UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA SABAH

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
HK01 CIVIL ENGINEERING PROGRAM

KA31702
HYDRAULICS & STRUCTURE
LAB
(HYDRAULICS LAB MODULE)

LAB MANUAL
FIRST EDITION

PREPARED BY: JANICE LYNN AYOG & TANG ZI SHENG

SEPTEMBER 2013
 CIVIL ENGINEERING LAB SAFETY RULES & REGULATIONS

The regulations listed below are designed to maintain a high level of safety awareness in
the civil engineering laboratory. It is believed that having an understanding of inherent
hazards and learning how to be safe should be the integral and important parts of the
education process. The regulations will be consistently enforced and non-compliance will
result in the suspension from the laboratory.

1. Attendance in all lectures & lab experiments is compulsory. Students must be

punctual and should be at the lab 10 minutes before the experiment starts.
2. Horseplay or other acts of carelessness are prohibited.
3. Proper working attire should be worn. T-shirts and long pants are highly
recommended.
4. Perform no unauthorized experiments, tasks or job and perform given
experiments, tasks or jobs only according to directions.
5. Smoking is prohibited in the lab.
6. Sandals, slippers and heels should not be worn in the lab. Close covered shoes are
required when working near equipment.
7. Do not use any equipment unless you are trained and approved as a user by your
instructor, demonstrator or technicians.
8. Wash hands before leaving the lab and before eating.
9. Consumption of food and beverages in the lab is forbidden. Food may not be
stored in refrigerators located in the lab.
10. Tie back medium length and long hair when working near entangling equipment.
11. All accidents, no matter how minor, should be reported to the instructor,
demonstrator or technicians on duty.
12. Know all the location of all safety equipment (e.g. eyewash, fire extinguisher,
safety showers etc.) and how to use them.
13. Keep the aisle clear. Keep bags in the provided racks. Only stationeries and the
lab manual are allowed in the lab.
14. Keep the lab clean. Students should clean the equipment, tools and used space
after use. Spills should be cleaned up immediately.

1
EXPERIMENTS IN THIS MANUAL:

EXPERIMENT F1: BERNOULLIS THEOREM

EXPERIMENT F2: METACENTRIC HEIGHTS
EXPERIMENT F3: FLOW IN PIPES
EXPERIMENT F4: ORIFICE & JET FLOW
EXPERIMENT F5: RECTANGULAR & V-NOTCH WEIRS
EXPERIMENT F6: OSBOURNE REYNOLDS DEMONSTRATION (Hands-On Test)
EXPERIMENT F7: HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE (Hands-On Test)
EXPERIMENT F8: IMPACT OF JET
EXPERIMENT F9: DEAD WEIGHT CALIBRATOR
EXPERIMENT H1: FLUME TEST

2
TECHNICAL LABORATORY REPORT FORMAT
General Format
- 1.5 Spacing, Tahoma, 11 Font Size with justified alignment. (Remove space Before
and After paragraph)
- Single spacing for references list and description for figures and tables.
- Margin of 25.4 mm/ 1 in (Top, Right and Bottom) and 38 mm/ 1.5 in (Left).
- Page number at the middle bottom at 12.7 mm/ 0.5 in.
- Must have cover page with ums logo and table of content.
- Single sided printing only.
- Submitted in booklet form. (Binding is not compulsory, can use staple)

Cover page
- UMS logo
- Programme
- Course code and Subject
- Experiment Title
- Date of Conducted
- Date of Submission
- Names and Matriculation Number (in table form)
- Lecturer Name
-
Table of Content
- Include Details/ Elements
- Page Number for each titles/ elements

Elements to include in Lab Report

1. Objectives
2. Introduction/ Theory (Include in-text references)
3. Materials and Apparatus (Include a schematic diagram on the equipment)
4. Procedures
5. Results (Tables)
6. Analysis of Data (Graphs and Calculation)
7. Discussion (Include in-text references)
8. Conclusion
9. References (Use Harvard Referencing style)
10. Appendix (Optional)

PLAGIARISM is strictly prohibited. For any plagiarized works, ZERO mark will be
awarded.

3
EXPERIMENT F1: BERNOULLIS THEOREM

A. OBJECTIVE OF EXPERIMENT:
To apply and demonstrate Bernoullis Theorem

B. EQUIPMENT SET UP:

a) Hydraulics Bench,
b) Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration Apparatus,
c) Stop watch.

Note: Dimension is in mm.

4
C. SUMMARY OF THEORY:
Bernoullis theorem is based on energy principle. It states that the total energy of flow along a
stream line remain constant provided there is no loss or gain of energy at any section.

Considering flow at two sections in a pipe, Bernoullis equation may be written as:

U12 P U 2 P
1 Z1 2 2 Z 2
2g g 2g g

For this apparatus:

Z1 = Z2 and P = gh

Hence if Bernoullis Theorem is obeyed:

U2
H h is constant at all sections along the duct.
2g

D. PROCEDURE

5
E. RESULT AND CALCULATIONS:

Tube Diameter of
No Cross
Section

(mm)

3 25.0

7 13.9

9 11.8

11 10.7

13 10.0

17 25.0

6
F. DISCUSSION
1) Comment on the validity of Bernoullis Equation for the system.

ANSWER:

7
G. CONCLUSION

(Give your summary in point form)

8
EXPERIMENT F2: METACENTRIC HEIGHTS

A. OBJECTIVE OF EXPERIMENT:
To locate the position of the metacentre (M) of a floating body, by determining its distance
from the centre of gravity (G); this distance (GM) is known as the metacentric height.

B. EQUIPMENT SET UP:

Mast

Plumb Line

Vertical Sliding
Weight

Degree
Scale Inclining Weight

Linear
Scale

Figure 1: Metacentric Height Apparatus

The following nominal dimension and weights from the equipment are used in the appropriate
calculations. If required these values may checked as part of the experiment procedure and
replaced with your own accurate measurements.

Pontoon length l = 0.350 m

Pontoon width b = 0.200 m
Pontoon height h = 0.075 m (Not used in the calculations)

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Pontoon weight (total) W = 1.305 kg (Pontoon fully assembled with both weights fitted)
Inclining weight only P = 0.305 kg

Note: The inclining weight can be removed from the assembly to allow accurate measurement
of its individual weight (P kg). Unscrew the plastic thumb screw on the side of pontoon to
allow the rod supporting the inclining weight to be removed. Ensure that the thumb screw is
tightened following reassembly.

C. SUMMARY OF THEORY:

10
D. PROCEDURE

11
 E. RESULT AND CALCULATIONS:

Pontoon Pontoon Total Inclining Height of Depth of Theoretical Position of Angle Experimental
Length Width weight Weight center Immersion Metacentric height inclining Of Metacentric
Gravity Weight Heel height
GM x
l b W P y d (m) (m) GM
(m) (m) (kg) (kg) (m) (m) (degrees) (m)

12
F. DISCUSSION
For each position of the Centre of Gravity, plot a graph of Metacentric Height (GM) against
angle of heel (). From this graph, extrapolate the position of GM when = 0.

ANSWER:

13
G. CONCLUSION

(Give your summary in point form)

14
EXPERIMENT F3: FLOW IN PIPES
This experiment consists of three different experiments which are done using one equipment set-
up.

Experiment A: Losses due to 90 bend.

Experiment B: Flow through an orifice meter.
Experiment C: Pipe friction

A. OBJECTIVE OF EXPERIMENT:
Experiment A: To determine the loss coefficient due to 90 bend.
Experiment B: To calibrate the orifice meter.
Experiment C: To study pipe friction.

B. EQUIPMENT SET UP:

The set-up consists of a 6.10 m length pipe. Along the pipeline, a 90 bend and an orifice
meter have been installed. Water/mercury manometers have been connected at three places
(i.e. across point 1 and 2 the 90 bend, the orifice meter, and at end of the pipe) for the reading
of the head differences for each experiment. A rectangular tank is provided at the downstream
for discharge measurement. A stop watch is needed to take the time required.

Technical Data:
Diameter of pipe = 12.7 mm
Diameter of orifice = 12.0 mm
Length of pipe = 1.0 m

C. SUMMARY OF THEORY:
Experiment A:

In addition to head loss due to friction, there are always other losses in pipelines due to sudden
expansions/contractions, pipe fittings such as elbows, bend, T-junction, valves, etc. These
losses fall in the category of minor losses, and can be calculated as:
V2
h Lm K L (1)
2g

15
where
hLm= minor head loss
KL = loss coefficient
V = velocity of flow in the pipe

Experiment B:

An orifice meter is a device to measure discharge in a pipe flow situation. The discharge
through an orifice can be calculated as follows:

Q C d A 2gH (2)
where
A = area of cross-section of the orifice
H = difference in the piezometric head between sec. 1 and 2
Cd = coefficient of discharge of the orifice meter

The discharge can obtained experimentally by dividing the volume with time.

Equation (2) can also be expressed as:

Q KH n (3)
where

K = a coefficient K C d A 2g
n= an exponent

Taking log on both sides will give

Log Q = log K + n log H. (4)

By plotting a graph of log Q vs. log H, the values of n and log K can be determined.
Determining the values of K and n is called the calibration of the orifice meter.

16
 Definition sketch of an orifice meter

Experiment C:

A fluid moving through a pipeline is subjected to energy losses from various sources. A
continuous resistance is exerted by the pipe walls due to the formation of a boundary layer in
which the velocity decreases from the center of the pipe to zero at the boundary. The total
head loss along a specified length of a pipe is referred to head loss due to friction (major loss)
and is denoted by hf and can be calculated as;

L V2
hf (5)
D 2g

where hf = head loss due to friction

= friction factor
L = length of pipe
D = diameter of pipe
V = velocity of flow in the pipe
g = local gravity acceleration

Note: Experiments A, B, C are done simultaneously.

D. PROCEDURE

17
18
E(I) RESULT AND CALCULATIONS OF EXPERIMENT A:

Run No.

19
F (I) DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENT A
1. Calculate the average value of the loss coefficient, KL.

ANSWER:

2. Comments on the result obtained.

ANSWER:

20
G (I) CONCLUSION OF EXPERIMENT A

(Give your summary in point form)

21
E(II) RESULT AND CALCULATIONS OF EXPERIMENT B:

Run No.

22
F (II) DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENT B
1. Plot Q vs. H curve on a log-log paper, and determine values of n and K.

ANSWER:
Value of:
n=
K=

2. Calculate Cd and compare with the normal value of Cd.

ANSWER:

3. Discuss and comments on the results obtained.

ANSWER:

23
G (II) CONCLUSION OF EXPERIMENT B

(Give your summary in point form)

24
E(III) RESULT AND CALCULATIONS OF EXPERIMENT C:

Run No.

25
F (III) DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENT C
1. Calculate the average friction factor, .

ANSWER:

2. Comments on the result obtained.

ANSWER:

26
G (III) CONCLUSION OF EXPERIMENT C

(Give your summary in point form)

27
EXPERIMENT F4: ORIFICE & JET FLOW

A. OBJECTIVE OF EXPERIMENT:
To find the coefficient of velocity for a small orifice

B. EQUIPMENT SET UP:

a) Hydraulics Bench,
b) Orifice (3 different types based on inner diameter)
c) Jet apparatus
d) Stop watch
e) Measuring cylinder

Note: Dimension is in mm.

28
C. SUMMARY OF THEORY:

Coefficient of velocity, Cv:

The relationship between Q = discharge, Cv = coefficient of velocity, Vi = velocity, Cc =

coefficient of contraction and Ao = area of the orifice is:

Q = CvViCcAo

D. PROCEDURE

29
E. RESULT AND CALCULATIONS:

Inner diameter of the orifice plate: _____________________________ mm

30
F. DISCUSSION
1) Compute x2/h and plot x2/h vs. y. Find Cv from the slope of this graph.

ANSWER:

2) Find the coefficient of contraction, Cc. Show all calculations.

ANSWER:

31
G. DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

(Give your summary in point form)

32
EXPERIMENT F5: RECTANGULAR & V-NOTCH WEIRS
This experiment consists of two different experiments which are done using one equipment set-
up.

Experiment A: Rectangular notch weir

Experiment B: V-notch weir

A. OBJECTIVE OF EXPERIMENT:
Experiment A: Characteristics of flow over a rectangular notch weir
Experiment B: Characteristics of flow over a Vee notch weir

B. EQUIPMENT SET UP:

1) Hydraulic bench
2) Hook and Point Gauge
3) Stop Watch
4) Rectangular notch weir
5) 45 Vee notch weir
6) Measuring cylinder

33
C. SUMMARY OF THEORY:
Experiment A:

The equation to calculate discharge flowing through a rectangular notch weir is given as:

(1)

Experiment B:

The equation to calculate discharge flowing through a Vee notch weir is given as:
(2)

Where:

D. PROCEDURE

34
 E(I) RESULT AND CALCULATIONS OF EXPERIMENT A:

Compute and create tables related to this experiment.

35
F (I) DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENT A
1. Plot Q3/2 against H, log Q against log H and Cd against H.
(10 marks)
ANSWER:

2. Estimate an average value of Cd for the range of the test.

(5 marks)
ANSWER:

3. Can the Q-H relationship be described by an empirical formula Q = kHn? If so, find
values of k and n.
(10 marks)
ANSWER:

36
G (I) DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION OF EXPERIMENT A
(10 marks)
(Give your summary in point form)

37
 E(II) RESULT AND CALCULATIONS OF EXPERIMENT B:

Record breadth of notch = ______________________________________________

Compute and create tables containing:

i. Volumes
ii. Times
iii. Heads
iv. Discharge, Q
v. Q2/5

(Results and Calculation: 15 marks)

38
F (II) DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENT B
1. Plot Q2/5 vs. H and find Cd from the slope of the graph. (10 marks)

ANSWER:

2. Is Cd constant for the conditions of the experiment? (5 marks)

ANSWER:

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of plotting Q2/5 against H instead of Q
against H2/5?
(10 marks)
ANSWER:

39
G (II) DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION OF EXPERIMENT B
(10 marks)
(Give your summary in point form)

40
EXPERIMENT F6: OSBOURNE REYNOLDS DEMONSTRATION
(Hands-On Test)
Objective
To observe laminar, transitional and turbulent pipe flow.

Technical Data
The following dimensions from the equipment are used in the appropriate calculations. If
required these values may be checked as part of the experimental procedure and replaced
with your own measurements.

Diameter of test pipe D 20 mm

Cross-sectional area of test pipe A 31.42 mm2

Equipment Diagrams

Figure 1: Osbourne Reynolds Demonstration

Results

All readings should be recorded as follows:

41
Constant:

Kinematic viscosity, : _________________________

Variables

Lines pattern of Q Velocity Re Type of flow

the injected dye

(L/s) (m/s)

Include appropriate graph(s) and discussions with references.

42
EXPERIMENT F7: HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
(Hands-On Test)

Objective
1. To determine the hydrostatic thrust acting on a plane surface immersed in water when the
surface is partially submerged.
2. To determine the position of the line of action of the thrust and to compare the position
determined by experiment with the theoretical position.

Technical Data
The following dimensions from the equipment are used in the appropriate calculations. If
required these values may be checked as part of the experimental procedure and replaced
with your own measurements.

Length of Balance L 275 mm Distance from weight hanger to

Quadrant to Pivot
Height of Quadrant
Width of Quadrant
H 200 mm
D 100 mm
B 75 mm
pivot
Base of quadrant face to point of
pivot
Height of vertical quadrant face
Width of vertical quadrant face

Equipment Diagrams
Balance Clamping
Level Indicator Arm Knife Edge
Screw
Pivot

Counterbalance

Scal
Weight e
Hammer
Drain
Spirit Level Valve

Adjustable Feet
Quadran
t
Figure 1: Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus

43
Results

All readings should be recorded as follows:

Constants

Height of End Face: D (m)

Width of End Face: B (m)
Length of Arm: L (m)
Height to pivot: H (m)

Variables

Mass Measured Depth Hydrostatic Distance Turning

Added Turning Thrust To center of Moment
Moment Pressure

m d F h
(kg) (Nm) (m) (N) (m) (Nm)

Include appropriate graph(s) and discussions with references.

44
EXPERIMENT F8: IMPACT OF A JET

A. OBJECTIVE OF EXPERIMENT:
To investigate the reaction forces produced by the change in momentum of a fluid flow.

B. EQUIPMENT SET UP:

Method:
This experiment is made by measuring the forces produced by a jet impinging on solid surfaces
which produce different degrees of flow deflection.

In order to complete the demonstration, the equipment below are needed:

a) Hydraulic Bench, to measure flow by timed volume collection,
b) The Impact of Jets apparatus with 4 flow deflectors, having deflection angle of 30, 90,
120 and 180 degrees,
c) A stopwatch to determine the flow rate of water.

Equipment set up diagram (use in the space below):

45
C. SUMMARY OF THEORY:
The velocity of fluid, v, leaving the nozzle of cross-sectional area, A, is given by

Qt
v
A

It is assumed that the magnitude of the velocity (i.e. speed) does not change as fluid flows
around the deflector, and that only its direction changes.

Application of Newtons 2nd law to the deflected flow gives the result:

Fy = Qm vcos 1 , where
Fy = force exerted by deflector on fluid, and
Qm =mass flow rate, but
Qm = Qt = Av , where, Qt = volume flow rate

For static equilibrium, Fy is balanced by the applied load, W (and W mg , where m is the
applied mass) hence;

W = Av 2 cos 1
Thus, the slope, s , of a graph of W plotted against v 2 is s = Acos 1
Note that 180 , where is the flow deflection angle.

D. PROCEDURE

46
47
E. RESULT AND CALCULATIONS:

48
F. DISCUSSION
1) Plot a graph of velocity2 against applied mass. Compare the slope of this graph with
the slope calculated from theoretical equation.
2) Comment on the agreement between your theoretical and experimental results and give
reasons for any differences.
3) Comment on the significance of any experimental errors.

ANSWER:

49
G. CONCLUSION

(Give your summary in point form)

50
EXPERIMENT F9: DEAD WEIGHT CALIBRATOR

A. OBJECTIVE OF EXPERIMENT:
1) To calibrate a Bourdon type pressure gauge and to determine the gauge errors
2) To determine the measurement errors in the reference pressure source used for
calibration

B. EQUIPMENT SET UP:

Method:
This experiment is made to calibrate a pressure gauge by applying predetermined pressures
generated by loading weights on to a piston of known cross-sectional area (a dead-weight
calibrator).

In order to complete the demonstration, the equipment below are needed:

a) Hydraulic Bench, to measure flow by timed volume collection,
b) The Dead Weight Calibrator
c) Weights
d) Weigh-balance
e) Pressure gauge
f) Filling tube or Measuring Cylinder

Equipment set up diagram (use in the space below):

51
C. SUMMARY OF THEORY:
The use of the piston and weights with the cylinder generates a measurable reference pressure,
P:
F
P (Pascals)
A
Where
F mg
and
F is the force applied to the liquid in the calibrator cylinder
M is the total mass (including that of the piston) and
A is the area of piston
The area of the piston can be expressed in terms of its diameter, d , as:

d 2
A
4

D. PROCEDURE

52
53
E. RESULT AND CALCULATIONS:

54
F. DISCUSSION
1) Plot a graph of gauge reading against absolute gauge error and of gauge reading
against % gauge error.
2) Comment on the accuracy of the gauge.
3) Comment on the size of gauge errors in relation to the errors in the reference pressure
measurement.
4) Is the relative height between the dead-weight calibrator and the gauge important in the
calibration?

ANSWER:

55
G. CONCLUSION

(Give your summary in point form)

56
EXPERIMENT H1: FLUME TEST

A. OBJECTIVE OF EXPERIMENT:
Determination of Manning and Chezy coefficient.

B. EQUIPMENT SET UP:

a) Flume

C. SUMMARY OF THEORY:
The resistance equation most useful in governing uniform flows in channels are Chezy and
Manning equations:

V = C (RSo)1/2 (1)

V = 1/n (R2/3So1/2) (2)

where R = hydraulic radius

So = channel slope
V = flow velocity
C = Chezy coefficient
n = Manning coefficient

D. PROCEDURE

57
58
E. RESULT AND CALCULATIONS:

1) Water temperature = _____________________________________

2) Water density, = _________________________________________
3) Channel width, b = _________________________________________

59
F. DISCUSSION
1) Plot Manning coefficient, n versus Q; and Chezy coefficient, C versus Q.

2) Comment on the results obtained.

ANSWER:

G. CONCLUSION
(Give your summary in point form)

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61