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Economies of scale
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In microeconomics, economies of scale are the cost

advantages that enterprises obtain due to size, output,
or scale of operation, with cost per unit of output
generally decreasing with increasing scale as fixed
costs are spread out over more units of output.

Economies of scale apply to a variety of organizational

and business situations and at various levels, such as a
business or manufacturing unit, plant or an entire
enterprise. For example, economies of scale apply to
the fixed cost to produce units of output through
production and manufacturing. When average costs
start falling then economies of scale are in production
with fixed costs being a requirement for the equation.
With no fixed costs, the average cost and average
variable cost would be equal.[1] As quantity of production increases from Q to Q2, the
average cost of each unit decreases from C to C1. LRAC is
Economies of scale exist in real life. the long run average cost

Some economies of scale, such as capital cost of

manufacturing facilities and friction loss of
transportation and industrial equipment, have a physical or engineering basis.

The economic concept dates back to Adam Smith and the idea of obtaining larger production returns through
the use of division of labor.[2] Diseconomies of scale are the opposite.

Economies of scale often have limits, such as passing the optimum design point where costs per additional unit
begin to increase. Common limits include exceeding the nearby raw material supply, such as wood in the
lumber, pulp and paper industry. A common limit for low cost per unit weight commodities is saturating the
regional market, thus having to ship product uneconomical distances. Other limits include using energy less
efficiently or having a higher defect rate.

Large producers are usually efficient at long runs of a product grade (a commodity) and find it costly to switch
grades frequently. They will therefore avoid specialty grades even though they have higher margins. Often
smaller (usually older) manufacturing facilities remain viable by changing from commodity grade production to
specialty products.[3][4]

Contents
1 Overview
2 Physical and engineering basis
2.1 Capital and operating cost
2.2 Crew size and other operating costs for ships, trains and airplanes
2.3 Economical use of byproducts
3 Economies of scale and returns to scale
4 Distributional consequences
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links

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Overview
The simple meaning of economies of scale is doing things more efficiently with increasing size or speed of
operation.[5] Economies of scale often rely on fixed cost which are constant and don't vary with output, and
variable costs which can be effected with the amount of output. In wholesale and retail distribution, increasing
the speed of operations, such as order fulfillment, lowers the cost of both fixed and working capital. Other
common sources of economies of scale are purchasing (bulk buying of materials through long-term contracts),
managerial (increasing the specialization of managers), financial (obtaining lower-interest charges when
borrowing from banks and having access to a greater range of financial instruments), marketing (spreading the
cost of advertising over a greater range of output in media markets), and technological (taking advantage of
returns to scale in the production function). Each of these factors reduces the long run average costs (LRAC) of
production by shifting the short-run average total cost (SRATC) curve down and to the right.

Economies of the scale is a practical concept that may explain real world phenomena such as patterns of
international trade or the number of firms in a market. The exploitation of economies of scale helps explain
why companies grow large in some industries. It is also a justification for free trade policies, since some
economies of scale may require a larger market than is possible within a particular countryfor example, it
would not be efficient for Liechtenstein to have its own car maker, if they only sold to their local market. A
lone car maker may be profitable, but even more so if they exported cars to global markets in addition to selling
to the local market. Economies of scale also play a role in a "natural monopoly". There is a distinction between
two types of economies of scale: internal and external. An industry that exhibits an internal economy of scale is
one where the costs of production falls when the number of firms in the industry drops, but the remaining firms
increase their production to match previous levels. Conversely, an industry exhibits an external economy of
scale when costs drop due to the introduction of more firms, thus allowing for more efficient use of specialized
services and machinery.

The management thinker and translator of the Toyota Production System for service, Professor John Seddon,
argues that attempting to create economies by increasing scale is powered by myth in the service sector.
Instead, he believes that economies will come from improving the flow of a service, from first receipt of a
customers demand to the eventual satisfaction of that demand. In trying to manage and reduce unit costs, firms
often raise total costs by creating failure demand. Seddon claims that arguments for economy of scale are a mix
of a) the plausibly obvious and b) a little hard data, brought together to produce two broad assertions, for which
there is little hard factual evidence.[6]

Physical and engineering basis

Some of the economies of scale recognized in engineering have a physical basis, such as the square-cube law,
by which the surface of a vessel increases by the square of the dimensions while the volume increases by the
cube. This law has a direct effect on the capital cost of such things as buildings, factories, pipelines, ships and
airplanes.[7]

In structural engineering, the strength of beams increases with the cube of the thickness.

Drag loss of vehicles like aircraft or ships generally increases less than proportional with increasing cargo
volume, although the physical details can be quite complicated. Therefore, making them larger usually results
in less fuel consumption per ton of cargo at a given speed.

Heat losses from industrial processes vary per unit of volume for pipes, tanks and other vessels in a relationship
somewhat similar to the square-cube law.[8]

Capital and operating cost

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Overall costs of capital projects are known to be subject to economies of scale. A crude estimate is that if the
capital cost for a given sized piece of equipment is known, changing the size will change the capital cost by the
0.6 power of the capacity ratio (the point six power rule).[9][10]

In estimating capital cost, it typically requires an insignificant amount of labor, and possibly not much more in
materials, to install a larger capacity electrical wire or pipe having significantly greater capacity.[11]

The cost of a unit of capacity of many types of equipment, such as electric motors, centrifugal pumps, diesel
and gasoline engines, decreases as size increases. Also, the efficiency increases with size.[12]

Crew size and other operating costs for ships, trains and airplanes

Operating crew size for ships, airplanes, trains, etc., does not increase in direct proportion to capacity.[13]
(Operating crew consists of pilots, co-pilots, navigators, etc. and does not include passenger service personnel.)
Many aircraft models were significantly lengthened or "stretched" to increase payload.[14]

Many manufacturing facilities, especially those making bulk materials like chemicals, refined petroleum
products, cement and paper, have labor requirements that are not greatly influenced by changes in plant
capacity. This is because labor requirements of automated processes tend to be based on the complexity of the
operation rather than production rate, and many manufacturing facilities have nearly the same basic number of
processing steps and pieces of equipment, regardless of production capacity.

Economical use of byproducts

Karl Marx noted that large scale manufacturing allowed economical use of products that would otherwise be
waste.[15] Marx cited the chemical industry as an example, which today along with petrochemicals, remains
highly dependent on turning various residual reactant streams into salable products. In the pulp and paper
industry it is economical to burn bark and fine wood particles to produce process steam and to recover the spent
pulping chemicals for conversion back to a usable form.

Economies of scale and returns to scale

Economies of scale is related to and can easily be confused with the theoretical economic notion of returns to
scale. Where economies of scale refer to a firm's costs, returns to scale describe the relationship between inputs
and outputs in a long-run (all inputs variable) production function. A production function has constant returns
to scale if increasing all inputs by some proportion results in output increasing by that same proportion. Returns
are decreasing if, say, doubling inputs results in less than double the output, and increasing if more than double
the output. If a mathematical function is used to represent the production function, and if that production
function is homogeneous, returns to scale are represented by the degree of homogeneity of the function.
Homogeneous production functions with constant returns to scale are first degree homogeneous, increasing
returns to scale are represented by degrees of homogeneity greater than one, and decreasing returns to scale by
degrees of homogeneity less than one.

Distributional consequences
In his 1844 Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts, Karl Marx observes that economies of scale have
historically been associated with increasing concentration of private wealth, and have been used to justify such
concentration. Marx points out that concentrated private ownership of large-scale economic enterprises is a
historically contingent fact, and not essential to the nature of such enterprises. In the case of agriculture, for
example, Marx calls attention to the sophistical nature of the arguments used to justify the system of
concentrated ownership of land:

As for large landed property, its defenders have always sophistically identified the economic advantages
offered by large-scale agriculture with large-scale landed property, as if it were not precisely as a result of
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the abolition of property that this advantage, for one thing, received its greatest possible extension, and,
for another, only then would be of social benefit.[16]

Instead of concentrated private ownership of land, Marx recommends that economies of scale should instead be
realized by associations:

Association, applied to land, shares the economic advantage of large-scale landed property, and first
brings to realization the original tendency inherent in land-division, namely, equality. In the same way
association re-establishes, now on a rational basis, no longer mediated by serfdom, overlordship and the
silly mysticism of property, the intimate ties of man with the earth, for the earth ceases to be an object of
huckstering, and through free labor and free enjoyment becomes once more a true personal property of
man.[16]

See also
Economies of scope
Ideal firm size
Long tail
Mass production
Network effect
Economies of density

Notes
1. David., Prentice,; 1962-, Waschik, Robert G., (2010). Managerial economics : a strategic approach (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/432989728). Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 9780415495172. OCLC 432989728 (htt
ps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/432989728).
2. O'Sullivan, Arthur; Sheffrin, Steven M. (2003). Economics: Principles in Action. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 157. ISBN 0-13-063085-3.
3. Manufacture of specialty grades by small scale producers is a common practice in steel, paper and many
commodity industries today. See various industry trade publications.
4. Landes, David. S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development
in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present. Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of
Cambridge. p. 470. ISBN 0-521-09418-6<Landes describes the problem of new steel mills in late 19th
century Britain being too large for the market and unable to economically produce short production runs
of specialty grades. The old mills had another advantage in that they were fully amortized.>
5. Chandler Jr., Alfred D. (1993). The Visible Hand: The Management Revolution in American Business.
Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 236. ISBN 978-0674940529<Chandler uses the example
of high turn over in distribution>
6. http://s3.amazonaws.com/connected_republic/attachments/33/Why_do_we_believe_in_economy_of_scale.pdf
7. See various estimating guides, such as Means. Also see various engineering economics texts related to
plant design and construction, etc.
8. The relationship is rather complex. See engineering texts on heat transfer.
9. [[In microeconomics, economies of scale are the cost advantages that enterprises obtain due to size,
output, or scale of operation, with cost per unit of output generally decreasing with increasing scale as
fixed costs are spread out over more units of output. Often operational efficiency is also greater with
increasing scale, leading to lower variable cost as well. Economies of scale apply to a variety of
organizational and business situations and at various levels, such as a business or manufacturing unit,
plant or an entire enterprise. For example, a large manufacturing facility would be expected to have a
lower cost per unit of output than a smaller facility, all other factors being equal, while a company with
many facilities should have a cost advantage over a competitor with fewer. Some economies|Moore,
Fredrick T.]] (May 1959). "Economies of Scale: Some Statistical Evidence" (http://msuweb.montclair.ed
u/~lebelp/MooreEcsScaleQJE1959.pdf) (PDF). Quarterly Journal of Economics. 73 (2): 232245.
doi:10.2307/1883722 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1883722).

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10. In practice, capital cost estimates are prepared from specifications, budget grade vendor pricing for
equipment, general arrangement drawings and materials take-offs from the drawings. This information is
then used in cost formulas to arrive at a final detailed estimate.
11. See various estimating guides that publish tables of tasks commonly encountered in building trades with
estimates of labor hours and costs per hour for the trade, often with regional pricing.
12. See various engineering handbooks and manufacturers data.
13. Rosenberg, Nathan (1982). Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics. Cambridge, New York:
Cambridge University Press. p. 63. ISBN 0-521-27367-6<Specifically mentions ships.>
14. Rosenberg 1982, pp. 127128
15. Rosenberg 1982
16. Karl Marx, Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, M. Milligan, trans. (1988), p. 65-66

References
Fre, R., S. Grosskopf and C.A.K. Lovell (1986), Scale economies and duality Zeitschrift fr
Nationalkonomie 46:2, pp. 175182.
Hanoch, G. (1975) The elasticity of scale and the shape of average costs, American Economic Review
65, pp. 492497.]
Panzar, J.C. and R.D. Willig (1977) Economies of scale in multi-output production, Quarterly Journal of
Economics 91, 481-493.
Silvestre, Joaquim (1987). "Economies and Diseconomies of Scale". The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of
Economics. 2. London: Macmillan. pp. 8084. ISBN 0-333-37235-2.
Zelenyuk, V. (2013) A scale elasticity measure for directional distance function and its dual: Theory and
DEA estimation. European Journal of Operational Research 228:3, pp 592600 (http://www.sciencedire
ct.com/science/article/pii/S0377221713000398)
Zelenyuk V. (2014) Scale efficiency and homotheticity: equivalence of primal and dual measures
Journal of Productivity Analysis 42:1, pp 15-24. (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11123-01
3-0361-z)

External links
Economies of Scale Definition (http://www.linfo.org/economies_of_scale.html) by The Linux
Information Project (LINFO)
Economies of Scale (http://economicsonline.co.uk/Business_economics/Economies_of_scale.html) by
Economics Online

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