: For example:

Range: 0 to 150F, Span 150F
Range: 10 to 180F, Span 190F
Range: 50 to 100C, Span 50C

NOTE 2: The following compound terms are used with suitable modifications to the units: measured
variable range, measured signal range, etc.

NOTE 3: For multi-range devices, this definition applies to the particular range that the device is set to
measure. See Tables 1 and 2.

41
Definition of the use of zero in instrumentation

Live-Zero
The lower range value (LRV) is said to be set to zero, as a reference point, whether it is at zero or not.
This LRV can be 0%; -40F; 4mA; 1V or 3 PSI. All LRVs are an example of the ZERO (Live Zero), in
process control signals or elements.

Elevated-Zero
The lower range-value of the range is below the value of zero. The LRV of the range must be raised to
Live Zero, for the instrument to function properly. The output signal of the measured value will always be 0
to 100%. If the LRV of the range is too low, the instrument may not be able to reach 100% output.

NOTE: For example: input signal = (-100 in H2O to 25 in H2O)

output signal = (4mA to 20mA)

The output signal may only reach 12mA for 25 in H2O (100%) input, due to limitation in the electronics or
pneumatics. Therefore the Elevate jumper must be set in the transmitter or an elevation kit must be
installed in a pneumatic transmitter. See Table 1.
Suppressed-Zero
The lower range-value of the span is above the value of zero. The LRV of the range must be lowered to
Live Zero, for the instrument to function properly. The output signal of the measured value will always be 0
to 100%. If the LRV of the range is too high, the instrument may not be able to reach 0% output.

NOTE: For example: input signal = (50 in H2O to 200 in H2O)

output signal = (4mA to 20mA)

The output signal may only reach 6mA for 50 in H2O (0%) input, due to limitation in the electronics or
pneumatics. Therefore the Suppress jumper must be set in the transmitter or a suppression kit must be
installed in a pneumatic transmitter. See Table 1.

42
Illustrations of range and span terminology

Table 1 Examples of range and span terminology

TYPICAL NAME RANGE LOWER UPPER SPAN SUPPLEMENTARY

RANGES RANGE RANGE DATA
VALUE VALUE

0 +100 0 to 100 0 +100 100

SUPPRESSED 20 to +100 20 +100 80 SUPPRESSION

20 +100
ZERO RANGE RATIO = 0.25

ELEVATED 25 to +100 25 +100 125

-25 +100
ZERO RANGE

ELEVATED 100 to 0 -100 0 100

100 0
ZERO RANGE

ELEVATED 100 to 20 -100 -20 80

100 20
ZERO RANGE

43
Illustrations of measured variable, measured signal, range and span

Table 2 Examples of measured variable, measured signal, range and span

TYPICAL RANGES TYPE OF RANGE RANGE LOWER UPPER SPAN

RANGE RANGE
VALUE VALUE

THERMOCOUPLE MEASURED 0 to 2000F 0F 2000F 2000F

0 2000F VARIABLE
TYPE K T/C

0.68 + 44.91 MEASURED 0.68 to +44.91 0.68 mV +44.91 mV 45.59 mV

mV SIGNAL mV

FLOWMETER MEASURED 0 to 10 000 lb/h 0 lb/h 10,000 lb/h 10,000 lb/h

0 10,000 VARIABLE
lb/h

0 100 MEASURED
0 to 100 in H2O 0 in H2O 100 in H2O 100 in H2O
in H2O SIGNAL

0 10 SCALE AND/OR 0 to 10,000 lb/h 0 lb/h 10,000 lb/h 10,000 lb/h

x1000=lb/h CHART

4 20 MEASURED 4 to 20 mA 4 mA 20 mA 16 mA
mA SIGNAL

1 5 MEASURED 1 to 5V 1V 5V 4V
Volts SIGNAL

44
 Applications of Fluid Mechanics in Process Control

Relationship of pressure and flow

In a pipe, the static pressure distributed across the pipe is even during no flow. You have the same
pressure at both ends of the pipe because the total energy in the system is at equilibrium. As the fluid
flows, it is accelerated through the pipe. There is a pressure drop across the pipe. The static pressure is a
measurement of the potential energy in the fluid. It is changed to the form of kinetic energy and is used up
in the form of heat and vibration doing work on the pipe to overcome the friction of the pipe.

The higher the flow rate, the greater the pressures drop across the pipe. The work done to transfer the
fluid through the pipe at higher flow rates becomes greater. Therefore the pressure drop across the pipe
increases as the velocity of the fluid increases through the pipe. It can be seen the static pressure
(available pressure) at the end of the pipe will be lower than the supply or pump pressure at the start of
the pipe, due to the fact that work is being done on the pipe. The pump head energy is used up doing work
on the pipe.

The P measurement across the flow element acts just a little bit different. Flow is measured in the units
of P or DP (differential pressure). There is a pressure drop across the orifice element and there will be
more pressure drop across the element as the flow rate (the fluids velocity) increases. This is the same
thing that is happening in the pipe. This is because more work is being done on the element as the
velocity increases. But remember the pressure on the downstream side the flow element drops as the
velocity increases. How does the pressure for the flow measurement increase? It doesnt, it is an increase
in P or DP (differential pressure), not in the static pressure.

We are measuring the P differential pressure

across the element and this is an inferred
measurement of flow rate. Flow rate equals the
velocity (distance per time) multiplied by the
area of the pipe. We achieve the measurement
of velocity by differential pressure. The
difference between the upstream pressure and
the downstream pressure across the element is
a measurement of the difference in height in two
different water columns. This difference in height
is a direct proportional measurement of the
velocity of the fluid flowing through the pipe.

The pump endows potential energy into the fluid and accelerates the fluid upward into a measurable
column of water. The water column is typically measured in feet of HEAD PRESSURE, but can be
measure in PSI. The water is constantly falling down the pipe toward the other end of the pipe and the

45
pump has to constantly accelerate the water upward against the pull of gravity to keep the water column
up in the air. The potential energy endowed into the water column turns into kinetic energy, as the water
column falls.

The kinetic energy is used to overcome the resistance

of the pipe and the work done on the pipe as the fluid
flows to the other end. If there is energy left over in the
fluid, it is again transformed back into to potential
energy at the other end of the pipe, as an available
pressure at the end of the pipe. This potential energy
left over can now fall through a pipe or device or some
equipment and do work and then finally resting at a
state of equilibrium. At this point all of the energy
endowed into fluid by the pump will be used up.

Note: The image at the right shows the pump has to

develop enough head to raise the fluid to the pipes
top elevation plus enough head to overcome the
friction loss of the piping (suction and discharge).

The velocity of the fluid is measured as the fluid falls.

2
V =2gH, where H is the height in feet (the head). The
volumetric flow rate can then be an inferred
measurement of the height of the water column. By knowing the size of the pipe and the coefficient of the
orifice and the properties of the fluid, we can accurately measure the volumetric flow rate of the fluid.

As the fluid flows through the opening of the orifice restriction, kinetic energy is transformed into potential
energy in the form of a difference of water column on each side of the restriction orifice element. The
height of the water column is the SCALED velocity of the fluid through the pipe. Remember the slower
the fluid travels, the less work it has to do. The fluid has to accelerate through the small opening in the
orifice to maintain the same mass flow rate through the pipe. Remember mass in has to equal mass out.

Energy is lost doing work on the

orifice plate and the pressure drops
on the exit side of the orifice. This
can be seen in the profile of the
vena contracta of the fluid flowing
and the P (differential pressure)
across the orifice element. As the
fluid exits the small opening into the
much larger area of the pipe, the
fluid decelerates and a portion of the
kinetic energy endowed into the fluid
by the pump, is transformed back
into potential energy. This potential
energy can be seen in the form of a
water column, of varying height, on
the entry and exit sides of the
orifice.

If the pipe were blocked at the exit end, the water would squirt out the taps on both sides of the orifice and
the two water columns of equal height would become obvious. Again as the fluid starts to accelerate
through the pipe and through the orifice, the fluids potential energy tends to change back into kinetic
energy to do work. This means the water columns start to fall on both side of the orifice. The exit side will
fall even more than the entrance side, due to the fact that work is done on the orifice restriction element,
as the flow rate increases. The difference in height the column falls on the exit side compared to the
upstream column, is its scaled velocity of the flow rate. The higher the fluids velocity, the more work is
done on the orifice and the pressure drops even more on the exit side of the orifice. This gives a greater
P (differential pressure) across the orifice. Note that as the pressure drops in the pipe due to increased
velocity, the P at the measurement meter becomes greater! This is because the total system pressure
46
(total hydraulic head) is decreasing by doing work on the pipe and the potential energy (pressure head) is
being transformed back into kinetic energy (velocity head) to do the work.

The lower the fluids velocity through the orifice, the higher the pressure on the exit side of the orifice. This
means there is less difference between the pressure on the high side (entry side) water column and the
low side pressure (exit side) water column. Therefore, there is less measured P (differential pressure)
across the orifice when the fluid decelerates, even though the pressure increased on the exit side of the
orifice and everywhere in the pipe system.

Note as the fluid flow approaches a stop, the two water columns are almost even in height. The pressure
differential, P, becomes almost
nothing. The static pressure on the
exit side of the orifice, which
represents the potential energy in
the fluid, becomes greater. The
pipe system will try to reach
equilibrium or uniform distribution of
static pressure across the pipe
system as the work across the pipe
becomes less and less. The kinetic
energy will change back into
potential energy.

Remember the total energy in

the system equals the kinetic +
potential + work done. As the fluid
starts to accelerate down the pipe
once again, the exit side water
column starts to drop in height. The
potential energy (pressure head) is
once again being transformed back
into kinetic energy (velocity head),
to do work across the element and
pipe. The distance in height the
exit side water column falls
compared to the height of the entry
side water column is the SCALED
velocity of the flowing fluid.

Since we know the fluids specific gravity (S.G.), we can now calculate the fluids height as if it were a
column of water. Remember (F=m*a) and weight is a measure of the force exerted by the pull of gravity.
Pressure equals (density * height) and force equals (pressure * area), therefore the pressure
measurement is a representation of the fluids height.

Stack 231 cubic inches of water on top of each other, to form a tall column of water, with a base of one (1)
square inch. The column of water will be 231 inches tall. Divide the height of the column of water, 231
inches, by the weight of one (1) gallon of water, 8.324 pounds at 60F. The result will be 27.691 or 27.7
inches of water column per pound of water, over a one square inch of area. Therefore 27.7 inches H 2O, of
head pressure, equals one (1) PSI.

Therefore the column of water can be measured in pounds per square inch (psi), not just HEAD
PRESSURE as a height of inches of water in the measurement meter. Just by knowing the height of the
column we can determine the pressure it can excerpt and the inferred amount work it can do. A column of
fluid with a lesser weight or density compared to water has specific gravity less than one (1).

Specific gravity is the ratio of the density or weight of a fluid compared to the density or weight of water.
The more dense the fluid is the more mass it has, therefore the more force it excerpt due to the
acceleration of gravity (F=m*a). So a fluid with a specific gravity less than one (1) cannot excerpt as much
force as water because it has less mass. Therefore, a column of fluid with a specific gravity less than 1
excerpts less pressure on a measurement meter, compared to the pressure excerpted by a column of
47
water. This is why we divide the pressure head by the specific gravity to give it a gain of force equal to
that excerpted by water, the industrial standard of measurement.

From the previous demonstration, it can be seen that a column of fluid with a specific gravity less than one
(1), needs to be taller than a column of water, to excerpt the same pressure on the measurement meter. If
we had a fluid such as solvent, it may have a S.G. of (0.7874). We use the industrial standard of water to
calibrate the meter. So to measure the height of the column of solvent in the standard of calibration with
water, the column of solvent needs to be taller than a column of water to excerpt the same force on a
weight scale. It would seem that the taller column of solvent would be falling faster than the velocity we
need to measure and it is. It has less mass; therefore, it needs to be accelerated faster than the column of
water to develop more force on impact. This force at impact will be the same force generated by the
column of water falling from a lower height and the pressure on the measurement element will be the
same. It can be seen we have an equivalent force and an equivalent pressure on the meter, for the two
different height columns of fluid.

In level measurement, the column of water used to calibrate the meter

will less than the column of solvent being measured. The water must
fall from a lower height to excerpt the same pressure as the taller
column of solvent. So if we have a s.g. of 0.7874 for the solvent, the
column of water will be 0.7874 times the height of the solvent column
or 78.74% of the intended height measurement. This will produce a
78.74 column of water (100 H2O * 0.7874 s.g. = 78.74 H2O). The
solvent column will be 100 tall but will appear to be only 78.74 of
water to the measurement meter. Zero to 100% output will equal 0 to
100 of solvent.

The height of solvent needed to produce a pressure equal to that of

100 cm of water is shown to the right. The solvent column height is
taller than the column of water, 100 cm / (S.G. = 0.7874). So the
column of solvent equals 100 cm / 0.7874 = 127 cm. It can be seen
that both columns produce the exact same pressure at the bottom of
the U tube.

The same thing is happening in the flow meter. The solvent is less dense than water and excerpts less
pressure on the meter for the same flow rate as water. 10 gallons a minute of water traveling down a pipe
or conveyor weights (10 * 8.33 lb. = 83.3 lbs.). 10 gallons a minute of solvent traveling down a pipe or
conveyor weights (10 * 8.33 lb. * 0.7874 s.g. = 65.59 lbs.). The pressure the solvent excerpts on the scale
is less for the same volumetric flow rate. Again the flow meter will be calibrated in water with a lower
measure of water column applied to the meter to read the desired flow rate of solvent.

Applications of the formulas

Lets do a quick overview of how we use fluid mechanics in process control measurements and then we
will discuss how we get the formulas and how fluid mechanics are used in detail in the following sections
of this guide to provide safe and accurate control of process plants.

Part One

Lets look at the flow measurement formula for calibration. We have 100 gpm of water flowing in a 3
schedule 40 pipe (ID=3.068) with a S.G. of 1 and the orifice diameter is 1.534. The Beta Ratio is the
pipe inside diameter divided by the orifice hole diameter.

h
Q( gpm) 5.667 SD 2
Gf

The Beta Ratio = 0.5 (3.068 /1.534 =0.5).

48
From Table 3: Beta = 0.500, S 0.1568

h
100( gpm) 5.667 0.1568 3.068
2

100( gpm) h

5.667 0.1568 3.068
2
1

2
100( gpm) h
2

8.3639 1

h
11.95612
1

142.95" H2O h

Now we will have 100 gpm of solvent flowing in a 3 schedule 40 pipe (ID=3.068) with a S.G. of 0.7874.

h
Q( gpm) 5.667 SD 2
Gf

From Table 3: Beta = 0.500, S 0.1568

h
100( gpm) 5.667 0.1568 3.068
2

0.7874

100( gpm) h

5.667 0.1568 3.068
2
0.7874

2
100( gpm) h
2

8.3639 0.7874
h
11.95612
0.7874
142.95 0.7874 h
112.56" H2O h

It can be seen we need less water to calibrate the flow meter in the calibration standard of water, to
measure the flow of solvent.

49
Part two

Lets apply Bernoullis principal to the pressure drop in pipes:

For a change in the static pressure anywhere in the piping system:

F
2

p1 F1 p2 F
2
2
2
p2 1 p1
F2

This is practical for a pressure meter to measure the available pressure at a flow rate, but it does not tell
the loss of pressure across the piping system or flow element.

We have 100 gpm of water flowing through 100 foot of 2 schedule 40 pipe (ID=2.067) at 60F
(cST=1.22). The pump is producing 100 feet of water or 43.32 psi. When the pump is running at full
speed and the pipe is blocked by a valve at the exit end of the pipe, the pressure of 100 feet of head is
distributed evenly throughout the pipe.

We crack open the valve until the water is flowing at 100 gpm. Lets calculate the head drop (delta
pressure drop) across the pipe.

First find the velocity of the fluid:

gpm *0.4085
velocity ( ft / sec)
ID 2 (inches )

100*0.4085
9.56( ft / sec)
2.067 2 (inches)

Find the Reynolds number for the pipe:

3160 * flow rate( gpm) * Specific Gravity

Re = Note: for liquids
Pipe ID (inches ) * Viscosity (cST )

3160 * 100 * 1
125, 310 Re
2.067 " ID * 1.22(cST )

Find the head loss across the pipe using the Darcy-Weisbach equation:

Find the friction factor:

Friction factor for Darcy-Weisbach equation

Note: e = 0.00015 for steel pipes
1
e *12 106 3
f 0.0055 0.0055 20, 000
Pipe ID(inches ) Re

1
0.00015 *12 10 6 3
0.0217 0.0055 0.0055 20, 000
2.067" 125,310

50
Find the head loss in the piping system:

Length( ft ) * 12 V ft / sec
2

hL f *
Pipe ID(inches) 64

100' * 12 9.56 ft / sec

2

17.99 feet 0.0217 *

2.067" 64

There is a head loss (pressure drop) across the pipe of 17.99 feet of water (or 7.8 psi) at 100 gpm. This
leaves 82 feet of head (100 18 = 82) or 35.52 psi, at the end of the pipe to do work across a control
valve or overcome a pressure in a vessel. Note: Usually there is no more than a 10 psi differential of
pressure across the control valve.

It is recommended that an additional 10% to 40% increase in pump head be added to the required system
pump pressure for normal pumping through the piping system, minus the required head to overcome any
vessel pressure (pressurized tank, vessel or column). We only need to add to the pump head that is
needed to overcome the friction loss of the pipe and to do the foot-pounds of work to accelerate the fluid
through the pipe.

Important Note: You cannot size the pump for just the pressure drop across the piping system due
to friction loss and flow rate. The valve will not work. There must be extra pressure head across
the of valve or the valve will not function.

The P across the valve for 10% should be:

17.99 psi * 0.10 = 1.799 psi or 4.153 feet of head for the valve sizing calculation.
There will be 1.799 psi across the valve, if there is a 10% increase in the pump head for the piping system.

The P across the valve for 40% should be:

17.99 psi * 0.40 = 7.196 psi or 16.61 feet of head for the valve sizing calculation.
There will be 1.799 psi across the valve, if there is a 40% increase in the pump head for the piping system.

Lets now calculate the head loss at 50 gpm:

50*0.4085
4.78( ft / sec)
2.067 2 (inches)

3160 * 50 * 1
62, 655 Re =
2.067 " ID * 1.22(cST )
1
0.00015 *12 106 3
0.0217 0.0055 0.0055 20, 000
2.067" 62, 655

100' * 12 4.78 ft / sec

2

4.8 feet 0.0232 *

2.067" 64

There is a head loss (pressure drop) across the pipe of 4.8 feet of water (or 2.08 psi) at 50 gpm. This
leaves 95.2 feet of head (100 4.8 = 95.2) or 41.24 psi, at the end of the pipe to do work across a control
valve or overcome a pressure in a vessel.

Note: The psi drop across the control valve increases as the flow slows down and the valve absorbs the
51
remaining pressure left in the system across the control valve. The difference of the system pressure is
the pump head minus the head loss across the piping system and minus any head needed to overcome
entry into a pressurized vessel. Just like I*R=E, the valve has more resistance to flow as it closes down,
so the pressure drop across the valve increases to maintain the flow rate. So even though the control
valve is trying to slow down the flow rate of the fluid, the fluid will try to maintain its flow rate as the valve
absorbs the extra pressure in the system. The control valve controls the flow by burning up the extra
energy head in the fluid as it flows through the piping system. We will discuss this in much more detail in
the section on control valves.

1 gpm 1 CV * 1 Ppsig

Visit http://www.integrated.cc/download.htm for more resources to study. A piping system calculator can
be downloaded for free from my web site. It is an Excel Spreadsheet to show real-world system results,
with generated graphs of response curves of valve characteristics for a given system.

Liquid System Sizer - version 2.7 (Size Pump, Valve, Orifice, Transmitter and Piping System)
http://www.integrated.cc/download_System_Sizer.htm

52
Summary of fluid mechanics for process control

The DP across the orifice decreases as the velocity of the fluid decreases. It can be seen that the
pressure on the exit side of the orifice increases as the fluids velocity decreases and the pressure drop
across the pipe decreases (less work is being done).

The velocity being measured is a SCALED velocity. It is scaled by the orifice size; the beta factor THE
SPINK FACTOR; the pipe ID and the s.g. of the fluid. Velocity equals the square root of (2gH). The
fluids velocity through the pipe may be much different than the measured differential height of the two
water columns that are being measured to obtain the fluids velocity.

Depending on the orifice size and the beta factor (say 0.3), for a given flow rate, the DP may be 1,000
inches of water column differential across a small orifice opening. The fluid has to do much more work to
get through the high resistance of the small opening. The DP could be only 100 inches water column
differential for a much larger beta ratio (say 0.7). The larger opening has less resistance and therefore
much less work is being done to flow through it.

Therefore less potential energy has to change into kinetic and the height of the water column on the exit
side of the orifice is much higher than with a beta ratio of (say 0.3). Therefore there is less DP across the
orifice for the same flow rate that has been SCALED to calculate the volumetric flow rate.

Now we will discuss most process measurement subjects in detail, including the application of the fluid
mechanics we just reviewed. These basic principles work for level, flow, orifice sizing, pump sizing, pipe
sizing and understanding the basics of process operations.

53
54
 Temperature Measurement and Calibration

Temperature measurement devices and calibration

In the process industry, temperature measurements are typically made with thermocouples, RTDs
(Resistance Temperature Detector) and industrial thermometers. Industrial thermometers are typically of
the liquid (class I), vapor (class II), and gas (class III) type.

The five major types of thermocouple

configurations are shown to the left.

The first two thermocouples are welded

or grounded, as shown, to the outside
metal protective sheathing.

The bottom three thermocouples are

ungrounded and should never touch the
metal protective sheathing; otherwise
they are shorted to ground.

Thermocouples should be extended with thermocouple extension wire and thermocouple termination
blocks, but can be extended with standard copper wire and standard terminal blocks. This is due to the
fact that the voltages generated at the extension junctions almost cancel each other out with very little
error. One side is positive and the other side is negative.

The four major thermocouples used in

the process industry are Type J, Type
E, Type K, Type T. The red wire is
always the negative wire with
thermocouples.

Thermocouple terminal junction blocks

should be made of the same material as
the thermocouple wire that is being
connected to terminal. This will prevent
additional thermocouple (TC) junction
points from being introduced in the
temperature signal. Some companies
use standard terminal strips, this can
cause an error in the signal.

55
Thermocouple millivolt tables for the examination can be found in the Table A1 Thermocouple Table
(Type J) through Table A4 Thermocouple Table (Type T) in the Appendix section of this guide.

Thermocouple Linearity Chart

Thermocouple Makeup Material and Color Code

TC THEMOCOUPLE RANGE USEFUL TC COLORS

Type MATERIAL FOR CALIB. RANGE
DEG F DEF F
E Chromel (+) -300 to 1830 200 to 1650 Purple Wire Jacket
Constantan (-) Purple (+)
Red (-)
J Iron (+) -320 to 1400 200 to 1400 Black Wire Jacket
Constantan (-) (300 to 800) Black (+)
Red (-)
K Chromel (+) -310 to 250 200 to 2300 Yellow Wire Jacket
Alumel (-) Yellow (+)
Red (-)
R Platinum 13% Rodium (+) 0 to 3100 1600 to 2640 Green Wire Jacket
Platinum (-) Black (+)
Red (-)
S Platinum 10% Rodium (+) 0 to 3200 1800 to 2640 Green Wire Jacket
Platinum (-) Black(+)
Red (-)
T Copper (+) -300 to 750 -310 to 660 Blue Wire Jacket
Constantan (-) Blue (+)
Red (-)

56
Thermocouple worked examples (how to read the thermocouple tables)

Sample problem: What is the Millivolt (mV) output of a Type J thermocouple at 218F and referenced to
a 32F electronic ice bath?

Find the nearest temperature in Table A1 - Thermocouple Table (Type J) in the appendix of this guide.

The nearest temperature in the first column is 210. Look at the column headers at the bottom of the chart.
Find the column header labeled 8. Follow the column up to the row with the 210 value. Where they meet is
a total of 210F + 8F = (218F).

Read the value of mV. The answer is: 5.45 mV

Sample problem: What is the Millivolt (mV) output of a Type K thermocouple at 672F from the data
given? Assume the thermocouple is linear.

Given:
670F = 14.479mV
672F = mV
680F = 14.713mV

We will have to interpolate the mV value for the desired temperature as follows:

interpolation:

deg desired - deg lower value

mV mV upper value - mV lower value mV lower value
deg upper value - deg lower value
Therefore the new mV for 672F:

672 - 670
14.526 14.713 - 14.479 14.479
680 - 670

The mV at 672F is 14.526 mV

This can be verified in Table A2 Thermocouple Table (Type K) in the appendix.

57
RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)

The process control industry also uses RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors) for many applications, for
example, when precise temperature measurement is needed, such as mass flow measurements or critical
temperature measurements of motor bearings.

RTDs typically come in 10 ohm copper and 100 ohm platinum elements. Their resistance is typically very
linear over the scale.

Resistance values for the examination can be found in the Table A5 - Platinum 100 Ohm RTD Table in
ohms, in the Appendix section of this guide.

Typical wiring configurations and uses of RTDs

2-wire RTD 3-wire RTD 4-wire RTD

Good for close applications, at Good for further distance Best application and usually uses 20
the transmitter. applications. Remote from the mA driving current and a voltage
transmitter. measurement.

RTD worked examples

Sample problem: A RTD is platinum and has a resistance of 100 ohms at a temperature of 32F and an
alpha 0.2178 ohms per F. What is the resistance of the RTD at a temperature of 240F?

Find the difference in the temperature first. 240F 32F = 208F

Now find the resistance for the differential temperature:

208F * 0.2178 ohms/deg F = 45.3 ohms

Now we add the change in resistance to the resistance at 32F:

100 ohms + 45.3 = 145.3 ohms

Referring to Table-A5. Platinum 100 Ohm RTD Table in ohms, in the appendix. The resistance value
for the RTD can be interpolated and found for a given temperature.

58
Sample problem: In the bridge circuit above, if R1 and R2 are 200 ohms and the RTD is at 60F. What
resistance should R3 measure, to balance the circuit and give the meter a reading of 0 volts? The RTD is
platinum and measures 100 ohms at 32F with an alpha of 0.2178 ohms per F.

Find the difference in the temperature first. 60F 32F = 28F

Now find the resistance for the differential temperature:

28F * 0.2178 ohms/F = 6.0984 ohms

Now we add the change in resistance to the resistance at 32F:

100 ohms + 6.0984 = 106.0984 ohms

The resistor R3 needs to be 106 ohms to balance the bridge and give 0 volts at the meter.

Sample problem: In the bridge circuit above, R1 and R2 are 200 ohms. R3 is150 ohms. The excite
voltage to the bridge is 10 volts. If the meter is reading 0.4 volts (the positive is on the right side and the
negative on the left side) what is the temperature at the RTD?

Find the voltage on the left side of the bridge. This is the voltage we will add to the meter voltage on the
right side. We will use the voltage divider theorem to find the voltage across R1.

R1 200
VR1 (10V ) (10V ) 5V
R1 R2 200 200

This means the voltage across the RTD is 5.0V + 0.4V = 5.4 volts.

We will now use the voltage divider theorem to find the resistance of RTD.

RRTD RRTD
VRTD (10V ) ; 5.4V (10V )
RRTD RR 3 RRTD 150

Solving for RRTD :

RRTD
5.4 10
RRTD 150

59
5.4 RRTD 10

10 RRTD 150 10

RRTD
0.54 RRTD 150 RRTD 150
RRTD 150

0.54( RRTD 150) RRTD

0.54 RRTD 0.54(150) RRTD

0.54 RRTD 81 RRTD

0.54 RRTD - 0.54 RRTD 81 RRTD - 0.54 RRTD

81 RRTD - 0.54 RRTD

81 (1 0.54) RRTD

81 (0.46) RRTD

81 (0.46) RRTD

0.46 0.46

176.087 RRTD

We can prove that the 176.087 ohms for the RTD is correct by plugging the value into the voltage divider
formula to find the 5.4 volts at the meter.

176.087
VRTD (10V ) 5.4V
176.087 150

We have the ohms of the RTD, now we can find the temperature.

100 ohms = 32F,

So subtract the difference in ohms 176.087 100 = 76.087 ohms.

Divide the 76.087 ohms by the alpha 0.2178 ohms per F.

60
 76.087 ohms
F 349.34 F
0.2178 ohms
deg F

Add the 32F bias for 100 ohms to the 349.34F for 76.087 ohms and we get:

349.34F + 32.00F = 381.34F.

Installing RTDs and Thermocouples into a process stream

61
Typical RTD and thermocouple applications

A complete assembly with a 4-20mA transmitter in an explosion proof housing

Industrial RTD or Thermocouple with head Various Industrial Thermometers

A straight thermowell is shown in the middle Threaded for mounting in tanks and pipes

62