Z

THE HONG KONG POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
STR U C TU R A L BEHAVIO UR OF
LAPPED C O LD -FO RM ED STEEL
Z SECTIO NS
by
HO Ho Cheung
A thesis subm itted in

partial fulfillm ent o f the requirem ents for
the Degree o f D octor o f Philosophy
M arch 2005
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Structural Behaviour of Lapped Cold-Formed Steel Z-Sections
CERTIFICATE OF O R IG INA LITY
I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and that, to the best of my
knowledge and belief, it reproduces no material previously published or written nor
m aterial which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma,
except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.
SIGNED
HO, ho cheung
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
Structural Behaviour of Lapped Cold-Formed Steel Z-Sections
ACKNOW LEDGEM ENTS
T he author is greatly indebted to his supervisor Dr. K.F. Chung, Associate
Professor o f the Department o f Civil and Structural Engineering, for his
encouragement, continued inspiration and enlightening guidance. He has provided
many stim ulating ideas to exploit the authors knowledge under his supervision over
the past four years. The author wishes to express his deepest gratitude to his co
supervisor, Professor S.L. Chan for his support and guidance in the study.
The author would like to express his gratitude to Mr. Aaron Wang for his
faithful support on finite element modeling using ABAQUS. The author would like
to express his gratitude to Mr. Y.T. Li, Mr. Y.K. Hung and Ms. S.H. Cho, and also to
the technicians of the Heavy Structure Laboratory for the execution o f the tests and
o f the Computer Laboratory for the technical support on numerical studies. Also
many thanks to Dr. Dominic W.K. Yu for his continual constructive discussions and
support.
The financial support by the Research Committee o f the Hong Kong
Polytechnic University (Project No. G-W 039) is gratefully acknowledged. The
author wishes to thank all the staff in the Department for their general assistance and,
in particular, Professor Y.S. Li, Head o f Department, for providing all the facilities.
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Structural Behaviour of Lapped Cold-Formed Steel Z-Sections___________________________
Finally, the author would like to express his wannest appreciation to his brother,
his m other, and his INF3 buddies for their support and encouragement during the
past years.
Structural Behaviour o f Lapped Cold-Formed Steel Z-Sections
SY N O PSIS
1. Background
Cold-formed steel sections are lightweight building materials with high strength to
self-weight ratios, and they are suitable for building construction owing to their
versatility in applications, and ease o f fabrication and installation. They are cold-
form ed into various shapes from steel strips by roll forming. The thickness o f the
steel sections is typically 1.2 to 3.0 mm thick, and steel sections with yield strengths
at 280, 350 and 450 N/mm2 are commonly available. In single storey industrial
buildings, and low to medium rise offices and warehouses, cold formed steel
sections are widely used as secondary structural members such as purlins and side
rails to support roof and wall cladding. Since the 1990s, the application o f cold
formed steel sections in buildings was further extended into primary structural
members, and low-rise domestic houses are built with cold formed steel sections as
beams and columns to form primary structural frames.
1.1 M odem Purlin Systems
In m odem purlin systems, four different types o f systems may be found with
different degrees o f continuity:
the single span system,
the double span system,
the continuous system with sleeves, and
the continuous system with lapped sections.
i v
A m ong all, the lapped purlin system is the most commonly used system due to
sim ple and effective connection configurations o f purlin-rafter connections. In
general, building product manufacturers have developed various proprietary purlin
systems with standardized connection configurations for cold formed steel sections
with various shapes. It should be noted that the lapped m oment connections are
widely used in many countries due to high structural efficiency and ease of erection,
and hence, the quantities o f steel tonnages associated with this form o f construction
are huge. Conventionally, engineers and researchers have their primary concern on
the strengths o f the lapped sections, and over-simplified their stiffnesses and
associated structural behaviour. Therefore, it is highly desirable to examine the
structural behaviour o f lapped Z sections, which may affect significantly the overall
load carrying capacities o f lapped purlin systems.
1.2 Scope o f work
This thesis presents a research project on the structural behaviour o f cold formed
steel lapped Z sections, and the project is composed o f the following parts of
investigation:
experimental investigation,
analysis and design o f lapped Z sections,
numerical investigation, and
design development for multi-span lapped Z purlins.
2. Experimental Investigation
In order to examine the structural performance of the lapped Z sections, a total of 38
laterally restrained one point load tests were carried out on lapped Z sections with
different connection configurations. Both the strength and the deformation
characteristics o f these connections were examined in detail. A comprehensive
com parison was also carried out for lapped Z sections with different connection
configurations: number of bolts, bolt pitches and arrangements, lapped lengths, span
lengths and section sizes. Among all tests, section failure at the ends o f lap under
com bined bending and shear in the connected Z sections was always found to be
critical. Moreover, lapped Z sections with different lap lengths have different
m om ent resistances and effective flexural rigidities. It is found that the moment
resistances o f the lapped Z sections range from 79% to 162% o f the moment
capacities o f connected sections, while the effective flexural rigidities o f the lapped
Z sections range from 10% to 163% o f the flexural rigidities o f connected sections.
Consequently, it is shown that the degree o f structural continuity in lapped Z
sections connections depend on various parameters, and hence, the widely adopted
assumption o f full strength and stiffness connections in lapped Z sections is not
always correct.
Moreover, a total o f 14 laterally unrestrained one point load tests were also carried
out to examine the effect of lateral torsional buckling on lapped Z sections. It is
found that the m oment resistances o f the unrestrained lapped Z sections depend on
the lap lengths as the presence o f overlaps reduces the un-restrained (effective)
length o f the lapped Z sections. Comparison between the m oment resistances of the
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restrained and the unrestrained sections were also made, and the effective lengths of
lapped Z sections can be determined accordingly.
3. Analysis and design of lapped Z sections
Based on the findings o f the experimental investigation, an analysis and design
m ethod for lapped Z sections is established after the following parts o f investigation:
3.1 Force distribution within lapped connections
Based on statics, the bolt forces within the lapped moment connections are
determined after considering equilibrium, and hence, all internal forces within
the connections are readily obtained. Once the co-existing moments and shear
forces along the entire length o f the Z sections are evaluated, the critical sections
are checked against combined bending and shear using codified design rules.
3.2 Resistances against section failure under combined bending and shear
Based on test observations, shear buckling o f the section webs at the ends o f lap
o f lapped Z sections is found to be fairly localized, and the length of a typical
shear buckling mode shape ranges from 0.8 D to 1.25 D, where D is the section
depth. Thus, it is proposed to revise the design rule for the assessment of shear
capacities o f cold-formed steel Z sections near the critical cross section, and this
leads to a more economical design for critical cross-sections at the ends o f lap
under combined bending and shear.
3.3 Deformation characteristics of lapped Z sections
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B ased on the test results o f typical lap shear tests on bolted fastenings between
cold formed steel strips with various steel thicknesses, steel grades and bolt sizes,
a normalized bearing deformation curve was established. It was then adopted to
predict the vertical deformations o f 26 lapped Z sections under one point loads;
deform ations due to both global bending and shear actions were also allowed for.
G ood comparison between the measured and the predicted deformation
characteristics was obtained, and the predicted effective flexural rigidities are
found to vary from 80% to 110% o f those measured values for lapped Z sections
w ith practical lap lengths. Hence, it is possible to predict both the initial and the
final effective flexural rigidities for lapped Z sections with practical bolt
arrangements.
In order to allow for moment redistribution in m ulti-span lapped purlin system,
an empirical formula is also proposed to describe the unloading part o f the
deformation characteristics o f the lapped Z sections. It should be noted that the
unloading part o f the curve depends not only on the section sizes, but also the lap
lengths, and the moment resistances o f the lapped Z sections.
4. Numerical investigations
4.1 Lapped Z sections
In order to examine the structural behaviour o f lapped Z sections over the entire
deformation ranges, a numerical investigation using finite elem ent method was also
performed. Highly efficient four nodded shell elements were adopted to simulate the
cold-formed steel Z sections while spring elements were adopted in modelling the
bolted connections. Moreover, material non-linearity was incorporated in order to
viii
allow yielding in the sections under combined bending and shear, and the measured
stress-strain curves obtained from coupon tests were adopted together with the Von-
Mises yield criteria in the material modelling of the cold-formed steel sections.
Geometrical non-linearity was also adopted to allow for large deformation under
both local buckling and distortional buckling, and numerical integration was carried
out at the centre of the shell elements with five integration points through the
thickness. Initial geometric imperfection in the lapped Z sections was obtained as
the first eigenmode o f the lapped Z sections modified by o f a suitable scale factor;
the eigenmode was calculated with an elastic linear buckling analysis. The
maximum magnitude o f the initial imperfection was set to be 0.25 tim es the section
thickness.
It was shown that the section failure at the critical cross-sections at the ends of lap
under combined bending and shear was modelled satisfactorily. Moreover, the
predicted deformation characteristics o f the test specimens followed closely to those
measured from tests over the entire range o f deformation.
4.2 M ulti-span lapped purlin systems
The same finite element models are adopted to investigate the structural behaviour of
multi-span lapped purlin systems with different lap lengths under gravity loads. It
should be noted that after extensive data analysis, the m oment resistances o f the Z
sections along their member lengths during the entire deformation ranges are
obtained. Thus, it is possible to reveal the exact mechanism o f moment re
distribution in the multi-span lapped purlin systems from the critical cross-sections
at the ends o f lap to those at mid-span.
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5. Design development for multi-span lapped Z purlins
5.1 Analysis and design procedure
Based on the results of various tasks of investigation, a complete analysis and
design procedure is formulated for multi-span lapped purlin systems under both
gravity loads and wind uplift. The effect of lapped Z sections is fully
incorporated in determining the distribution o f internal forces of purlin members,
and hence the co-existing moment and shear force at the ends o f lap in purlin
members are readily obtained. Various design coefficients for moments and
shear forces in purlin members o f practical material and geometrical
configurations with different lap lengths are also provided. M oreover, based on
the proposed deformation characteristics o f lapped Z sections, a non-linear
analysis on the multi-span lapped purlin systems are performed to evaluate their
ultimate load carrying capacities. Various failure modes are identified in purlin
members with different lap lengths, span lengths, and section sizes.
5.2 Load span tables
A number o f load span tables are generated for multi-span lapped Z sections with
practical material and geometrical configurations as well as connection
arrangements. They are compared with those derived from testing and also with
those derived from the conventional design method. Com parison on the load
carrying capacities derived from the proposed design m ethod to those obtained
from testing shows good agreement over a range o f section sizes and system span
lengths while they show an improvement o f 10% to 25% over those derived from
the conventional design method. Consequently, the proposed design method is
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R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
demonstrated to be effective and rational in assessing the load carrying capacities
o f purlin systems using cold formed steel lapped Z sections.
6. Originality of the research study
Throughout my study, I have applied my technical knowledge to investigate the
structural performance o f cold-formed steel Z sections during the design
developm ent o f multi-span cold-formed steel purlin systems. The following tasks
are performed in my independent manner:
Data analyses on one point load tests and four point load tests on lapped Z
sections with bolted connections, as well as complementary lap shear tests
between cold-formed steel strips.
Establishment o f the proposed design and analysis method to determined
internal force distributions within lapped connections; this enables the
important check o f section failure under combined bending and shear at the
ends o f lap.
Formulation o f the proposed analysis method to evaluate the effective
flexural rigidities o f lapped connections based on measured load-deflection
curves.
Formulation o f the normalized bearing-extension curve o f bolted fastenings
based on lap shear tests; this enables general design o f bolted connections
between cold-formed steel sections
Establishment o f the proposed analysis method to determine analytically
deformation characteristics o f lapped connections at both the initial and the
failure stages; this provides an important design and analysis tool to predict
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the structural behaviour o f cold-formed steel Z sections with lapped moment
connections without testing.
Finite element modeling o f multi-span lapped purlin systems with different
degrees o f continuity over lapped connections as w ell as different amount o f
moment redistribution from internal supports to mid-span region.
Establishment o f the proposed design and analysis method to determine
internal force distribution in multi-span lapped purlin members with a wide
range o f lap length to section depth ratios and lap length to system length
ratios.
The Formulation o f a rational design o f multi-span lapped purlin systems
under both gravity load and wind uplift.
7. Values and Significances
The research work carries a great impact to the conventional design concept on
connections between cold formed steel sections that not only the strengths of the
connections are important, but also the stiffnesses of the connections are important
as well in practical design and construction of indeterminate structures. Moreover, a
clear understanding on the structural behaviour of cold-formed steel lapped Z
sections with bolted moment connections is presented, and the proposed analysis and
design m ethod provides important understandings on the effects o f effective flexural
rigidities o f lapped Z sections in multi-span lapped purlin systems during the entire
deformation ranges. Furthermore, a rational and rigorous analysis and design
method is proposed for practical design o f multi-span lapped Z purlin systems as a
supplement to current codes of practice and design recommendations. This will
greatly facilitate the practical design process o f efficient lapped purlin systems with
~ xii~
im proved load carrying capacities. Moreover, any product developm ent of lapped
purlin systems with different material and geometrical configurations as well as bolt
arrangements will also be speeded up, with less reliance on full scale testing.
CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINITY i
ACKNOW LEDGEM ENTS ii
SYNOPSIS iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS xiv
LIST OF TABLES xx
LIST OF FIGURES xxi
Chapter Page
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Structural uses o f cold-formed steel 1-1
1.2 Bolted moment connections in practical building construction 1-3
1.3 M odem purlin system in building construction 1-5
1.4 Bolt configurations o f bolted moment connections betw een cold- 1-6
formed steel Z section
1.5 Scope o f work 1-9
1.6 Layout o f thesis 1-13
1.7 List o f publications 1-16
CHAPTER TW O LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Background 2-1
2.1.1 Introduction to the use o f cold-formed steel structures 2-1
2.1.2 Reviews o f standards and codes on design o f cold-formed steel 2-2
sections
2.1.2.1 Eurocode 3: Design o f steel structures: Part 1.3 2-3
2.1.2.2 BS 5950: Part 5 2-4
2.1.2.3 Specification for the Design o f Cold-Formed Steel 2-5
Structural Members
2.1.2.4 Cold-formed steel structure code AS/NZ 4600: 2-6
1996
2.1.3 Cold-formed steel structures using high strength steel 2-6
2.1.4 Design recommendations on the current codes o f practice 2-7
2.2 Connections in cold-formed steel structures 2-8
2.2.1 Design recommendations 2-8
2.2.2 Investigations on Simple Bolted Connections 2-10
2.2.3 Investigations on Bolted M oment Connections 2-11
2.2.3.1 M oment connections: Beam to colum n connections 2-11
2 .2 3 .2 M oment connections: Beam to beam connections 2-14
2.2.4 Investigations on other connections 2-16
2.3 M ultiple span lapped purlin system 2-17
2.3.1 Full scale tests on the multiple span lapped purlin system 2-17
2.3.2 Analysis and design o f lapped purlin system 2-20
2.4 Design o f structural instability o f cold-formed steel sections 2-23
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CHAPTER THREE EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF

LAPPED CONNECTIONS BETW EEN COLD-
FORMED STEEL Z SECTIONS WITH
DIFFERENT BOLT C O N FIG U RA TIO N S------
PART 1
3.1 Objectives o f investigation 3-1
3.2 Basic Configurations o f Lapped connections 3-2
3.3 Test program 3-3
3.4 Test results 3-5
3.4.1 Moment resistance ratios Ymax and Yres 3-7
3.4.2 Effective flexural rigidity ratios a ; and a f 3-10
3.5 Conclusions 3-12
CHAPTER FOUR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF

FORMED STEEL Z SECTIONS
4.1 Introduction 4-1
4.2 Basic configurations o f lapped connections 4-2
4.3 Results o f experimental investigation 4-3
4.4 Distribution o f internal forces within lapped connections 4-4
4.5 Design against combined bending and shear 4-6
4.6 Effective flexural rigidities o f lapped connections 4-11
CHAPTER FIVE EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF

FORM ED STEEL Z SECTIONS WITH
DIFFERENT BOLT C O N FIG U RA TIO N S------
PART II
5.2 Lapped connections with modified configuration 5-1
5.3 Test program 5-3
5.4.1 M oment resistance ratios ymax and Yres 5-6
5.4.2 Effective flexural rigidity ratios a; and a f 5-10
5.5 Distribution o f internal forces within lapped connections 5-13
5.6 Design against combined bending and shear 5-14
CHAPTER SIX EXPERIM ENTAL INVESTIGATION OF

UNRESTRAINED LAPPED CONNECTIONS
BETW EEN COLD-FORMED STEEL Z
SECTIONS
6.3 Test program for unrestrained tests 6-2
6.4.1 M oment resistance ratios ymax 6-6
6.5 Design against lateral torsional buckling 6-7
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CH APTER SEVEN ANALYTICAL PREDICTION OF

DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS OF
FORMED STEEL Z-SECTION PURLINS
7.1 Objectives and scope o f work 7-1
7.3 Deformation characteristics o f bolted connections inlap shear tests 7-2
7.3.1 Typical lap shear test set-up 7-2
7.3.2 Normalized bearing deformation curve 7-3
7.4 Deflections o f bolted moment connections in lapped Z sections 7-4
(Loading Stage)
7.4.1 Deformation components 7-4
7.4.2 Comparison with test results 7-7
7.5 Deflection lapped connections at unloading Stage 7-9
7.6 Effective flexural rigidity of lapped connections 7-10
7.7 Application to multi-span lapped purlin system 7-11
CHAPTER EIGHT NUM ERICAL INVESTIGATION OF LAPPED

CONNECTIONS BETWEEN COLD-FORM ED
STEEL Z SECTIONS
8.1 Objectives o f investigation 8-1
8.3 Numerical study 8-2
8.3.1 Finite element method 8-3
8.4 Numerical results 8-4
8.5 Conclusions 8-7
CHAPTER NIN E ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF M ULTI-SPAN

LAPPED PURLIN SYSTEM
9.3 Lapped connections in purlin members 9-2
9.4 Design method 9-3
9.4.1 Distribution o f internal forces within lapped connections 9-3
9.4.2 Design considerations 9-3
9.4.3 Design against combined bending and shear 9-4
9.4.4 Rational use o f intermediate restraints 9-7
9.5 Comparison with different system length to section depth ratios 9-8
9.6 Com parison with conventional design method 9-9
CHAPTER TEN OVERALL COMMENT AND CONCULSIONS

10.1 Structural performance o f lapped connections between cold-form ed 10-1
steel Z sections
10.2 Analysis and design o f lapped connections 10-3
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10.3 Analytical prediction o f deformation characteristics o f lapped 10-4

connections
10.4 Num erical investigations on lapped connections 10-4
10.5 Design o f multi-span lapped purlin system 10-5
10.6 Limitations o f current analysis and design method 10-6
10.7 Originality of the research study 10-7
10.7 Further development on lapped purlin systems 10-8
LIST OF REFERENCES
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A ppendix A Published technical papers in international conferences
(a) Ho, H.C. and Chung, K.F. (2002a). An experimental investigation into
lapped moment connections between Z sections. Proc. o f the Third
International Conference on Advances in Steel Structures, December 2002,
Hong Kong, p. 437-444.
(b) Ho, H.C. and Chung, K.F. (2002b). Practical design o f cold-formed steel Z
sections with lapped connections. Proc. o f the Third International
Conference on Advances in Steel Structures, December 2002, Hong Kong, p.
445-452.
(c) Ho, H.C. and Chung, K.F. (2002c). Structural analysis on lapped moment
connections between cold-formed steel Z sections. Proc. o f the 2nd
International Conference on Structural Stability and Dynamics, December
2002, Singapore, p. 675-680.
(d) Chung, K.F. and Ho, H.C. (2003). Deformation characteristics o f lapped
connections between cold-formed steel purlins o f Z sections. Proc. o f
Advances in Structures Steel, Concrete, Composite and Aluminum, June
2003, Sydney, Australia, p. 281-288.
(e) Chung, K.F. and Ho, H.C. (2004a). Design development for purlin systems
using cold-formed steel Z sections. Proc. o f International Symposium on
Worldwide Codification Design and Technology in Steel Structures .
February 2004. The Hong Kong Institute o f Steel Construction, p. 98-111.
(f) Chung, K.F. and Ho, H.C. (2004b). Design o f lapped cold-formed steel Z
sections incorporating partial continuity at lapped connections. Proc. o f the
Second International Conference on Steel and Composite Structures.
September 2004. (In press)
(g) Chung, K.F. and Ho, H.C. (2004c). Structural Behaviour o f High Strength
Cold-formed Steel Z Purlins with Overlaps. 1 7th International Specialty
Conference in Orlando, Novem ber 2004, Florida, United State o f America.
(In press)
Appendix B Published technical papers in international journals

(a) Ho, H.C. and Chung, K.F. (2004). Experimental investigation into the
structural behaviour o f lapped connections betw een cold-form ed steel Z
sections. Thin-Walled Structures 42, p. 1013-1033.
(b) Chung, K.F. and Ho, H.C. (2004b). Analysis and design o f lapped
connections between cold-formed steel Z-sections. Thin-Walled Structures
(In press).
xviii~
(c) Chung, K.F. Ho, H.C. and Wang, A.J. An investigation into deformation
characteristics o f lapped connections between cold-formed steel Z sections.
International Journal o f Steel Structures (accepted for publication).
(d) Ho, H.C. and Chung, K.F. Analytical prediction on deformation

characteristics of lapped connections between cold-formed steel Z sections.
Thin-Walled Structures (accepted for publication).
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Summary o f test program and data 3-16

Table 3.2 Summary o f test results 3-17
Table 4.1 Summary of test programme and data 4-14

Table 4.2 Summary of internal forces within lapped connections 4-15
Table 4.3a Back analysis to BS 5950: Part 5 4-16
Table 4.3b Back analysis to Eurocode 3: Part 1.3 4-17
Table 5.1a Summary o f section properties (BS 5950: Part 5) 5-20

Table 5.1b Summary o f section properties (EC3: Part 1.3) 5-21
Table 5.2 Summary o f test programme and data 5-22
Table 5.3 Summary o f restrained test results 5-23
Table 5.4a Summary o f internal forces within lapped connections (BS 5-24
5950: Part 5)
Table 5.4b Summary o f internal forces within lapped connections 5-25
(EC3: Part 1.3)
Table 5.5a Back analysis to BS 5950: Part 5 5-26
Table 5.5b Back analysis to EC3: Part 1.3 5-27
Table 6.1 Summary o f test programme and data 6-12

Table 6.2 Summary o f section properties 6-13
Table 6.3 Summary o f test results 6-14
Table 6.4 Summary o f buckling resistance moments 6-15
Table 7.1 Test data o f lap shear tests and coupon tests 7-15
Table 7.2 Test data o f joint-bend tests 7-16
Table 7.3a Comparison o f slopes o f moment-rotation curves 7-17
Table 7.3b Comparison o f effective flexural rigidities 7-18
Table 7.4 M id-span moments at different extensions 7-19
Table 7.5a Effective flexural rigidities and moment coefficients against 7-20
different test span and lap length (Z15016 G450)
Table 7.5b Effective flexural rigidities and m oment coefficients against 7-21
Table 8.1 Summary o f analysis program and data 8-8

Table 8.2 Summary o f test results and analysis results 8-9
Table 9.1 Q, for different cases uner wind uplift 9-20

Table 9.2 Comparison on load carrying capacities o f lapped purlins in 9-21
internal span condition. (2LP / D = 2)
Table 9.5 Comparison on load carrying capacities o f lapped purlins 9-24
and continuous puelins in internal span condition.
~xx~
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Multi-span purlin systems with overlaps 1-19

Figure 1.2 Connection configurations in lapped Z sections examined in 1-20
this project
Figure 3.1 Multi-span purlin systems with overlaps 3-18

Figure 3.2 General arrangement o f lapped sections 3-19
Figure 3.3 General setup o f one point load tests 3-20
Figure 3.4 Typical mode o f failure - Section failure at the end o f lap 3-21
under combined bending and shear
Figure 3.5a Mid-span moment end rotation (Ms - 0e) curves 3-22
Figure 3.5b M id-span moment end rotation (Ms - 0e) curves 3-23
Figure 3.5c Mid-span moment end rotation (Ms - 0e) curves 3-24
Figure 3.6 M oment resistance ratios in lapped connections against 3-25
different bolt configurations and test spans
Figure 3.7 Effective flexural rigidity ratios in lapped connections with 3-26
different bolt configurations
different test spans
Figure 3.9 Reduction in effective flexural rigidities against different 3-28
bolt configurations and test spans
Figure 4.1 General test setup o f one point load tests 4-18
Figure 4.2a Force distributions within lapped connections 4-19
Figure 4.2b Force distributions within lapped connections (Continued) 4-20
Figure 4.3 Combined bending and shear at critical cross-sections 4-21
Figure 4.4 Model factors against combined bending and shear 4-22
Figure 5.1 General test setup o f one point load tests for restrainted 5-28
beam
Figure 5.2 Typical modes o f failure 5-28
Lapped connection with Config W2F2 - Section failure at
the end o f lap under combined bending and shear
Figure 5.3 M id-span m oment end rotation (Ms - 9e) curves 5-29
Figure 5.4 M oment resistance ratios in lapped connections against 5-30
Figure 5.5 Critical cross section at the end o f lap 5-30
Figure 5.6 Bearing failure o f the connected material at the bolt hole 5-30
Figure 5.7 Effective flexural rigidity ratios in lapped connections 5-31
against different bolt configurations and lap lengths
Figure 5.8 Typical load deflection curve o f one point load test o f 5-32
lapped connections
Figure 5.9 Norm alized moment rotation curves o f lapped connections 5-32
with different bolt configurations
Figure 5.10a Force distributions within lapped connections (Config. 5-33
W2F2)
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Figure 5.10b Force distributions within lapped connections (Config. 5-34

W4F2)
Figure 5.1 la Interaction o f combined bending and shear (BS 5950: Part 5-35
5)
Figure 5.1 lb Interaction o f combined bending and shear (EC3: Part 1.3) 5-35
Figure 5.12 Model factors against combined bending and shear 5-36
Figure 6.1 General test setup o f one point load tests for unrestrainted 6-16
beam
Figure 6.2 Failure mode o f unrestrained tests 6-17
Figure 6.3 M oment rotation curves for ZA, ZM. And ZL series 6-18
Figure 6.4 M oment rotation curves for ZE series 6-19
Figure 6.5 M oment rotation curves for ZF series 6-20
Figure 6.6 M oment resistance ratios o f unrestrained specimens against 6-21
Figure 6.7 Model factor against lateral torsional buckling 6-21
Figure 7.1 Typical set-up o f lap shear tests 7-22

Figure 7.2a Load extension curves o f lap shear tests 7-22
Figure 7.2b Normalized bearing deformation curve for bolted fastenings 7-22
Figure 7.3 General test setup o f one point load tests 7-23
Figure 7.4a One point load tests o f lapped Z sections 7-24
Figure 7.4b Deformation characteristics o f lapped Z sections 7-24
Figure 7.4c Typical mid-span moment end rotation curve o f lapped Z 7-25
sections
Figure 7.5 Comparison o f moment rotation curves between the test 7-26
results on ZA, ZB and the analytical prediction
results on ZC, ZD and the analytical prediction
results on ZE, ZF and the analytical prediction
Figure 7.8 Comparison o f unloading curves between the test results 7-29
and the analytical prediction
Figure 7.9 Effective flexural rigidities ratios against the lap length to 7-30
section depth ratio
Figure 7.10 Initial effective flexural rigidities ratios against the lap 7-30
length to section depth ratio
Figure 7.11 Final effective flexural rigidities ratios against the lap 7-30
length to section depth ratio
Figure 7.12 Initial slope against the lap length to section depth ratio 7-30
Figure 7.13 Final slope against the lap length to section depth ratio 7-30
Figure 7.14 M oment coefficient against lap length to section depth ratio 7-31
Figure 8.1 Finite element model o f lapped Z sections 8-10

Figure 8.2 Typical mode o f failure 8-11
Figure 8.3a Deform ed shapes o f lapped Z sections at failure (ZA 8-12
series)
Figure 8.3b Deform ed shapes o f lapped Z sections at failure (ZB series) 8-13
Figure 8.4a M id-span m oment end rotation (M s - 9e) curves (ZA series) 8-14
~xxii~
Figure 8.4b Mid-span moment end rotation (Ms - 0e) curves (ZB series) 8-15
Figure 9.1 Analysis o f two lapped span purlin 9-15

Figure 9.2 Analysis of four lapped span purlin 9-15
Figure 9.3 One point load test o f lapped connections 9-15
Figure 9.4 Design considerations for lapped purlin systems 9-16
Figure 9.5a Proposed arrangement o f intermediate restraints for single 9-17
span and double span beams
Figure 9.5b Proposed arrangement o f intermediate restraints for lapped 9-17
span beams
Figure 9.6 Load carrying capacity of 4 lapped span purlin systems 9-18
with different lapped length
Figure 9.7 Differences between the proposed design method and 9-19
conventional design method
C H A PT E R ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Structural uses of cold-formed steel
self weight ratios, and they are suitable for building construction owing to their
versatility in applications, and ease o f fabrication and installation. They are
economic building materials in building construction, which are cold-formed in
various shapes from steel sheets, strips or plates by roll forming. The steel sheet is
typically 0.9 to 3.2mm thick. The thinner steel sheets are commonly used in roofing
and decking application. Those steel sheets are produced by cold reducing from hot
rolled coil steel with further annealing processes to improve the ductility o f the
material. It is a quality controlled product with known and easily tested properties.
G280 is a quality o f steel specified as having a guaranteed minimum yield strength
o f 280 N/m m 2. G280 and G350 steels are the most commonly specified grades
although it is often found that the actual yield strength is considerably higher. In
recent decade, thin cold-formed steel profiled sheetings with high yield strength at
550 N/mm2 are also readily available.
During cold forming o f a section, there is an increase o f yield strength o f the steel
due to cold working by the process o f strain hardening . The increase in yield
strength by cold working may be significant for highly stiffened sections with many
bends. However, the ductility o f the steel reduces with cold working. Cold working
1-1
also has the effect o f reducing the ratio o f the ultimate to the yield strengths o f the
m aterial.
Roll form ing is the most economic way o f fabrication, and large quantities o f the
same section can be produced at one time. The lengths o f the members can be pre
program med and cut accurately. Steel sheets in coils with 1.00 to 1.25 m width are
prepared before cold forming. The sheets are then cut to the correct width and then
fed into a series o f roll formers, which are formed by a series o f rolls set in pairs
m oving in the opposite direction. The sheet is then drawn through it and formed in
shape by gradually modifying along the line o f rolls. The number o f rolls for the
shape form ing depends on the complexity o f the section. The overall length of the
roll form ing machinery can be over 30 m. If special and complex shapes are needed,
special rolls may be needed or are repositioned, which leads to a higher setup cost.
In general, roll forming technique provides a great flexibility for wide complexity o f
section shapes by adjusting different rolls. Holes for attachments and services can
also be punched either before or after forming. Press-braking is another form of cold
forming, which is normally used for short lengths (about 6 m depending on the size
o f the machine used) and for relatively simple shapes. However, this method can be
beneficial for small production runs due to low setting-up costs.
In general, both cold-formed steel C sections and Z sections are widely used in
building construction, and the section depths typically range from 100 to 350 mm.
In order to prevent the cold formed steel sections from corrosion, galvanizing (zinc
coating) o f the preformed coil is introduced for protection. Unlike paint, galvanized
steel has good durability because scratches do not initiate local corrosion o f the steel.
1-2
Similarly cut ends do not corrode except where the rate o f zinc loss on the adjacent
surfaces is high. Galvatite Technical Manual provides a technical guidance on the
thickness o f galvanizing. A coating o f 275 g/m2 corresponds to the standard G275
specification for internal environments with a total zinc thickness o f 0.04 mm.
Cold-formed sections are widely used in many industries and are often used as roof
sheeting and floor decking in building construction. Other than roof sheeting and
floor decking application, cold-formed steel sections are used extensively in building
construction such as secondary structural members including purlins, lintels and girts.
Since 1990s, there is a growing trend to use cold-formed steel sections as primary
structural members in building construction, such as low to medium rise residential
houses and portal frames o f modest span. The most comm on sections are C and Z
sections. Moreover, there are a whole range o f variants o f these basic shapes,
including sections with single and double lips, and sections with internal stiffeners.
Due to the thinness o f cold-formed steel sections, local buckling is a predominant
consideration in assessing their section capacities. Furthermore, as they are very
weak in torsion, torsional flexural buckling in columns and lateral torsional buckling
in beams may be critical. In general, cold-formed steel building products such as
purlins are developed through extensive tests in order to achieve high structural
economy per unit use o f steel. For general applications o f cold-formed steel sections,
there are a num ber o f codes o f practice available together with complementary
design guides and worked examples to assist engineers.
1.2 Bolted moment connections in practical building construction
1-3
In building construction, cold-formed steel sections are usually bolted to hot rolled
steel plates or sections to form simple and moment connections, while welded
connection is rarely used. However, despite their simplicity, simple connections
between cold-formed steel sections have received relatively little attention.
Conventionally, connections among cold-formed steel members with two bolts per
m em ber are considered as shear connections. The most common moment
connection among cold-formed steel members is the purlin-rafter connection in roof
construction. A number o f different connection configurations with sleeves or
overlaps may be found in various propriety roof systems which offer partial
continuity across the connection. It should be noted that all these configurations are
essentially beam-to-beam connections. For beam-to-column connections, some
research works in cold-formed steel rectangular hollow sections are reported in the
literature.
Conventionally, the cold-formed steel sections are assumed to be effectively
connected by a rigid connection. However, only the design rules for the load
carrying capacities o f individual fasteners are provided, which are semi-empirical
expressions developed from test data over specific ranges o f material properties and
geometrical dimensions. There is little design guidance for determining the overall
structural performance o f bolted connections, especially the stiffness of the
connections. As a result, moment distributions within a structural system are
difficult to be predicted correctly if the moment connections do not provide full
continuity. Therefore, it is highly desirable to develop efficient m oment connections
in cold-formed steel sections for design o f efficient structures. Besides, the
1-4
structural behaviour o f bolted moment connections is also important for the
understanding o f their effect on the overall structural systems.
1.3 M odern purlin system in building construction
Cold-formed steel Z sections are commonly used as purlins or girt to support roof
sheeting. Typical spanning capacities o f cold-formed steel Z sections range from 4.5
to 12 m, depending on section dimensions, steel grades, connection details and
bracing configurations. As cold-formed sections are very weak against twisting, sag
rods or bridgings are often provided during erection to prevent excessive member
twisting before installation o f roof sheetings. Four different types o f member
configurations may be found in practical roof systems with different degrees of
continuity:
i Single span system
Single span system is the most simple purlin system for structural analysis and
design and the fabrication processes. For roof structures with short spans or no
continuity o f the purlin line, this system is obviously suitable. It is economic
and easily detailed. It allows a variety o f purlin depths to be used, either over
rafters or between rafter webs.
ii Double span system
In comparison with other systems, the load carrying capacities o f double span
system is lower than those of other systems due to concentrated actions over
internal supports. However, when the load carrying requirem ents allows a
choice o f this system using the same section, then this system is more cost
effective, offering a significant saving on component parts and site erection
time.
1-5
iii M ultiple span system with sleeves
This system is a popular purlin system. It provides a cost effective roofing
solution to many building designs including the more complex ones. The
sheeting line is easily varied by using a combination o f purlin depths and
extend cleats. The single spanning lengths, combined with simple fabricated
cleats, contribute to this flexibility and to simplifying site handling logistics.
iv M ultiple span system with overlaps
This system is the most structurally efficient purlin system to support the roof
sheetings. The cold-formed steel sections can be prefabricated in factory and
then be delivered to site in order to reduce the complexity o f works on site. The
erection process is less complex and its erection tim e can then be minimized
through such system.
The load carrying capacities o f these purlin systems depend on many factors, such as
steel grades, section shapes and sizes of purlin members, restraints provided by
attached roof sheetings and intermediate bracing members, and connection
configurations at purlin-rafter supports. In practice, m ulti-span lapped purlin
systems are the m ost popular owing to their high structural efficiency and simple
installation o f purlin-rafter connections. The general m em ber arrangement o f multi
span purlin systems with overlaps is illustrated in Figure 1-1.
1.4 Bolt configurations of bolted moment connections between cold-formed
steel Z sections
In order to establish effective bolted moment connections between lapped Z sections,
a practical configuration for generic lapped connections is proposed after
considering ease o f installation as follows:
Config. W4:
(a) Only the webs o f Z sections are bolted together which are, in turn,
attached onto primary structural members such as rafters through hot
rolled web cleats.
(b) Six bolts per connection are adopted as the minimum configuration where
four outer bolts are assigned to resist moments while tw o internal bolts are
assigned to resist lateral loads, as shown in Figure 1-2.
(c) The section flanges of Z sections are not connected.
In general, lapped connections with short lap lengths are expected to possess only
limited moment resistances due to discontinuity o f load paths along section flanges
in the connected sections. By increasing the lap lengths, the moment resistances of
lapped connections will be increased steadily with enhanced load transfer across the
connected sections. In order to improve the structural performance o f lapped
connections, an enhanced configuration is proposed as follows:
Config. W6:
(a) The connection arrangement follows closely to that in Config. W4.
(b) A total o f eight bolts are adopted where six outer bolts are assigned to
resist moments while two internal bolts are assigned to resist lateral loads,
as shown in Figure 1-2.
1-7
A practical configuration for generic lapped connections, which is commonly
adopted in Australian practice, is examined for comparison as follows:
Config. W2F2:
(a) Cold-formed steel Z sections are bolted together which in turn are
attached onto rafters through hot-rolled web cleats. The sections are
bolted together on both the webs and the bottom flanges at the end o f lap.
(b) A total o f six bolts are adopted where four outer bolts are assigned to
resist moments while the two inner bolts are assigned to resist lateral
loads, as shown in Figure 1-2.
In order to improve the structural performance o f lapped connections Config. W2F2,
an enhanced configuration is proposed as follows:
Config. W4F2:
(a) Similar to Config. W2F2, cold-formed steel Z sections are bolted together
which in turn are attached onto rafters through hot-rolled web cleats. The
sections are bolted together on both the webs and the bottom flanges at the
end o f lap.
(b) A total o f six bolts are adopted where four outer bolts are assigned to
resist moments while the two inner bolts are assigned to resist lateral
loads, as shown in Figure 1-2.
It is important to establish the structural performance o f lapped connections with
different lap lengths and bolt configurations. Moreover, the variations in the
m om ent resistances and the effective flexural rigidities o f lapped Z sections against
lap lengths with different bolt configurations should also be quantified.
1.5 Scope of w o rk
The main objectives o f this research project are:
To improve the buildability o f cold-formed steel structures, and to establish the
rational use o f multi-span purlin systems with overlaps.
To provide structural understanding on the structural behaviour o f lapped Z
sections.
To demonstrate the high structural performance o f lapped Z sections.
To develop a set o f analysis and design method for multi-span purlin systems
with overlaps in modem roof construction.
This thesis presents a research project on the structural behaviour o f cold-formed
steel lapped Z sections, and the project is composed o f the following parts of
investigation:
Experimental investigation
1-9
In order to examine the structural performance o f lapped Z sections, a total of
38 laterally restrained lapped connection tests were carried out on lapped Z
sections with different connection configurations. Both the strength and the
deformation characteristics of these connections were examined in detail. A
comprehensive comparison was also carried out for lapped Z sections with
different connection configurations: number of bolts, bolt pitches and
arrangements, lapped lengths, span lengths and section sizes.
M oreover, a total o f 14 laterally unrestrained one point load tests were also
carried out to examine the effect o f lateral torsional buckling on lapped Z
sections. It is envisaged that the moment resistances o f unrestrained lapped Z
sections depend on the lap lengths as the presence o f overlaps reduces the un
restrained (effective) length o f the lapped Z sections. Comparison between the
moment resistances o f the restrained and the unrestrained lapped sections will
also be made, and the comparison with the current design codes o f practice will
be presented.
Analysis and design o f lapped Z sections
Based on the findings o f the experimental investigation, the following analysis
and design rules for lapped Z sections is established:
Force distribution within lapped connections
1-10
Based on statics, the bolt forces within the lapped m oment connections are
determined after considering equilibrium, and hence, all internal forces
within the connections are readily obtained.
-4* Resistances against section failure under combined bending and shear
Once the co-existing moments and shear forces along the entire length o f Z
sections are evaluated, the critical sections are checked against combined
bending and shear using codified design rules. M odification to those
design rules will be proposed after careful calibration against test data.
-4- Deformation characteristics of lapped Z sections
Based on the test results of typical lap shear tests on bolted fastenings
between cold-formed steel strips with various steel thicknesses, steel
grades and bolt sizes, a normalized bearing deform ation curve is
established. It is then adopted to predict the vertical deformations of 26
lapped Z sections under one point loads.
M oreover, in order to allow for moment redistribution in multi-span
lapped purlin systems, an empirical formula is also proposed to describe
the unloading part o f the deformation characteristics o f lapped Z sections.
It should be noted that the unloading part o f the curve depends not only on
section sizes, but also lap lengths, as well as m om ent resistances o f the
lapped Z sections.
l-ll
Num erical investigation
In order to examine the structural behaviour o f lapped Z sections over the entire
deformation ranges, a numerical investigation using finite element method is
also performed.
Design development for multi-span lapped Z purlins.
Analysis and design procedure
Based on the results o f various tasks o f investigation, a complete analysis
and design procedure is formulated for multi-span lapped purlin systems
under both gravity loads and wind uplift. Various design coefficients for
moments and shear forces in purlin members o f practical material and
geometrical configurations with different lap lengths are also provided.
Various failure modes are identified in purlin members with different lap
lengths, span lengths, and section sizes.
Load span tables
A num ber o f load span tables are generated for m ulti-span lapped Z
sections with practical material and geometrical configurations as well as
1-12
Structural Behaviour o f Lapped Cold-Formed Steel Z-Sections____________________________________
connection arrangements. They are compared with those derived from
testing and also with those derived from the conventional design method.
1.6 L ay o u t of thesis
Chapter 2 Literature review
A detailed review on the technical literature on the structural
behaviour and design o f cold-formed steel connections is presented
including current codes o f practice, technical papers, design
guidances, and design handbooks. Relevant analysis and design
methods incorporating lapped purlin system are also described.
Chapter 3 Experimental investigation o f lapped connections between cold-
form ed steel Z sections with different bolt configurations Part I
This chapter presents an experimental investigation on the structural
behaviour o f lapped cold-formed steel Z sections. A total o f 26 one
point load tests on lapped connections betw een Z sections with
various lap lengths and test spans were carried out, and both the
strength and the deformation characteristics o f these connections were
examined in detail.
Chapter 4 Structural analysis o f lapped connections between cold-formed steel
Z sections
This chapter presents an analysis and design method for lapped
connections between cold-formed steel Z sections after careful
1-13
calibration against test data obtained from the one point-load tests on
lapped connections as described in Chapter 3. Based on the
experimental observations on the lapped connection tests where
combined bending and shear is always critical in the cross-sections at
the end of laps, an analysis method is proposed to evaluate all the
internal forces within the lapped connections. Moreover, design
expressions are also proposed for the evaluation o f effective flexural
rigidities o f lapped connections with various bolt configurations
against practical lap length to section depth ratios.
Chapter 5 Experimental investigation o f lapped connections between cold-
form ed steel Z sections with different bolt configurations Part II
This chapter presents an experimental investigation on the structural
behavior o f lapped cold-formed steel Z sections connected with two
enhanced bolt configurations. A total o f 12 one point load tests on
the lapped connections between Z sections with various lap lengths
were carried out, and both the strength and the deformation
characteristics o f these connections were examined in detail. An
analysis and design method for lapped connections between cold-
formed steel Z sections is also presented after careful calibration
against the test data.
Moreover, another experimental investigation on unrestrained beams
connected by the proposed connection configuration, Config. W4, was
1-14
reported. Comparison o f the buckling resistance moments between
the measured and the predicted results was also made.
Chapter 6 Deformation characteristics o f lapped connections between cold-
form ed steel Z sections
This chapter presents an analytical method to predict the deformation
characteristics of lapped connections between cold-formed steel Z-
section purlins. Based on the test results o f typical lap shear tests on
bolted connections between cold-formed steel sections o f various
strengths, a normalized bearing deformation curve was established.
The curve was then adopted to predict the vertical deflections of
lapped Z-section purlins under one point load after allowing for
deformations due to global bending and shear actions. Comparison
between the measured and the predicted deformation characteristics
was made.
Chapter 7 Numerical investigation o f overlap purlin system
This chapter presents a numerical investigation to predict the
deformation characteristics of lapped connections between cold-
formed steel Z sections. A finite element model was established to
study the load deflection curves o f lapped Z sections over the entire
deformation ranges. Comparison between the m easured and the
predicted deformation characteristics by finite elem ent modeling was
made.
1-15
Chapter 8 Analysis and design o f lapped purlin system
This chapter presents a rational and rigorous analysis and design
method for lapped cold-formed steel Z sections incorporating partial
continuity at lapped connections, and the proposed design method is
formulated as a complementary method to current codes o f practice.
Moreover, design considerations against various modes o f failure are
also described for practical design of lapped purlin members.
Chapter 9 Overall comments and conclusions
The findings o f both the experimental investigation and the numerical
study are fully discussed. The significance o f the proposed analysis
and design method is thoughtfully discussed.
1.7 List of publications
A total of seven conference papers and two journal papers were published and
submitted for publication during the research study. Details o f the papers are listed
as follows:
Refereed Conference Papers
(a) Ho, H.C. and Chung, K.F. (2002a). An experimental investigation into
lapped moment connections between Z sections. Proc. o f the Third
International Conference on Advances in Steel Structures, December
2002, Hong Kong, p. 437-444.
1-16
(b) Ho, H.C. and Chung, K.F. (2002b). Practical design o f cold-formed steel
Z sections with lapped connections. Proc. o f the Third International
Conference on Advances in Steel Structures, December 2002, Hong Kong,
p. 445-452.
(c) Ho, H.C. and Chung, K.F. (2002c). Structural analysis on lapped
m oment connections between cold-formed steel Z sections. Proc. o f the
2nd International Conference on Structural Stability and Dynamics,
December 2002, Singapore, p. 675-680.
(d) Chung, K.F. and Ho, H.C. (2003). Deformation characteristics o f lapped
connections between cold-formed steel purlins o f Z sections. Proc. o f
Advances in Structures - Steel, Concrete, Composite and Aluminum, June
2003, Sydney, Australia, p. 281-288.
(e) Chung, K.F. and Ho, H.C. (2004a). Design developm ent for purlin
systems using cold-formed steel Z sections. Proc. o f International
Symposium on Worldwide Codification Design and Technology in Steel
Structures. February 2004. The Hong Kong Institute of Steel
Construction, p. 98- 111.
(f) Chung, K.F. and Ho, H.C. (2004b). Design o f lapped cold-form ed steel Z
sections incorporating partial continuity at lapped connections. Proc. o f
the Second International Conference on Steel and Composite Structures.
September 2004. (In press)
1-17
(g) Chung, K.F. and Ho, H.C. (2004c). Structural Behaviour o f High
Strength Cold-formed Steel Z Purlins with O verlaps. 17th International
Specialty Conference in Orlando, . November 2004, Florida, United State of
America. (In press)
(h) Chung, K.F. and Ho, H.C. (2004d). An investigation into deformation
characteristics o f lapped connections between cold-formed steel Z
sections. Special issue o f International Journal o f Steel Structures on
Cold-formed Steel. September 2004. (In press)
International Journal Papers
(a) Ho, H.C. and Chung, K.F. (2004). Experimental investigation into the
structural behaviour o f lapped connections betw een cold-formed steel Z
sections. Thin-Walled Structures 42, p. 1013-1033.
(b) Chung, K.F. and Ho, H.C. (2004b). Analysis and design o f lapped
connections between cold-formed steel Z-sections. Thin-Walled
Structures (accepted for publication).
1-18
/ \
\ /
-o /N
DC DC
S
\ /
\
G \
P
Figure 1-1 Multi-span purlin systems with overlap
1-19
Connection
Configuration
1-5 - FTn- - 0- 1---

Config. W4 ' L 11 0 \: 0 !
! 0 K
10 "* 0 0 n==
1 1 1
Config. W6 > 10 ' 1 0
10 ! 0 j 0 L ,
1~ 1- 5- 1- 0
Config. W2F2 S
Config. W4F2 S i i
-7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 -
S
X
Figure 1-2 Connection configurations in lapped Z sections examined in this project
1-20
C H A PT E R TW O
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Background
2.1.1 Introduction to the use o f cold-formed steel structures
se lf weight ratios, and they are suitable for building construction owing to their
versatility in applications, and ease o f fabrication and installation. In general, both
cold-formed steel C sections and Z sections are widely used in building
construction1191, and the section depths typically range from 100 to 350 mm while the
section thicknesses typically range from 1.2 to 3.0 mm. Cold-formed steel sections
with yield strengths at 280, 350 and 450 N/mm2 are common while thin cold-formed
steel profiled sheetings with yield strength at 550 N/m m 2 are also readily available.
Moreover, there are a whole range o f variants o f these basic shapes, including
sections with single and double lips, and sections with internal stiffeners. Owing to
their high buildability characteristic, cold-formed steel sections are suitable for many
applications as follows:
In plane and space truss construction, lipped C sections or tubular sections are
used as structural members such as top and bottom chords, and diagonals.
In roof and wall constructions, C and Z sections are commonly used as purlins
and side rails to support profiled steel sheeting to form building envelopes.
2-1
Structural Behaviour o f Lanoed Cold-Formed Steel Z-Sections
In low-rise building construction, lipped C sections back-to-back are commonly
used with interconnections at regular intervals to form structural members, such
as beam and column members.
In addition to the dimensional accuracy o f cold-formed steel sections due to cold
rolling, they are free from creep and shrinkage, light and dryly enveloped, and
greatly flexible to form a particular shape. Moreover, cold-formed steel sections are
also commonly used as secondary structural frames, floor bearers and joists, and
steel decking for composite construction. Cold-formed steel sheetings and deckings
are also well established with large usage in building construction.
Both bolts and self-drilling self-tapping screws are common fasteners in cold-formed
steel construction while welding is seldom used due to the thinness o f cold-formed
steel sections and also the presence o f galvanized coatings.
2.1.2 Reviews of standards and codes on design of cold-formed steel sections
Differing from hot rolled steel structures, cold-formed steel sections are thin-walled
structures. Due to the thinness o f cold-formed steel sections with high width-to-
thickness ratios, these thin elements may buckle under compression at a stress level
less than their yield strength when they are subjected to compression, shear, bending,
or bearing. Local buckling o f these thin elements is therefore a critical design
criterion. It should be noted that even their buckling stress is reached, they often
continue to carry increasing loads. Therefore the m oment capacities o f cold-formed
steel sections are related to their postbuckling strength. In order to ensure high
structural efficiency, edge stiffeners or intermediate stiffeners o f sufficient sizes are
2-2
often provided to the cross-sections of cold-formed steel sections. Furthermore, as
they are weak in twisting, torsional flexural buckling in columns and lateral torsional
buckling in beams are often critical. There are a number o f codes o f practice tl 5] on
the design o f cold-formed steel structures together w ith complementary design
guides and worked examples [6' 10] to assist practicing engineers.
2.1.2.1 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures: Part 1.3 1121
The European code for the structural use of steelwork, Eurocode 3, consists of Part
1.1 (ENV 1993-1-1) General rules for structures and specific rules for buildings, and
Part 1.3 (ENV 1993-1-3) Supplementary rules for cold-form ed steel sections,
decking and sheeting. All parts o f Eurocode 3 are presnented in term s o f limit state
design in which partial safety factors are applied to both the loads and the material
properties. The European code covers the design yield strength o f steel sheets up to
550 N/mm2 with the thickness not more than 8 mm exclusive o f zinc or other
coatings for members, whilst 4 mm exclusive o f zinc or other coatings for sheetings.
More recently, the revised version o f EC 3 in 2000 covers steel sheetings o f design
yield strengths up to 700 N/m m 2 with the thickness not more than 15 mm. Flange
curling effect is also considered in the revised version.
The European code classifies four different classes o f steel, namely ductile cross-
sections, compact cross-sections, semi-compact sections and slender cross-sections.
Part 1.3 considers that the cold-formed steel sections as slender cross sections.
Moreover, the code considers the effect o f edge or interm ediate stiffeners, which
affect significantly on both local buckling and distortional buckling. The 2002
version has revised some expressions for different degree o f stiffening. Specific
2-3
Structural Behaviour o f Laoned Cold-Formed Steel Z-Sections
formulations are also provided for trapezoidal sheetings to evaluate their post
buckling strengths.
In general, the European code includes many advanced design provisions. The
effective width concept is adopted to evaluate the post buckling strengths of cold-
formed steel sections. The code also provides more formulations for general
application which is very useful for practical uses. It provides specific design
guidelines for the following:
Beams restrained by sheetings;
Liner trays restrained by sheetings;
Stressed skin design;
Perforated sheetings.
2.1.2.2 BS 5950: Part 5 [3)
The code o f practice for British building practice in steel structures is BS 5950. The
general design rules for buildings using hot-rolled steel is given in BS 5950: Part 1
while BS 5950: Part 5 deals with the design o f cold-formed steel sections. Similar to
Eurocode 3, all parts o f BS 5950 are presented in terms o f lim it state design in which
partial safety factors are applied to both the loads and the m aterial properties. BS
5950: Part 5 covers the design o f structures made from steel w ith design yield
strengths up to 350 N/mm2 and the steel thickness o f not m ore than 8 mm. The
design strength calculations are always in the ultimate lim it state.
The design concept used in BS 5950: Part 5 is the most straight forward and simple
one, which is user friendly to engineers. The effective w idth concept is adopted to
2-4
evaluate the post buckling strengths o f cold-formed steel sections, and both the gross
section and the effective section are required for strength and stiffness assessment.
For shear buckling, BS 5950: Part 5 adopts the elastic critical shear buckling stress
o f a simply supported long plate for all sections while the interaction curve for
combined bending and shear is assumed to be a quadratic relationship. Moreover,
BS 5950: Part 5 provides equations for lateral buckling strengths o f singly-, doubly-
and point symmetric sections.
2 .1.2.3 Specification for Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members'4"51
The code o f practice in the United State is entitled Specification for the Design of
Cold-Form ed Steel Structural Members, which is included in the Cold-Formed
Steel Design M anual (AISI, 1996). Differing from BS 5950 and Eurocode 3, the
AISI Specification allows for two design approaches - Allowable Stress Design
(ASD) and Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD). The specification allows
for the use o f steel sheets with design yield strengths up to 552 N/m m 2 in all
structural sections. Flange curling is also considered in the specification.
The specification adopts the same concept on the design o f cross section resistance
as other codes o f practice mentioned above. The effective width concept is also
adopted to evaluate the post buckling strengths o f cold-form ed steel sections for
local buckling. However, design rule for distortional buckling is not provided. For
lateral torsional buckling, the moment modification factor Cb is different from both
EC3 and BS 5950. Different equations for moment m odification in computing the
elastic critical moments for beams under stress gradient are provided.
2-5
Stmctural Behaviour o f Lapped Cold-Formed Steel Z-Sections
In D ecem ber 2002, American Iron and Steel Institute published an attachment on the
design o f cold-formed steel structural members using the direct strength method.
The new design method has been alleviated the complexity o f the 1996 edition of the
specification, and the advantages include the followings:
N o effective section properties.
N o element calculation.
N o iterations for beams.
Improvement on the interaction between elements in local buckling.
Design provision against distortional buckling.
2.1.2.4 Cold-formed steel structure code - AS/NZ 4600: 1996 16-71
The Australian / New Zealand Standard is very similar to the AISI Specification as
Section 1 to 5 are totally corresponding to Sections A to E o f the AISI Specification.
However, AS/NZ 4600 only allows for the limit state design approach (LSD), but
not the allowable stress design approach. Moreover, AS/NZ 4600 only permits the
use o f steel sheets with design strength up to 550 N/m m 2 and with a thickness more
than 0.9 mm. Differing from the AISI Specification, the Australian code allows for
the design o f distortional buckling in both flexural and compression members as well
as the design o f blind riveted connections.
2.1.3 Cold-formed steel structures using high strength steel
Recently, high strength steels are commonly used in construction projects. In
general, the thickness o f these steels ranges from 0.42 mm to 1.50 mm. They are not
only used as the primary structural members o f steel-fram ed houses, but also used as
secondary structural members such as purlins and girts in roof and wall systems, and
2-6
steel storage rack systems. However, high yield strength steels have a common
stability problem, distortional buckling, which occur in thin sections in compression
or bending at stresses significantly below their yield strengths. Distortional buckling
is a mode of buckling at half-wavelengths intermediate betw een local buckling and
lateral torsional buckling. This mode is most common in edge-stiffened sections,
which involves rotation of flange and lip about the flange-web junction. However,
m ost codes o f practice do not cover the design o f cold-formed steel structures using
high strength steels. Therefore, many researchers have put their efforts on this topic
[20-25] j h g areas o f high strength steels in compression, tension, bending and torsion,
and screwed and bolted connections have been investigated. Moreover, they develop
some specific design recommendations on stability and ductility problems.
2.1.4 Design recommendations on the current codes of practice
The researchers |26"28] have reviewed the current codes o f practice for further design
development. Hancock [26] recommended that the ongoing research should allow the
use o f higher strength steel and thinner sections to produce more economies in
structural uses o f cold-formed steel sections. Clarke[281 commented that the
Australian / New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4600:1996 is based mainly on the 1997
edition o f the AISI Specification, where limit state design is allowed. He outlined
three current approaches to the design o f purlin systems to AS / NZS 4600:1996,
which are referred to the C-factor, the R-factor and the FELB approaches. In
comparison between the buckling curve o f lateral torsional buckling obtained by his
finite elem ent modeling and that provide by the specification, the buckling curve
provided by AS /NZS 4600 is over-estimated. Therefore he proposed the design
should be in conjunction with a rational elastic buckling analysis.
2-7
2.2 Connections in cold-formed steel structures
In cold-formed steel construction, bolted connections are commonly used to
assemble various members to form integrated structural systems. It is important to
understand the structural behaviour of connections and also their effects on both the
local and the overall performance o f a structure. At present, a num ber o f codes of
practice provide detailed design rules for section capacities and member
resistances o f typical cold-formed steel sections. However, m ost o f the codified
design rules are only applicable in assessing the load carrying capacities of
individual fasteners such as bolts and screws rather than the structural performance
o f connections between cold-formed steel sections. Assessment on the load carrying
capacity o f each fastener is certainly important. But it is also necessary to examine
the m oment resistances and the effective flexural rigidities o f the moment
connections, which affect the internal force distribution within the whole structure.
Moreover, the structural behaviour o f the connectors such as web cleats and gusset
plates, and also o f the connected parts o f cold-formed steel sections under highly
localized forces and bending moments are also important. In general, there is a lack
o f design information on simple connections and moment connections between cold-
formed steel sections.
2.2.1 Design recommendations
Owing to the current codes o f practice giving only recom m endation on the strength
assessment o f individual fasteners, a number o f researchers [29_32] endeavor to give
more information on the real behaviour o f bolted connections in order to facilitate
the use o f cold-formed steel structures with improved structural economy.
2-8
Bryan [29] gave some more background information on the behaviour o f bolted
connections and the parameters that affected their strength and flexibility. Design
expressions for the bearing strength o f bolted connections were given. However, the
expressions were derived with low yield strength steel o f 280 N/mm2. Moreover,
Bryan also considered moment connection design, and the design expressions for
both the moment capacities and the moment rotation relationships for various bolt
configurations were given.
O ther than simple moment connections, Hartmann and Rohrbaugh [30] proposed the
design method on eccentric bolted connections. The connections deal with two
combined actions: moment and axial force. The analysis m ethod is based on the
following assumptions:
The center o f rotation coincides with the centroid o f the connection.
The rotational load on each individual fastener acts orthogonal to the radius to
the centroid o f the connection.
Equilibrium o f forces and moments should be satisfied.
Hartmann and Rohrbaugh only considered the strength o f the connections, but the
stiffness o f the connections was not mentioned, which m ight affect the distribution
o f internal forces within the overall structure significantly.
As the current codes o f practice cannot be used to accurately predict the failure mode
o f bolted connections using thin G550 and G300 sheet steels, as well as the bearing
resistance o f the connected materials, Rogers and Hancock [31] developed a gradated
bearing coefficient method to design the bearing resistance o f bolted connections
2-9
based on their experimental results. Moreover, they recommended that the gradated
bearing coefficient formulation, the unreduced net section resistance, and the
Eurocode design method for end pull-out have to be used consistently in the design
o f bolted connections. Afterwards, Zhang and Roger [32] worked on the design of
washerless bolted connections in thin sheet steels. They concluded that a
m odification factor should be added to the proposed gradated bearing coefficient
formulation.
2.2.2 Investigations on Simple Bolted Connections
All bolted connections are composed o f numbers o f individual fasteners. In order to
understand the structural behaviour o f bolted moment connections, it is necessary to
investigate the structural behaviour o f simple connections first. M any researchers
have contributed their efforts on this topic t22"23,33371 Rogers, Hancock, Chung and
Ip conducted separately a number o f series o f lap shear tests to investigate the
structural behaviour o f simple bolted connections with thin G550 and G300 sheet
steels [22,34'351. They observed three modes o f failure: i) bearing failure, ii) Shear-
out failure and iii) Net-section failure. Furthermore, a param etric study on bolted
connections with different configurations was performed to provide bearing
resistances for practical design. It is found that the design rules should be modified
for bolted connections with high strength steels due to reduction in ductility.
Therefore, a semi-empirical design formula for bearing resistance is proposed, which
is applicable for bolted connections o f both low strength and high strength steels
with different ductility limits.
2-10
Experim ental and numerical investigations on screwed connections were conducted
by several researchers [23,33], in order to improve structural understanding and design
developm ent on the sheeting connections. It is found that the current codes of
practice loss accuracy in estimating the bearing resistances and tilting o f screwed
connections with high strength steel sheets, and a design form ula was proposed.
2.2.3 Investigations on Bolted Moment Connections
For practical framing systems, bolted moment connections are inevitable to be used
to form semi-rigid joints to transfer moments between cold-form ed steel sections.
Consequently, the structural performance o f bolted connections is essential to be
understood and the structural behaviour o f bolted m oment connections should be
thoughtfully verified in order to achieve safe and economic design.
2.2.3.1 M oment connections: Beam to column connections
Beam-to-column connections are commonly found in beam-colum n frames used
in low-rise buildings such as portal frames. Bolted m oment connections with high
strength and stiffness are essential in safe and economic design. In order to assess
the structural performance o f cold-formed steel m em bers with bolted moment
connections for practical applications, a number o f research projects were carried
out with both the experimental investigations [38'44] and num erical investigations
[4 5 - 4 8 ]
Chung and Lau [38] conducted an experimental investigation on the bolted moment
connections between two back-to-back interconnected lipped C sections. Four
modes o f failure were observed among the tests:
2-11
BFcsw - bearing failure in section web around bolt hole
LTBgp lateral torsional buckling o f gusset plate
FFcs - flexural failure of connected member, and
CBcol - combined compression and bending failure o f column member
Only mode BFcsw is ductile with large deformation while others are sudden and
brittle. The moment resistances o f bolted moment connections are found to range
from 42% to 84% of the moment capacities o f the connected members.
Afterward Chung has further carried out another experimental investigation on
bolted moment connections used in column bases and beam-column sub-frames
with W ong f401. Similar modes o f failure were observed. Besides, one more
failure mode was observed, which was the flexural failure o f gusset plate, namely
mode FFgp. It is found that the bolted connections failed in made FFcs provide
the highest load carrying capacities at 85% the m oment capacities of the
connected members.
Chung and Lawson have also carried out an experimental investigation on the
structural performance o f shear resisting connections betw een cold-formed steel
sections using web cleats made o f cold-formed steel. Three modes o f failure were
identified:
Failure o f fasteners
Shear buckling o f cold-formed steel web cleats or webs o f supported beam,
and
Lateral torsional buckling o f cold-formed steel web cleats
2-12
They proposed a set o f design formulations in accordance with both BS 5950: Part
5 and Eurocode 3: Part 1.3 after careful calibration against test data.
Tan, Seah and Fok 1411 have also contributed their efforts on the structural
behaviour o f beam-column connections. They found that all the moment
connections behaved in a non-linear moment rotation characteristics. However,
comments on the effectiveness of the m oment connections were not presented.
The proposed prediction method on the moment rotation characteristic o f beam-
colum n connections is only an empirical formula applicable with limited ranges of
m aterial properties and geometrical dimensions.
Ahmed and Kirby [42] reported their investigation on the behaviour o f semi-rigid
connections in hot-rolled steel frames where a realistic consideration o f joint
response is proposed to account for the rotational flexibility o f beam-to-column
connections. Carvalho, Andrade and Vellasco [43] reviewed a number of
experimental investigations on bolted moment connections with different
configurations and material properties. They concluded that the moment rotation
characteristics behaved essentially in non-linear relationship which depended on
the connection configurations. No information regarding the evaluation o f the
moment rotation characteristics is, however, provided.
There was another research programme reported by M ills [44] where experimental
investigation on knee joints with different configurations were carried out. The
knee joints were parts of short span cold-formed steel portal frames widely used in
Australia. Her study aimed to determine whether a bolted m oment end-plate joint,
2-13
designed in accordance with standard practice for hot-rolled steel members, was
suitable for use in portal frames constructed from thick cold-formed steel channel
sections. It was recommended that elastic design method should be used, instead
o f plastic design method.
O ther than those experimental investigations, numerical investigations were also
carried out by a number o f researchers [45"48] to calibrate their own experimental
results, which provide important understandings to the structural behaviour of
bolted moment connections. This enables further design developm ent to be
carried out by numerical modeling with less reliance on expensive and prolonged
full scale testing.
2.2.3.2 Moment connections: Beam to beam connections
The m ost common moment connection among cold-formed steel members is the
purlin-rafter connection in roof construction, which provides continuity in multi
span purlin systems. Thus, there are many research works reported in the
literature on the development o f purlin-rafter connections in modern roof systems

[4 9 - 5 3 ]
Ghosn and Sinno [49"511 performed a series of tests on restrained lapped cold-
formed steel Z-sections. A total o f twenty-eight stiffened Z-section beams were
tested by applying lateral load at the mid-span until failed. The test series covered
various section sizes (section depth to thickness ratio ranging from 79 to 131) and
lap lengths (lap length to span ratio ranging from 0.25 to 1.00). It was noted that
the lapped sections enhanced the load carrying capacities and the stiffnesses
2-14
significantly with the lap length to span ratio up to 0.5. Little enhancement was
discovered when the lap length to span ratio increased any further. For the lap
length to span ratio less than 0.5, the specimens were failed in the single section at
the ends o f lap while they failed at the lapped region near mid-span for the lap
length to span ratio larger than 0.5. Ghosn and Sinno concluded that these
specimens were failed by bending after stress analyses. A reduction factor, Rs,
was introduced to estimate the m oment capacities o f the specimens failed in the
lapped region. The ratio between the predicted and the measured moment
resistances was found to range from 0.85 to 1.23. This reflected that the predicted
m oment resistances were overestimated in some cases, which gave unsafe design.
They also proposed two empirical formulae to estimate both the load resistance
ratio and the stiffness, but these formulae were only applicable for limited section
sizes, material properties and specific fastener sizes.
LaBoube, Nunnery and Hodges [52] carried out an experimental study on the web
crippling behaviour o f lapped cold-formed steel Z sections, in order to develop a
set o f design guidelines against combined bending and web crippling. This was
due to the fact that the current codes o f practice did not provide any specific
guidelines for lapped connections under highly concentrated lateral loads and
moments. Two test programmes on lapped cold-formed steel Z sections were
conducted and all specimens were tested to failure. It was found that the AISI
Specification did not accurately predict the failure loads. In order to achieve an
economic design a design formula against combined bending and web-crippling
was proposed.
2-15
Y oung and Hancock [531carried out a similar study on such interaction afterward.
They extended the experimental investigations on unlipped cold-formed steel
channels with a web thickness larger than 3 mm. The experimental investigation
was divided into three stages:
Pure bending tests
Pure web crippling tests, and
Combined bending and web crippling tests
Tests were carried out on sections o f high strength steel with a design yield
strength at 450 N/mm2 and sections with web slenderness values ranging from
21.7 to 45.0. The specimens were tested at various lengths. It was shown that the
design resistances predicted by AISI Specification and AS/NZS 4600 were
generally conservative for unlipped channels having stocky webs subjected to
combined bending and web crippling.
2.2.4 Investigations on other connections
Other than the moment connections for practical beam-column framing, there were
some more types o f connections between cold-formed steel sections. Dubina and
Zaharia [59] conducted an experimental research program to evaluate semi-rigid
behaviour o f some typical bolted connections in cold-formed steel plane truss joints.
The semi-rigid behaviour o f the joints was established via Eurocode 3 provisions by
the measured m oment resistance and initial stiffness. Besides, they performed a
numerical analysis o f this type o f truss to demonstrate the improvement of load
carrying capacity in comparison with the classical assumptions. M oreover, Grecca,
Dina and Dubina [60] carried out a parametric study in m oment resisting frames of
different types o f steel with rigid and semi-rigid joints subject to seismic motions.
2-16
2.3 M ulti-span lapped purlin systems
Cold-formed steel sections are widely used as secondary structural members such as
purlins to support roof sheetings. In practice, multi-span lapped purlin systems are
the m ost popular owing to their high structural efficiency and simple installation of
purlin-rafter connections.
2.3.1 Full scale tests on multi-span lapped purlin systems
Current product development on cold-formed steel sections relies on full scale
testing in order to achieve their ultimate load carrying capacities in practice. This is
necessary as the current design methods are too conservative to predict the load
carrying capacities o f multi-span purlin systems efficiently. As a result, the codified
design o f purlin systems is not economical which reduces the competitiveness of
cold-formed steel building products. Thus, it is essential to understand the overall
structural behaviour o f multi-span lapped purlin systems, and a number o f
researchers have conducted research projects on multi-span lapped purlin systems
[54-58].
A total o f twelve full scale tests on continuous C- and Z-section purlin systems were
conducted by Willis and Wallace [54] with various spanning systems, section sizes
and positions o f decking fasteners. It was found that the load carrying capacities o f
C sections were sensitive to the location o f decking fasteners while that o f Z sections
were not affected. M oreover, the 1986 version o f AISI Specification often over
predicted the load carrying capacities o f purlins with wide compression-flange-
2-17
stiffener lips. Unfortunately, they did not have similar test data for multi-span
lapped purlin system.
In 1993, Hancock and Celeban [55] reported their research w ork on the structural
behaviour o f multiple span lapped purlin systems restrained by roof sheetings using
cold-formed steel Z sections. The test series covered different section sizes, bracing
conditions, spanning system, and loading directions. Both C and Z sections were
tested as simple spans. For purlins under wind uplift, there were a number of
conclusions:
The load carrying capacities of the purlin systems w ith tw o rows o f bridging
were greater than those without bridging.
Purlins without bridging twisted more and produced a m ore non-linear response.
The positions of screw fasteners had a large effect on the non-linear twisting
response.
All the test specimens failed suddenly by localized failure o f cold-formed steel
sections at the flange-web junction.
For purlins under downward loading, there were a number o f findings:
All tests were failed at the ends of lap by flexural failure.
Lateral bracings did not have significant influence on the load carrying
capacities o f the purlin systems.
Inclusion o f the cleat supports did not have significant influence on the load
carrying capacities o f the purlins.
Afterward, Johnston and Hancock [56] calibrated the R-factor used in the 1991 AISI
Specification based on their former experimental investigations. The calibration was
2-18
performed for both braced and unbraced purlins, which was more general than that
in the AISI Specification. Moreover, the proposed analysis method for the purlin
systems was based on the assumption o f doubling up the flexural rigidity of Z
sections at the lapped connections.
Chung and St Quinton [57] carried out an experimental investigation on modem roof
systems with thick over-purlin insulation for the increasing popularity o f the use of
thick insulation. This was envisaged to lead to insufficient restraining action to the
purlin members, and hence, reduce the load carrying capacities o f the purlin systems.
Thus, three full scale test series with a total o f 12 single and 5 double span roofs
supported by cold-formed steel Z sections and Sigma sections were carried out under
both gravity and uplift loading conditions. The paper also reported a comparison on
the restrained actions provided by different roof systems.
Murray and Elhouar [58] summarized a total o f 45 test results o f multi-span purlin
systems gathered from 10 different test programmes. O f the 45 test results reported,
24 were found to be sufficiently documented for complete evaluation. The authors
used the test data to verify the analysis and design m ethod commonly in the North
Am erica w ith the following assumptions:
The lapped connection achieves full continuity betw een the individual purlin
members.
The flexural rigidity o f the lapped connection is equal to the sum o f those o f the
individual members.
The strength o f the lapped connection is assumed to be the sum o f the strengths
o f the individual sections.
2-19
The attachment o f the roof sheetings to the purlins provides continuous lateral
and torsional supports to the top flanges o f the sections.
For gravity loads, the bottom flanges near interior supports are assumed to be
fully braced between the supports and the ends o f lap.
A n infection point is a braced point.
Failure o f combined shear and bending at the ends o f lap should be taken into
account.
A comparison between the theoretical and the experimental test results was made.
The ratios between them were found to range from 0.67 to 1.06. It should be noted
that the analysis and design method commonly adopted in N orth America seems
unable to give a precise assessment to the load carrying capacities o f lapped purlin
systems.
2.3.2 Analysis and design of lapped purlin systems
Based on the experimental investigation o f lapped connections and multi-span purlin
systems with roof sheetings, many researchers [61-68] proposed their analysis and
design methods on lapped purlin systems.
In 1990, Fenske and Yener [61] proposed an analysis and design method based on an
assumption that the strength of the lapped sections was double to that o f a single
section. The proposed method was considered to be unconservative as it m ight over
predict the load carrying capacities o f lapped purlin systems since the assumption
was not valid according to the findings obtained from experimental investigations.
2-20
LaB oube [62] carried out a total o f 25 full scale tests on simple span purlin systems
attached to roof sheeting. According to his test results, an empirically based design
approach for evaluating the load carrying capacities of simple span purlin systems
subject to wind-uplift was proposed.
Tom a and Witteman [63] compared the design method given in EC3: Part 1.3 with
the test results on a total o f 24 single span tests on C-, Z- and Sigma sections. They
suggested that the effect of lapped connections and sleeved connections should be
taken into account when designing multi-span purlin systems, especially for the
determ ination o f stiffness.
M ore recently, Epstein, Murtha-Smith and Mitchell, proposed an analysis and design
assumptions for continuous purlins. For lapped purlin systems, they suggested the
followings:
The non-prismatic assumption should be adopted, and the flexural rigidity of
lapped connections is the sum o f those o f the individual members.
Combined bending and shear at the end o f lap should be allowed for.
The design rules should follow the AISI Specification for American practice.
The lapped connection provides effective lateral restraints.
The inflection point is a braced point.
Other than the elastic design o f multi-span purlin systems, Laine [65] reported a
plastic design method on multi-span purlin system according to Eurocode 3: Part 1.3.
The plastic design method is verified by the test results from 72 internal support tests
2-21
and 27 double span tests. It was found that the plastic design o f the multi-span
purlin systems often gave conservative load carrying capacities.
Besides the technical papers, there are a number of design guides for the design of
cold formed steel structures. According to the Cold-formed Steel Designer Manual
(AISI) [4], the following assumptions for lapped purlin systems design are
recommended:
The lapped connection achieves full continuity betw een the individual purlin
members.
The flexural rigidity o f the lapped connections is the sum o f those of the
individual members.
The strength o f lapped connections is assumed to be the sum o f the strengths of
the individual sections.
The attachment of roof sheeting to purlin provides continuous lateral and
torsional supports to the top flange o f the purlin members.
For gravity loads, the bottom flange near interior supports is assumed to be
fully braced between the supports and the ends o f lap.
Combined bending and shear at the ends o f lap should be taken into account.
M ost recently, Hancock, Murray, and Ellifritt [13] proposed the following
assumptions for the analysis and design o f lapped purlin systems:
Constrained bending about an axis perpendicular to web.
Full lateral support is provided by roof sheetings in sagging m oment regions.
Partial lateral support is provided by standing seam roof sheeting in sagging
moment regions.
2-22
A n infection point is a braced point.
The purlin members can be considered as either prism atic or non-prismatic,
which is the judgm ent o f the engineer. For the prism atic assumption, the
additional stiffness caused by the increased moment o f inertia within the lap is
simply ignored. For the non-prismatic assumptions, the additional flexural
rigidity should be accounted for by using the sum o f those o f the individual
members.
The use o f vertical slotted holes does not affect the strength o f continuous
purlin members.
Combined bending and shear should be checked at cross-sections immediately
adjacent to the ends o f lap in the single section.
2.4 Design for structural instability of cold-formed steel sections
Cold-formed steel sections are thin-walled structures prone to stability problems
such as local buckling, distortional buckling and lateral torsional buckling. Lateral
torsional buckling is the most serious problem for long span unrestrained cold-
formed steel purlin members, and there are many researchers [67-84] contributed
their efforts on the accurate prediction against lateral torsional buckling. As reported
formerly, Flancock [55] conducted a series o f full scale tests on lapped purlin
systems restrained by roof sheetings. Based on the experimental investigations,
further design development was performed. Hancock, Ings and Trahair compared
two design methods with the test results:
1/. Ings/Trahair model which is based on the buckling behaviour o f purlins under
uplift; and
2-23
21. Pekoz/Soroushian model which is based on the nonlinear twisting and distortional
behaviour o f simply supported purlins under wind uplift.
How ever, both models are un-conservative in some cases which is due to the
uncertainties on the torsional restraints included in the models.
Al-bermani and Kitipomchai [68-71] developed a total o f 11 non-linear elasto-
plastic finite element models to predict the structural behaviour o f purlin-sheeting
system s as an attempt to alleviate the need o f expensive full scale tests. The models
accounted for cross-sectional distortion, flexural and m em brane restraining effects of
sheetings, and section failure by local buckling or yielding. The non-linear analyses
were compared with the experimental results obtained by Hancock and Celeban [55].
Current design methods for cold-formed steel sections adopted in m ost codes of
practice are mainly relied on both analytical methods and semi-analytical methods.
Recently, a newly developed semi-empirical method for cold-form ed steel design
namely, the Direct Strength Method (DSM), is proposed, which is adopted by the
AISI Specification [4-5]. The DSM adopts the effective stress concept instead o f the
effective width concept. This method can incorporate local, distortional and lateral
buckling without any effort to determine effective section properties. Moreover,
Dubina [72-76] proposed the Erosion o f Critical Bifurcation Load (ECBL) approach
which employs the rigid-plastic theory to introduce local failure m odes into the
global behaviour o f the cold-formed steel sections through the use o f the Ayrton-
Perry equation.
2-24
C H A P T E R THREE
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF LAPPED CONNECTIONS
BETWEEN COLD-FORMED STEEL Z SECTIONS WITH
DIFFERENT BOLT CONFIGURATIONS PART 1
3.1 Objectives of investigation
In order to improve the buildability o f cold-formed steel structures, a series of
research studies have been undertaken to study the structural behaviour o f bolted
m om ent connections between cold-formed steel sections. This chapter presents
details o f an experimental and theoretical investigation on the structural performance
o f lapped connections between cold-formed steel Z sections. A total o f 26 one point
load tests on lapped cold-formed steel Z sections were carried out. The objectives of
this test series are:
To investigate both the strength and the deformation characteristics o f bolted
moment connections between lapped Z sections.
To quantify both the moment resistances and the flexural rigidities o f lapped
connections with various lap lengths for proper understanding and rational
design o f multi-span purlin systems with overlaps.
It should be noted that in general, instead o f carrying out full scale tests on multi
span purlin systems under uniformly distributed loads, it is sufficient to test lapped
connections of reduced section lengths under one point loads as shown in Figure 3.1.
3.2 Basic Configurations of Lapped connections
a practical configuration for generic lapped connections is proposed after
Config. W4
a) Only the webs o f Z sections are bolted together which are, in turn, attached
onto primary structural members such as rafters through hot rolled web cleats.
b) Six bolts per connection are adopted as the minimum configuration where
four outer bolts are assigned to resist moments while two internal bolts are
assigned to resist lateral loads, as shown in Figure 3.2.
c) The section flanges o f Z sections are not connected.
limited m oment resistances due to discontinuity o f load paths along section flanges
in the connected sections. By increasing the lap lengths, the moment resistances of
lapped connections will be increased with enhanced load transfer across the
connected sections. In order to improve the structural performance o f lapped
connections, an enhanced configuration is also proposed as follows:
Config. W6:
3-2
a) The connection arrangement follows closely to that in Config. W4.
b) A total o f eight bolts are adopted where six outer bolts are assigned to resist
moments while two internal bolts are assigned to resist lateral loads, as
shown in Figure 3.2.
It is important to establish the structural performance o f lapped connections with
different lap lengths and bolt configurations. M oreover, the variations in the
m oment resistances and the effective flexural rigidities o f lapped Z sections against
lap lengths in both bolt configurations should also be quantified.
3.3 Test program
A total o f six test series with 26 one point load tests were carried out. Among the six
test series, lapped connections with two generic Z sections o f different section depths
and thicknesses, namely Z15016 and Z25025, were tested with the two bolt
configurations, namely, Config. W4 and W6 , at different lap lengths and member
lengths. The nominal yield strength o f both Z sections is 450 N/mm2, which is
designated as G450. It should be noted that:
Test Series ZA, ZC and ZE with Z15016 G450
In these series, the section depth, D, and the section thickness, t, o f the Z sections
are 150 and 1.6 mm respectively. Based on a typical span over depth ratio of 32,
the overall span in practical multi-span purlin systems, Ls , is 4.8 m, and thus, the
test span o f lapped connections in Test Series ZA and ZC is taken as 2.4 m, i.e.
2 times 0.25 Ls . However, in Test Series ZE, a typical span over depth ratio of
48 is adopted, and hence, the test span is taken as 3.6 m. A total o f 13 lapped
3-3
connections are specified for Config. W4 and W6 while the lap lengths range
from 180 to 900 mm, i.e. 1.2 D to 6.0 D; all bolts are 12 mm diameter M 8.8 bolts.
Test Series ZB, ZD and ZF with Z25025 G450
are 250 and 2.5 mm respectively. Based on a typical span over depth ratio of 32,
the overall span in practical multi-span purlin systems, Ls , is 8.0 m, and thus, the
test span o f lapped connections in Test Series ZB and ZD is taken as 4.0 m, i.e. 2
times 0.25 Ls . However, in Test Series ZF, a typical span over depth ratio o f 48
is adopted, and hence, the test span is taken as 6.0 m. A total o f 13 lapped
connections are specified for Config. W4 and W6 while the lap lengths range
from 300 to 1500 mm, i.e. 1.2 D to 6.0 D; all bolts are 16 mm diameter M 8.8
bolts.
It should be noted that all the bolts were installed with a 50 Nm torque, and a
clearance o f 2 mm was provided in the bolt holes for easy installation. The test
programme is summarized in Table 3.1 together with basic geometrical data.
Typical test set-up o f the one point load tests is illustrated in Figure 3.3. The test
specimens are simply supported for both major and minor axis bending, and there is
no warping restraints provided at the end supports. It should also be noted that all
the lapped Z sections were tested in pairs with interconnections provided at regular
intervals to prevent lateral buckling. Both the applied loads and the mid-span
deflections o f the test specimens were recorded during loading. In general, the tests
were term inated only after the mid-span deflections exceeded half the section depths
in order to collect data o f the lapped connections at large deformation. In order to
3-4
compare directly the moment resistances o f lapped sections to those o f continuous
sections, a total o f 6 control tests, i.e. one point load tests on continuous Z sections
were carried out. Furthermore, standard coupon tests on steel strips cut from these
sections were also performed to provide basic material data for subsequent data
analysis. All these test data are also presented in Table 3.1.
3.4 T est results
Am ong all tests, section failure o f the connected sections at the end o f laps was
always found to be critical under combined bending and shear. This failure mode
was sudden, often initiated with local buckling in the compression flanges of the
connected sections, as shown in Figure 3.4. At large deformation, severe cross
section distortion o f the connected sections at the ends o f laps was always observed.
After the tests, all the lapped connections were examined in details. While no
distortion in the bolt holes was evident in those lapped connections with long lap
lengths, apparent bearing deformation was found in the connected webs around bolt
holes in lapped connections with short lap lengths. At the ends o f lap o f the lapped
connections, wavelength o f shear buckling o f the section web under combined
bending and shear was found to range from 0.8 D to 1.25 D, where D is the section
depth. Both the maximum applied loads and the applied moments at large
deformation o f the lapped connections are presented in Table 3.2 for easy
comparison.
The structural behaviour o f these lapped connections m ay be systematically
examined in detail through comparison on their mid-span moment end rotation
curves, i.e. (M s - 0e) curves. These curves of all the test specimens in each test series
3-5
are plotted on the same graph as shown in Figure 3.5 together with those of the
control test specimens for direct comparison. Close examination o f these curves
reveals that
a) In general, the initial slopes o f these (Ms - 9e) curves are directly proportional to
the lap lengths of the connections, i.e. long lap lengths give stiff and strong
connections while short lap length give flexible and weak connections.
b) For lapped connections with short lap lengths, the slopes o f these (M s - 0e) curves
are significantly decreased before the maximum applied loads are attained. This
may be readily explained by the large bolt forces associated with these
connections, and hence, bearing deformation in the connected webs around bolt
holes are apparent which, in turn, introduces significant flexibility into the
connections under relatively low applied loads.
c) For lapped connections with long lap lengths, both the moment resistances and
the initial slopes of these (Ms - 0e) curves are larger than those o f the continuous
sections, demonstrating effective moment connections with high structural
efficiency.
d) In all cases, the end rotations always increase steadily even after the maximum
applied loads are attained. In general, unloading in the lapped connections after
attaining their maximum moment resistances is considered to be severe, and
cross-section distortion is apparent. Hence, the lapped connections cannot
sustain their moment resistances at large deformation.
3-6
3.4.1. Moment resistance ratios ymax and yres
In order to quantify the strength enhancement of these lapped connections against
bending, the moment resistance ratios ymax and yres are established and they are
defined as follows:
where
M max is the maximum moment resistance of the lapped connection obtained
from one point load test,
M res is the residual moment resistance of the lapped connection at large
deformation obtained from one point load test, and
M con is the measured moment capacity o f continuous section obtained from
the control test (one point load test.)
It should be noted that all the moment resistances are evaluated at the mid-span
positions of the test specimens for direct comparison. The values o f /max and yT&s
are also tabulated in Table 3.2 and they are plotted against the lap length to section
depth ratios in Figure 3.6 for easy comparison. Moreover, as both the measured
dimensions and the measured yield strength of the sections among the test series are
found to be significantly different, comparison should be restricted among the test
specimens o f the same test series. It should be noted that
Config. W4
3-7
In Test Series ZA, the moment resistance ratios, ymax, are found to lie between
0.88 and 1.60 for lapped connections with Z15016 G450. For lapped
connections with Z25025 G450 in Test Series ZB, the values o f ymax range from
0.79 to 1.49. A unity moment resistance ratio may be achieved with a minimum
lap length to section depth ratio o f 2.0. The residual moment resistance ratios,
Yres, of the lapped sections in both series are found to lie between 0.42 and 0.79
while the value of yres may be taken as 0.29 conservatively in the continuous
sections.
Config. W6
In Test Series ZC, the moment resistance ratios, ymax , are found to lie between
0.96 and 1.59 for lapped connections with Z 15016 G450. For lapped
connections with Z25025 G450 in Test Series ZD, the values o f ymax range from
0.89 to 1.62. A unity moment resistance ratio may also be achieved with a
minimum lap length to section depth ratio of 2.0. The residual moment
resistance ratios, yres, o f the lapped connections in both series are found to lie
between 0.39 and 0.68 while the value o f yres may be taken as 0.27
conservatively in the continuous sections.
In addition, in Test Series ZE, the moment resistance ratios, ymax, are found to lie
between 0.86 and 1.25 for lapped connections with Z15016 G450. For lapped
connections with Z25025 G450 in Test Series ZF, the values o f ymax range from
0.90 to 1.53. A unity moment resistance ratio may also be achieved with a
minimum lap length to section depth ratio of 2.0. The residual moment
3-8
resistance ratios, yres , of the lapped connections in both series are found to lie
betw een 0.42 and 0.58 while the value o f yres may be taken as 0.24
The following conclusions on the moment resistances o f lapped connections may be
drawn:
a) In general, the moment resistance ratios are found to be directly proportional to
the lap lengths. Moreover, the lapped connections are demonstrated to be
effective in providing full moment transfer between lapped sections, i.e. f ull
strength laps, with lap lengths equal to at least two tim es section depth.
b) However, these lapped connections are shown not to be able to exhibit ductility
after the maximum moment resistances are attained owing to severe cross section
distortion. At large deformation, the residual m oment resistance ratios may be
conservatively taken as 0.38 for all lapped connections studied in the test
program while the residual moment resistance ratio o f continuous sections is
merely 0.24.
It is important to note that all these moment resistance ratios are evaluated at the
centres o f the lapped connections for direct comparison among test data from all the
test series. However, in all tests, section failure occurred at the end o f lap in the
connected sections under combined bending and shear. Detailed investigation on
both the internal forces and the section resistances against combined bending and
shear at the ends o f lap in the connected sections are presented in Chapter Four.
3-9
3.4.2. Effective flexural rigidity ratios a, and a./
In order to quantify the stiffness enhancement o f these lapped connections against
bending, the effective flexural rigidity ratios, a.j and ocf, o f the lapped connections
under low and maximum applied loads are established, and they are defined as
follows:
( /), {EI)f
a, = ; af =
El f El
where
(El), is the initial effective flexural rigidity o f the lapped connection at low
load level obtained from one point load test;
(FA)f is the final effective flexural rigidity of the lapped connection under
maximum applied load obtained from one point load test, and
El is the flexural rigidity o f the continuous section obtained from the control
test (one point load test).
For evaluation o f the effective flexural rigidity ratios, a , and a f , o f the lapped
connections, refer to Data Sheet 3A. The values o f a* and a f are summarized in
Table 3.2 and they are plotted against the lap length to section depth ratios in Figures
3.7 and 3.8 for comparison. It should be noted that
Config. W4
3-10
For lapped connections with Z 15016 G450 in Test Series ZA, the values o f a, are
found to range from 0.369 to 1.400 while the values o f a f are found to range
from 0.103 to 1.212. For lapped connections with Z25025 G450 in Test Series
ZB, the values o f a; are found to range from 0.334 to 1.516 while the values of
a f are found to range from 0.223 to 1.415.
Config. W6
For lapped connections with Z15016 G450 in Test Series ZC, the values o f a; are
found to range from 0.378 to 1.446 while the values o f a f are found to range
from 0.103 to 1.410. For lapped connections with Z25025 G450 in Test Series
ZD, the values o f aj are found to range from 0.458 to 1.740 while the values of
a f are found to range from 0.237 to 1.633.
In addition, for lapped connections with Z15016 G450 in Test Series ZE, the
values o f a* are found to range from 0.408 to 1.196 while the values of a f are
found to range from 0.111 to 1.065. For lapped connections with Z25025 G450
in Test Series ZF, the values o f aj are found to range from 0.455 to 1.593 while
the values o f a i are found to range from 0.121 to 1.168.
The following conclusions on the flexural rigidities o f lapped connections may be
drawn:
a) As shown in Figure 3.7, the values o f both aj and a f are found to be directly
proportional to the lap lengths o f the connections. For connections with small
lap length to section depth ratios, the values of a are small, owing to flexibility
3-11
in the connections directly caused by significant bearing deformation in web
around bolt holes under large bolt forces. For connections with large lap length
to section depth ratios, the connections are shown to be highly effective
approaching to those of continuous sections, i.e. full stiffness laps, as the values
o f a are close to or even larger than unity. Moreover, the effective flexural
rigidities o f lapped connections with Config. W6 are often larger than those with
Config. W4 by 3 to 15% typically, owing to stiffness enhancement provided by
the two additional bolts.
b) For lapped connections with Config. W6 but with different test spans, the values
o f both a j and a f are found to be significantly reduced when the test spans are
increased, as shown in Figure 3.8. This applies to lapped connections with
different section depths and lap lengths. Consequently, it is demonstrated that
the effective flexural rigidities o f lapped sections depend on not only the load
levels and the lap length to section depth ratios, but also the lap length to test
span ratios.
c) It should be noted that while the differences between the values a i and a f are
considerable for connections with small lap length to section depth ratios, the
differences diminish in connections with large lap length to section depth ratios,
as shown in Figure 3.9.
3.5 Conclusions
In order to assess the structural performance o f lapped cold-form ed steel Z sections,
a total o f 26 lapped connection tests were executed. In all tests, section failure at the
3-12
end o f lap o f connected sections was found to be critical under combined bending
and shear. It is demonstrated that both the moment resistances and the flexural
rigidities o f lapped connections depend on not only the lap length to section depth
ratios but also the lap length to test span ratios. Hence, the assumption that lapped
sections always have doubled moment resistances and flexural rigidities o f those of
connected sections is not always correct. Moreover, it is demonstrated that full
strength laps and full stiffness laps may be achieved in lapped connections
provided that the lap length to section depth ratios are equal to or larger than 2.0 and
4.0 respectively. Lapped connections with Config. W6 are often stiffer than those
with Config. W4 by 3 to 15% although the differences diminish when the lap lengths
increase.
The experimental investigation provides not only essential understanding on the
structural behaviour of lapped connections but also test data for the calibration of
design rules for multi-span purlin systems with overlaps in modern roof construction.
The design development is fully presented in Chapter 4.
3-13
D ata Sheet 3 A Effective flexural rigidities o f lapped connections
As shown in Figure 3.3, the effective flexural rigidity of the lapped connection is
assum ed to be a times the flexural rigidity o f the connected section, El . Based on
classical analytical method such as the complementary virtual work method, the
m id-span deflection o f the test specimen, A , may be expressed as follows:
1
A l + ( j 32 - 3 j 3 + 3
48 El
where
P is the lap length to test span ratio equal t o -

A
P is the applied load;
Lt is the test span.
Re-arranging the expression, we have
1
jr Eq. (3A1)
48
where
S; is the slope o f the load mid-span deflection curve of the test specimen
under low applied load;
3-14
Sf is the slope o f the load mid-span deflection curve o f the test specimen
under maximum applied load;
ai is the initial effective flexural rigidity ratio o f the lapped connection
under low applied load, and
af is the final effective flexural rigidity ratio o f the lapped connection
under maximum applied load.
The values o f S, and Sf may be readily obtained from the load deflection curves of
the test specimens under one point load tests as follows:
Mid-span deflection A
Hence, the values o f a* and at may be obtained after solving Eqs. (3A1) and (3A2)
respectively through iterations.
3-15
Table 3.1 1Summary o f test program and data
l- S H
F
Section dimensions
Measured Measured
Test Lap
yield Young's
span length
Test 1) E F c t strength Modulus
Lt 2LP
Py E
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (N/m m2) (kN/mm2)
ZA018R 180 151.0 67.4 63.5 16.5 1.71

O
V 'l ZA024R 240 150.8 67.5 63.4 16.5 1.71
o
ZA030R 2400 300 151.0 67.7 63.4 16.6 1.69
VO 541 199
o r j ZA060R 600 150.9 67.6 63.5 16.4 1.70
N ZA090R 900 150.7 67.5 63.1 16.6 1.69
ZAcon 2400 . 150.7 67.4 63.5 16.5 1.69
ZB030R 300 250.8 79.4 73.3 21.5 2.52
o /y ZB060R 600 250.4 79.2 73.5 21.6 2.51
O ZB090R 4000 900 250.7 78.9 73.5 21.6 2.50
v> 537 206
o ZB120R 1200 250.9 79.1 73.9 21.5 2.50
ID
N ZB150R 1500 250.4 78.9 73.3 21.6 2.51
ZBcon 4000 _ 250.8 79.4 74.1 21.8 2.52
o ZC018R 180 153.5 69.4 59.3 18.1 1.58
a ZC030R 300 153.5 69.0 58.7 17.8 1.56

2400
VO
ZC060R 600 152.5 67.6 59.9 17.9 1.48 579 205
ZC090R 900 153.0 67.1 60.7 18.2 1.49
M -
ZCcon 2400 _ 152.0 69.1 59.4 17.6 1.48
ZD030R 300 250.0 78.8 73.5 19.8 2.51
o'j
'T
-sT ZD050R 500 251.5 79.0 72.5 20.0 2.42
o 4000
1/-1 ZD100R
r^ l 1000 250.0 79.0 73.0 20.2 2.50 527 204
vy
rv ) ZD150R 1500 250.0 79.4 73.1 20.5 2.49
N
ZDcon 4000 _ 251.1 79.2 73.5 19.3 2.50
o ZE018R 180 154.0 70.2 60.2 18.2 1.59
C7 ZE030R 3600
300 154.0 70.1 60.9 18.0 1.51
VO
ZE060R 600 154.0 70.4 60.7 19.2 1.56 547 204
'n 69.1 57.2 18.2
ZE090R 900 152.0 1.50
N
ZEcon 3600 _ 152.5 69.1 59.1 18.2 1.52
ZF030R 300 252.0 82.4 72.4 20.2 2.45
ot n
vj- ZF050R 500 251.3 79.9 74.9 20.4 2.43
o 6000
>n
ZF100R 1000 251.3 80.0 74.0 20.5 2.52 509 204
'r ,
<N ZF150R 1500 250.3 80.2 74.2 19.1 2.52
N
ZFcon 6000 250.9 80.3 73.9 20.1 2.42
3-16
Table 3.2 Summary o f test results
Measured Maximum Residual

Lap Moment Effective
maximum moment moment
length Failure resistance flexural rigidity
Test load resistance resistance
2Lp mode p1max ratios ratios
hfmax Mres
(mm) (kN) (kNm) (kNm) Ymax Yres <*i r

ZA018R 180 27.98 16.78 10.15 0.88 0.53 0.369 0.103
om ZA024R 240 30.12 18.06 9.39 0.94 0.49 0.500 0.165
*3-
o ZA030R 300 MVe 33.92 20.36 9.77 1.06 0.51 0.729 0.316
om ZA060R 600 45.20 27.12 8.05 1.42 0.42 1.105 0.870
N ZA090R 900 51.00 30.60 15.14 1.60 0.79 1.400 1.212
ZAcon - MV 31.94 19.16 5.56 1.00 0.29 1.000 1.000
ZB030R 300 51.90 51.90 28.40 0.79 0.43 0.334 0.223
<3
o ZB060R 600 73.74 73.74 32.36 1.12 0.49 0.757 0.382
s ZB090R 900 MVe 86.96 86.96 29.06 1.32 0.44 1.130 0.807
C
oinN ZB120R 1200 99.02 99.02 33.68 1.49 0.51 1.286 1.097
N ZB150R 1500 95.10 95.10 32.36 1.44 0.49 1.516 1.415
ZBcon - MV 66.04 66.04 20.47 1.00 0.31 1.000 1.000
ZC018R 180 23.99 14.39 8.25 0.96 0.55 0.378 0.103
in ZC030R 300 28.63 17.18 5.82 1.14 0.39 0.664 0.344
O MVe
CD ZC060R 600 34.87 20.92 9.46 1.39 0.63 1.093 0.956
in ZC090R 900 39.99 23.99 7.78 1.59 0.52 1.446 1.410
N-
H ZCcon - MV 25.12 15.07 4.93 1.00 0.33 1.000 1.000
ZD030R 300 51.67 51.67 33.89 0.89 0.58 0.458 0.237
om
ZD050R 500 65.75 65.75 28.79 1.13 0.50 0.983 0.394
o MVe
inN ZD100R
C 1000 76.79 76.79 31.35 1.32 0.54 1.339 1.161
m
M ZD150R 1500 93.91 93.91 39.56 1.62 0.68 1.740 1.633
N
ZDcon - MV 58.06 58.06 15.45 1.00 0.27 1.000 1.000
ZE018R 180 16.48 14.83 7.83 0.86 0.45 0.408 0.111
in
sCO ZE060R
ZE030R 300
600
MVe
19.51
23.99
17.56
21.59
8.24
8.87
1.02
1.25
0.48
0.51
0.700
1.173
0.236
0.730
in 900 22.87 20.58 7.22 1.19 0.42 1.196 1.065
N ZE090R
H ZEcon - MV 19.19 17.27 4.52 1.00 0.26 1.000 1.000
bo
> ZF030R 300 34.55 51.83 27.11 0.90 0.47 0.455 0.121
cS om
d- ZF050R 500 46.23 69.35 33.59 1.20 0.58 0.576 0.359
o MVe
in
O! ZF100R 1000 53.75 80.63 24.36 1.39 0.42 1.215 0.699
in 1500 58.87 88.31 21.84 1.53 0.38 1.593 1.168
CS
NJ
ZF150R
ZFcon - MV 38.55 57.83 13.61 1.00 0.24 1.000 1.000
Notes: MVe: Section failure at the end o f lap under combined bending and shear
MV: Section failure at mid-span under combined bending and shear
3-17
e
D
Multi-span purlin systems with overlaps

Figure 3.1
3-18
E
l<>1
T est Series ZA: Z15016 G450 with Config W4
A -A
'///} ///
U se <f>12 M8.8 bolts \< >!< >|

7 /7 /7 //
L, = 2400 mm
Lapped section tested
Test Series ZB: Z25025 G450 with Config W4
in pairs
10 0 0 5
1
1
10 0 0
1 . 15
49
O O O '
/ //7 7 7 - 1
1
O O O '
U se 616 M8.8 bolts
< >
-AJ 7 / 7 / 777-
l<- H
L, = 4000 mm
Test Series ZC: Z15016 G450 with Config W6
3C 31
J!<_ 45
K 45
31 29
T7T777T
Use 612 M8.8 bolts <------

Lp ZZ 5p7
Lt = 2400 mm
Test Series ZD: Z25025 G450 with Config W6
10 0 0
<t> 51
1 6 75
10
0 0 0
0
75 71
6 49
O O O'1
/f/hrr 0 O'
O O O'1
Use 616 M8.8 bolts
\< H
7/7/777
\<------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
L, = 4000 mm
Figure 3.2 General arrangement o f lapped sections
3-19
T est Series ZE: Z15016 G 450 with C onfig W 6
II jSt 3
dS
l- ^ A
7 777777"
U se <b12 M 8.8 bolts l< >|<----->| A

Lp Lp / / X / T77
l-
L, = 3600 m m
T est Series ZF: Z25025 G 450 with C onfig W 6
6 51
1
1
1
1
1O
1
1
1
1O O 0
1
1
1
1
1
1
10 0 0
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0 75
,i_ 75 A
0
<1 49
O O O'
///}/// O O'1
O O O'
Use 616 M8.8 bolts
>|
Lp Lp T777T7T
H---------------------------------------- >1
Lt = 6000 mm
Figure 3.2 General arrangement of lapped sections (continued)
El El
& > & &

<8> 12 ____
k -------> k >\
77777777
7777/777
<-
L,
End support condition

Lateral restraint
a A-A
JT B-B
Figure 3.3 General setup o f one point load tests
3-20
a) Lapped connection with Config W4
b) Lapped connection with Config W6
Figure 3.4 Typical mode o f failure - Section failure at the end o f lap under
combined bending and shear
3-21
Test Series ZA: Z 15016 with Config W4 and Lt = 2400 mm

40
ZA018R
B ZA024R
ZA030R
ZA060R
ZA090R
ZAcon
0.02 0.03 0.05
End rotation, 0e (rad)
Test Series ZB Z25025 with Config W4 and Lt = 4000 mm

120
ZB030R
S 100 S ZB060R
ZB090R
ZB120R
ZB 150R
ZBcon
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Deflected
shape
Lt / 2
BMD
L ./2
Figure 3.5a Mid-span moment end rotation (Ms - 0e) curves
3-22
Test Series ZC Z 15016 with Config W6 and Lt = 2400 mm

40
ZC018R
ZC030R
ZC060R
ZC090R
ZCcon
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Test Series ZD Z25025 with Config W6 and Lt = 4000 mm

120
ZD030R
ZD050R
S 100
, ZD100R
ZD150R
5 80
ZDcon
eO)
60
40
cx
c/5
i
"O
20
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Deflected
shape
BMD
L t/2
Figure 3.5b Mid-span moment end rotation (Mg - 0e) curves
3-23
Test Series ZE Z 15016 with Config W6 and Lt = 3600 mm

40
- ZE018R
ZE030R
- ZE060R
ZE090R
- ZEcon
| 20
o
5
cc3
6t io
T3
S
o 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Test Series ZF Z25025 with Config W6 and Lt = 6000 mm

120
ZF030R
$ 100 ZF050R
S -0 -Z F 1 0 0 R
80 ZF150R
c - ZFcon
S 60
o
S
40
O h
CO
I
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Deflected
shape
J 0,
BMD
Lt/2
Figure 3.5c Mid-span moment end rotation (Mg - 0e) curves
3-24
2.0 2.0
i
oZA OZB
r
o ZC BZD
>-E 1.5 1* 1-5
A <v * ZE AZF
.2 cm o

au>
1.0 c 1.0
r E3
a)
<D o B
o
'S 11
oZA OZB B i
0.5 0.5 io 1 O (?
ZC ZD ------- A o1
i
<u
* ZE AZF Pi
0.0 0.0
0 Lap length to4sectiordepth 8 {Lap length to section dearth ratic?
ratio 2Lp / D 2Lp / D
Figure 3.6 Moment resistance ratios in lapped connections against different bolt
configurations and test spans
3-25
2.0 r 2.0
Z15016 G450 Z15016 G450
Initial effective flexural rigidty ratio, aj

L, = 2400mm a L, = 2400mm
.o'
la
1.5 i i
f %
1.0 aX 1.0
<L
C '
1 / o
0.5 sS 0.5

o 7A (Config W4) ZA (Config W4)
ZC (Config W6) ZC (Config W6)

0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8
Lap length to section depth Lap length to section depth ratio
2.0 ~T~....... I. 2.0

Z25025 G450 Z25025G 450
Initial effective flexural rigidty ratio, a;
L, = 4000mm a Lt = 4000mm
.2
03
1.5
o C3
1.0 1.0
tu
>
-4-*
o
0.5 0.5
o
O ZB (Config W4) O Z B (Config W4)
m ZD (Config W6) m Z D (config W6)

0.0 0.0
2 4 6 0 2 4 6 8
Lap length to section depth Lap length to section depth ratio
Figure 3.7 Effective flexural rigidity ratios in lapped connections with different
bolt configurations
3-26
2.0 r
- ..................... i ......................... 2.0 , i
Z15016 G450 Z15016 G450
C o n fig W 6 Config W 6
a
1 .5 1 .5
.5P 5b
=3 11 3X
X a> /
1.0 C 1.0
0>
> <u / /
_>
tj
i ' /
0 .5
!3
4 > 05 i / /
'S ZC (Lt = 2400 mm) E / * ZC = 2400 mm) 1
(Lt
* ZE (Lt = 3600 mm) * ZE (Lt = 3600 mm) |
0.0 1 1 1 0.0 --------- 1----------1---------
Lap length to section depth ratio Lap length to section depth ratio
2Lp / D 2Lp / D
2.0 2.0
Z25025 G450 Z25025G450
Config W6 Config W6
a
]5p
33
X
O 1 . 0 ------- 1.0
<
>l>
<U
0 .5 0 .5
%
a ZD (Lt = 4000 mm) ZD (I t = 4000 mm)
A ZF (Lt = 6000 mm) A ZF (Lt 6000 mm)

0.0 0.0
Lap length to section depth ratio Lap length to section depth ratio
2Lp / D 2Lp / D
test spans
3-27
1.25
1.00
O
0.75
O
a O
a
0.50
O ZA OZB
0.25
ZC MZD
a ZE A ZF
0.00 J
0 2 4 6 8
Lap length to section depth ratio 2Lp / D
Figure 3.9 Reduction in effective flexural rigidities against

3-28
C H A P T E R FOUR
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF LAPPED
CONNECTIONS BETWEEN COLD-FORMED STEEL Z SECTIONS
4.1 In tro d u ctio n
This chapter presents the proposed analysis and design method for lapped
connections between cold-formed steel Z sections after calibration against test data
fully presented in Chapter 3. The scope o f work reported in this Chapter includes:
The research based on the experimental observations that combined bending
and shear is always critical in the cross-sections at the ends o f lap o f the lapped
connections, an analysis method is proposed to evaluate the internal forces
within the lapped connections.
Once the co-existing moments and shear forces are evaluated, the critical
sections are readily checked against combined bending and shear using codified
design rules.
. M oreover, design expressions are also proposed for the evaluation o f the
effective flexural rigidities o f practical lapped connections.
The structural behaviour o f lapped connections betw een cold-formed steel Z
sections in terms o f strength and stiffness is quantified rationally for general
design.
The research work aims to provide understanding on the structural behaviour of
cold-formed steel Z sections with lapped connections, and hence, to develop a set of
design rules for multi-span cold-formed steel purlin systems with overlaps in modem
roof construction. It is expected that the proposed design method will shorten the
conventional product development process significantly without the need of
extensive testing as only limited full-scale tests on purlin systems may be required
for product validation.
4.2 Basic configurations of lapped connections
In order to establish effective bolted moment connections betw een lapped Z sections,
two practical configurations for generic lapped connections are proposed after
Config. W4
4-2
Config. W6:
shown in Figure 4.1.
in the connected sections. By increasing the lap lengths, the m om ent resistances of
lapped connections will be increased with enhanced load transfer across the lapped
sections. Moreover, connections with Config. W6 is expected to be stiffer than those
with Config. W4 due to the presence o f additional bolts.
4.3 Results o f experimental investigation
Among all the lapped connection tests reported in the previous chapter, section
failure in the cross-sections at the ends o f lap of the lapped connections under
combined bending and shear was always found to be critical. Moreover, shear
buckling o f the section web at the ends o f lap of the lapped connections was found to
be fairly localized due to the restraining effects from both the lapped sections and the
purlin-rafter connections, and the length o f a typical shear buckling mode shape was
found to range from 0.8 D to 1.25 D, where D is the section depth. Furthermore, the
moment resistances o f lapped connections with lap lengths equal to 1.2 times section
depth were found to develop only 80% o f the moment capacities o f connected
sections. For lapped connections with lap lengths equal to 6 tim es section depth,
4-3
their m oment resistances were found to be significantly increased to about 140% of
the m om ent capacities o f connected sections. Similar results in the flexural rigidities
o f the lapped connections were also found. Refer to Table 4.2 for the maximum
applied loads o f the lapped connections measured from tests, and also the effective
flexural rigidities obtained from back analysis on the m easured slopes o f the load-
deflection curves o f the lapped connections. It should be noted that all the quantities
are related to single sections for easy comparison.
M oreover, it is demonstrated that full strength laps and full stiffness laps may be
achieved in lapped connections provided that the lap length to section depth ratios
are equal to or larger than 2.0 and 4.0 respectively. Lapped connections with Config.
W6 are often stiffer than those with Config. W4 by 3 to 15% although the
differences diminish with increasing lap lengths. Consequently, it is shown that the
level o f continuity in lapped connections against bending depends on not only the
load levels and the lap length to section depth ratios, but also the lap length to test
span ratios. Hence, the widely adopted assumption o f doubled strength and
stiffness in lapped connections is not correct at all.
4.4 Distribution o f internal forces within lapped connections
In order to assess the strength o f lapped connections, it is essential to determine the
internal forces within the lapped connections under external loads. Referring to the
lapped connections with Config. W4 and Config. W6 as shown in Figure 4.2, the
following assumptions are adopted:
a) The centre o f rotation of the lapped connection, O, is coincided with the bolt
group center.
b) The magnitudes o f bolt forces Fb and Fbm are proportional to the distances
between the bolt holes and the centre o f rotation o f the lapped connection, O.
c) The directions o f bolt forces Fb and Fbm are derived from the moment
equilibrium consideration o f the lapped connections.
A fter attaining force and moment equilibriums, all the internal forces within the
lapped connections are illustrated in Figure 4.2. Both the shear force and the
bending m oment diagrams are then readily established and they are also presented in
Figure 4.2 together with all the expressions for internal forces. According to the
m axim um applied loads measured from tests, the corresponding shear forces Vi and
V2 , and moments Mi and M 2 at the left hand side (LHS) and the right hand side
(RHS) o f the end o f laps o f the lapped connections respectively o f all the test
specimens are summarized in Table 4.2. It should be noted that
. For lapped connections with short lap lengths, the magnitude o f shear force V 2
is significantly larger than that o f shear force Vi. As the lap length increases,
the magnitude o f shear force V2 is reduced considerably, becoming comparable
to that o f shear force Vi. However, for those connections where the lap length
to section depth ratios are larger than 4.0, shear force V2 is always smaller than
shear force Vi. Hence, it is important to check the shear forces at both the LI IS
and the RHS o f the critical cross-sections at the end o f laps for all lap lengths.
. However, moment Mi is always found to be larger than that o f M 2 for all lap
lengths, although the differences are relatively small. Hence, it is important to
check the moments at the LHS o f the critical cross-sections at the ends o f lap for
all lap lengths.
Despite o f large shear force V3 acting at the mid-span o f the test specimens, the
corresponding moment M 3 is always small. Hence, the cross-sections at mid
span are never critical. This agrees with the observations from all the test series
that all lapped connections were failed at the ends o f lap under combined
bending and shear.
Consequently, for lapped connections with short lap lengths, it is necessary to check
both the LHS and the RHS o f the critical cross-sections at the ends o f lap against
combined bending and shear. For lapped connections with long lap lengths, only the
critical cross-sections at the LHS o f the ends o f lap should be checked instead.
4.5 Design against combined bending and shear
For structural adequacy o f the lapped connections, both the applied shear forces and
the applied moments at the critical cross-sections should be checked against their
respective section capacities as follows:
V V,
v , = ! < 1.0 ; v2 = < 1.0
Vc vc
mi = <1.0 ; m2 = < 1.0

Mc Mc
where
4-6
Vi , V2 are the shear force ratios for the LHS and the RHS o f the critical
cross-section respectively ;
mi , m2 are the moment ratios for the LHS and the RHS o f the critical
cross-section respectively ; and;
Vc , Mc are the design shear and moment capacities o f the critical cross-
section respectively, with allowances for the presence of bolt
holes.
The critical cross-section o f lapped connection is defined as the cross-section of the
purlin member containing the bolt holes at the end o f lap, as shown in Figure 4.2.
M oreover, it is also necessary for both the LHS and the RHS o f the critical cross-
sections to be checked against combined bending and shear as follows:
For section capacities evaluated to BS 5950: Part 5:
1.25 vi2 + 1.25 m!2 < 1.0
1.25 v22 + 1.25 m22 < 1.0
For section capacities evaluated to EC 3: Part 1.3
vi2 + m i2 < 1.0
V22 + m22 < 1.0
It should be noted that while the design rules for both shear and moment capacities
differ significantly between BS5950: Part 5 and Eurocode 3: Part 1.3, the same
4-7
quadratic format o f the interaction curve for combined bending and shear is adopted
in both codes.
M oreover, based on test observations, shear buckling o f the section web at the ends
o f lap o f the lapped connections was found to be fairly localized, and the length of a
typical shear buckling mode shape was found to range from 0.8 D to 1.25 D, where
D is the section depth. Thus, it is proposed to improve the shear capacities of the
critical cross-sections, Vc , as follows:
qcr Av
where
is the net shear area of the section with allowances for the presence of
bolt holes ;
is the shear buckling strength o f the section
\2
n2 E t
12(1 u )
where
E is the modulus o f elasticity o f steel, and equal to 205 kN/mm ;
u is the Poissons ratio, and equal to 0.3 ;
kT is the shear buckling coefficient
= 5.34 for general design
4
5.34 h V - or 6.90 for connected section with
cy effective restraint
a Sb is the aspect ratio o f the shear panel, and equal to L Sb / D
4-8
L sb is the length o f the shear panel which is conservatively taken to be 1.6
D for lapped connections based on test observations ;
D is the overall section depth ; and
t is the web thickness.
Table 4.3 summarizes the various checks based on section capacities evaluated to
BS5950: Part 5 and Eurocode 3: Part 1.3 together with the critical pairs o f internal
force ratios, v and m. Moreover, the critical pairs of v and m are plotted in Figure
4.3 together with the quadratic interaction curve for direct comparison. It is shown
that almost all the v-m ratios lie closely outside the interaction curve, and hence, the
interaction curve is considered to be adequately accurate for checking the critical
sections at the ends o f lap of the lapped connections against com bined bending and
shear.
In order to quantify the structural efficiency o f the interaction curve, a model factor,
y , is introduced which is defined as follows:
PD e s ig n
where
PTest is the maximum applied load o f the lapped connection determined
from test; and
PDesign is the design load carrying capacity o f the lapped connection.
A model factor y larger than unity implies that the design rules against combined
bending and shear are safe. All the model factors for critical cross-section against
com bined bending and shear based on section capacities to BS5950: Part 5 and
Eurocode 3: Part 1.3 are also summarized in Table 4.3 while Figure 4.4 plots the
distribution o f the model factors o f all the test series. It is shown that:
For a total o f 26 lapped connections which are back analyzed to BS5950: Part 5,
the model factors are found to range from 1.00 to 1.32; the average model factor
is 1.13 with a standard deviation o f 0.08. The m odel factors for a total of 6
continuous sections (control tests) are found to range from 1.00 to 1.23, and the
average model factor is 1.08 with a standard deviation o f 0.08.
Similarly, for the same set o f test data back analyzed to Eurocode 3: Part 1.3, the
model factors are found to range from 1.00 to 1.59; the average model factor is
1.21 with a standard deviation o f 0.14. The model factors for the continuous
sections are found to range from 1.01 to 1.42 while the average model factor is
1.14 with a standard deviation o f 0.15. It should be noted that among a total of
32 data, there are only two data less than unity.
Hence, the proposed design rules are considered to be applicable and conservative.
Moreover, a close examination on the model factor reveals that for lapped
connections with practical lap lengths, i.e. with lap lengths to section depth ratios
between 4 and 6, the values o f y are found to range narrowly between 1.0 and 1.2
based on section capacities to BS5950: Part 5, and betw een 1.0 and 1.4 based on
section capacities to Eurocode 3: Part 1.3. Thus, the proposed design rules are also
4-10
considered to be structurally efficient for lapped connections with practical lap
lengths.
4.6 Effective flexural rigidities of lapped connections
The effective flexural rigidity ratios o f lapped connections dj and a f given in Table
4.2 are plotted in Figure 4.5 for easy comparison. It should be noted that due to the
scatterness o f data, it is only possible to provide simple design expressions for both
the maximum and the minimum values o f a; and af which are required in
determ ining the maximum and the minimum moments at both internal supports and
near mid-span regions for the design of multi-span purlin systems. After simple data
analyses as shown in Figure 4.5, the design expressions for the maximum and the
minimum values o f a; and df are given as follows:
Config. W4 with Lt equal to 16 D
df max 0.23 Pd + 0.32 i, min ~ 0.23 Pd + 0.02
df max ~ 0.23 pD + 0.07 Of. min = 0.23 pD- 0.18
Config. W6 with Lt ranging from 16 D to 32 D
Oi,max ~ 0.23 Pd + 0.52 0.23 pD - 0.18
dfmax 0.23 Pd + 0.27 Ctf.min 0.23 Pd 0.33
where
Lt is the test span o f the lapped connection;
D is the section depth; and
Pd is the lap length to section depth ratio defined as

D
4-11
It should be noted that
For lapped connections with Config. W4, the variations in the values of the
maximum and the minimum values o f a* and af are considered to be small, and
all these data are only applicable to lapped connections with the test span to
section ratio equal to 16.
For lapped connections with Config. W6, both the maximum and the minimum
values o f a; and af are found to vary significantly. However, all these data are
applicable to lapped connections with the test span to section depth ratios
ranging from 16 to 32.
Consequently, it is demonstrated that the effective flexural rigidities of lapped
connections depend not only on the load levels and the lap length to section depth
ratios, but also the test span to section depth ratios. All these effects should be
properly allowed for in the analysis and design of multi-span purlin systems for
accurate prediction o f their structural performance.
4.7 Conclusions
A rational design method for lapped connections between cold-form ed steel Z
sections is proposed after careful calibration against test data obtained from one
point-load tests on lapped connections. It is proposed to assess both the moment and
the shear capacities o f the critical cross-sections at the ends o f lap with allowances
for the presence o f bolt holes. Moreover, based on test observations, shear buckling
is shown to be less critical in lapped connections due to the restraining effects from
4-12
both the lapped sections and the purlin-rafter connections. Thus, the moment
capacities o f the critical cross-sections are reduced while their shear capacities are
increased, when compared with the basic section capacities. This leads to a more
economical design for critical cross-sections at the ends o f lap in lapped connections
against combined bending and shear. Furthermore, design expressions for the
effective flexural rigidities of lapped sections are also proposed, so that both the
maximum and the minimum effective flexural rigidities may be obtained directly.
Consequently, the structural behaviour of cold-formed steel lapped Z sections in
term o f strength and stiffness is readily quantified for general design. The design
m ethod together with the proposed design rules will be adopted in the design
developm ent o f multi-span purlin systems with overlaps in m odem roof systems to
be reported in Chapter 9.
4-13
Table 4.1 Summary of test programme and data | e
x i k
IO!
F
Section dimensions M easured
Lap Measured
Test Young's
length yield
T est span Lt D E F c t M odulus
2Lp strength py
E
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (N/mm2) (kN/mm2)

Z A 018R 180 151.0 67.4 63.5 16.5 1.71
'r,
Z A 024R 240 150.8 67.5 63.4 16.5 1.71
o Z A 030R 2400 300 151.0 67.7 63.4 16.6 1.69
541 199
o Z A 060R 600 150.9 67.6 63.5 16.4 1.70
in
Z A 090R 900 150.7 67.5 63.1 16.6 1.69
N
Z A con 2400 - 150.7 67.4 63.5 16.5 1.69
Z B 030R 300 250.8 79.4 73.3 21.5 2.52
in Z B 060R 600 250.4 79.2 73.5 21.6 2.51
O 4000
in Z B 090R 900 250.7 78.9 73.5 21.6 2.50 537 206
<S
o Z B 120R 1200 250.9 79.1 73.9 21.5 2.50
<N ZB 150R 1500 250.4 78.9 73.3 21.6 2.51
IS
Z B con 4000 - 250.8 79.4 74.1 21.8 2.52
Z C 018R 180 153.5 69.4 59.3 18.1 1.58
m
ZC030R 300 153.5 69.0 58.7 17.8 1.56
n 2400
VO ZC060R 600 152.5 67.6 59.9 17.9 1.48 579 205
o
in
ts Z C 090R 900 153.0 67.1 60.7 18.2 1.49
ZCcon 2400 152.0 69.1 59.4 17.6 1.48
ZD030R 300 250.0 78.8 73.5 19.8 2.51
in
^r ZD050R 500 251.5 79.0 72.5 20.0 2.42
O 4000
in 527 204
CN ZD100R 1000 250.0 79.0 73.0 20.2 2.50
oin
(N ZD150R 1500 250.0 79.4 73.1 20.5 2.49
N
ZDcon 4000 - 251.1 79.2 73.5 19.3 2.50
ZE018R 180 154.0 70.2 60.2 18.2 1.59
in
rr ZE030R 300 154.0 70.1 60.9 18.0 1.51
o 3600
ZE060R 600 154.0 70.4 60.7 19.2 1.56 547 204
o
in
N ZE090R 900 152.0 69.1 57.2 18.2 1.50
ZEcon 3600 152.5 69.1 59.1 18.2 1.52
ZF030R 300 252.0 82.4 72.4 20.2 2.45
in
'IT ZF050R 500 251.3 79.9 74.9 20.4 2.43
to 6000
in 509 204
<NZF100R 1000 251.3 80.0 74.0 20.5 2.52
o
in
(N ZF150R 1500 250.3 80.2 74.2 19.1 2.52
ts
ZFcon 6000 - 250.9 80.3 73.9 20.1 2.42
4-14
Table 4.2 Summary of internal forces within lapped connections
Test Iteit v, v2 M, m 2 i (Xf
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kNm) (kNm)

o'f ZA018R 13.99 6.99 -36.28 7.76 7.46 0.369 0.103
ZA024R 15.06 7.53 -28.54 8.13 7.94 0.500 0.165
o 8.77
VO ZA030R 16.96 8.48 -24.52 8.90 0.729 0.316
o ZA060R 22.60 11.30 -11.14 10.17 10.12 1.105 0.870
ZA090R 25.50 12.75 -4.20 9.56 9.54 1.400 1.212
N
ZAcon 15.97 7.99 7.99 9.58 9.58 1.000 1.000
o ZB030R 25.95 12.97 -56.21 24.00 21.40 0.334 0.223
If m
to ^r ZB060R 36.87 18.44 -39.40 31.34 30.80 0.757 0.382
O 21.74 33.40
ZB090R 43.48 -25.26 33.69 1.130 0.807
CN 24.76 -15.87 34.66 34.47 1.286
O ZB120R 49.51 1.097
ZB150R 47.55 23.77 -7.61 29.72 29.60 1.516 1.415
N
ZBcon 33.02 16.51 16.51 33.02 33.02 1.000 1.000
oin ZC018R 12.00 6.00 -28.27 6.66 6.14 0.378 0.103
O ZC030R 14.32 7.16 -19.85 7.52 7.27 0.664 0.344
in ZC060R 17.44 8.72 -8.46 7.85 7.77 1.093 0.956
in ZC090R 20.00 10.00 -3.24 7.50 7.46 1.446 1.410
N ZCcon 12.56 6.28 6.28 7.54 7.54 1.000 1.000
S' o ZD030R 25.84 12.92 -60.90 23.90 22.05 0.458 0.237
to
O ZD050R 32.88 16.44 -45.59 28.77 27.84 0.983 0.394
CN ZD100R 38.40 19.20 -18.63 28.80 28.51 1.339 1.161
in ZD150R 46.96 23.48 -7.62 29.35 29.19 1.740 1.633
N
ZDcon 29.03 16.88 16.88 33.76 33.76 1.000 1.000
oin ZE018R 8.24 4.12 -31.19 7.05 6.52 0.408 0.111
a ZE030R 9.76 4.88 -22.73 8.05 7.80 0.700 0.236
in
ZE060R 12.00 6.00 -11.73 9.00 8.92 1.173 0.730
in ZE090R 11.44 5.72 -5.64 7.72 7.68 1.196 1.065
N ZEcon 9.60 4.80 4.80 8.64 8.64 1.000 1.000
o ZF030R 17.28 8.64 -65.40 24.62 22.77 0.455 0.121
in
<o a ZF050R 23.12 11.56 -53.86 31.78 30.80 0.576 0.359
<N ZF100R 26.88 13.44 -26.28 33.59 33.30 1.215 0.699
in ZF150R 29.44 14.72 -14.52 33.11 32.97 1.593 1.168
Si ZFcon 19.28 9.64 9.64 28.91 28.91 1.000 1.000
Note: All quantities are related to single section.
4-15
Table 4.3a Back analysis to BS 5950: Part 5
Mc vc m V
pD e s ig n
P T est 7
Test
(kN m ) (kN ) (kN ) (k N )

Z A 018R 10.59 40.2 4 0.70 0.90 13.99 10.93 1.28
u -i
^r Z A 024R 10.57 40.2 9 0.75 0.71 15.06 13.04 1.15
o
Z A 030R 10.60 4 0 .2 4 0.83 0.61 16.96 14.77 1.15
o Z A 060R 10.58 4 0.26 0.96 0.28 22.60 2 0 .1 9 1.12
10.56 40.3 2 0.91 0.32 25.50 2 3 .7 8 1.07
N Z A 090R
Z A con 10.57 3 1 .1 9 0.91 0.26 15.97 15.16 1.05
Z B 03 0 R 34 .0 7 79.15 0.63 0.71 25.95 2 4 .4 7 1.06
6 Z B060R 3 3 .8 4 78.81 0.89 0.50 36.87 3 2 .1 9 1.15
o Z B 09 0 R 33.65 77.9 9 0.98 0.3 2 43.48 3 7 .4 2 1.16
CN Z B 1 2 0 R 33 .7 2 77.4 9 1.03 0.32 49.51 4 1 .1 4 1.20
o
cs Z B 1 5 0 R 33.75 78.81 0.88 0.30 47.55 4 5 .6 9 1.04
N
Z B con 34 .1 8 61.23 0.97 0.27 36.01 2 9 .4 4 1.22
o Z C 018R 10.20 31.75 0.60 0.8 9 12.00 9 .9 8 1.20
"a-
O Z C 030R 9.95 30.55 0.73 0.65 14.32 13.09 1.09
u -l 9.1 2 26.2 4 0.86 0.33 17.44 16.91 1.03
Z C 060R
o
S
va Z C 090R 9.2 8 26.6 9 0.81 0.37 20.00 2 0 .0 9 1.00
s
bo.
N ZC con 9 .0 9 20.3 0 0.83 0.31 12.56 12.69 0 .9 9
o ZD 030R 31 .8 9 77.98 0.69 0.78 25.84 2 2 .1 5 1.17
U 30 .3 6 68 .5 7 0.92 0.6 6 32.88 2 5 .9 6 1.27
O ZD 050R
(N Z D 1 0 0 R 31 .8 9 77.98 0.90 0.25 38.40 3 6 .6 9 1.05
O
</-> Z D 150R 3 1 .9 9 77 .9 8 0.92 0.30 46.96 4 3 .4 9 1.08
N Z D con 3 1 .9 9 6 0 .0 7 0.91 0.2 4 29.03 2 7 .6 5 1.05
o Z E 018R 9.95 32.2 6 0.65 0.9 7 8.24 6.31 1.31
3-
O
Z E 030R 9.21 27.61 0.85 0.8 2 9.76 7 .3 9 1.32
*/->
Z E 060R 9.76 30.4 6 0.91 0.3 9 12.00 10.82 1.11
o
1/-1 Z E 090R 8.86 27.41 0.8 7 0.21 11.44 11.42 1.00
s N
bo. ZEcon 9.1 4 22.0 0 0.94 0.22 9.60 8.85 1.08
o Z F 030R 3 0 .5 4 72.81 0.75 0.9 0 17.28 13 .2 4 1.31
O *a- 30.51 71.23 1.01 0.7 6 23.12 16 .3 9 1.41
tb Z F 050R
(N Z F 100R 31 .7 8 7 9 .4 6 1.06 0.1 7 26.88 21.88 1.23
oi n
Z F 150R 31.41 79.7 8 1.05 0.18 29.44 2 4 .6 0 1.20
N Z Fcon 30 .0 8 54.51 0.96 0.18 19.28 17.64 1.09
Note: Only the critical pairs of v and m are given for clarity.
4-16
Table 4.3b Back analysis to Eurocode 3: Part 1.3
p
Mc Vc m V E re st 1 D e s ig n Y
T est
(kN m ) (kN ) (kN ) (kN )

Z A 018R 9.05 36.91 0.82 0.98 13.99 10.58 1.32
Z A 024R 9.03 36.95 0.88 0.77 15.06 12.59 1.20
o
Z A 030R 9.07 36.91 0.97 0.66 16.96 14.22 1.19
C5 Z A 060R 9.03 36.93 1.13 0.31 22.60 19.30 1.17
Z A 090R 9.05 36.97 1.06 0.3 4 25.50 22 .8 2 1.12
k N
too . Z A con 9.03 28 .6 0 1.06 0.28 15.97 14.72 1.09
Z B 030R 30.85 77 .4 4 0.69 0.73 25.95 2 4 .4 6 1.06
<3 in Z B060R 30.63 77 .0 7 0.99 0.51 36.87 3 2 .4 0 1.14
O Z B090R 30 .4 7 76.28 1.09 0.33 43.48 37.81 1.15
c-t Z B120R 3 0 .4 7 75 .7 8 1.14 0.33 49.51 4 1 .4 9 1.19
o
ts Z B150R 30 .6 2 77 .0 8 0.97 0.31 47.55 4 6 .2 2 1.03
N
Z B con 31 .0 0 59 .8 9 1.07 0.28 36.01 3 0 .2 6 1.19
o Z C 018R 8.51 29.08 0.72 0.9 7 12.00 9 .5 7 1.25
O Z C 030R 8.29 27.9 6 0.88 0.71 14.32 12.41 1.15
m Z C 060R 7 .5 2 2 3 .8 9 1.04 0.36 17.44 15.68 1.11
o
in Z C 090R 7 .6 9 24.33 0.98 0.41 20.00 18.73 1.07
!
M Z C con 7.43 18.47 1.01 0.34 12.56 11.95 1.05
o Z D 030R 29 .3 0 76.23 0.75 0.80 25 .8 4 2 2 .2 7 1.16
"d-
o
O Z D 050R 27.61 66.95 1.01 0.68 32.88 26 .1 3 1.26
a- 29 .4 7 76.23 0.98 38.40 3 7 .7 9 1.02
CN Z D 100R 0.25
o
in Z D 150R 2 9 .6 0 76.23 0.9 9 0.31 46 .9 6 4 4 .7 9 1.05
N Z D con 29 .2 7 58.75 0.99 0.25 29.03 28 .6 3 1.01
o Z E 018R 6.82 29.5 8 0.95 1.05 8.24 5.62 1.47
C7 Z E 030R 6.15 2 5 .2 2 1.27 0.90 9.76 6.15 1.59
in 6.6 9 27 .8 9 1.33 0.4 2 12.00 8.5 4 1.40
Z E 060R
o
n Z E 090R 5.95 24 .9 6 1.30 0.23 11.44 8.6 6 1.32
S: N
toe . Z Econ 6.15 20 .0 6 1.40 0.2 4 9.60 6.7 7 1.42
o Z F 030R 2 8 .1 7 7 1 .1 9 0.81 0.92 17.28 13.30 1.30
6 -3-
2 7 .8 2 6 9 .5 9 1.11 0.77 23 .1 2 16.52 1.40
n Z F 050R
' f Z F 100R 2 9 .5 8 77 .7 7 1.14 0.17 26.88 2 2 .6 6 1.19
(N
O
in Z F 150R 28 .9 0 78.03 1.15 0.1 9 29 .4 4 2 5 .2 8 1.16
N
Z Fcon 2 7 .4 4 53.2 2 1.05 0.18 19.28 18.10 1.06
Note: Only the critical pairs of v and m are given for clarity.
4-17
->K------ ----- >1^-
/////;//
Lateral restraint
I
Si JHLA-A
i 1
B-B
1Ch
Bolt configuration Test series Test span Lt (mm)

1 O ZA 2400
1 i
Config W4 * i 4
t
o O o
ZB 4000
ss)/sr/r)/s/
ZC 2400
1
I"
0 O 0|
0
ZD 4000
_____
Config W6 4
f
ZE 3600
O
> ::
ZF 6000
Figure 4.1 General test setup o f one point load tests
4-18
a) Config W4
Critical
cross-section Center o f rotation, O
P/2
PL, PL,
= 4 x Fh x r F = -
L ,/2 16r
P/2
V, =-
L,cos 0 ,
V, = 2 x Fh x cos i
V , = _ V,
2 2 3
M, = L - ( L 1 - 2 L )
M4 = Lb xFb xsin 0
M 2 = - ( L , - 2 L p) - M 4
Shear Force Diagram
PL,
M,
'fvD M
M
: \ i
Bending M om ent Diagram
Figure 4.2 Force distributions within lapped connections
4-19
b) Config W6
Critical
cross-section Center o f rotation. O
P/2
A| **bm
bm ' *< * IT .
h'bm = x Fb = Fbcos 0
Lt / 2 r
Ph
Phi = 4 x F h x r + 2 x F h xL x co s 0
K = 4 (4 + 2PL,
c o s20)r
V,
2
3 PL,
V, = 3 x F b x c o s 0:
4 (4 + 2 c o s 2 0) 1
V, P
Vi = -V,
V,
Shear Force Diagram M , = - ( L , - 2 L p)
M t = L b x Ft x sin 0
M 2 = ( L , - 2 L p) - M b
Mi PL,
M, =
B ending M oment Diagram
Figure 4.2 Force distributions within lapped connections (Continued)
4-20
a) Section capacities to BS5950: Part 5
A
0.8
>
o
f
C
D
0.6
1.25m2 +1.25v2 =1
Cl)
0 .4
ota
0.2
* ZE AZF
0.0
0.0 0.2 0 .4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Moment ratio, m
b) Section capacities to Eurocode 3: Part 1.3
0.8 --
>
o 2 . 2 i
v +m =1
S 0.6
0.4 ZA OZB
Op
0.2
* ZE AZF
0.0 -1
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Moment ratio, m
Figure 4.3 Combined bending and shear at critical cross-sections
4-21
a) BS 5950: Part 5 b) Eurocode 3: Part 1.3
1.5 1.5
A
O O'
1.0 - 1.0
Model factor,
0.5 0.5
Z A OZB -Z C O ZA O Z B ZC
ZD * ZE A Z F ZD * ZE A Z F
0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Lap length to section depth ratio 2 Lp / D Lap length to section depth ratio 2 Lp / D
Figure 4.4 Model factors against combined bending and shear
4-22
2.0 2.0
Config W4 Config W4
Initial effective flexural rigidty ratio, a,

a , = 0.23 P 0.32 a f = 0.23 p 0.07
1.5
1.0
a , = 0.23 p D + 0.02 a f = 0.23 P D - 0.18

0.5 0.5
Z A (L t= 16D) ZA (Lt = 16D)
O ZB (Lt = 16D) O ZB (Lt 16D)

0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Lap length to section depth ratio, 2Lp / D Lap length to section depth ratio, 2Lp / D
2.0 2.0
Config W6 Config W6
Initial effective flexural rigidly ratio, a,
B
.o'
a , = 0.23 P D + 0.52 03 a f = 0.23 p D + 0.27
1.5 * 1.5
]5b
c
"3
1.0
a , =0.23 p D -0.18 a r = 0.23 p D - 0.33
<1>
ZC (Lt = 16D) ZC (Lt = 16 D)
0.5 1 0.5 Z D ( L t= 16D)
Z D ( L t= 16D) (L>
* ZE (Lt = 32D) * ZE (Lt = 3 2D)
a
A ZF (Lt = 32D) E A ZF (Lt = 32D)
0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
bolt configurations
4-23
C H A P T E R FIVE
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF LAPPED CONNECTIONS
BETWEEN COLD-FORMED STEEL Z SECTIONS WITH
MODIFIED BOLT CONFIGURATIONS PART II
5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the details o f an experimental and theoretical investigation on
the structural performance o f lapped connections between cold-formed steel Z
sections with modified connection configurations. Moreover, another experimental
and theoretical investigation on the structural performance o f lapped connections
between unrestrained cold-formed steel Z sections with different connection
configurations was also reported.
5.2 Lapped connections with modified configuration
a different practical configuration for generic lapped connections, which is
commonly adopted in Australian practice, is proposed:
Config. W2F2
a) Cold-formed steel Z sections are bolted together which in turn are attached
onto rafters through hot-rolled web cleats.
b) A total o f six bolts are adopted where four outer bolts are assigned to resist
bending moment while the two inner bolts are assigned to resist lateral load.,
5-1
as shown in Figure 5.1. The section webs are bolted together with four bolts
while the compression flanges are bolted together w ith two bolts.
In order to improve the structural performance o f lapped connections, an enhanced
configuration is also proposed as follows:
Config. W4F2:
a) Similar to Config. W2F2, cold-formed steel Z sections are bolted together
which in turn are attached onto rafters through hot-rolled web cleats.
moment while two internal bolts are assigned to resist lateral load, as shown
in Figure 5.1. The section webs are bolted together with six bolts while the
compression flanges are bolted together with two bolts.
A total o f 12 one point load tests on lapped cold-formed steel Z sections were carried
out. The objectives o f this test series are:
To investigate both the strength and the deformation characteristics o f bolted
moment connections with modified configuration betw een lapped Z sections.
To quantify both the moment resistances and the flexural rigidities o f lapped
connections with modified configuration with various lap lengths for proper
understanding and rational design o f multi-span purlin systems with overlaps.
It is important to establish the structural performance o f the modified lapped
connections with different lap lengths and bolt configurations. Moreover, the
variations in the moment resistances and the effective flexural rigidities o f lapped Z
sections against lap lengths in both modified bolt configurations should also be
quantified.
5.3 Test program
A total o f 12 one point load tests on modified lapped connections were carried out
with two different section depths and three lap lengths as shown in Figure 5.1.
Generic lipped Z sections with two different section depths were employed, namely,
Z15020 with 150 mm deep and 2.0 mm thick, and Z25020 with 250 mm deep and
2.0 mm thick. The design yield strength o f both sections is 450 N/m m 2, which is
designated as G450. Table 5.2 summarizes the section dimensions o f the Z sections
while the test program is summarized in Table 5.2. For each section size, a control
test with continuous sections was carried out for reference.
Test Series ZG and ZI with Z15020 G450
are 150 and 2.0 mm respectively. In general, the points o f inflection in
continuous beams are commonly located at 0.20 to 0.25 o f the span length
between supports, depending on the number of spans and also the effectiveness
o f the connections over interior supports. Based on a typical span over depth
ratio ranging from 32 to 48, the overall span in practical m ulti-span purlin
systems, Ls, range from 4.8 m to 7.2 m. Consequently, the test span o f lapped
connections, Lt, in test series ZG and ZI are taken as 2.4 m and 3.6 m
5-3
respectively, i.e. 2 times 0.25 Ls. A total o f 3 lapped connections are specified
for test series ZG and ZI while the lap lengths range from 300 to 900 mm, i.e. 2
D to 6 D; all bolts are 12 mm diameter M8.8 bolts.
Test Series ZH and ZJ with Z25020 G450
In these series, the section depth, D, and the section thickness, t, of the Z sections
are 250 and 2.0 mm respectively. In general, the points o f inflection in
continuous beams are commonly located at 0.20 to 0.25 o f the span length
between supports, depending on the number of spans and also the effectiveness
o f the connections over interior supports. Based on a typical span over depth
ratio ranging from 32 to 48, the overall span in practical multi-span purlin
systems, L s, range from 8.0 m to 12.0 m. Consequently, the test span o f lapped
connections, Lt, in test series ZH and ZJ are taken as 4.0 m and 6.0 m
respectively, i.e. 2 times 0.25 Ls. A total o f 3 lapped connections are specified
for test series ZH and ZJ while the lap lengths range from 500 to 1500 mm, i.e. 2
D to 6 D; all bolts are 16 mm diameter M8.8 bolts.
It should be noted that a clearance o f 2 mm is provided in each bolt hole for easy
installation; all bolts are installed with a 50 Nm torque. Typical set-up o f the one
point load tests is shown in Figure 5.1. The test specimens are simply supported for
both major and m inor axis bending, and there is no warping restraints provided at the
end supports. All test specimens were tested in pairs with lateral restraints provided
at regular intervals to avoid lateral buckling. Both the applied loads and the vertical
deflections o f the test specimens were recorded during loading, and the tests were
terminated only after an end rotation o f 0.05 radians was attained in order to collect
5-4
data o f the lapped connections at large deformation. In order to compare directly the
m om ent resistances o f lapped sections to those of continuous sections, a total of 4
control tests, i.e. one point load tests on continuous Z sections were carried out.
Furthermore, standard coupon tests on steel strips cut from these sections were also
performed to provide basic material data for subsequent data analysis. All these test
data are also presented in Table 5.2.
5.4 Test results
Am ong all tests, section failure of the connected sections at the end o f laps was
always found to be critical under combined bending and shear. This failure mode
was sudden, often initiated with local buckling in the compression flanges of the
connected sections, and then rapidly propagated to the section web, as shown in
Figure 5.2. After the test, all the lapped connections were examined in details.
While no distortion in the bolt holes was evident in those lapped connections with
long lap lengths, apparent bearing deformation was found in the connected webs
around bolt holes on the web in the lapped connections with short lap lengths as
shown in Figure 5.6. The moment rotation curves o f all the test specimens are
plotted in Figure 5.3. Close examination o f these curves reveals that:
a) In general, the initial slopes o f these (M s - 0e) curves are directly proportional to
the lap lengths o f the connections, i.e. long lap lengths give stiff and strong
connections while short lap length give flexible and w eak connections.
b) For lapped connections with short lap lengths, the slopes o f these (M s - 0e)
curves are significantly decreased before the maximum applied loads are attained.
5-5
This may be readily explained by the large bolt forces associated with theses
c) For lapped connections with long lap lengths, both the moment resistances and
sections, demonstrating effective moment connections with high structural
efficiency.
d) In general, it is shown that the end rotations increased continuously even after
the maximum applied load was reached. Unloading after attaining the maximum
applied moment is considered to be severe due to large cross section distortion.
Moreover, significant changes in slope in moment-rotations are found in those
tests with small lap lengths when compared with the section depths. Hence, the
lapped connections cannot sustain their moment resistances at large deformation.
5.4.1 Moment resistance ratios ymax and yres
In order to quantify the strength enhancement o f those lapped connections against
bending, the moment resistance ratio ymax and yres are established and they are as
follow:
M,max
r,max M,con
Y res
where
5-6
M max is the maximum moment resistance o f the lapped connection obtained
from one point load test,
Mres is the residual moment resistance o f the lapped connection at large
deformation obtained from one point load test, and
Mcon is the measured moment capacity o f continuous section obtained from
the control test (one point load test.)
It should be noted that all the moment resistances are evaluated at the mid-span
positions o f the test specimens for direct comparison. The values o f ymax are also
tabulated in Table 5.2 and they are plotted against the lap length to section depth
ratios in Figure 5.4 for easy comparison. Moreover, as both the measured
dimensions and the measured yield strengths o f the sections among the test series are
found to be significantly different, comparison should be restricted among the test
specimens o f the same test series. It should be noted that
Config W2F2
In Test Series ZG, large twisting deformations were observed after the peak
loads were attained. The specimens were failed by the interaction o f combined
bending and shear at the ends of lap. The moment resistance ratios, ymax, are
found to lie between 0.92 and 1.41 for lapped connections with Z15020 G450.
For lapped connections with Z25020 G450 in Test Series ZH, the values of ymax
range from 0.99 to 1.21. A unity moment resistance ratio may be achieved with
a minimum lap length to section depth ratio o f 2.0. The residual moment
resistance ratios, yres , o f the lapped sections in both series are found to lie
5-7
betw een 0.32 and 0.53 while the value o f yres may be taken as 0.17
Config. W4F2
In Test Series ZI, large twisting deformations were observed after the peak loads
were attained. The specimens were failed by the interaction of combined
bending and shear at the ends o f lap. The moment resistance ratios, ymax, are
found to lie between 1.06 and 1.53 for lapped connections with Z15020 G450.
For lapped connections with Z25020 G450 in Test Series ZH, the values of ymax
range from 1.07 to 1.32. A unity moment resistance ratio may be achieved with
a minimum lap length to section depth ratio o f 2.0. The residual moment
resistance ratios, y res , o f the lapped sections in both series are found to lie
between 0.30 and 0.46 while the value o f yres may be taken as 0.17
The following conclusions on the m oment resistances o f lapped connections may be
drawn:
a) In general, the moment resistance ratios are found to be directly proportional to
the lap lengths. Moreover, the lapped connections are demonstrated to be
effective in providing full m oment transfer between lapped sections, i.e. 'full
strength laps', with lap lengths equal to at least two times section depth.
b) However, these lapped connections are shown not to be able to exhibit ductility
after the maximum moment resistances are attained owing to severe cross section
5-8
distortion. At large deformation, the residual moment resistance ratios may be
conservatively taken as 0.30 for all lapped connections studied in the test
program while the residual moment resistance ratio o f continuous sections is
merely 0.17.
c) In comparison o f the moment resistance ratios between the two bolt
configurations, Config. W2F2 and Config. W4F2, it is interesting to find that the
moment resistance ratios of Config. W4F2 are higher than those o f Config. W2F2.
This is due to the restraining effect provided by the tw o additional bolts installed
on the web as shown in Figure 5.1. This changes the overall buckling mode
shape o f the cross section at the end o f lap. Consequently, Config. W4F2 is
considered to be a stronger lapped connection with a high m oment resistance
ratio.
d) The moment resistance ratios o f the Config. W2F2 are lesser than those o f Config.
W4, which were reported in Chapter 3, by up to 30%. This is due to the fact that
there are two bolt holes on the critical section at the end o f lap, which reduced
the m oment capacity o f the critical cross sections considerably. Consequently,
the Config. W2F2 is not considered to be a structurally efficient configuration for
lapped connection.
centres o f the lapped connections for direct comparison among test data from all the
test series. However, in all tests, section failure occurred at the ends o f lap in the
connected sections under combined bending and shear. Detailed investigation on
5 -9
both the corresponding internal forces and the section resistances against combined
bending and shear at the end of lap in the connected sections are presented in next
section.
5.4.2 Effective flexural rigidity ratios otj and otf
The effective flexural rigidity ratio, a , is a parameter, which describes the effective
flexural rigidity o f a lapped connection in comparison to that o f a single section.
According to the load levels, two effective flexural rigidity ratios are established as
follows:
{El), (E I)f
El 7 f El
where
(El), is the initial effective flexural rigidity o f the lapped connection at low
load level obtained from one point load test;
(EI)f is the final effective flexural rigidity of the lapped connection under
maximum applied load , Pmax, obtained from one point load test, and
El is the flexural rigidity of the continuous section obtained from the control
test (one point load test).
Evaluation o f the effective flexural rigidity ratios, oti and otf , o f the lapped
connections, is presented in Figure 5.8. The values o f a , and a f are summarized in
Table 5.2 and they are plotted against the lap length to section depth ratios in Figure
5.7 for comparison. It should be noted that
5-10
Config. W2F2
For lapped connections with section Z15020 G450 in test series ZG, the effective
flexural rigidity ratios a; are found to range from 0.60 to 1.01 while the values of
a f are found to range from 0.17 to 0.76. For connections with section Z25020
G 450 in test series ZH, the effective flexural rigidity ratios a; are found to range
from 0.83 to 1.31 while the values o f a f are found to range from 0.42 to 1.14.
Config. W4F2
For lapped connections with section Z 15020 G450 in test series ZG, the effective
flexural rigidity ratios a; are found to range from 0.52 to 1.20 while the values of
a f are found to range from 0.09 to 0.76. For connections with section Z25020
G450 in test series ZH, the effective flexural rigidity ratios ai are found to range
from 1.12 to 1.53 while the values o f a f are found to range from 0.77 to 1.18.
After simple data analyses as shown in Figure 5.7, the design expressions for the
maximum and the minimum values of a; and a f are given as follows:
Config. W2F2 with Lt equal to 16 D
Qi. max 0.15 Pd + 0,50 ; Ctj min = 0.15 pD + 0.10
f, max 0.15 Pd + 0.45 , Ctf mjn = 0.15 pD - 0.10
Config. W4F4 with Lt ranging from 16 D
nfmax 0.15 Pf) + 0.80 , &i,min = 0.15 pD + 0.25
C ftm ax 0.15 P i ) 0.60 , Ufmm = 0.15 pD- 0.20
5-11
where
L, is the test span of the lapped connection;
D is the section depth; and
2L
Pd is the lap length to section depth ratio defined as .
The following conclusions on the flexural rigidities o f lapped connections may be
drawn:
a) As shown in Figure 5.7, the values o f both otj and a f are found to be directly
proportional to the lap lengths o f the connections. For connections with small
lap length to section depth ratios, the values o f a are small, owing to flexibility
in the connections directly caused by significant bearing deformation in web
around bolt holes under large bolt forces. For connections with large lap length
to section depth ratios, little twisting deformation is observed. The connections
are shown to be more effective approaching to those o f continuous sections, i.e.
full stiffness laps, as the values of a are close to or even larger than unity.
b) Figure 5.9 presents the normalized moment resistance against the end rotation of
4 different bolt configurations. Among all, Config. W2F2 is found to the
weakest and the softest connection while Config. W6 is found to be the strongest
and the stiffest connection.
c) For the application in multi-span overlap purlin systems, lapped connections
with soft but strong bolt configurations are recommended. A soft but strong
5-12
lapped connection will enhance the load carrying capacities. Among all
proposed bolt configurations, Config. W4 and Config. W4F2 are highly
recommended.
5.5 Distribution of internal forces within lapped connections
In order to assess the strength o f lapped connections, it is essential to determine the
internal forces within the lapped connections under external loads. Referring to the
lapped connections with Config. W2F2 and Config. W4F2 as shown in Figure 5.10,
the following assumptions are adopted:
a) The center o f rotation o f the lapped connection, O, is coincided with the bolt
group center.
b) The vertical force components o f the bolt forces at the compression flanges
are only considered because the bolts installed at the flanges strongly tied up
both the connected Z sections in the vertical direction.
The individual bolt forces are difficult to be found, since the magnitude o f the bolt
forces Fb and Fbf are not proportional to the distances betw een the bolt holes and the
center o f rotation, O. However, the vertical resultant bolt forces can be obtained
readily. Therefore, the internal forces within the lapped connections between the
cold formed steel Z sections can be determined as show n in Figure 5.10 after
attaining force and moment equilibriums. Both the shear force and the bending
moment diagrams are then readily established and they are also presented in Figure
5.10 together with all expressions for internal forces. According to the maximum
5-13
applied loads measured from tests, the corresponding shear forces Vi and V2, and
m oments Mi and M2 at the left hand side (LHS) and the right hand side (RHS) of the
ends o f lap o f the lapped connections respectively o f all the test specimens are
summarized in Table 5.4.
It should be noted that:
For lapped connections with short lap lengths, the magnitude of shear force V2
is significantly larger than that o f shear force Vf. As the lap length increases,
the magnitude o f shear force V2 is reduced considerably, becoming comparable
to that o f shear force Vi. However, for those connections where the lap length
to section depth ratios are larger than 4.0, shear force V2 is always smaller than
shear force Vi. Hence, it is important to check the shear forces at both the LHS
and RHS o f the critical cross-sections at the end o f laps for all lap lengths.
Bending moments at both the LHS and the RHS o f the end o f lap are the same,
so the failure position is mainly dependent to the shear forces at both sides.
Despite o f large shear force V 3 acting at the mid-span o f the test specimens, the
corresponding moment M3 is always small. Hence, the cross sections at m id
span are never critical. This agrees with the observations from all the test series
that all lapped connections were failed at the ends o f lap under combined
bending and shear.
5.6 Design against combined bending and shear
5-14
W ith reference to Section 4.5 regarding the design against combined bending and
shear at critical cross-sections in lapped connections between cold-formed steel Z
sections, the same design expressions are adopted here. Both the shear capacities
and the moment capacities at the critical cross sections should be checked as follows
V V
- ^ < 1 .0 ; v2 =
V V
M,
m, = ------ < 1.0 ; m2-= ---------< 1.0
Mc Mc
where
Vi, V2 are the shear force ratios for the LHS and the RHS o f the critical
cross section respectively;
m i, m2 are the moment ratios for the LHS and the RHS o f the critical
cross section respectively; and
Vc, Mc are the design shear and moment capacities o f the critical cross
section respectively, with allowances for the presence of bolt
holes.
The critical section o f lapped connection is defined as the cross section o f the purlin
m em ber containing the bolt holes at the end o f lap, as shown in Figure 5.5.
M oreover, it is also necessary for both the LHS and the RHS o f the critical cross
sections to be checked against combined bending and shear as follows:
BS5950: Part 5 EC3: Part 1.3
1.25 v / +1.25 m / < 1.0 v,2 + o t, 2 < 1.0
5-15
1.25 v / +1.25 m / < 1.0 v22 + m 22 < 1.0
Based on test observations, shear buckling o f the section web at the ends o f lap of
the lapped connections was found to be fairly localized, and the length o f a typical
shear buckling mode shape was found to range from 0.8 D to 1.25 D, where D is the
section depth. Thus, it is proposed to improve the shear capacities o f the critical
cross-sections, Vc, as follows:
= qcr Avn
where
Avn is the net shear area o f the section with allowances for the
presence o f bolt holes;
qcr isthe shear buckling strength o f the section;
= *3E k { ' Y
12 ( \- v 2) \ D - t )
where
E isthe modulus o f elasticity o f steel, and equal to 205kN/mm2;
v isthe Poissons ratio, and equal to 0.3;
kT isthe shear buckling coefficient
= 5.34 for general design
4
= 5.34-1-------- or 6.90 for connected section with effective
a sb restraint
asb isthe aspect ratio o f the shear panel, and equal to Lsh / D;
Lsb isthe length o f the shear panel which isconservatively taken to be
1.6 D for lapped connections based on test observations;
D isthe overall section depth; and
5-16
t is the web thickness.
Table 5.4a and Table 5.4b summarize the various checks based on section capacities
evaluated to BS 5950: Part 5 and EC 3: Part 1.3 respectively together with the
critical pairs o f internal force ratios, v and m. Moreover, the critical pairs o f v and m
are plotted in Figure 5.11 together with quadratic interaction curve, and hence, the
interaction curve is considered to be adequately accurate for checking the critical
sections at the end o f laps of the lapped connections against combined bending and
shear. The expressions as shown in Figure 5.11 is the same as that proposed in
Chapter 4.
In order to quantify the structural efficiency o f the proposed method, a model factor,
y, is introduced which is defined as follows:
P ic s,
PDesign
where
Pxest is the maximum applied load o f the lapped connection determined
from test; and
PDesign is the design load capacity o f the lapped connection.
A model factor y larger than unity implies that the design rules against combined
bending and shear are safe. All the model factors for critical cross sections against
combined bending and shear based on section capacities to BS 5950: Part 5 and
Eurocode 3 Part 1.3 are summarized in Table 5.5 while Figure 5.12 plots the
distribution o f the model factors of all test series. It is shown that
5-17
. For a total o f 12 lapped connections back analyzed to BS 5950: Part 5, the
model factors are found to range from 1.06 to 1.45 while the average model
factor is 1.18 with a standard deviation o f 0.12. The model factors for
continuous sections (control tests) are found to range from 1.07 to 1.20 while
the average model factor is 1.13 with a standard deviation o f 0.07.
Similarly, for the same set of test data back analyzed to Eurocode 3: Part 1.3,
the model factors are found to range from 0.97 to 1.42; the average model
factor is 1.13 with a standard deviation o f 0.13. The model factors for the
continuous sections are found to range from 1.17 to 1.35 while the average
model factor is 1.26 with a standard deviation o f 0.10.
Hence, the proposed design rules are considered to be applicable and conservative.
Moreover, a close examination on the model factor reveals that for lapped
connections with practical lap lengths, i.e. with lap lengths to section depth ratios
between 4 and 6, the values o f y are found to range narrowly between 0.97 and 1.18
based on section capacities to BS 5950: Part 5. Thus the proposed design rules are
considered to structural efficient for lapped connections with practical lap lengths.
5.7 Conclusions
In order to assess the structural performance o f lapped cold-form ed steel Z sections,
a total o f 12 lapped connection tests on two modified bolt configurations, Config
W2F2 and Config W4F2, were executed. In all tests, section failure at the end o f lap
o f connected sections was found to be critical under combined bending and shear. It
is demonstrated that both the moment resistances and the flexural rigidities o f lapped
5-18
connections depend on not only the lap length to section depth ratios but also the lap
length to test span ratios. Hence, the assumption that lapped sections always have
doubled moment resistances and flexural rigidities of those o f connected sections is
not always correct. Moreover, it is demonstrated that full strength laps may be
achieved in lapped connections provided that the lap length to section depth ratios
are equal to or larger than 2.0. In comparison with the bolt configurations present in
Chapter 3, it is found that both Config. W4 and Config. W6 are stronger than Config.
W2F2 and Config. W4F2.
M oreover, a rational design method for lapped connections between cold-formed
steel Z sections is proposed after careful calibration against test data obtained from
one point-load tests on lapped connections. It is proposed to assess both the moment
and the shear capacities o f the critical cross-sections at the ends o f lap with
allowances for the presence o f bolt holes. Moreover, based on test observations,
shear buckling is shown to be less critical in lapped connections due to the
restraining effects from both the lapped sections and the purlin-rafter connections.
Thus, the moment capacities o f the critical cross-sections are reduced while their
shear capacities are increased, when compared with the basic section capacities.
This leads to a m ore economical design for critical cross-sections at the ends of lap
in lapped connections against combined bending and shear. Consequently, the
structural behaviour o f cold-formed steel lapped Z sections in term o f strength and
stiffness is readily quantified for general design. The design m ethod together with
the proposed design rules will be adopted in the design developm ent o f multi-span
purlin systems with overlaps in modern roof systems to be reported in Chapter 9.
5-19
Table 5.1a Summary of section properties (BS5950: Part 5)
D E F LP t Z*,- Ix r
Test
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm3) (mm4)
<=> ZG030R 149.51 66.30 59.84 14.15 2.28 25830.28 2080974.95
O ZG060R 149.69 66.16 59.90 14.23 2.33 26483.87 2137638.74

C
N
O ZG090R 150.10 66.40 59.71 14.40 2.31 26403.94 2133114.68
in
M
ZGcon 150.03 66.38 59.86 14.42 2.09 26103.93 1906630.99
o ZH050R 247.55 72.85 63.20 14.76 2.12 45278.02 5887768.51

o O ZH100R 248.07 72.74 62.99 14.83 2.09 44089.72 5736179.89
C-4
o ZH150R 247.66 73.29 62.54 14.90 2.08 44674.96 5792865.64
in
ES2
ZHcon 247.08 72.66 63.34 14.79 2.08 47836.12 5769898.01
o ZI030R 149.70 66.47 60.47 14.42 2.19 24794.41 2001241.51
a ZI060R 150.16 66.34 60.29 14.31 2.14 24320.07 1969472.52

<N
O ZI090R 150.06 66.38 60.12 14.32 2.25 25566.06 2067872.11
m
N1
Zlcon 150.03 66.38 59.86 14.42 2.09 26103.93 1906630.99
s' o ZJ050R 249.18 73.38 64.91 15.07 2.33 51688.93 6789864.09

j-
O to ZJ100R 248.60 73.38 64.85 14.71 2.07 44348.38 5798101.39
rj
o ZJ150R 248.37 73.40 63.41 14.70 2.10 45673.84 5955897.86
in
N)
ZJcon 247.08 72.66 63.34 14.79 2.08 47836.12 5769898.01
5-20
Table 5.1b Summary of section properties (EC3: Part 1.3)
D E F t 7
LP -ys Ixr
Test
(m m ) (m m ) (m m ) (m m ) (m m ) (m m 3) (m m4)
Z G 030R 149.51 66.30 59.84 14.15 2.28 2 5 8 3 0 .2 8 214 1 0 0 0

in
a Z G 060R 149.69 66.16 59.90 14.23 2.33 2 6 4 8 3 .8 7 2196000

o
o
in Z G 090R 150.10 66.4 0 59.71 14.40 2.31 2 6 4 0 3 .9 4 2 19 4 0 0 0
M

Z G con 150.03 66.38 59.86 14.42 2 .09 2 3 8 4 0 .0 0 1981000
V Z H 050R 247 .5 5 72.85 6 3 .2 0 14.76 2.12 4 2 4 5 0 .0 0 6303000

O
o o
in
TT
O Z H 100R 2 4 8 .0 7 72.74 6 2 .9 9 14.83 2.0 9 4 0 6 8 0 .0 0 6207000
o
M
O
in Z H 150R 2 4 7 .6 6 73.29 62 .5 4 14.90 2.08 4 1 7 6 0 .0 0 6 2 6 1 0 00
N
Z H con 2 4 7 .0 8 72.66 63 .3 4 14.79 2.08 4 1 8 0 0 .0 0 6239000
Z I030R 149.70 66.47 6 0 .4 7 14.42 2 .1 9 247 9 4 .4 1 207 0 0 0 0

in
-3-
O Z I060R 150.16 66.34 60.2 9 14.31 2 .14 2 4 3 2 0 .0 7 2036000
o
CN|
o
in Z I090R 150.06 66.38 6 0 .1 2 14.32 2.25 2 5 5 6 6 .0 6 2135000
N
Z lcon 150.03 66.38 59.8 6 14.42 2.09 2 3 8 4 0 .0 0 1981000

,?
V Z J050R 249.18 73.38 64.91 15.07 2.33 4 9 8 6 0 .0 0 7 27 6 0 0 0
o
o oin
'T
o
Z J100R 2 4 8 .6 0 73.38 64.85 14.71 2.07 4 0 8 9 0 .0 0 6261000
o
cs
o
in Z J150R 2 4 8 .3 7 73.40 63.41 14.70 2.10 4 3 2 2 0 .0 0 6423000
N
ZJcon 247 .0 8 72.66 63 .3 4 14.79 2.08 4 1 8 0 0 .0 0 6239000
5-21
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Structural Behaviour of Lapped

Table 5.2________ Summary of test program and data
Test Lap Moment Residual Effective flexural Measured Measured

Maximu Moment
Bolt Failure resistance Moment rigidity ratios yield Young's
span length 2Lp m load resistance
Test config. mode P ratio resistance strenutli MnHuluo
Lt 2Lp D Lmax Mmax
Ymax Yres <*i af Py E
(mm) (mm) m
(kNm) (N/mrn2) (kN/mm2)
oin ZG030R 300 2 41.05 24.63 0.92 0.53 0.60 0.17
o ZG060R 2400 600 4 MVe 52.34 31.40 1.17 0.49 0.84 0.53
o 473 184
<N
Cold-Formed Steel Z-Sections

O
in ZG090R 900 6 62.82 37.69 1.41 0.46 1.01 0.76

N ZGcon 2400 ... MV 44.65 26.79 1.00 0.27 1.00 1.00
W2F2
o 2
s' in ZH050R 500 48.80 48.80 0.99 0.32 0.83 0.42
0 ZH100R 4000 1000 4 MVe 52.93 52.93 1.07 0.41 1.11 1.06
ots 470 193
oin ZH150R 1500 6 59.86 59.86 1.21 0.42 1.31 1.14
CN
N ZHcon 4000 ... MV 49.45 49.45 1.00 0.17 1.00 1.00
oin ZI030R 300 2 47.38 28.43 1.06 0.35 0.52 0.09
o ZI060R 2400 600 4 MVe 57.50 34.50 1.29 0.39 0.89 0.33
VO 487 193
oin ZI090R 900 6 68.40 41.04 1.53 0.35 1.20 0.76

N Zlcon 2400 ... MV 44.65 26.79 1.00 0.27 1.00 1.00
W4F2
oin ZJ050R 500 2 53.12 53.12 1.07 0.30 1.12 0.77
xt
CJ a ZJ100R 4000 1000 4 MV e 54.98 54.98 1.11 0.46 1.44 1.18
in 462 194
ofN
in ZJ150R 1500 6 65.14 65.14 1.32 0.38 1.53 1.18
<N
N ZJcon 4000 ... ... MV 49.45 49.45 1.00 0.17 1.00 1.00
T a b le 5.3 S u m m ary o f restrain ed te st resu lts
Span
Lap length 2Lp <*i f Yrv
Test Length L,
(mm) (m) <kN) (kNm)

ZA018R 180(1.20) 27.98 16.78 0.37 0.10 0.88 0.53
o ZA024R 240 (1.6D) 30.12 18.06 0.50 0.17 0.94 0.49
O ZA030R 300 (2D) 33.92 20.36 0.73 0.32 1.06 0.51
2.4
o ZA060R 600 (4D) 45.20 27.12 1.11 0.87 1.42 0.42
Tf N ZA090R 900 (6D) 51.00 30.60 1.40 1.21 1.60 0.79
:S. ZAcon 31,94
19.16 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.29
c ZB030R 300(1.2D) 51.90 51.90 0,33 0.22 0.79 0.43
U o
>n ZB060R 600 (2.4D) 73.74 73.74 0.76 0.38 1.12 0.49
O ZB090R 900(3 6D) 86.96 86.96 1.13 0.81 1.32 0.44
m
Cl 4.0
o ZB120R 1200 (4.8D) 99.02 99.02 1.29 1.10 1.50 0.51
N ZB150R 1500 (6D) 95.10 95.10 1.52 1.42 1.44 0.49
ZBcon 66.04 66.04 1.00 1.00 1,00 0.31
ZC018R 180 (1.2D) 23.99 14.39 0.38 0.10 0.96 0.55
ZC030R 300 (2D) 28.63 17.18 0.66 0.34 1.14 0.39
n ZC030R 600 (4D) 2.4 34.87 20.92 1.09 0.96 1.39 0.63
ZC090R 900 (6D) 39.99 23.99 1.45 1.41 1.59 0.52
5 N
ZCcon 25.12 15.07 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.33
c ZD030R 300(1.2D) 51.67 51.67 0.46 0.24 0.89 0.58
O
ZD050R 500 (2D) 65.75 65.75 0.98 0.39 1.13 0.50
(N ZD100R 1000 (4D) 4.0 76.79 76.79 1.34 1.16 1.32 0.54
lO
d ZD150R 1500 (6D) 93.91 93.91 1.74 1.63 1.62 0.68
N
ZDcon 58.06 58.06 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.27
ZE018R 180(1.2D) 16.48 14.83 0.41 0.11 0.86 0.45
19.51
s<n ZE030R 300 (2D) 17.56 0.70 0.24 1.02 0.48
ZE030R 600 (4D) 3.6 23.99 21.59 1.17 0.73 1.25 0.51
ZE090R 900 (6D) 22.87 20.58 1.20 1.06 1.19 0.42
S5
:S
w>
ZEcon 19.19 17.27 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.26
c ZF030R 300 (1.2D) 34.55 51.83 0.46 0.12 0.90 0.47
O >n
rr ZF050R 500 (2D) 46.23 69.35 0.58 0.36 1.20 0.58
*n
Cl ZF100R 1000 (4D) 6.0 53.75 80.63 1.22 0.70 1.39 042
in ZF150R 1500 (6D) 58.87 88.31 1.59 1.17 1.53 038
Cl
ZFcon 38,55 57,83 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.24
O ZG030R 300 (2D) 41.05 24.63 0.60 0.17 0.92 0.53

O ZG060R 600 (4D) 52.34 31.40 0.84 0.53 1.17 0,49
o 2.4
d
o
n ZG090R 900 (6D) 62.82 37.69 1.01 0.76 1.41 0.46
s N ZGcon
44.65 26.79 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.27
tB* ZH050R 500 (2D) 48.80 48.80 0.83 0.42 0.99 0.32
Z25020 G450
C
o
U
ZH100R 1000 (4D) 52.93 52.93 1.11 1.06 1.07 0.41
4.0
ZH150R 1500 (6D) 59.86 59.86 1.31 1.14 1.21 0.42
ZHcon ... 49.45 49.45 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.17
ZI030R 300 (2D) 47.38 28.43 0.52 0.09 1.06 0.35
s ZI060R 6 0 0 (4 0 ) 57.50 34.50 0.89 0.33 1.29 0.39

8
2.4
O 68.40 41.04 0.76 1.53
n ZI090R 900 (6D) 1.20 0.35
2 44.65 26.79 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.27
5 Zlcon -
tc
c ZJ050R 500 (2D) 53.12 53.12 1.12 0.77 1.07 0.30
o oin
so ZJ100R 1000 (4D)
4.0
54.98 54.98 1.44 1.18 1.11 0.46
o ZJ150R 1500 (6D) 65.14 65.14 1.53 1.18 1.32 0.38

n
ZJcon 49.45 49.45 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.17
5-23

Table 5.4a Summary of internal forces within lapped connections (BS5950: Part 5)
Lap
Test
Test length 2 Lp Plest v, v2 M, m2 K vc M /M c v/vc
span Lt
2L, D
(mm) (mm) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (KN)
o ZG030R 300 2 41.05 10.26 -25.66 10.78 10.78 12.15 88.91 0.89 0.29
O ZG060R 2400 600 4 52.34 13.09 -6.54 11.78 11.78 12.36 94.37 0.95 0.14
o
<n p ZG090R 900 6 62.82

15.71 2.62 11.78 11.78 12.39 91.74 0.95 0.17
S N ZGcon 2400 ... ... 44.65 11.16 11.16 13.40 13.40 12.71 58.85 1.05 0.19
f ! o ZH050R 500 2 48.80 12.20 -30.50 21.35 21.35 21.40 44.23 1.00 0.69
^ O ZH100R 4000 1000 4 52.93 13.23 -6.62 19.85 19.85 21.98 42.69 0.90 0.31
o
ZH150R 1500 6 59.86 14.97 2.49 18.71 18.71 20.42 42.15 0.92 0.36
N ZHcon 4000 ... ... 49.45 12.36 12.36 24.73 24.73 21.61 35.42 1.14 0.35
ZI030R 300 2 47.38 11.85 -29.61 12.44 12.44 12.36 78.34 1.01 0.38
O ZI060R 2400 600 4 57.50 14.38 -7.19 12.94 12.94 11.72 73.56 1.10 0.20
O
fN
tt, o>o ZI090R 900 6 68.40 17.10 2.85 12.83 12.83 12.34 84.79 1.04 0.20
N Zlcon 2400 44.65 11.16 11.16 13.40 13.40 12.71 58.85 1.05 0.19
o ZJ050R 500 2 53.12 13.28 -33.20 23.24 23.24 25.01 58.69 0.93 0.57
3 ZJ100R 4000 1000 4 54.98 13.75 -6.87 20.62 20.62 21.08 41.00 0.98 0.34
o
ZJ150R 1500 6 65.14 16.29 2.71 20.36 20.36 19.96 42.85 1.02 0.38
N ZJcon 4000 ... ... 49.45 12.36 12.36 24.73 24.73 21.61 35.42 1.14 0.35
Vi
4^

Table 5.4b Summary of internal forces within lapped connections (EC3: Part 1.3)
Lap
Test 2Lp p v
Test
span Lt Test v, V2 M, m2 Me Vc M /M c v /v c
2LP D
(mm) (mm) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kN)
8 ZG030R 300 2 41.05 10.26 -25.66 10.78 10.78 12.15 61.85 0.89 0.41
O ZG060R 2400 600 4 52.34 13.09 -6.54 11.78 11.78 12.36 64.21 0.95 0.20
o
ZG090R 900 6 62.82 15.71 2.62 11.78 11.78 12.39 63.28 0.95 0.25

S N ZGcon 2400 ... ... 44.65 11.16 11.16 13.40 13.40 11.60 58.24 1.15 0.19
f ! g ZH050R 500 2 48.80 12.20 -30.50 21.35 21.35 20.06 38.79 1.06 0.79
G> O ZH100R 4000 1000 4 52.93 13.23 -6.62 19.85 19.85 20.28 37.42 0.98 0.35
O
o ZH150R 1500 6 59.86 14.97 2.49 18.71 18.71 19.08 36.93 0.98 0.41
N ZHcon 4000 ... ... 49.45 12.36 12.36 24.73 24.73 18.88 39.94 1.31 0.31
8 ZI030R 300 2 47.38 11.85 -29.61 12.44 12.44 12.36 52.35 1.01 0.57
O ZI060R 2400 600 4 57.50 14.38 -7.19 12.94 12.94 11.72 49.46 1.10 0.29
O
ZI090R 900 6 68.40 17.10 2.85 12.83 12.83 12.34 54.48 1.04 0.31
& N Zlcon 2400 ... ... 44.65 11.16 11.16 13.40 13.40 11.60 58.24 1.15 0.19
f g ZJ050R 500 2 53.12 13.28 -33.20 23.24 23.24 24.12 47.67 0.96 0.70
G> 0 ZJ100R 4000 1000 4 54.98 13.75 -6.87 20.62 20.62 19.44 33.08 1.06 0.42
O
ZJ150R 1500 6 65.14 16.29 2.71 20.36 20.36 18.89 34.60 1.08 0.47
N ZJcon 4000 ... ... 49.45 12.36 12.36 24.73 24.73 18.88 39.94 1.31 0.31
G /j
i
K )
Table 5.5a Back analysis to BS 5950: Part 5
L ap
len g th 2 Lp
. Mc Vc m PT t p
A Design Y
Test
2L p D
(m m ) (kN m ) (kN ) (k N ) (kN )

o Z G 030R 300 2 12.15 88.91 0.89 38.55 41.0 5 1.06
0.29
O ZG060R 600 4 12.36 94 .3 7 0.95 0.14 4 8 .6 2 5 2 .3 4 1.08
C-l
o Z G 090R 900 6 12.39 91.7 4 0.95 0.17 58 .1 6 6 2 .8 2 1.08
tn
N Z G con
12.71 58.85 1.05 0.19 4 1 .6 9 44 .6 5 1.07
o Z H 050R 500 2
f 21.40 44.23 1.00 0.69 3 3 .6 7 4 8 .8 0 1.45
& O Z H 100R 1000 4 21.98 42.6 9 0.90 0.31 4 9 .6 0 52.93 1.07
<->
O Z H 150R 1500 6 20.42 42.15 0.92 0.36 5 4 .4 9 59.8 6 1.10
CM
N] Z H con 21.61 35.42 1.14 0.35 4 1 .3 4 49 .4 5 1.20
O Z I030R 300 2 12.36 78.3 4 1.01 0.38 38 .3 8 4 7 .3 8 1.23
w-)
O Z I060R 600 4 11.72 73.56 1.10 0.20 4 5 .8 7 5 7 .5 0 1.25
O Z I090R 900 6 12.34 84.79 1.04 0.20 57 .8 0 6 8 .4 0 1.18
v>
N Z lco n
12.71 58.85 1.05 0.19 4 1 .6 9 44 .6 5 1.07
O Z J050R 500 2
S 25.01 58 .6 9 0.93 0.5 7 4 1 .2 8 5 3 .1 2 1.29
o o Z J100R 1000 4 21 .0 8 41 .0 0 0.98 0.34 4 7 .5 6 54 .9 8 1.16
r->
C
ON Z J150R 1500 6 19.96 42.85 1.02 0.38 53.53 6 5 .1 4 1.22
<N
N ZJcon 21.61 35.4 2 1.14 0.35 4 1 .3 4 4 9 .4 5 1.20
Note: O nly the critical pairs o f v and m are given for clarity.
5-26
T a b le 5 .5 b B a c k a n a ly s is to E C 3 : Part 1.3
L ap
le n g th 2 Lp Vc m v p
- Mc P je s t 1 Design Y
Test
2L p D
(m m ) (kN m ) (kN ) (kN ) (kN )

o Z G 030R 300 2 12.15 61.85 0.89 0.41 41.05 40.3 5 1.02
O Z G 060R 600 4 12.36 64.21 0.95 0.20 5 2 .3 4 53.7 2 0 .97
<r>
CN
o Z G 090R 900 6 12.39 63.28 0.95 0.25 6 2 .8 2 63.93 0.98

N Z G con
11.60 58.24 1.15 0.19 44.65 38 .1 6 1.17
o Z H 050R 500 2 20.0 6 4 8 .8 0
to 38.79 1.06 0.79 34.31 1.42
O 3 Z H 100R 1000 4 20.28 37.42 0.98 0.35 52.9 3 5 0 .8 7 1.04
o
CN
o Z H 150R 1500 6 19.08 36.93 0.98 0.41 59.8 6 5 6 .4 4 1.06
lO
(N
N3 Z H con 18.88 39.94 1.31 0.31 49.4 5 36 .7 5 1.35
o
lO Z I030R 300 2 12.36 52.35 1.01 0.57 4 7 .3 8 3 9 .0 2 1.21
o Z I060R 600 4 11.72 49.46 1.10 0.29 57.5 0 50 .3 7 1.14
CN
J
o Z I090R 900 6 12.34 54.48 1.04 0.31 6 8 .4 0 63.01 1.09
M Z lco n
11.60 58.24 1.15 0.19 4 4 .6 5 3 8 .1 6 1.17
o Z J050R 500 2
S' uo 24 .1 2 47.67 0.96 0.70 5 3 .1 2 4 1 .6 5 1.28
d o Z J100R 1000 4 19.44 33.08 1.06 0.42 54.98 4 8 .2 6 1.14
tN
o ZJ150R 1500 6 18.89 34.60 1.08 0.47 6 5 .1 4 55 .3 9 1.18
in
CN
N ZJcon 18.88 39.9 4 1.31 0.31 49 .4 5 3 6 .7 5 1.35
N ote: O nly the critical pairs o f v and m are given for clarity.
5-27
Lateral restraint
V
B-B
l- - i ll J --all End support condition
...I 2 ,i
>>
i

ao
;! ;!
;>
| >>
'

;i ;
i
i ' ' i i ' 1
777^7777^777 ^
777 7777^777
B olt Config. W2F2 B olt Config W4F2
Figure 5.1 General test setup of one point load tests for restrainted beam
Figure 5.2 Typical modes of failure

Lapped connection with Config W2F2 - Section failure at the end of
lap under combined bending and shear
5-28
Test Series ZG and ZI Z 15016 with Config W2F2 and W4F2 and Lt = 2400 m
50
ZG030R
ZG060R
ZG090R
ZI030R
a ZI060R
rZI090R
9 Z150CONR
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Test Series ZH and ZJ Z25025 with Config W2F2 and W4F2 and Lt = 4000 m
ZH050R
ZH100R
S ZH150R
60 --
ZJ050R
Z.TIOOR
e erZJ150R
ao ZHcon
a
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Deflected
shape
BMD
L ./2
Figure 5.3 Mid-span moment end rotation (Ms - 0e) curves
5-29
2.0
o 1.5
os3
ii
o o
1.0 11 i
ZG
r
OZH
c<D 0.5 -
B ZI
o
ZJ
0.0 n-----
0 2 4 6 8
Lap length to section depth ratio, 2Lp /

D
Figure 5.4 Moment resistance ratios in lapped Figure 5.5 Critical cross
connections against different bolt configurations section at the end o f lap
and test spans
Figure 5.6 Bearing failure of the connected material at the bolt hole
5-30
2.0 2.0
Conflg W2F2 Config W2F2
1 .5 1 .5
o .2
cd , =0.15PD+0.45
O
o ao>

1.0 1.0
O'
G G
to a>
0 .5 0 .5
ZG
ZG OZH
a Onm =0.15 PD +0.10
OZH a f,m m = 0 . 1 5 P - 0 . 1 0
0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Lap length to section depth Lap length to section depth
ratio, 2Lp / D ratio, 2Lp / D
2.0 2.0
| Config W4F2 | Config W4F2
aimat = 15 P d +(
a |
1.5 = 0.15.PD+ 0.60
.2" 1
//
1/
1.0
1I '
C
6o a
0.5 1
2 1 -5 ZI
ZI ZJ
a , m, = 0.15 fiD +0.25 ZJ
'fMn = 0.15pD-0.20
0.0 4 0.0
0 2 4 6 ! 0 2 4 6 8
Lap length to section depth Lap length to section depth
ratio, 2Lp / D ratio, 2Lp / D
Figure 5.7 Effective flexural rigidity ratios in lapped connections against different
bolt configurations and lap lengths
5-31
P
1 _ 1 hL
i+ (l
Si 48 El
1 _ 1 h i
1 + (p 2 - 3 p + 3 ) p f ^ ^ l
J75
00
af El
Mid-span deflection A
Figure 5.8 Typical load deflection curve of one point load test of lapped
connections
2.0 2.0
W4 E W6
rf 1-6 W2F2 o W4F2
fcx
<L> do>
i
0.8 0.8
I 0.4 0.4
o o
s s
o.o 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
End rotation ratio, 0 e End rotation ratio, 0 e
Figure 5.9 Normalized moment rotation curves of lapped connections with

5-32
For Config W2F2

Critical
Fr + ZL
8L r
P/ 2 V .- I
V, = F,f + F.
V, = - V,
' 2
M, = - ( L , - 2 L p)
M4 =0
V2 V3
1 m 2= m 3
f
PL,
V3 V2 M,
8
f 1
Shear Force Diagram
j Sending Moment Diagram
Figure 5 .10a Force distributions within lapped connections (Config. W2F2 )
5-33
For Config W2F2 and Config W4F2

Critical
P/2
Fr+2Fb PL,
: 8L
V, = *
P/2 2
M, - ~(L, - 2L )
4
M2= m 3
V, ^M, = PL.
V,
Shear Forpe Diagram j
I
Bending Moinent Diagram
Figure 5 .10b Force distributions within lapped connections (Config. W4F2)
5-34
Interaction curve
CJ
>
>
0.6
t/i 0 .4
0.2
0 0.2 0 .4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Moment ratio, M / Mc
Figure 5.1 la Interaction o f combined bending and shear (BS5950: Part 5)
o ZG ZH
Interaction curve
> 0.8
>
0.6
m
0 .4
0.2
0 0.2 0 .4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Moment ratio, M / Mc
Figure 5.11b Interaction of combined bending and shear (EC3: Part 1.3)
5-35
iI
1
! ' .1
i 1
> <1
O ZG ZH
a ZI ZJ
.................... 1
0 2 4 6 8
Lap length to section depth ratio, 2 Lp / D
Figure 5.12 Model factors against combined bending and shear
5-36
C H A PT E R SIX
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF UNRESTRAINED LAPPED
CONNECTIONS BETWEEN COLD-FORMED STEEL Z SECTIONS
6.1 In tro d u ctio n
This chapter presents the details o f an experimental investigation on the structural
performance o f lapped connections between unrestrained cold-formed steel Z
sections with different connection configurations. A total o f 14 unrestrained one
point load tests on unrestrained lapped cold-formed steel Z sections were carried out.
The objectives o f this test series are:
. To establish the buckling resistances o f unrestrained lapped connections.
To improve the current design recommendation on the lateral torsional buckling
resistance o f cold-formed steel Z sections with lapped connections
In order to establish effective bolted moment connections betw een lapped Z sections,
Config. W4
6-1
assigned to resist lateral loads, as shown in Table 6.1.
Config. W6:
shown in Table 6.1.
in the connected sections. By increasing the lap lengths, the m oment resistances of
lapped connections will be increased with enhanced load transfer across the lapped
sections. M oreover, connections with Config. W6 is expected to be stiffer than those
with Config. W4 due to the presence o f additional bolts.
6.3 Test program for unrestrained tests
A total o f 14 unrestrained one point load tests on lapped cold-form ed steel Z sections
were carried out. Lapped connections with two generic Z sections were tested while
Config. W4 and Config. W6 were adopted for comparison with other tests. A total o f
6-2
three additional test series were carried out, and two other test series reported
previously were also presented together for ease of reference. Among all test series,
lapped connections with three generic Z sections o f different section depths and
thicknesses, namely Z 15016, Z 15015 and Z25025, were tested with two bolt
configurations, namely, Config. W4 and Config. W6, at different lap lengths. The
nominal yield strength o f both Z sections is 450 N/mm2.
Test Series ZA, ZM and ZL with Z15016 G450
are 150 and 1.6 mm respectively. Based on the typical span over depth ratio
ranging from 32 to 64, the overall span in practical multi-span purlin systems, Ls,
range from 4.8 to 9.6 m. Thus, the test spans of lapped connections are taken
ranging from 2.4 to 4.8 m, i.e. 2 times 0.25 Lp. A total o f 6 lapped connections
are tested with Config. W4 while the lap length ranges from 600 to 900 mm, i.e.
4D to 6D; all bolts are 12mm diameter M8.8 bolts.
Test Series ZE with Z I 5016 G450
In this series, the section depth, D, and the section thickness, t, o f the Z sections
are 150 and 1.5 mm respectively. Based on the typical span over depth ratio for
long span purlins at 48, the overall span in practical m ulti-span purlin systems, L s,
is 7.2m, and thus, the test span o f lapped connections is taken as 3.6 m, i.e. 2
times 0.25 Lp. A total o f 4 lapped connections are tested w ith Config. W6 while
6-3
the lap length ranges from 180 to 900 mm, i.e. 1.2 D to 6 D; all bolts are 12 mm
diam eter M8.8 bolts.
Test Series ZF with Z25025 G450
In this series, the section depth, D, and the section thickness, t, o f the Z sections
are 250 and 2.5 mm respectively. Based on the typical span over depth ratio at
48, the overall span in practical multi-span purlin systems, Ls, is 12 m, and thus,
the test span o f lapped connections is taken as 6 m, i.e. 2 tim es 0.25 Lp. A total
o f 4 lapped connections are tested with Config. W6 while the lap length ranges
from 300 to 1500 mm, i.e. 1.2 D to 6 D; all bolts are 16 mm diam eter M8.8 bolts.
It should be noted that all the bolts were installed with a 50 N m torque, and a
clearance o f 2 mm was provided in the bolt holes for easy installation. The test
programme is summarized in Table 6.1 together with basic test data. Typical test
set-up o f the unrestrained one point load tests is illustrated in Figure 6.1. All the Z
sections were tested in pairs. Both the applied loads and the mid-span deflections of
the specimens were recorded during loading. In general, the tests were terminated
after the unrestrained beam buckled and reached the peak load. In order to compare
directly the m oment resistances o f the unrestrained lap sections to those of
continuous sections, a total o f 2 unrestrained control tests, i.e. one point load tests on
long span continuous Z sections were carried out. Furthermore, standard coupon
tests on steel strips cut from these sections were also perform ed to provide basic
material data for subsequent data analysis. All these test data are also present in
Table 6.1.
6-4
6.4 T est results
A m ong all tests, both lateral torsional buckling and distortional buckling were
observed, as shown in Figure 6.2. The unrestrained beams twisted slowly as the load
was gradually applied. For test specimens with short laps , i.e. 2LP / D < 2, they
were laterally buckled and then failed suddenly by local buckling at the end o f lap.
For test specimens with long laps , i.e. 2LP / D > 4, they were laterally buckled first
and then failed by lateral torsional buckling interacting with distortion buckling.
After the tests, all the lapped connections were examined in details. While no
distortion in the bolt holes was evident in those lapped connections with long lap
lengths, apparent bearing deformation was found in the connected webs around bolt
holes on the web in the lapped connections with short lap lengths. The moment
rotation curves o f all the test specimens are plotted in Figure 6.3 to Figure 6.5.
Close examination o f these curves reveals that:
the lap lengths o f the connections, i.e. long lap lengths give effective restraints
while short lap length give weak restraints.
b) For series ZA, ZM and ZL, both the strength and the flexural rigidities shown in
the (M s - 0e) curves o f the unrestrained tests are sm aller than those o f the
restrained tests.
c) In general, it is shown that the end rotations increased continuously even after
the maximum applied load was reached. Unloading after attaining the maximum
6-5
applied m oment is considered to be severe due to loss in member stability and
large cross section distortion.
6.4.1 Moment resistance ratios ymax
The moment resistance ratio ymax is a parameter defined in Section 5.4.1 which
describes the effectiveness o f a lapped connection against bending. The values of
ym.ix are also tabulated in Table 6.3 and they are also plotted against the lap length to
section depth ratios in Figure 6.6 for easy comparison. It should be noted that all the
m om ent resistances are evaluated at the mid-span positions o f the test specimens for
direct comparison. Moreover, as both the measured dimensions and the measured
yield strength o f the sections among the test series are found to be significantly
different, comparison should be restricted among the test specimens o f the same test
series. It should be noted that
Test Series ZA, ZM and ZL with Z15016 G450
For ZA series, the moment resistance ratios, Ymax, are found to range from 1.01
to 1.21. For ZM series, the moment resistance ratios, ymax, are found to range
from 0.88 to 0.90. For ZL series, the moment resistance ratios, ymax, are found to
range from 0.82 to 1.04.
Test Series ZE with Z 15016 G450
The m oment resistance ratios, ymax, are found to lie betw een 0.75 and 0.98. All
specimens cannot develop full strength connection under unrestrained condition.
T est Series ZF with Z25025 G450
T he m oment resistance ratios, Ymax, are found to range from 0.78 to 0.95. All
specim ens cannot develop full strength connection under unrestrained condition.
The following conclusions on the moment resistances o f lapped connections may be
drawn:
a) In general, the moment resistance ratios are found to be directly proportional
to the lap lengths. Only lapped connections with short span can achieve full
m oment transfer between lapped sections (ZA series).
b) Comparison on the moment resistance ratios betw een Config. W4 and Config.
W6 shows that the moment resistance ratios o f lapped connections with
Config. W6 are higher than those o f Config. W4 w ith the same test span. This
is due to enhanced restraining effect provided by two additional bolts
installed on the web as shown in Figure 6.1. This modifies the local buckling
mode shape o f the cross section at the end o f lap. Accordingly, Config. W6 is
considered to be a stronger lapped connection giving a high moment
resistance ratio.
centres o f the lapped connections for direct comparison am ong test data from all the
test series.
6.5 Design against lateral torsional buckling
6-7
As observed in the tests, lateral torsional buckling was always found to be critical in
unrestrained beams. Thus, failure by lateral torsional buckling o f the unrestrained
beams should be checked accordingly.
In BS 5950: Part 5, the buckling resistance moment, Mb, o f an unrestrained beam is
given by:
M eM y
Mh = < M
^B + V^B Mg My )
where
M y +(1 + tQm e
^b =
2
Me is the moment resistance o f the lapped connection,
My is the yield moment o f a single section,
Me is the elastic lateral buckling resistance m oment o f a single Z section,
given by:
" / \2
rcA ED t
Me = 1+ h a
2(L E/ r y) 2 b 20 v y D j
_
where A is the cross sectional area o f the beam;
E is the modulus o f elasticity;
D is the section depth;
t is the material thickness,
is the Perry coefficient, such that
when LE / ry < 40 Cb , r| = 0
6-8
fL ^
when LE / ry > 40 Cb , r| = 0.002 C - 4 0 C b
v ry
where
Le is the effective length between lateral restraints.
ry is radius o f gyration of the section about the y-axis.
Cb is the moment modification factor for the correction o f elastic lateral
buckling resistance moment under non-uniform moment. It is given
by
12.5 M m
Cb =
2-5 M max +3 M a + 4 M b + 3 M c
where Mmax = absolute value o f the maximum m oment within the
unrestrained length.
M a = absolute value o f moment at quarter point within the
Mb = absolute value o f moment at centerline within the
Me = absolute value o f moment at three-quarter point within
the unrestrained length.
Table 6.2 summarized the measured section properties o f the test specimens for
determining the buckling resistance moments. Based on the section dimensions and
the section properties, the elastic lateral buckling resistance moment, M e , the yield
moment, My, and the buckling resistance moment, Mb were determined and
summarized in Table 6.4.
6-9
In order to quantify the structural adequacy o f the design rule given in BS 5950: Part
5, a m odel factor, y, is introduced and defined as follows:
where
Mxest is the maximum mid-span moment o f the lapped connections obtained
from test,
Mb is the buckling resistance moment obtained from design.
A m odel factor y larger than unity implies that the design rules against lateral
torsional buckling is safe. The model factors for the test specimens are summarized
in Table 6.4 while Figure 6.7 plots the distribution o f the model factors o f all the
relevant tests. It is shown that
For a total o f 14 lapped connections which are back analyzed to BS 5950: Part 5,
the model factors are found to range from 0.65 to 1.13 while the average model
factor is merely 0.90 with a standard deviation o f 0.14. The model factor for
continuous sections (control tests) are found to range from 0.73 to 0.89, while the
average model factor is 0.81 with a standard deviation o f 0.11.
Hence, the current design rule for determining the buckling resistance moments are
considered to be unconservative and it is highly desired to be revised.
6.6 Conclusions
6-10
In order to assess the structural performance o f the lapped connections, a total of 14
unrestrained tests were executed. In all tests, lateral torsional buckling and
distortional buckling were observed. It is noted that the moment resistance ratios are
directly proportional to the lap lengths for same test spans. In comparison o f the
m om ent resistance ratios between the two bolt configurations, Config. W4 and
Config. W6, it is found that Config W6 gives a higher buckling moment resistance.
Besides, the buckling resistance moments o f all test specimens were assessed with
BS 5950: Part 5 and compared with the measured buckling resistance moments. It is
dem onstrated that the existing design rules for the buckling resistance moment are
often unconservative, and it is highly desirable to revise the current design method in
order to achieve a safe and economic design.
6-11
Table 6.1 Summary of test programme and data
Measure Measured
Section Lap length Le^h d yield Young's
Test Bolt Configuration dimension 2Lp j strength Modulus
(mm) Pv E
Jmm)_ (m) (N/mm ) (kN/mm )

ZA060R Config. W4 600 (4D)
ZA060U 600 (4D)
O
2 ZA090R 152 900 (6D) 2.4 544.24 205
o * 1.6
~ ZA090U 900 (6D)
N 1
63
ZAcon
ZM 060R Config. W4 600 (4D)
,67 3.2
3 ZM 060U 17 3 f 600 (4D)
O
ZM 090R 152 900 (6D) 547.48 209
O * 1.6 3.6
ZM 090U 900 (6D)
^5*1
63
ZMcon 3.2
ZL060R Config. W4 600 (4D)
4.0
3 ZL060U 173 600 (4D)
0
'S, ZL090R 152 900 (6D) 547.48 205
o * 1.6 4.8
ZL090U 900 (6D)
63
ZLcon 4.0
ZE018U Config. W6 j* ^ i 180(1.2D )
18 *
300 (2D)
O 152
ZE030U 600 (4D) 3.6 575 215
o 1 *1.5
ZE090U 900 (6D)
64 iWi
60
ZEconU
ZF030U Config. W6 79 300 (1.2D)
21Jf
3 ZF050U 500 (2D)
0 250
3 ZF100U 1000 (4D) 6.0 537 200
o * 2 .5
ZF150U 1500 (6D)
64 iWi
73
ZFconU
6-12
Table 6.2 Summary of section properties
7
Measured
D E F LP t A ry ^xr Ix r
Test El
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm2) (mm) (mm3) (mm3) (kNmm2)
ZA060R 151.0 63.40 67.70 16.60 1.70 499.98 30.92 19592.90 1543682
in ZA060U 18.40
'3- 152.0 60.20 67.90 1.64 485.26 30.73 19074.02 1496802
o
VO ZA090R 150.9 63.50 67.60 16.40 1.70 499.15 30.86 19553.02 1539138 520x106
oin
ZA090U 152.0 59.42 64.82 18.05 1.64 477.96 29.58 18852.91 1467617
N
ZAcon 150.7 63.10 67.50 16.60 1.70 498.65 30.81 19569.87 1534567
ZM060R 152.0 60.40 66.00 17.75 1.58 463.21 30.11 17574.50 1402589
in
ZM 060U 152.0 60.38 67.34 17.47 1.57 461.49 30.40 17416.75 1396742
s
VO ZM090R 152.0 59.30 65.28 19.04 1.52 447.03 30.08 16631.80 1331247 620x106
oin
ZM 090U 152.0 60.19 66.68 17.80 1.57 461.20 30.27 17422.43 1394631
N
ZMcon 152.0 60.82 67.60 17.27 1.57 461.95 30.52 17429.61 1398093
ZL060R 152.0 61.00 65.00 19.25 1.64 484.62 30.39 16968.88 16969
in
ZL060U 152.0 60.50 65.70 19.15 1.56 461.40 30.50 15733.03 15733
3
VO ZL090R 152.0 59.36 66.60 17.57 1.62 473.45 29.93 16509.75 16510 660x106
oin
ZL090U 152.0 61.00 67.64 17.93 1.62 478.83 30.74 16712.00 16712
N
ZLcon 152.0 61.20 67.60 18.75 1.52 452.41 31.11 15171.47 15171
ZE018R 154.0 60.20 70.21 18.21 1.59 476.83 31.27 18725.79 18726
ZE018U 154.0 58.93 70.45 17.30 1.53 454.86 30.80 17174.28 17174
ZE030R 154.0 60.92 70.12 17.96 1.51 453.39 31.41 17203.29 17203
oin ZE030U 156.0 58.55 69.95 17.65 1.65 492.83 30.48 19707.08 19707
TT
O ZE030R 154.0 60.71 70.40 19.21 1.56 472.08 31.78 18297.83 18298
in 530xl06
o ZE030U 156.0 58.90 70.25 17.25 1.58 472.07 30.58 18343.09 18343
in
N ZE090R 152.0 57.20 69.05 18.22 1.50 441.27 30.39 16656.30 16656
ZE090U 155.0 58.43 70.13 17.55 1.58 470.53 30.58 18236.44 18236
ZEcon 152.5 59.10 69.10 18.20 1.52 450.64 30.82 17150.19 17150
ZEconU 157.0 61.13 69.80 17.90 1.60 484.28 31.13 19003.63 19004
ZF030R 252.0 72.40 82.42 20.20 2.45 1028.79 33.28 64727.84 64728
ZF030U 254.5 71.90 81.25 20.90 2.58 1087.21 32.88 70049.45 70049
ZF050R 251.3 74.90 79.90 20.40 2.43 1019.89 33.31 63398.42 63398
oin ZF050U 255.0 74.20 80.20 20.43 2.50 1056.57 33.04 67111.34 67111
o ZF100R 251.3 73.98 80.00 20.48 2.52 1054.79 33.07 66459.78 66460
in 3150xl06
fS
oin ZF100U 251.5 73.40 80.48 20.70 2.45 1027.72 33.17 64507.32 64507
r-i
S I ZF150R 250.3 74.15 80.22 19.13 2.52 1046.59 32.80 65754.82 65755
ZF150U 256.0 73.03 81.18 20.50 2.60 1099.83 32.93 71134.16 71134
ZFcon 250.9 73.86 80.30 20.14 2.42 1012.10 33.11 62867.98 62868
ZFconU 253.5 74.55 78.50 21.18 2.50 1053.25 32.97 66410.78 66411
6-13
Table 6.3 Summary of test results
Span
Lap length Failure p max
Length Mmax Ymax
Test 2Lp mode
L,
(mm) (m) (kN) (kNm)
o ZA060R 600 (4D) MVe 45.20 27.12 1.42
O ZA060U 600 (4D) LTB 32.33 19.40 1.01
SO ZA090R 900 (6D) 2.4 MVe 50.98 30.59 1.60
ot/T
ZA090U 900 (6D) LTB 38.67 23.20 1.21
IS]
ZAcon MV 31.93 19.16 1.00
oto ZM060R 600 (4D) MVe 27.46 21.97 1.11
3.2
o ZM060U 600 (4D) LTB 21.75 17.40 0.88
SO ZM090R 900 (6D) MVe 24.90 22.41 1.13
o 3.6
to ZM090U 900 (6D) LTB 19.83 17.85 0.90
NI ZMcon 3.2 MV 24.78 19.82 1.00
ot o ZL060R 600 (4D) MVe 19.76 19.76 1.12
4.0
s ZL060U 600 (4D) LTB 14.56 14.56 0.82
so ZL090R 900 (6D) m vb 19.48 23.38 1.32
ot o 4.8
ZL090U 900 (6D) LTB 15.24 18.29 1.04
N ZLcon 4.0 MV 17.66 17.66 1.00
ZE018R 180(1.2D ) MVe 16.48 14.83 0.93
ZE018U 180(1.2D ) LTB 18.31 16.48 0.95
ZE030R 300 (2D) MVe 19.51 17.56 1.11
ot o LTB 18.31 16.48 0.95
ZE030U 300 (2D)
o ZE060R 600 (4D) MVe 23.99 21.59 1.36
3.6
o ZE060U 600 (4D) DB 17.84 16.06 0.93
N ZE090R 900 (6D) MVe 22.87 20.58 1.30
ZE090U 900 (6D) DB 18.87 16.98 0.98
ZEcon MV 19.19 17.27 1.00
ZEconU DB 17.64 15.88 0.92
ZF030R 300(1.2D ) MVe 34.55 51.83 1.15
ZF030U 300(1.2D ) LTB 33.00 49.50 0.86
ZF050R 500 (2D) MVe 46.23 69.35 1.54
o<r,
ZF050U 500 (2D) LTB 32.81 49.22 0.85
o ZF100R 1000 (4D) MVe 53.75 80.63 1.79
fS 6.0
o ZF100U 1000 (4D) DB 37.15 55.73 0.96
CN ZF150R 1500 (6D) MVe 58.87 88.31 1.96
N
ZF150U 1500 (6D) DB 36.78 55.17 0.95
ZFcon MV 38.55 57.83 1.00
ZFconU DB 30.08 45.12 0.78
Note: MVe : Section failure at the end o f lap undercombined bending and shear
MV : Section failure at mid-span under combined bending and shear
LTB : Lateral torsional buckling
DB : Distortional buckling
6-14
Structural Behaviour o f Lapped Cold-Formed Steel 2-Sections
Table 6.4 Summary of buckling resistance moments
Measured
Span Effective
Lap length Young's M
iVitest
Length Length me My Mb M T est
Test 2LP Modulus Mb
L, Le
E
(mm) (m) (kN/mm2) (mm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm)
o
vn Z A 060U 600 (4D) 1200 43.02 10.38 10.38 9.70 0.93
O
so ZA090U 900 (6D) 2.4 205 1200 39.27 10.26 10.26 11.60 1.13
>3
ZAcon - 1200 - - - - -

l/~i
Tj-
ZM 060U 600 (4D) 3.2 1600 23.02 9.54 9.54 8.70 0.91
o
ZM 090U 900 (6D) 3.6 209 1800 18.06 9.54 9.54 8.92 0.94
ZM con - 3.2 1600 - - - - -

in
Tj-
ZL060U 600 (4D) 4.0 2000 14.60 8.61 8.61 7.28 0.85
O
so ZL090U 900 (6D) 4.8 205 2400 10.75 9.15 8.49 9.14 1.08
<n
ZLcon - 4.0 2000 - - - - -
ZE018U 180 (1.2D) 1800 19.20 9.88 9.88 6.45 0.65
in
ZE030U 300 (2D) 1800 20.66 11.34 11.34 8.24 0.73
3
ZE030U 600 (4D) 3.6 215 1800 19.91 10.55 10.55 8.03 0.76
n
ZE090U 900 (6D) 1800 19.71 10.49 10.49 8.49 0.81
N
ZEconU 1800 21.30 10.93 10.93 7.94 0.73
ZF030U 300 (1.2D) 3000 29.25 37.64 26.35 24.75 0.94
'3- ZF050U 500 (2D) 3000 28.73 36.06 25.75 24.61 0.96
r> ZF100U 1000 (4D) 6.0 200 3000 27.77 34.66 24.88 27.86 1.12
tr>
CM ZF150U 1500 (6D) 3000 29.86 38.22 26.87 27.59 1.03
IS!
ZFconU 3000 28.35 35.68 25.41 22.56 0.89
6-15
EL
a! I
nF.I
Bl
El
A-A
L,
B-B
777^7777^777 77^77777)777
B olt Config. W4 Bolt Config. W6
Figure 6.1 General test setup of one point load tests for unrestrainted beams
6-16
Lateral torsional buckling o f Z A060U Lateral torsional buckling o f ZL090U
Lateral torsional buckling o f ZA060U Lateral torsional buckling o f ZL090U
Distortional buckling ofZ E 090U Distortional buckling ofZFlOOU
Figure 6.2 Failure mode of unrestrained tests
6-17
40 40
o ZA060U o Z/ t090U
ZA060R 6 z / t090R
ZAeon 2 30 M ______ 7 /
tcon
6
3 30
20 5 20 jfr (3s> m
o %ox ; .
6 4 ^&
09
A 7 \
o. V
10 10 -fir
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
End rotation, 0 (rad) End rotation, 0 (rad)
40
o ZM060U o ZM090U
ZM060R ZM090R
30 ZMcon ZMcon
i
6
o.
-A 10
C/5
00 ooo
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
40 40
o ZL060U o ZL090U
ZL060R ZL090R
a 30 ZLcon I ZLcon
i
c *f\
20 B 20
o
B
D.
10
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Figure 6.3 Moment rotation curves for ZA, ZM and ZL series
6-18
25 25
o ZE018U O ZE060U
ZE018R ZE060R
I 20 20 /
ZECONR 1 ZECONR

15 j . 15
o* \ %
o6 o \ o
B 10 10
\ c o *~U
cx o
8- o
2 5 2 5

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
25 25
o ZE030U 0 ZE090U
ZE030R ZE090R
a 20 a 20
2 ZECONR 3 ZECONR
i
15
i
i
&
I
I
a 10
t /

0
a
o
a 10
\ .
\ V
/
ex
/
GO
ex
c *
-O
a 5
/
3 5

---------
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
25
0 ZE018U ZE030U
0 ZE060U ZE090U
I ------ZfcCONU -ZECONR
* J2& * * *
r
0) 0
oa ' 0
10 0 i . _
--*L *
ex
CA -? 0

3 5
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

End rotation, 0 (rad)
Figure 6.4 Moment rotation curves for ZE series
6-19
100 100
o ZF030U o ZF100U
E ZF030R a ZF100R
80 80
------ZFCONR S ------ZFCONR
60 60 i
/\
/ B
o

40 - 5 40 v
/
/ X 9 N
t/i.
q 6
.2 20 / T3 20
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
100 100
o ZF050U o ZF150U
ZF050R ZF150R
80 80
& ------ZFCONR 2 ZFCONR
60
60
t
I
ex
s.
u
40
20
/
/ , 1?
/o
V r A
/
- >

W
B
o
B
ex
5
-6 20
40
/
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
100
o ZF030U ZF050U
a ZF100U * ZF150U
80 ------- ZFCONR
-------ZFCONU
sf
iB
o
E
a
is
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

End rotation, 0 (rad)
Figure 6.5 Moment rotation curves for ZF series
6-20
1.5 1.5 -1
1.3 <!> 1.3 -

c>
ci
. 2' 1.0 -
< Ii >
1 :
A , 4; i> t-T
O
St
ti
Ii y i
Model ]
c
i.
A
e
Ln
| 0.5
o
p
w
0.3
o
oZA ZM ZL a Z E aZ F oZA ZM OZL a Z E a ZF
0.0 ..... |..
p
o
1 1 1
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Lap length to section depth ratio, 2 Lp / D Lap length to section depth ratio, 2 Lp / D
Figure 6.6 Moment resistance ratios of Figure 6.7 Model factor against lateral
unrestrained specimens against different torsional buckling
bolt configurations and test spans
6-21
C H A P T E R SEVEN
ANALYTICAL PREDICTION OF DEFORMATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF LAPPED CONNECTIONS BETWEEN
COLD-FORMED STEEL Z-SECTION PURLINS
7.1 Objectives and scope of work
In order to facilitate the design development o f multi-span lapped purlin systems,
this chapter presents an analytical method to predict the deform ation characteristics
o f bolted moment connections between cold-formed steel Z sections. The process
was divided into two steps:
a) Based on measured load-extension curves obtained from typical lap shear tests
on bolted connections between cold-formed steel sections, a normalized bearing
deformation curve was established.
b) The normalized bearing deformation curve was then adopted to predict the
deformation characteristics o f joint-bend tests on lapped section after allowing
for global bending and shear actions.
The proposed analysis method for predicting the deform ation characteristics of
bolted m oment connections between cold-formed steel Z sections is verified with the
experimental results as reported in Chapter 3.
7-1
Config. W4
a) Only the webs of Z sections are bolted together which are, in turn, attached
four outer bolts are assigned to resist moment while two internal bolts are
assigned to resist lateral load.
Config. W6:
moment while two internal bolts are assigned to resist lateral load.
7.3 Deformation characteristics o f bolted connections inlap shear tests
7.3.1 Typical lap shear test set-up
In typical lap shear tests as reported by Chung & Ip 134 36]; two identical cold-formed
steel strips were tested in pair while both ends were bolted to a 25 mm thick hot
rolled steel plate, and the bolts were installed with a torque o f 30Nm. The test
specimen was pinned at both ends and mounted onto a tensile test machine as shown
7-2
in Figure 7.1. Each specimens were preloaded to 10% o f their peak load to ensure a
good contact between the bolt fastener and the connected materials. By applying
gradually a tensile force under displacement control, typical load - extension curves
was obtained, as shown in Figure 7.2a).
Table 7.1 presents typical material grades and nominal thicknesses o f cold-formed
steel strips and also the dimensions o f washers used in the lap shear tests. For each
connection configuration, three specimens were tested. Coupon tests o f the steel
strips were also carried out to provide basic mechanical properties; both the
m easured yield strengths and the Youngs modulus are also presented in Table 7.1
for reference. It was found that bearing failure in cold-formed steel strips around bolt
holes was always critical. The relevant test data and results are presented in Table
7.1.
7.3.2 Norm alized bearing deformation curve
Based on the measured load extension curves o f lap shear tests, a normalized bearing
deformation curve for bolted fastenings between cold-formed steel strips was
proposed, as shown in Figure 7.2. It should be noted that the bearing resistance o f a
bolted fastening, F^Rd , is given by:
Fb,Rd = b d t fu (7.1)
where ab is the strength coefficient which is defined as follows:
= 30 50 when 80 < 0.02 mm
1.25 (80 - 0.02) + 0.6 when 0.02 < S0 < 0.4 mm
7-3
^ 8 0 - 0 .0 5 ^
0.85 In + 1.075 when 0.4 < 50 < 3.0 mm
0.35
d is the diameter of bolt,
t is the thickness o f steel strip, and
fu is the ultimate strength o f steel strip.
Consequently, the load extension curves o f bolted fastenings with steel strips of
various steel grades, thicknesses and bolt diameters may be derived accordingly for
subsequent analysis.
7.4 Deflections o f bolted moment connections in lapped Z sections (Loading
Stage)
A total o f 18 joint bend tests on lapped cold-formed steel Z sections with both
sections Z 15016 G450 and Z25025 G450 were carried out as reported in Chapter 3.
The cold-formed steel sections in the tests were lapped together with bolts to form
moment connections. Altogether six series o f test with different bolt configurations,
test spans, and material properties were carried out. Details o f the test setup are
shown in Figure 7.3 and a summary o f test data and results are presented in Table
7.2.
7.4.1 Deformation components
In order to evaluate the deformation characteristics o f lapped Z sections, the
following assumptions are adopted:
7-4
. The center o f rotation o f the bolted moment connection coincides the bolt group
center.
The connection is symmetrical about the centerline o f the bolt group center, so
that the bolt forces are equal.
The deformation analysis o f the lapped Z sections is shown in Figure 7.4b, and the
total vertical deflection at mid-span o f the lapped Z sections, A , is given by:
A Am + Av + Ab
where
Am is the vertical deflection o f the lapped section under applied moment, M ,
Av is the vertical deflection o f the lapped section under applied shear force,
V , and
Ab is the vertical deflection o f the lapped section due to bearing
deformation in the section web around bolt hole under applied bolt force,
Fb -
Both Am and As may be readily determined by virtual work method as follows:
MM
dx (7.2a)
E I
V V
Ay dx (7.2b)
GA
7-5
where
M is the applied moment,
V is the applied shear force,
E, G are the elastic modulus and the shear modulus o f steel respectively,
and
I, Av are the second moment o f area and the shear area o f the lapped
section respectively.
It should be noted that during the evaluation of both Am and Av , integration is
performed over the entire length of the test specimens, including the lapped portion
o f the Z section.
The following expression may be adopted to determine Ab :
Ab (j) x i i i - (7.2c)
where
(|) is the joint rotation o f the lapped connection due to bearing
deformation in the section web around bolt holes
5
f (7.2d)
is the deformation o f a bolted fastening under bolt force Pb according
to the normalised bearing deformation curve described by Equation
(7.1),
is the distance between the bolt and the bolt group centre, and
7-6
Lt is the overall span o f the test specimen.
Based upon the above assumptions, the relationship between the applied load, P ,
and the total vertical deflection at mid-span, A , may be obtained accordingly as
shown in Figure 7.4c.
It should be noted that during the initial loading stage, the vertical deflections of the
lapped Z sections are mainly caused by the bending and the shear deformations of
the entire Z sections. As the applied loads increase, the bolt forces in the bolted
fastenings also increase, causing significant bearing deformations around bolt holes
in the webs o f the connected sections. Consequently, under large applied loads, the
vertical deflections o f the lapped Z sections are m ainly caused by the bearing
deform ation o f the bolted fastenings in section webs.
7.4.2 Comparison with test results
Figures 7.5 to 7.7 present a comparison between the measured and the predicted
mid-span moment end rotation curves for joint-bend test series ZA, ZB, ZC, ZD, ZE,
and ZF. It should be noted that the critical mode o f failure in all tests is the failure at
the ends o f the lap under combined moment and shear. It is shown that good
agreement is found between the measured and the predicted curves at both the initial
and the final deformation stages. Moreover, in order to illustrate the extent o f
bearing deform ation o f the bolted fastenings in the section webs, four points are
marked onto the predicted curves in Figures 7.5 to 7.7, namely, Points a, b, c and d
which correspond to the bearing deformation at the section web and bolt holes, 80 to
be equal to 0.5, 1, 2 and 3 mm respectively. Furthermore, a dashed line is also
7 -7
draw n on the same graph of the curve for each test which indicates the maximum
m id-span moment, Mmv , of the test specimen after considering combined bending
and shear at the ends of lap. Table 7.4 summarizes the predicted moment resistances
o f the lapped connections at various extensions together with the values o f M mv .
In order to verify the proposed analysis method with the experimental results, both
the slopes o f the moment rotation curves and the effective flexural rigidities of the
lapped connections are summarized in Table 7.3a and Table 7.3b respectively. The
ratios between the measured and predicted initial slope, Si, are found to range from
0.77 to 1.06, while that of the final slopes, Sf, are found to range from 0.91 to 1.12.
The ratios between the measured and the predicted initial effective flexural rigidities,
a;, are found to range from 0.48 to 1.10 while that of the effective flexural rigidities,
cif, are found to range from 0.84 to 1.21.
. For lapped Z sections with long laps, insignificant bearing deformations are
found with the value o f 80 smaller than 0.5 mm. W hen compared with the
control specimen, there are significant increases in both the flexural rigidities
and the m oment resistances of the connections, forming very effective
connections for moment transfer between the lapped Z sections.
. For lapped Z sections with short laps, bearing deformations in the connections
are significant with the value o f 80 ranging from 1 to 2 mm. This leads to
7 -8
significant reduction in the flexural rigidity o f the test specimens when
compared with the control specimen, i.e. continuous Z section with no lap.
W hile the deformation characteristics o f the lapped Z sections at both the initial and
the final deformation stages are obtained satisfactorily, it should be noted that the
unloading parts o f the load-deflection curves could not be obtained analytically.
7.5 Deflection lapped connections at the unloading stage
The moment-rotation curves of the joint-bend tests show that after the maximum
moments are reached, an unloading phase begins. The unloading parts of the
deformation characteristics of both test series ZA and ZB are plotted in Figure 7.8.
The predicted curves for both test series ZA and ZB are plotted on the same graph of
the measured curves in Figure 7.8 for easy comparison. It is shown that the
predicted curves may be considered to be good representations to the measured
curves. It is shown that the unloading parts o f the joint-bend tests cannot be
described analytically as the structural behaviour is rather complex. Empirical
unloading curves is proposed as follows:
y = e('A0+B) +C
where
y is the moment resistance ratio of the unloading part o f the moment
rotation curve o f lapped connection
0 is the end rotation (rad) and
A, B, and C are constants
7 -9
Stmctural Behaviour o f Lapped Cold-Formed Steel Z-Sections
The equation for the unloading curve o f section Z 15016 for test series ZA is given
by:
A = 56ymax - 9;
B = ln(ymax - C);
C = 0.19ymax + 0.09
The equation for the unloading curve o f section Z25025 for test series ZB is given by:
A = 185Ymax - 75;
B = l n ( y m a x C ) ;
C = 0 . 3 1 A + 0 . 0 3
7.6 Effective flexural rigidity o f lapped connections
According to the predicted load deformation curves o f the joint-bend tests of lapped
connections between cold-formed steel Z sections, both the initial effective flexural
rigidity and the final effective flexural rigidity can be obtained. The predicted
effective flexural rigidities o f the lapped connections with different lap lengths,
section sizes and span lengths are summarized in Table 7.5. Both the measured
initial effective flexural rigidities and the final effective flexural rigidities are plotted
against different lap length to section depth ratios in Figure 7.10 and Figure 7.11
respectively. It should be noted that:
The initial effective flexural rigidities are directly proportional to the lap length
to section depth ratios.
7-10
The final effective flexural rigidities are directly proportional to the lap length
to section depth ratios.
Figure 7.14 presents the predicted initial and the predicted final effective flexural
rigidities against lap length to section depth ratios respectively. The analytical
prediction also demonstrates a linear relationship betw een the effective flexural
rigidities and the lap length to section depth ratios. It is also found that the system
span does not affect the effective flexural rigidities significantly.
7.7 Application to multi-span lapped purlin system
In order to incorporate the effect o f partial continuity o f lapped sections in multi
span purlin members, a structural analysis using force m ethod is carried out to derive
analytically all the internal forces in lapped purlin members under uniformly
distributed loads.
Data sheet 7 A presents the design formula for both the reactions and the shear forces
as well as the moments o f a non-prismatic four lapped span purlin member. The
effect o f partial continuity in lapped connections on the distribution o f internal forces
is fully incorporated. These design parameters are applicable to fully restrained
beams under gravity loads with lapped connections sim ilar to those tested in the
experimental investigation. Figures 7.14 presents the variations o f the moment
coefficients for sagging and hogging moments against different lap lengths in four
lapped span beams o f different system lengths. It should also be noted that for
beams with short lap lengths, the hogging moment is reduced while the sagging
moment is increased when compared with those in continuous beams. It is shown
7-11
that the values o f the moment coefficients differ significantly from those obtained
for fully continuous beams. Moreover, for beams with different system lengths, the
m om ent coefficients for both sagging and hogging moment in lapped purlins with
different system lengths differ significantly for short lap lengths although the
differences diminish when the lap length increases. Therefore an optimal lap length
o f the lapped purlin can be determined when section failure occurs at both the
sagging and the hogging regions at the same time, representing a highly desirable
situation with high structural efficiency. The design developm ent o f multi-span
lapped purlin systems will be fully presented in Chapter 9.
7.8 Conclusions
This chapter presents an analytical method to predict the deform ation characteristics
o f lapped connections between cold-formed steel purlins o f Z sections. Comparison
between the predicted and the measured moment-rotation curves o f lapped purlins is
shown to be satisfactory. Consequently, the proposed m ethod is considered to be
effective in assessing the effective flexural rigidity o f lapped purlins over the entire
deformation ranges. The moment resistances o f lapped purlins may be readily
obtained after considering combined moment and shear at the end o f laps. The
proposed method provides important understanding on the overall structural
behavior o f the bolted moment connections in lapped purlins. As the effective
flexural rigidities o f lapped purlins can be predicted analytically without the need of
testing, this will greatly facilitate the product development processes o f m odem roof
systems using cold-formed steel purlins.
7-12
M oreover, a number of analysis expressions for the design development on multi
span lapped purlin systems are also presented. It should be noted that the lapped
connections affect significantly the structural behaviour o f multi-span lapped purlin
system in terms o f both strength and stiffness. The design method is fully reported
in Chapter 9.
7-13
Data sheet 7A Design coefficients for internal forces of four lapped span purlin
m em bers
C a 2 + C 42gc + C 4, C 4, = 3 2 - 2 O 4 0 + 5 1 6 p 2 - 6 2 2 p 3 + 2 9 7 p 4 (a )
^ 4,1 - 24. i where C 44a + C 45a + C 4( C 42 = 204P ~ 8 0 4 p 3 + 1 12603 - 6 0 9 p 4
C 43 = 2 8 8 p 2 - 5 O 4 0 3 + 3 1 2 p 4
C 44 = 7 - 48P + 13 2 p 2 - 1 8O03 + 1 2 0 p 4
c 45 = 48P - 2 0 4 P 2 + 3 2 4 P 3 - 2 4 0 p
< : = 7 2 p 2 - 1 4 4 p 3 + 120p"
^47' tL4^X"t ^*4< C 47 = 13 - 9 6P + 2 7 6 P 2 - 3 7 8 P 3 + 2 3 7 p

^ 4.o = r4,a7^ where Lo : C44O1 + C45a + C4( C 48 = 9 6 p ~ 4 2 0 p 2 + 6 6 6 P 3 - 4 6 5 p 4 (b)
C 49 = 144p2 - 2 8 8 p 3 + 2 2 8 p 4
R4 2 = r4 2qL where r42 = 2 - r4, \ql. (c)
^4,2.
4-2
2 q lf (d) =1 r4 2 - - \qL (e)
r 4,0 'I (4 -r,

r4,2+rv\ 1 qL1 (f>
2 J 8
where V4.2 = r4.2 (g) = V41 qJL w here v4/ = l - r 4 2 (h)

V4.2 = V4,2<1L
4-
K>/ = v4.,+? V4,l = r 4,l
N otes:
a is the effective flexural rigidity ratio o f lapped connections;
p is the lap length coefficient where 2 Lp = 2 p Ls; 2 Lp is the total lap length and Ls is the
span length;
q is the applied uniformly distributed load.
El aE I EI aEI EI aEI EI
... t 0 >1 P D C o
Mr A A Mr
2 1 0 1 2
e ie l< > | 0
i<---------------- J i J m PL PI ---------------- >|
BMD -4.0
J i
L4.10 U.10
V42
7-14
T ab le 7.1 T est data o f lap shear tests and coupon tests
Test Steel grade N om inal Y ield E lastic

thickness strength M odulus
(m m ) (N /m m 2) (kN /m m 2)
A 11A -1 61 6 .7 222 .2
o
o A 1 1 A -2 G 550 1.6 622.1 220
a. A 1 1 A -3 62 3 .2 212 .9
=8 A 2 1 A -4 320.1 203.3
s A 2 1 A -5 G 300 1.5 321.2 2 0 6 .7
3
-C
U A 2 1 A -6 320.3 2 0 2 .7
*In all tests, the dimensions of the washers are

External diameter is equal to 25.7mm.
Internal diameter is equal to 20.3mm.
7-15
Table 7.2 Test data of joint-bend tests

Measured Measured
Lap Maximum
Test Section dimensions yield Young's
length load
strength Modulus
2L P D E F c t Py E p
A max
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (N/mm2) (kN/mm2) (kN)
ZA018R 180 151.0 67.4 63.5 16.5 1.71 27.98
tr>
ZA024R 240 150.8 67.5 63.4 16.5 1.71 30.12
o ZA030R 300 151.0 67.7 63.4 16.6 1.69 33.92
541 199
o ZA060R 600 150.9 67.6 63.5 16.4 1.70 45.20
i/~i
sr ZA090R 900 150.7 67.5 63.1 16.6 1.69 51.00
M
ZACON - 150.7 67.4 63.5 16.5 1.69 31.94
ZB030R 300 250.8 79.4 73.3 21.5 2.52 51.90
to
ZB060R 600 250.4 79.2 73.5 21.6 2.51 73.74
o ZB090R 900 250.7 78.9 73.5 21.6 2.50 86.96
o-a ZB120R 537 206
o 1200 250.9 79.1 73.9 21.5 2.50 99.02
to
04 ZB150R 1500 250.4 78.9 73.3 21.6 2.51 95.10
M
ZBCON - 250.8 79.4 74.1 21.8 2.52 66.04
o ZC018R 180 153.5 69.4 59.3 18.1 1.58 23.99
o ZC030R 300 153.5 69.0 58.7 17.8 1.56 28.63
VO ZC060R 600 152.5 67.6 59.9 17.9 1.48 579 205 34.87
t o ZC090R 900 153.0 67.1 60.7 18.2 1.49 39.99
S3 ZCCON - 152.0 69.1 59.4 17.6 1.48 25.12
o ZD030R 300 250.0 78.8 73.5 19.8 2.51 51.67
CJ O ZD050R 500 251.5 79.0 72.5 20.0 2.42 65.75
t o ZD100R 1000 527 204 76.79
04 250.0 79.0 73.0 20.2 2.50
O
t o ZD150R 1500 250.0 79.4 73.1 20.5 2.49 93.91
04
S3 ZDCON - 251.1 79.2 73.5 19.3 2.50 58.06
o ZE018R 180 154.0 70.2 60.2 18.2 1.59 16.48
^3- ZE030R 300 154.0 70.1 60.9 18.0 1.51 19.51
O
VO ZE060R 600 154.0 70.4 60.7 19.2 1.56 547 204 23.99
t o ZE090R 900 152.0 69.1 57.2 18.2 1.50 22.87
It
S3 ZECON - 152.5 69.1 59.1 18.2 1.52 19.19
O ZF030R 300 252.0 82.4 72.4 20.2 2.45 34.55
O ZF050R 500 251.3 79.9 74.9 20.4 2.43 46.23
to 1000 74.0 20.5 2.52 509 204 53.75
04 ZF100R 251.3 80.0
t o ZF150R
04 1500 250.3 80.2 74.2 19.1 2.52 58.87
S3 ZFCON 250.9 80.3 73.9 20.1 2.42 38.55
-
Note: Test span Lt = 2400 mm for test series ZA and ZC

= 4000 mm for test series ZB and ZD
= 3600 mm for test series ZE
= 6000 mm for test series ZF
7-16
Structural Behaviour o f Lanped Cold-Formed Steel Z-Sections
Table 7.3a Comparison of slopes of moment-rotation curves

Lap 2 Lp Measured value
Test Span
length
Measured value Predicted value
Predicted value
D
2 Lp Si Sf s, sf Si sf
(m) (m m )
ZA018R 180 1.2 1.331 0.606 1.558 0.562 0.854 1.079
o
ZA024R 240 1.6 1.421 0.926 1.680 0.849 0.845 1.091
o ZA030R 300 2.0 1.608 1.092 1.778 1.121 0.905 0.974
v 2.4
o ZA060R 600 4.0 1.911 1.753 2.140 1.814 0.893 0.967
ZA090R 900 6.0 2.303 2.136 2.454 2.247 0.939 0.951
S'
St
ZACON -
ZB030R 300 1.2 1.483 0.926 1.925 0.931 0.770 0.995

G oin ZB060R 600 2.4 1.869 1.850 2.237 1.910 0.835 0.969
3 ZB090R 900 3.6 2.238 2.305 2.469 2.319 0.906 0.994
in 4
c-t ZB120R 1200 4.8 2.459 2.586 2.686 2.514
o 0.916 1.029
CN
fsl ZB150R 1500 6.0 2.827 2.757 2.898 2.770 0.976 0.995
ZBCON - . . .
o ZC018R 180 1.2 1.034 0.594 1.235 0.601 0.837 0.988

O ZC030R 300 2.0 1.190 0.948 1.396 0.935 0.853 1.013
vo ZC060R 2.4 600 4.0 1.461 1.417 1.667 1.441 0.876 0.983
om
ZC090R 900 6.0 1.811 1.817 1.906 1.763 0.950 1.030
& M
ZCCON - . . .
S' o ZD030R 300 1.2 1.444 0.887 1.681 0.909 0.859 0.976
G ZD050R 500 2.0 1.790 1.459 1.864 1.516 0.960 0.963
n
nj ZD100R 4 1000 4.0 2.109 1.920 2.194 2.006 0.961 0.957
in 2.262
<N ZD150R 1500 6.0 2.653 2.497 2.383 1.062 0.949
Kl
ZDCON -
o ZE018R 180 1.2 0.452 0.264 0.483 0.235 0.936 1.122

It ZE030R 300 2.0 0.496 0.390 0.533 0.416 0.931 0.938
n
ZE060R 3.6 600 4.0 0.581 0.536 0.610 0.539 0.954 0.994
m ZE090R 900 6.0 0.602 0.576 0.672 0.631 0.897 0.913
X tvl
ZECON - . . .
o ZF030R 300 1.2 0.598 0.402 0.655 0.401 0.912 1.003

G rr ZF050R 500 2.0 0.599 0.591 0.709 0.600 0.845 0.986
n
in ZF100R 6 4.0 0.756 0.740 0.796 0.738 0.950 1.003
m 1000
in 1500 6.0 0.892 0.824 0.873 0.840 1.022 0.981
m ZF150R
N
ZFCON - . . .
7-17
Table 7.3b Comparison of effective flexural rigidities
Lap 2L P Measured value

Test Span
length
Measured value Predicted value
Predicted value
D
Ctj af ai af i af
2L r
(m) (mm)
ZA018R 180 1.2 0.369 0.095 0.568 0.086 0.650 1.107
oto
ZA024R 240 1.6 0.500 0.222 0.784 0.194 0.637 1.145
O ZA030R 300 2.0 0.729 0.336 0.955 0.351 0.763 0.956
SO 2.4
o ZA060R 600 4.0 1.105 0.951 1.371 1.008 0.806 0.943
ZA090R 900 6.0 1.400 1.257 1.537 1.351 0.911 0.930
S: ...
ZACON - 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
ZB030R 300 1.2 0.334 0.141 0.697 0.142 0.479 0.992
& o ZB060R 600 2.4 0.757 0.741 1.189 0.795 0.637 0.932
3 ZB090R 900 3.6 1.130 1.199 1.389 1.215 0.814 0.987
to 4
fN ZB120R 1200 4.8 1.286 1.401 1.497 1.334 0.859 1.050
O
<N ZB150R 1500 6.0 1.516 1.461 1.573 1.471 0.964 0.993
N3
ZBCON - ... 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0
o ZC018R 180 1.2 0.378 0.135 0.626 0.137 0.604 0.981

n ZC030R 300 2.0 0.664 0.415 1.015 0.405 0.654 1.025
so ZC060R 2.4 600 4.0 1.093 1.036 1.406 1.067 0.778 0.971
oto
ZC090R 900 6.0 1.446 1.452 1.560 1.391 0.927 1.044
M ...
ZCCON - 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0
c 1 o ZD030R 300 1.2 0.458 0.169 0.747 0.175 0.613 0.961

U *r ZD050R 500 2.0 0.983 0.586 1.116 0.638 0.881 0.918
n
o
CnJ ZD100R 4 1000 4.0 1.339 1.121 1.451 1.216 0.923 0.922
to ZD150R 1500 6.0 1.740 1.370 1.586 1.479 1.097 0.927
Of
N
ZDCON - ... 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0
o ZE018R 180 1.2 0.408 0.118 0.524 0.097 0.778 1.209
n ZE030R 300 2.0 0.700 0.366 0.912 0.425 0.768 0.861

SO 3.6 4.0 1.173 0.961 1.334 0.974 0.879 0.986
ZE060R 600
to ZE090R 900 6.0 1.196 1.102 1.483 1.307 0.807 0.843
NJ
ZECON - 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0
w O ZF030R 300 1.2 0.455 0.162 0.677 0.161 0.672 1.006

o "3- 2.0 0.576 0.556 1.057 0.580 0.545 0.959
n ZF050R 500
o
CM ZF100R 6 1000 4.0 1.215 1.147 1.403 1.138 0.866 1.008
to
o f ZF150R 1500 6.0 1.593 1.353 1.520 1.405 1.048 0.963
NJ
ZFCON - ... 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0
7-18
Table 7.4 Mid-span moments at different extensions

Predicted Predicted Predicted Predicted Predicted Measured
mid-span mid-span mid-span mid-span mid-span mid-span
moment at moment at moment at moment at moment moment Mmv
Test sp a n
S0 = 1.0 8 = 2.0 resistance resistance Mmax
length o = 0.5 So = 3.0
mm mm mm mm at end o f from test
lap
L, *Mb *Mc *Md * M mv *Mmax
(mm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm)
oV ZA018R 8.3 12.6 16.5 18.9 13.1 16.8 0.78
)
rf ZA024R 10.8 16.5 21.8 24.8 15.6 18.1 0.87
O 2400
SO ZA030R 13.5 20.5 27.1 30.7 17.7 20.4 0.87
o ZA060R 26.7 40.6 53.5 60.7 24.2 27.1 0.89
NJ
ZA090R 40.2 61.0 80.1 91.1 28.5 30.6 0.93
tw ZAcon - - - - - - - -
ZB030R 28.5 44.4 57.9 64.9 48.9 51.9 0.94
c> ZB060R 55.0 85.3 111.4 124.9 64.4 73.7 0.87
O ZB090R 4000 82.0 127.0 166.0 185.9 74.8 87.0 0.86
o ZB120R 109.0 169.0 220.5 247.3 82.3 99.0 0.83
in
r-J ZB150R 135.5 211.0 275.5 308.6 91.4 95.1 0.96
NJ
ZBcon - - - - - - - -
o ZC018R 11.7 17.6 23.3 26.5 12.0 14.4 0.83
o ZC030R 18.9 28.2 37.3 42.5 15.7 17.2 0.91
SO ZC060R 2400
37.3 55.5 73.2 83.4 20.3 20.9 0.97

m ZC090R 55.7 83.0 109.4 124.7 24.1 24.0 1.00
S3 ZCcon - - - - - - - -
o
m ZD030R 42.0 63.1 83.5 95.3 44.3 51.7 0.86
a ZD050R 4000
67.9 101.3 133.8 152.6 51.9 65.8 0.79
m ZD100R 133.8 199.3 262.9 299.6 73.4 76.8 0.96

in ZD150R 200.2 298.0 392.9 447.8 87.0 93.9 0.93
NJ ZDcon - - - - - - - -
O
m ZE018R 11.7 17.6 23.3 26.5 11.4 14.8 0.77
6 ZE030R 3600 18.9 28.2 37.3 42.5 13.3 17.6 0.76
SO ZE060R 37.3 55.5 73.2 83.4 19.5 21.6 0.90
in ZE090R 55.7 83.0 109.4 124.7 20.6 20.6 1.00
NJ ZEcon - - - - - - - -
F O ZF030R 42.0 63.1 83.5 95.3 39.7 51.8 0.77
o T j-
O rn ZF050R 6000 67.9 101.3 133.8 152.6 49.2 69.3 0.71
i<n ZF100R 133.8 199.3 262.9 299.6 65.6 80.6 0.81
N
O
i/i ZF150R 200.2 298.0 392.9 447.8 73.8 88.3 0.84
<N
NJ ZFcon - - - - - - - -
7-19
Table 7.5a Effective flexural rigidities and moment coefficients against

different test span and lap length (Z 15016 G450)
Yield Test Lap Moment
Predicted value
strength span length coefficient
Py L, 2 Lp 2Lp / D tXj cxf Msag Mhog
fN/mm2) (m) (mm) (mm)
180 1.2 0.56 0.07 0.096 -0.061
oun 240 1.6 0.77 0.18 0.089 -0.078

"3- 300 2.0 0.94 0.33 0.085 -0.089
o
so 1.8 450 3.0 1.22 0.81 0.079 -0.104
o
600 4.0 1.38 1.16 0.076 -0.110
Nl
900 6.0 1.58 1.36 0.074 -0.115
1.00 1.00 1.000 1.000
180 1.2 0.57 0.08 0.092 -0.070
o 240 1.6 0.78 0.21 0.086 -0.086

in
300 2.0 0.96 0.37 0.082 -0.095
O
so 2.4 450 3.0 1.22 0.86 0.078 -0.105
o
v> 600 4.0 1.37 1.01 0.077 -0.107
M
900 6.0 1.54 1.35 0.075 -0.113
1.00 1.00 1.000 1.000
180 1.2 0.57 0.09 0.089 -0.078
otfi 240 1.6 0.79 0.22 0.084 -0.090
s 300 2.0 0.96 0.40 0.081 -0.098
so 3.0 450 3.0 1.22 0.93 0.077 -0.106
ov~>
600 4.0 1.36 1.02 0.077 -0.107
St M 900 6.0 1.51 1.35 0.075 -0.112
541 1.00 1.00 1.000 1.000
s: _____
cS 180 1.2 0.58 0.09 0.088 -0.081
o 240 1.6 0.80 0.24 0.083 -0.094
o 300 2.0 0.97 0.43 0.080 -0.100
vo 3.6 450 3.0 1.23 0.74 0.078 -0.104
o'A,
600 4.0 1.36 1.03 0.077 -0.107
N 900 6.0 1.50 1.34 0.076 -0.111
.. . 1.00 1.00 1.000 1.000
180 1.2 0.58 0.10 0.086 -0.085
oV-l 240 1.6 0.80 0.24 0.082 -0.095
"d- 300 2.0 0.97 0.43 0.080 -0.101
o
VD 4.2 450 3.0 1.23 0.74 0.078 -0.105
ow
600 4.0 1.36 1.03 0.077 -0.107
N 900 6.0 1.49 1.34 0.076 -0.111
1.00 1.00 1.000 1.000
180 1.2 0.58 0.10 0.086 -0.085
o 240 1.6 0.80 0.24 0.082 -0.095
*r 300 2.0 0.97 0.46 0.079 -0.101
O
VO 4.5 450 3.0 1.23 0.74 0.078 -0.105
ov~i
600 4.0 1.35 1.03 0.077 -0.107
N 6.0 1.48 1.34 0.076 -0.111
900
.. . .. . LOO 1.00 1.000 1.000
7-20
Table 7.5b Effective flexural rigidities and moment coefficients against

Yield Test Lap Moment

Predicted value
strength span length coefficient
Pv Lt 2 Ld 2LD/ D a, Ctf M h0B
(N/mm2) (m) (mm) (mm)
300 1.2 0.86 0.13 0.090 -0.076
<0
600 2.4 1.27 0.76 0.079 -0.103
0 900 3.6 1.45 1.26 0.076 -0.111
/~) 3.0
CM
0 1200 4.8 1.56 1.34 0.075 -0.113
rM
S3 1500 6.0 1.65 1.50 0.073 -0.117
1.00 1.00 1.000 1.000
300 1.2 0.87 0.15 0.087 -0.084
0
600 2.4 1.27 0.83 0.078 -0.105
a 900 3.6 1.43 1.11 0.077 -0.109
1/1 4.0
O
0
i
1200 4.8 1.52 1.34 0.075 -0.112
rM
NJ 1500 6.0 1.59 1.47 0.074 -0.115
1.00 1.00 1.000 1.000
300 1.2 0.88 0.16 0.085 -0.089
O
10 600 2.4 1.27 0.87 0.078 -0.106
O 900 3.6 1.42 1.12 0.077 -0.108
CM
5.0
0 1200 4.8 1.51 1.33 0.076 -0.111
cm
1500 6.0 1.56 1.45 0.075 -0.113
1.00 1.00 1.000 1.000
a0 300 1.2 0.88 0.17 0.083 -0.092
O 0
/-> 600 2.4 1.27 0.88 0.078 -0.106
O 900 3.6 1.42 1.12 0.077 -0.108
IT ) 6.0
CM
O 1200 4.8 1.49 1.33 0.076 -0.111
CM
SJ 1500 6.0 1.54 1.44 0.075 -0.112
1.00 1.00 1.000 1.000
300 1.2 0.89 0.18 0.082 -0.094
0
V> 600 2.4 1.27 0.88 0.077 -0.106
a 900 3.6 1.41 1.13 0.077 -0.108
VT 7.0
CM
O
in 1200 4.8 1.48 1.33 0.076 -0.110
S3 1500 6.0 1.53 1.44 0.075 -0.112
1.00 1.00 1.000 1.000
300 1.2 0.89 0.18 0.082 -0.094
0
in 600 2.4 1.27 0.89 0.077 -0.106
O 900 3.6 1.41 1.13 0.077 -0.108
in 7.5
CM
0
IT ) 1200 4.8 1.48 1.32 0.076 -0.110
S3 1500 6.0 1.53 1.43 0.075 -0.112
.. . . 1.00 1.00 1.000 1.000
7-21
2P
Pinned
joint
Cold-formed
steel strip
Displacement
transducer
150mm
75mm
Washer
Hot-rolled
steel plate
2P
Figure 7.1 Typical set-up of lap shear tests
40 25
35
30
20
*
* 0
| 25 15 fcA* 1
20 A w
o A11A-1 10 p ----- A21A-4
15
10 A11A-2 A21A-5
5 r
5 A A11A-3 A A21A-6
0 0T
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Extension 5n (mm) Extension S0 (mm)
Figure 7.2a Load extension curves of lap shear tests

4.0
For 50 < 0.02 mm,
3.0 Ob = 308o
For 0.02 mm < 50 <0.4 mm,

a b= 1.25*(S0 -0.02) + 0.6
1.0
For S0 > 0.4 mm,
0.0 a b = 0.S5*ln[8o-0.05J/0.35 + 1.075
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Extension 80 (mm)
Figure 7.2b Normalized bearing deformation curve for bolted fastenings
7-22
Lateral restraints are

" a I T l
provided at close interval.
EI EI
I<-
77777777
Lateral restraint
I
in
V
i s f
V
I s
A-A B-B
Bolt configuration Test series Test span L,

1 o O | O ZA 2400
1 1
Config W4 1 4
o o 1 o
ZB 4000
vr)/////}///
ZC 2400
1 o o , o
ZD 4000
Config W6 < . o 4
>
- !: o 1 o ZE 3600
ZF 6000
Figure 7.3 General test setup of one point load tests
7-23
Lateral! restraint provided ati close

intervals
! 1t LIDO mill for 2.15016 04 5 0

4000 rnin for Z2502|S G450
Figure 7.4a One point load tests of lapped Z sections
PL
77/ M=
Lt/2
BMD
SFD V V
G A
where (()
: Center o f rotation
Figure 7.4b Deformation characteristics o f lapped Z sections
7-24
30
25
Mid span moment, M (kNm)

20
15
Deformation of the whole member
10 * Bending and shear deformation
Bending deformation
5
0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
End Rotation, 0 (rad)
0m = Rotation due to bending deformation, 2Am/ L,

0V= Rotation due to shear deformation, 2AV/ L,
0b = Rotation due to bearing deformation, 2Ab / Lt
Figure 7.4c Typical mid-span moment end rotation curve o f lapped Z sections
7-25
40 120
kNm kNm
Test S 100 Test
30
Predicted Predicted
* Control Control
20
o 8. 40
c/i
~6 10
20
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
End rotation (rad) End rotation (rad)
a) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZA018R a) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZB030R
40 120
Mpb 30.7 kNm M pb 1 8 5 . ? kNr i
e 100
z O Test
3 a
o Test
S . 30
Predicted 80 1 ------ Predicted
m Control E Control
I 20 :mmm o 60 b- ^
o m E W gi o
o. 40 rV ru .
&< , . m n
V 10 * 3 a
X lO o o o o
^ m Si iS; 20
0 W
_

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0 0 . 02 0. 03 0. 04 0. 05 0.
b) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZA030R b) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZB090R
_ 40 120
e M pb 9 1 .2 kNm .......I 1 's Mpb 308. kNtJt
3 30 o Test 100 o Test
----------
e<U Predicted c: 80 Predicted
QJ Bf Wm *- \0
oe 20 E
K , * Control p N Control
o 60
E \ <! o o U
o
a. m o.
40 ' f
r
s S
OOCD
Vi 10 m i4S
e) s m o 90 fc * *
2
0 0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
c) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZA090R c) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZB150R
* a: S0 = 0.5 mn * b: 80 = 1.0 mm * c: 8 = 2.0 mn * d: 80 = 3.0 mm
where 80 is the bearing deformation o f bolts derived from the normalized load extension curve o f lap
shear tests
Figure 7.5 Comparison of moment rotation curves between the test results on ZA,
ZB and the analytical prediction
7-26
30 100
kNm Mpb== 152 6 k N n
6 25
i. oTest 80 Test
C 20 Predicted .. ------ Predicted
eo 15
* Control I 60 ----- < Control
6 1 f iW
40 uo O
ex 10 ex i OOq 0o o o
Vi Vi
"7d
1
5 *73 20
S sl
2
0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
a) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZC030R a) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZD050R
30 100
M p b ' =83.4 kNm M pb = 2 9 9 6kN n
25
o Test 80
o Test
A

20 cted JirgK ------ Predicted
60
15
\ o
^ Control a
o / 1 Control
8 \ a 40
Cu 10 w o.
/i
/p o
> w% o o o < t>
Vi
*6 20
SfsS%*-a O m uoi
# 0
.
o

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0 0. 01 0. 02 0. 03 0. 05 0.
b) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZC060R b) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZD100R
^ 30 100
124 7 kNm a .8 kN m
Test
Test
Predicted Predicted
a
o Control
Control
a
o .
-6
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
c) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZC090R c) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZD150R
* a: S0 = 0.5 mn * b: SG= 1.0 mm * c: 80 = 2.0 mn * d: 50 = 3.0 mm
where 80 is the bearing deformation o f bolts derived from the normalized load extension curve o f lap
shear tests
Figure 7.6 Comparison of moment rotation curves between the test results on ZC,
ZD and the analytical prediction
7-27
25 1 1
^pb 42.5 kNm o Test Mpb4 152.6 kN o Test
20 icted Predicted
* Con trol Control
g 15 _Jro)
o -
V
10 w X
z ,ofcJ
Q.
5
it'"
.#
0 A -----
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
a) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZE030R a) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZF050R
25 100 i
Mpb- 83.4 kNm o Test Mpb" 299. >kNr i o Test
S
Z 20 -------- Predicted 80
o\ Control m Cont rol
15 mA
15 60
id o S
o
Jjjr^ b
e 10 a S
i 40 m V
a u
B. CL.
cn JQOCfco
-o 5 'O 20 ***** ,
is r m mmm
2 /
0 0
0 0. 01 0. 02 0.(33 0. 04 0.05 0. 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
End rotation (kNm) End rotation (rad)
b) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZE060R b) Mid-span moment rotation curve ofZFlOOR
~ 25 100
Test 447.SicNr n o Test
Predicted 80
& ContTOl
Control
6o 60
6 40 w
%
B.
20 of Uu%n
T3
0 w
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
c) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZE090R c) Mid-span moment rotation curve o f ZF150R
* a: 80 = 0.5 mn * b: 80 = 1.0 mm * c: 80 = 2.0 mn * d: 80 = 3.0 mm
where 8Cis the bearing deformation o f bolts derived from the normalized load extension curve o f lap
shear tests
Figure 7.7 Comparison of moment rotation curves between the test results on ZE,
ZF and the analytical prediction
7-28
P rediction o f unloading part (ZA series) Prediction o f unloading part (ZB series)
OZA018R O ZB030R
Prediction
ZA030R ZB090R
Prediction
A ZA090R AZB150R
K 0.8
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06

Prediction o f unloading part (ZC series) Prediction o f unloading part (Z D series)

2.0 2.0
I ........ r I , ...._
O ZC030R 1 Predicti on | O ZD050R
1 ,_j Prediction I 1.6
ZC060R ' ' i f ZD100R
A ZC090R
I 12
VI
A ZD150R .
a 0.8 a o.8
c<L> At
M M '...........
O' Oo o6 0.4
0.0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06
Prediction o f unloading part (ZE series) Prediction o f unloading part (ZF series)
2.0
O ZE030R O ZF050R
.6 >~| Prediction
ZE060R ZF100R
Prediction AZF150R
1.2 a ZE090R
0.8
0.4 B 0.4
I o
s
0.0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06
Figure 7.8 C om parison o f unloading curves betw een the test results and th e analytical
prediction
7-29
1.50
1.25 A
4i _ <
o. 1.00 * 1 1
A ... * ..... A
F
0.75
a 0.50
0.25
ZA ZB ZC ZD * ZE A ZF
0.00
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Lap length to section depth ratio 2Lp / D
Figure 7.9 Effective flexural rigidities ratios against the lap length to section depth
ratio
2.0 2.0
1.5 . 1.5
! ! f
1
B 1.0 I I* ZA ZB 8 1.0 ZA ZB
1:

I* ZC ZD ZC H ZD
0.5 0.5
* ZE ZF ZE A ZF
0.0 0.0 -
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 !.0
Lap length to section depth ratio 2Lp / Lap length to section depth ratio 2Lp /
D D
Figure 7.10 Initial effective flexural rigidities Figure 7.11 Final effective flexural rigidities
ratios against the lap length to section depth ratio ratios against the lap length to section depth ratio
3.0 ; 3.0
2.5
2.0
;<i
<
ii
t
ZA ZB
2.5
2.0

------ 1
Z A ZB
1.5 1.5

1.0 ZC ZD 1.0 ..... w *-1 ZC ZD
A ' -k
0.5 i A ii
0.5
* ZE A ZF A : ZE A ZF
A
0.0 1----------- 4 0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Lap length to section depth ratio 2Lp / Lap length to section depth ratio 2Lp /
D D
Figure 7.12 Initial slope against the lap length to Figure 7.13 Final slope against the lap length to
section depth ratio section depth ratio
7-30
Z 150 1 6 G450 Z25025 G450
1.75 _ 1.75
8
1.50 .1? 1.50 1
1.25
< /
1.25 /
S '
1.00 = 1.8m 1.00 =3.0 m
0.75
Lt == 2.4 m
A Lt == 3.0 m
0.75 x' Lt =4.0 m
A Lt == 5.0 m
0.50 y A L t == 3.6 m
0.50 A L t ==6.0 m
0.25
\! = 4.2 m 0.25 = 7.0 m

m M Lt = 4.5 m Lt =- 7.5 m
0.00 0.00
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
-0.125 -0.125
a -o.ioo - 0.100
L t= 1.8 m L t = 3.0 m
Lt = 2.4 m L t = 4.0 m
-0.075 L t= 3.0 m -0.075 -A L t = 5.0 m

L t = 3.6 m
L t = 4.2 m S L t = 7.0 m
Lt = 4.5 m Lt = 7 .5 m
-0.050 -0.050
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6 8
0.125 0.125
L t= 1.8 m
Lt = 2.4 m Lt = 4.0 m
Lt = 3.0 m
sg 0.100 Lt = 3.6 m 0.100 A L t = 6.0 m
8 s Lt = 4.2 m H3 L t = 7.0 m
Lt = 4.5 m Hi L t = 7.5 m
0.075 0.075
0.050 0.050
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6 8
Lap length to section depth ratio, 2 lp /D Lap length to section depth ratio, 2L,, / D
Figure 7.14 Moment coefficient against lap length to section depth ratio
7-31
C H A PTER EIGHT
NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF LAPPED CONNECTIONS
BETWEEN COLD-FORMED STEEL Z SECTIONS
8.1 Objectives of investigation
This chapter presents the details o f a numerical investigation on the structural
performance o f lapped connections between cold-formed steel Z sections. In order
to facilitate the design development of multi-span lapped purlin systems, a
theoretical study is carried out to predict both the strength and the deformation
characteristics o f bolted moment connections between cold-form ed steel Z sections
as presented in Chapter 7 while a numerical study is carried out to verify the
theoretical analysis and the proposed design method. In the last few decades,
numerical simulation has drawn the attention o f many researchers in various
scientific disciplines with the advancement o f computer hardware and software. In
the field o f structural engineering, results from finite element simulation may
provide detailed information on the stress and the strain distributions in structures.
Such information is not easily available from experiments, and thus, numerical
investigation may be used to provide supplementary data for improved
understanding. Furthermore, parametric studies on the finite elem ent models may be
performed to improve the efficiency o f structural design.
The objectives of this numerical study are:
8-1
. To examine both the strength and the deformation characteristics o f bolted
m om ent connections between lapped Z sections over the entire deformation
ranges.
To assess the strengths and the stiffness o f the lapped connections with various
lap lengths for proper understanding and rational design o f multi-span purlin
systems with overlaps.
To verify the theoretical analysis and the proposed design rules for lapped
connection design.
8.2 Basic Configurations of Lapped Connections
In order to establish effective bolted m oment connections between lapped Z sections,
a practical configuration for generic lapped connections is proposed after considering
ease o f installation as follows:
Config. W4
a) Only the webs of Z sections are bolted together which are, in turn, attached
b) Six bolts per connection are adopted as the m inimum configuration where
four outer bolts are assigned to resist moment while two internal bolts are
assigned to resist lateral load, as shown in Figure 8.1.
8.3 N um erical study
8-2
A total o f two analysis series with 10 one point load tests using the commercial finite
elem ent package ABAQUS were carried out to verify the test results o f test series
ZA and ZB reported in Chapter 3. The program o f the study is summarized in Table
8.1 together with basic geometrical data.
8.3.1 Finite element model
Due to symmetry, only a lapped Z section with the full length o f a test specimen was
m odeled, and Figure 8.1 illustrates both the loading and the boundary conditions of
the finite element model. It should be noted that the highly efficient four nodded
shell elements S4R were employed to simulate the cold-formed steel Z sections.
Both the m easured geometrical dimensions and the m easured material properties
were adopted in the model. Material non-linearity was incorporated in order to allow
yielding in the sections under combined bending and shear, and the measured stress-
strain curves obtained from coupon tests were adopted together with the Von-Mises
yield criteria in the material modeling o f the cold-formed steel sections. Geometrical
non-linearity was also adopted to allow for large deform ation under both local
buckling and distortional buckling. Numerical integration was carried out at the
centre o f the shell elements with five integration points through the thickness.
Moreover, initial geometrical imperfection in the lapped Z sections was obtained as
the first eigenmode o f the lapped Z sections modified by o f a suitable scale factor;
the eigenmode was obtained from an elastic linear buckling analysis. The maximum
magnitude o f the initial geometrical imperfection was set to be 0.25 times the section
thickness.
8-3
In order to simplify the problem, each bolted fastening betw een the section webs
w ithin the lap was modeled with a spring element, and its deform ation characteristics
was assigned to follow the normalized bearing-deformation curve described by
Equation (7.1). No contact elements were employed in the lapped sections, but
spring elements with high compression stiffnesses but low tensile stiffnesses were
provided over the entire overlapping surfaces between the cold-formed steel Z
sections.
The finite element mesh was refined locally in the region near the end o f lap of the
lapped sections, and a mesh sensitivity exercise was carried out to determine the best
model for the analyses. The final mesh adopted for subsequent analyses is shown in
Figure 8.1 with over 10,000 nodes and 3,000 elements. It was found that the
behaviour o f the finite element model responded sensitively to a number of factors
such as the magnitude o f initial imperfection, as well as the initial separation
between the lapped sections.
8.4 Numerical results
Among all analyses, apparent local buckling and distortional buckling were found at
the critical cross-sections near the ends of lap while extensive yielding was found in
both the web and the flanges at the critical cross-sections under combined bending
and shear. For continuous sections, section failure was found at the mid-span under
combined bending and shear. Figures 8.3a and 8.3b illustrate the predicted deformed
shapes o f various lapped Z sections at failure together w ith the distributions o f direct
stresses acting along the longitudinal direction o f the sections. It is shown that the
modes of failure predicted by the finite element models are similar to the observation
8-4
Structural Behaviour o f Lanned Cold-Formed Steel Z-Sections
from the experimental investigation as shown in Figure 8.2. Table 8.2 summarizes
both the test results and the numerical results o f the one point load tests o f the lapped
connections between cold-formed steel Z sections.
In order to quantify the accuracy o f the numerical analysis, a modal factor , y, was
introduced and it is defined as follows:
where
Piest is the maximum load measured from test.
P fem is the maximum load obtained from finite element modeling.
It is found that the modal factors, y, range from 0.91 to 1.12 in both test series. The
prediction o f the failure loads using finite element method is found to be satisfactory.
The structural behaviour of these lapped connections may be systematically
examined in details through comparison on their mid-span moment end rotation
curves, i.e. (M s - 0e) curves. Figure 8.4 presents the predicted mid-span moment end
rotation curves o f test series ZA and ZB, and the corresponding moment end rotation
curves obtained from tests are also plotted onto the same graph for easy comparison.
Close examination reveals that
the lap lengths o f the connections, i.e. long lap lengths give stiff and strong
connections while short lap length give flexible and weak connections.
b) For lapped connections with short lap lengths, the slopes o f these (M s - 0e) curves
are significantly decreased before the maximum applied loads are attained. This
may be readily explained by the large bolt forces associated with these
c) For lapped connections with long lap lengths, both the m om ent resistances and
sections, demonstrating effective m oment connections with high structural
efficiency.
d) The slopes o f the predicted curves at both the initial and the final deformation
stages follow closely to those o f the test data. M oreover, comparison on the
unloading parts between the predicted and the measured curves is also found to
be satisfactory.
Consequently, the finite element models are considered to be adequately accurate in
predicting the deformation characteristics o f lapped Z sections over the entire
deformation ranges.
8-6
8.5 Conclusions
In order to predict the deformation characteristics of lapped connections cold-formed
steel Z sections, a total o f 10 finite element models on lapped connections were
executed. Comparison between the predicted and the m easured moment rotation
curves o f lapped Z sections is shown to be highly satisfactory. Consequently, the
numerical models are shown to be effective in assessing the structural behaviour of
lapped Z sections over the entire deformation ranges. The findings will generate
new understandings on the overall structural behaviour o f cold-formed steel
structures, in particular be useful in assessing the load carrying capacities o f multi
span purlin systems using lapped cold-formed steel Z sections which take advantage
o f m oment re-distribution over internal supports.
Table 8.1 Summary of analysis program and data

c I
T D
l<->l
F
Section dimensions
Measured Measured
Test
Lap length yield Young's
span
Test 2LP D E F c t strength Modulus
Lt
Py E
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (N/mm2) (kN/mm2)

ZA018R 180 151.0 67.4 63.5 16.5 1.71
'r.
ZA024R 240 150.8 67.5 63.4 16.5 1.71
o ZA030R 2400 300 151.0 67.7 63.4 16.6 1.69
541 199
o ZA060R 600 150.9 67.6 63.5 16.4 1.70
/-
ZA090R 900 150.7 67.5 63.1 16.6 1.69
N
ZAcon 2400 - 150.7 67.4 63.5 16.5 1.69
ZB030R 300 250.8 79.4 73.3 21.5 2.52
n ZB060R 600 250.4 79.2 73.5 21.6 2.51
*3-
O 4000
o ZB090R 900 250.7 78.9 73.5 21.6 2.50 537 206
r-J
o ZB120R 1200 250.9 79.1 73.9 21.5 2.50
fN ZB150R 1500 250.4 78.9 73.3 21.6 2.51
SI
ZBcon 4000 - 250.8 79.4 74.1 21.8 2.52
8-8
Table 8.2 Summary of test results and analysis results
Measured Measured Predicted Predicted

Lap
maximum moment maximum moment PTest
length Failure
Test load resistance load resistance P fem
2L p mode
PTest Mtest Pfem M fem
(mm) (kN) (kNm) (kN) (kNm) (kNm)

o ZA018R 180 27.98 16.78 25.60 15.36 1.09
to
ZA024R 240 30.12 18.06 27.00 16.20 1.12
o 300 MVe 20.36
VO ZA030R 33.92 33.00 19.80 1.03
o ZA060R 600 45.20 27.12 43.60 26.16 1.04
2: - ZA090R 900 51.00 30.60 50.20 30.12 1.02
ZAcon - MV 31.94 19.16 35.00 21.00 0.91
ZB030R 300 51.90 51.90 53.00 53.00 0.98
u $ ZB060R 600 73.74 73.74 76.40 76.40 0.97
a ZB090R 900 MVe 86.96 86.96 79.60 79.60 1.09
CM ZB120R 1200 99.02 99.02
O 96.30 96.30 1.03
<o
CM ZB150R 1500 95.10 95.10 104.20 104.20 0.91
N
ZBcon - MV 66.04 66.04 71.40 71.40 0.92
N otes MVe: Section failure at the end o f lap under combined bending and shear
MV: Section failure at mid-span under combined bending and shear
Test span Lt = 2400 mm for Test Series ZA and ZC

= 3600 mm for Test Series ZE
= 4000 mm for Test Series ZB and ZD
= 6000 mm for Test Series ZF
Test Series ZA: Z 15016 G450 with Config W4
50
-* 49
7777777
Use <j>12 M8.8 bolts
L, = 2400 mm
Test Series ZB: Z25025 G450 with Config W4
O o o W 5
O O o l 150 aI
<D 49
o o o
///}///
o o o
U se d)16 M8.8 bolts
h >1
/ //// //
l<- >1
Lt = 4000 mm
Z15016 G450 Z25025 G450
67.5 , 79.1
4/ K >i si/ l<>1
i6.5 r
150.9
1 .7 0 -0 .0 4 250.5
= 1.66 2 .5 1 -0 .0 4
= 2.47
p = 541 N/mm
py = 538 N/mm
E = 199 kN/mm
E = 206 kN/mm
^ tra in
Notes:
1) By symmetry, only half o f the test specimen is modelled.
2) All dimensions are in mm.
3) A galvanized coating o f 0.04 mm thick is assumed in the steel thickness.
Figure 8.1 Finite element model of lapped Z sections
8-10
a) Lapped connection with Config W4 - Section failure at the end of lap

b) Control test (Continuous Z-sections) - Section failure at the mid-span

Figure 8.2 Typical mode of failure
8-11
Structural Behaviour o f Lapned Cold-Formed Steel Z-Sections
5, K is s s
3STEC, < tr*jCtxoi - 1 . 0 )
(A re. - r L t . : 7 S%>
44.500+02
4 4 .U U U 6 + U 2
4 3 . 0 0 e+ 02
4 3 .0 0 0 6 + 0 2
4 2 .5 0 0 6 + 0 2
4 .0 0 0 e + 0 2
41 5 n O A + f1 2
+1.000e+02
+ 5 .0 0 0 6 + 0 1
4 0 . 0 00 0+ 0 0
ZAcon ZA018R
ZA024R ZA030R
ZA060R ZA090R
Figure 8.3a Deformed shapes of lapped Z sections at failure (ZA series)
8-12
8, flic=
SSTECv < ia rfi-a tic n . = . O>
(A ve. C r i t - : I S H
H.sooetoz
+ 4 .uuue+ uz
4 3 . S O O c+ 02
4 3 . 0 0 0 e+ 0 2
4 2 . S 0 0e+ 0 2
f. 000e+0
41 finnan?
4 1 . OGOe402
4 5 .0 0 0 6 + 0 1
4 0 .000a400
ZB030R
ZB060R ZB090R
ZB120R ZB150R
Figure 8.3b Deformed shapes o f lapped Z sections at failure (ZB series)
8-13
40
ZAcon FEA ZA018R FEA
a O Test E O Test
30 -- 30 -
E
<u g
eo E
o
a E
a.
T3
OO
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
End rotation, 0C(Rad) End rotation, 0e (Rad)
40
ZA024R FEA ZAO^OR FEA
O Test O Test
30 - 30 -
& 10 -
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
End rotation (Rad) End rotation, 0e (Rad)
40 40
ZA060R FEA ZAO^OR FEA
E O Test E O Test
30 - 30 -
sT
ECD g ;C?
E E
0 o
E E
1Ci.
VI
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
End rotation, 0e (Rad) End rotation, 0e (Rad)
Figure 8.4a Mid-span moment end rotation (Ms - 0e) curves (ZA series)
8-14
ZBconR ZBQ30R
Mid-span moment, Ms (kNm)
0.01 0,02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
End rotation, 0, (Rad) End rotation, 0e (Rad)
120 120
FEA FEA
ZB060R ZBO?OR
100 O Test S' 100 O Test
-- -
s"
-r
c
1 60 -
o
e
40 - Q. 40
o
20 - a 20
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 o 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
End rotation, 0e (Rad) End rotation, 0C(Rad)
120 120
FEA FEA
ZB120R
O Test O Test
100 --
E 100 --
3
80 --
s 80 -
60 -- 1 60-

B
40 - - - e x 40 -
-6
20 -- S 20 --
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 003 0.04 0.05
End rotation, 0e (Rad) End rotation, 0.. (Rad)
Figure 8.4b Mid-span moment end rotation (Ms - 0e) curves (ZB series)
8-15
C H A P T E R N IN E
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF MULTI-SPAN LAPPED PURLIN
SYSTEM
9.1 Introduction
This chapter presents a rational and rigorous analysis and design m ethod to evaluate
the internal forces as well as the m om ent and the shear capacities o f lapped purlin
m em bers. M oreover, design considerations against various m odes o f failure are also
described for practical design o f lapped purlin m em bers. It is expected that the
proposed analysis and design m ethod will shorten the conventional product
developm ent process significantly w ithout the need o f extensive testing as only
lim ited full-scale tests on purlin system s m ay be required for product validation.
9.2 Basic configurations o f lapped connections
In order to enable effective bolted m om ent connections betw een lapped Z sections, a
practical generic lapped connection betw een Z sections is proposed after considering
ease o f installation as follows:
Config. W4
a) O nly the w ebs o f Z sections are bolted together w hich are, in turn, attached
onto prim ary structural m em bers such as rafters through hot rolled web cleats.
b) Six bolts per connection are adopted as the m inim um configuration where
four outer bolts are assigned to resist m om ents w hile tw o internal bolts are
In general, the proposed m om ent connections are not able to develop full moment
capacity o f the connected sections due to discontinuity o f load paths along section
flanges in the sections. For simplicity, Config. W4 is adopted in this Chapter for
presentation purpose.
9.3 Lapped connections in purlin m em bers
Based on the findings o f the experim ental investigation in lapped connections
betw een cold-form ed steel Z sections w ith different lap lengths, the m oment
resistances o f the lapped connections are found to range from 0.79 to 1.60 o f the
m om ent capacities o f the connected sections w hen the total lap length varies from
1.2 D to 6 D, w here D is the section depth o f Z section. M oreover, the effective
flexural rigidities o f the lapped connections are found to range from 0.103 to 1.415
o f those o f the connected sections accordingly.
Thus, the lap lengths are shown to have significant effects on both the strength and
the stiffness o f the lapped connections, and hence, on the structural perform ance o f
the lapped purlin system s. It should be noted that any sim plified treatm ent on the
lapped connections m ay under-estim ate the design hogging m om ents w hilst over
estim ate the m om ent resistances over internal supports.
9-2
9.4 D esign m ethod
9.4.1 D istribution o f internal fo rc e s within lapped connections
C onsider a two lapped span purlin system and a four lapped span purlin system as
show n in Figures 9.1 and 9.2 respectively. The distribution o f m om ents, shear forces
and support reactions along the tw o and the four lapped span beam s are plotted in the
figures while the analytical expressions o f the coefficients for the internal forces o f
the purlin m em bers are fully presented in D ate Sheet 9A. It should be noted that in
order to recognize partial fixity at the end supports, it is assum ed that all the end
supports are able to resist a nom inal m om ent at 10% o f the m axim um applied
m om ent near the m id-span region o f the purlin m embers.
T he internal connection forces o f the tw o lapped and the four lapped span beam s are
presented in D ata Sheet 9B and 9C respectively. As the effect o f lapped connections
is fully incorporated in deriving these coefficients, both the effective flexural rigidity,
a , and the lap length coefficient, [3 , are im portant param eters in the expressions. In
general, the effective flexural rigidity, a , o f the lapped connection is obtained from
one-point load tests on lapped sections as show n in Figure 9.3.
9.4.2 D esign considerations
Figure 9.4 sum m aries the design considerations in lapped purlin system s under both
gravity load and w ind up-lift. It should be noted that, in general, an upper lim it on
the effective flexural rigidity o f the lapped connection is adopted for the design o f
purlin m em bers over supports while a low er lim it is adopted for the design o f purlin
m em bers near m id-span. Both the upper and the lower lim its, ctfjS and a f>m should
be established from one-point load tests on lapped sections. A ccording to the test
9-3
results and the analyses presented in Chapters 3 and 4, the values o f a fjS and a f m of
Config. W4 are given by:
2Ln
a ,ts = 0.2 3 ----
D + 0.07
2L
a f = 0 .2 3 ---- - 0.18
fm D
All the possible m odes o f failure shown in Figure 9.4 should be checked thoroughly.
F or lapped purlin m em bers under gravity load, the design is norm ally controlled
by com bined bending and shear in purlin m em bers at the ends o f lap near
internal supports. In the presence o f long lap, the critical cross-section is
shifted aw ay from the internal supports w here the applied m om ents are
significantly reduced, and hence, the load carrying capacities o f the purlin
system s are increased accordingly.
For lapped purlin m em bers under w ind up-lift, the design is norm ally controlled
by lateral torsional buckling o f purlin m em bers near m id-span.
9.4.3 D esign against com bined bending and shear
For structural adequacy o f the lapped connections, both the applied shear forces and
the applied m om ents at the critical cross-sections should be checked against their
respective section capacities according to codified design rules as follows:
V V,
vj = < 1.0 ; V2 = < 1.0
VT c Vc
9-4
w here
Vi , v2 are the shear force ratios for the LHS and the RHS o f the critical
cross-section respectively ;
mi , m2 are the m om ent ratios for the LHS and the RH S o f the critical
cross-section respectively ; and;
V c , Me are the design shear and m om ent capacities o f the critical cross-
section respectively, with allow ances for the presence o f bolt
holes.
Vi = Vi for tw o lapped span;
= 1,1; for four lapped span;
V2 = V2 for tw o lapped span;
= V 2,ii for four lapped span;
T he critical cross-section o f lapped connection is defined as the cross-section o f the
purlin m em ber containing the bolt holes at the end o f lap, as show n in D ata Sheet 9B.
M oreover, it is also necessary for both the LHS and the RHS o f the critical cross-
sections to be checked against com bined bending and shear. A ccording to the
experim ental and the theoretical investigations, the interaction form ulae given in BS
5950: Part 5 is unconservative for lapped connections. Thus the following
interaction form ulae for com bined bending and shear in lapped connections is
proposed:
1.25v,2 + 1.25m ,2 < 1.0
1.25v22 + 1.25m22 < 1.0
9-5
Structural B ehaviour o f Lapped Cold-Formed Steel Z-Sections
M oreover, based on test observations, shear buckling o f the section w eb at the ends
o f lap o f the lapped connections was found to be fairly localized, and the length o f a
typical shear buckling m ode shape was found to range from 0.8 D to 1.25 D, where
D is th e section depth. Thus, the shear capacity o f the critical cross-sections, Vc , is
proposed as follows:
Vc tjcr A v
w here
is the net shear area o f the section w ith allow ances for the presence o f
bolt h o le s ;
is the shear buckling strength o f the section
7C2 E
12(1 u 2 ) xv D t j
where
E is the m odulus o f elasticity o f steel, and equal to 205 kN/m m ;
u is the Poissons ratio, and equal to 0.3 ;
kT is the shear buckling coefficient
= 5.34 for continuous (control)
sections
5.34- or 6.90 for lapped connections

a.
a Sb is the aspect ratio o f the shear panel, and equal to L Sb / D ;
LSb is the length o f the shear panel which is conservatively taken to be 1.6
D for lapped connections based on test observations ;
9-6
D is the overall section depth ; and
t is the w eb thickness.
9.4.4 R ation al use o f interm ediate restraints
For purlins under gravity load, the com pression flanges are generally considered to
be effectively restrained with ro o f cladding through fasteners. How ever, for purlins
under w ind up-lift, the com pression flanges are usually unrestrained, and thus, lateral
torsional buckling m ay be critical. W hile ro o f cladding m ay provide partial
restraints to the purlins, their effects are difficult to be quantified in design w ithout
verification from full scale tests.
It should be noted that sag rods and bridgings are alw ays provided during erection o f
purlin m em bers and they m ay be utilized as effective interm ediate restraints,
provided that they are properly designed and installed. M oreover, it is possible to
utilize solely these interm ediate restraints to reduce the m em ber slenderness o f the
purlins to achieve full restraint condition. Effective interm ediate restraints will
reduce the unrestrained lengths o f the purlins, Le, and at the sam e tim e, m odify the
associated bending m om ent envelopes for lateral torsional buckling check. Figure
9.5 show s the proposed arrangem ent o f interm ediate restraints in purlin systems
w hile both Le and Q , for single and double span (continuous) purlin systems are
presented in Table 9.1 for practical design. Cb is the factor defining the effect o f the
bending m om ent envelope (AISI 1996). For lapped span, the values o f Cb m ay be
evaluated according to the form ulae given in Table 9.1 after establishing the bending
m om ent envelope o f the purlin m em bers.
9-7
Structural B ehaviour o f Lapped Cold-Formed Steel Z -Sections
For gravity load case, the hogging m om ent region is located at interior supports. It
should be noted that the web cleat over the purlin-rafter connection can provide
effective lateral restraints to the purlin m em bers. Thus, the effective length, L e, is
proposed to be taken as 0.85 tim es the unrestrained length, Le, in lateral torsional
buckling design.
For w ind uplift case, the hogging m om ent region is located near the m id-span. It
should be noted that the lateral restraints provided by sag rods and ro o f claddings are
not as effective as the web cleats. Thus, the effective length, L E, is proposed to be
taken as 1.0 tim es the unrestrained length, Le, for lateral torsional buckling design.
It is found that full restraint condition is achieved w ith the use o f tw o to three
interm ediate restraints in purlins o f practical section depths and span lengths, and
hence, the m om ent capacities o f purlins are readily m obilized. However, it is
im portant to ensure that all the interm ediate restraints are properly anchored onto the
prim ary fram es o f the roof structures.
9.5 C om parison w ith different system length to section depth ratios
Load carrying capacities o f three Z sections w ith different section depths and system
lengths in internal span condition derived from the proposed m ethod are summ arized
in Tables 9.2 to 9.4 respectively. The load carrying capacities o f three Z sections
w ith different sections and system length to section depth ratios in internal span
condition are com pared as show n in Figure 9.6. The m om ent capacities o f Z
sections are evaluated according to BS 5950: Part 5. It is show n that:
9-8
U nder gravity load, the load carrying capacities o f purlin m em bers are
significantly decreased when the system length to section depth ratios are
increased. The difference in the load carrying capacities o f purlin m em bers w ith
the lap length to section depth ratio o f 2 and 6 is even larger for long system span
and large section depth up to 170%.
For purlin systems w ith small section depths, the failure m ode is comm only
flexural failure at m id-span for purlin system s w ith short to m edium system
spans w hile section failure under com bined bending and shear at the ends o f lap
is critical for purlins with long system spans.
For purlin system s w ith large section depths, the failure m ode is generally
section failure under com bined bending and shear directly at internal supports for
purlin system s w ith short to m edium system span w hile section failure under
com bined bending and shear at the end o f lap is critical for long system spans.
C om parison betw een lapped purlin system s and continuous purlin systems shows
that the load carrying capacities o f lapped purlin system s are often enhanced for
short to m edium system span up to 440% as presented in Table 9.5. However,
the load carrying capacities m ay be reduced for long system span cases due to
lateral torsional buckling.
9.6 C om parison w ith conventional design method
A com parison on the load carrying capacities o f purlin m em bers derived from the
proposed design m ethod (PDM ) w ith those obtained from the conventional design
9-9
m ethod (CDM ) is also sum m arized in Tables 9.2 to 9.4. T he load carrying capacities
o f three Z sections with different section depths and system lengths in internal span
condition are com pared. Figure 9.7 shows the variation o f the ratio betw een the load
carrying capacities obtained from the PD M and CDM. It is show n that:
U nder gravity load, the load carrying capacities o f purlin m em bers predicted
from the proposed design m ethod are significantly different to those obtained
from the conventional design m ethod, and a typical discrepancy o f 5 to 10% is
found for purlin system s with a lap length o f 6 tim es the section depth. For
purlin m em bers w ith a lap length o f 4 tim es o f the section depth, the discrepancy
ranges from -4% to 23%. Furtherm ore, the discrepancy ranges from -2% to 41%
for the purlin m em bers w ith a lap length o f 2 tim es the section depth.
It should be noted that the CD M tends to under-estim ate the load carrying
capacities o f purlins w ith short to m edium span w hile over-estim ate those o f long
span purlins w hen com pared w ith the proposed design m ethod.
For purlin system s under w ind uplift w ith no interm ediate restraint, the predicted
load carrying capacities are significantly sm aller th an those obtained from tests
due to the absence o f restraints provided by ro o f cladding. M oreover, the use o f
otf less than 2 w ill further reduce the load carrying capacities by 10% to 20%
when com pared w ith those obtained from the CDM.
9-10
F o r purlin m em bers under w ind uplift with at least tw o interm ediate restraints,
the predicted load carrying capacities obtained from the PD M are increased
considerably. Full restraint condition is often achieved.
9.7 C o n clu sio n s
Lapped connections affect significantly the structural behaviour o f cold-form ed steel
purlin system s in term s o f both strength and stiffness. This chapter presents a design
m ethod together w ith a set o f design rules and expressions for cold-form ed steel Z
purlin system s under both gravity load and wind uplift. T he proposed design m ethod
is show n to be effective and rational, incorporating partial continuity o f lapped
connections in the strength assessm ent o f these purlin m em bers. In cases o f any
changes to the connection configurations and the arrangem ents o f interm ediate
restraints, the load carrying capacities o f the m odified purlin system s m ay be readily
assessed w ith the proposed design m ethod w ithout the need o f full scale tests.
9-11
D ata Sheet 9A Coefficients o f internal forces o f purlin m em bers

T w o Lapped Span
r (J + 3 f i X - l X l ~ f i Y + 5
R-2,0 - r 2 ,o qL w here (a)
2- 4\a - l \ l - + l\
{a-iyji-py +i
^21 = r2 i I 1- w here (b)
M 2l0=mll0qP w here m. (c ) M 2 0 = m 20qL2 w here m2,0 = r2,l - (d)
v 2,i = v2,i qL w here V2,! = ^2,1 (e) ^2,o ~ v2,o w here v2,o ~ 1 r2 . (f)
Four Lapped Span
C4i0 2 + C42a + C4
R . r4A <1L w here (g)
C44a + C45oc+C46
w here C41 = 3 2 - 2 0 4 p + 516pa -6 2 2 p 3 +297|34

C42 = 204P - 804p2 + 1 126p3 - 609p4
C43 = 288P2 -5 0 4 P 3 +312P4
C44 = 7 -4 8 p + 132p2 -1 8 0 p 3 + 120p4
C45 = 48P - 204P2 + 324p3 - 240p4
C46 = 72p2 -144p 3 + 120p4
C47a 2 + C 4Sa + C4
R 4 ,0 ' 4 ,0
where (h)
C44a 2 + C45a + C 4
w here C47 = 13 96/? + 276/?2 378/?3 +237y?4
C48 = 96 P - 420/32 + 666p 3 - 465p 4
C4g = l 4 4 p 2 - 2 8 8 p 3 + 2 2 8 p 4
R4 2 = r 42qL w here 2 _ r 4 ,l - - 0)
M4,2l= ^ ~ q L 2 (!) M 4,l =| ^4,2 - - | ^ (k)
(4 r 4 ,0 f
M4 2 1- - qL2 (1)
: v4,2qL w here (m ) V4 ,P = v4>, ^7 w h ere v4 l = 1 - r41 (n)
F */ = v4,i+?7 w h ere v4/ = r4, - v4, (o ) V4 0 = v40<yZ, w h ere v4 0 = r4 0 / 2 (p)
a is the effec tiv e flexural rigidity ratio o f lapped con n ection ob tain ed from on e-poin t load
tests o f lapped sections;
p is the lap length coefficien t w here 2 Lp = 2 P L s; 2 Lp is the total lap length and Ls is the
span length;
q is the applied uniform ly distributed load.
9-12
Structural Behaviour o f Lapped Cold-Formed Steel 2-S ection s
D ata Sheet 9B Internal connection forces o f tw o lapped span purlin system
1 -P
M con = (1-P) qL s
F = M n
4r
(1-P)2
M ,= r2>1(l - P ) _ qLs
(Critical)
M 4 = F b x L b xsin 9
M 2 = Mj - M 4
Fb
M, = ___ Fb_ / x
Fb
0i
Fb
V ^ k .- d - P ) ^
(Critical)
V5 = Fb x Lb xcosG
V2= v 1+ v 5
V3 = V 2 - | qLs
Support 1 Support 0 V4 = V 5 + | q L s
9-13
D ata S h eet 9C Internal connection forces o f four lapped span purlin system
E xternal span
l 1 1 i i i t r4,2 - 0 - P ) | ^ + P qLs
Fb,, 4r
M Ul = (1-P)2
2( l - P ) - qLs
(Critical)
M 4 h = -F b, x L b x sin0, w here Lb is the
vertical bolt
spacing
^2,li = ^ l.li _ ^4,li
5,1 i M .,
MA3,n = ^
1V
v 1,li = [r4,2 - ( i - p ) ] qL s (Critical)

V5 H = 2 x Fb, x cos 0,
v 2,u = v u i+ v 5ili
Support 2 Support 1 p
V3,li = V
v 2: ,1 i -qL s
^4,li ^5,li -L" qL
Internal span
M 5, = m 4H M 61i = M 3
M-7,u = M 6 H + Vg n x p ( 1 - P ) 2
M s h = M 7 ,( + M 5 n (Critical)
M i,oi M
V6,, = - V 5,U
V7Ji = - v 4ji
V8, = V71i + V41~
V9.h = V 8,l i - | q L .
V6 ,i
V.OH = V 9,l i - V 6,li (Critical)
In general, the m om ent and shear

Support 1 Support 0 forces near support 0 are not critical,
thus they are not given.
9-14

Under gravity load LTB
M, V, MV
2L
a f = 0 .2 3 0.0'

2L, Continuous
= 0.23 -0 .1 8
Under wind uplift

Continuous
MV enlj ofip
i.s = 0 .2 3 ^ n
afs + 0.07
LTB M, V, MV
Caption:
Deflection check vs L/180
LTB Lateral torsional buckling B Bearing failure of connected materials over interior support
M Bending failure V Shear buckling MV Section failure under combined bending and shear
Figure 9.4 Design considerations for lapped purlin systems


Single span Lapped end span
1IR 1 IR
0.50 0.50
l<- ->l
End support Internal support

2 IR 2 IR
030------------- QJ------------- H 0.34 0.26
3 IR 3 IR

|< Si27----------- >|< 023-------- >|< 023------->|<------ 0 2 7---------- >| 0.25 0.20 0.20 0.35
Double span (Continuous) Lapped internal span

1 IR 1 IR
|<---------------- MS------------------ |N 0.50 IN 0.50
0-55 >|
+ <i + '.+ + + * '-4 +
+ L: +V+ + +
End support Central support 2 IR

2 IR ,
<----------- 032---------- -----------0 3 6 _ _ ------------- 037------------ >
K (L33 H< 028------ >|<--------------- 0-39... _
+4 + + ~
+ + + +
3 IR
3 IR <t. |< 0-34 >|< ~q.liL >|< 0.1$ >|< 0.34 |
0.25 0.20 . 0.20 0.35
|< ^ >| < ^ ^ --------------- > 4 + + + +4. +
-
* +__________________________ + + i_ iL t
IR=Intermcdiate Restraint
Figure 9.5a: Proposed arrangement of intermediate restraints for Figure 9.5b: Proposed arrangement of intermediate restraints for
single span and double span beams lapped span beams
Z1025315 G450 Z2547919 G450
Lp = 6D Lp = 6D
Lp = 5D Lp = 5D
Lp = 4D Lp = 4D
WG (kN/m) Lp = 3D Lp = 3D
Lp = 2D Lp = 2D
Continuous Continuous
L s /D L s /D
Z1526515 G450 Z30010024 G450
Lp = 6D Lp = 6D
Lp = 5D Lp = 5D
Lp = 4D Lp = 4D
WG (kN/m)
Lp = 3D Lp = 3D
Lp = 2D Lp = 2D
Continuous Continuous
L s /D L s /D
Z2037919 G450 Z35012930 G450

45
1 1 1
Lp = 6D 40 Lp = 6D
Lp = 5D 35 Lp = 5D
Lp 4D Lp = 4D
0 - 30 -
WG (kN/m)
Lp = 3D Lp = 3D
Lp = 2D 1 - Lp = 2D
Continuous O 20 Continuous
^ 15
10
5 j "'
0
20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
L s /D L s /D
Figure 9.6 Load carrying capacity o f 4 lapped span purlin systems with different
lapped length
9-18
Z1025315 G450 Z2547919 G450

1.5
Lp = 6D Lp = 6D
1.4
Lp = 5D Lp = 5D
1.3 Lp = 4D Lp = 4D
s
^ F D M 1 WCDM - Lp = 3D 8 Lp = 3D
1.2
Lp = 2D Lp = 2D
1.1
1.0
0.9 0.9
0.8
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
System span (m) System span (m)
Z1526515 G450 Z30010024 G450

1.5
Lp = 6D Lp = 6D
1.4
Lp = 5D Lp = 5D
1.3 \ Lp = 4D Lp = 4D
WPDM' WCDM
-Lp = 3D Lp = 3D
1.2
Lp = 2D Lp = 2D
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8 ----- -----

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Z2037919 G450 Z 35012930G 450

1.5 I 1
Lp = 6D Lp = 6D
1.4
Lp = 5D Lp = 5D
1.3 Lp = 4D Lp = 4D
PDM ' WCDM
Lp = 3D Lp = 3D
1.2
S3 "Lp = 2D Lp = 2D
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Figure 9.7 Differences between proposed design method and conventional

design method
9-19
to
*3
ca
CQ
II II II H II II II co
U U ^
X3
u u u
XI X> +
x U
X5
CJ U
a- o_ X X X X
n X(NOOXTt X
v>
X X X
zs X
t-- S O
ro (b - M (N (N '1
c <o o o o o
c (I I! IIN II IIC-l IIf*> II II II II v>
o u w <n CO
U oi t-j* _f S S X* X +
V
T3
r
Cb for different cases uner wind uplift
C
D
S
o
s
OX)
CQ
SS
iX.
v>
v>

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<8> K
II II II
X> X
J
u o CJ U
X

eg X X X X
U
Table 9.1
bS vi O e'C
O
a. o o ro m er C
N
o o o O
ClD II II IICN II II
c V V V C
M O
x" -1 _) X X*
9-20

Table 9.2 Comparison on load carrying capacities o f lapped purlins in internal span condition. (2Lp / D - 2)
Lap length = 2D
Section System Proposed Design Method (PDM) Conventional Design Method (CDM) Comparison ratio
D x Bx t length (kN/m) (kN/m) WpDM^ W CDM
(m) wG wD Wuo wm wU2 Wu3 FM wG wD Wuo Wui WU2 Wu3 FM WG wD Wuo Wu, WU2
1.2 39.28 127.86 39.28 39.28 39.28 39.28 M 29.47 277.04 29.47 29.47 29.47 29.47 MV 1.33 0.46 1.33 1.33 1.33
102x53x1.5 3.0 5.35 9.57 5.35 5.35 5.35 5.35 M Ve 5.07 14.25 5.07 5.07 5.07 5.07 MV 1.06 0.67 1.06 1.06 1.06
4.8 1.92 2.62 1.55 1.92 1.92 1.92 M Ve 1.96 3.17 1.96 1.96 1.96 1.96 MV e 0.98 0.83 0.79 0.98 0.98

2.4 23.95 129.57 23.95 23.95 23.95 23.95 MV 17.12 281.16 17.12 17.12 17.12 17.12 MV 1.40 0.46 1.40 1.40 1.40
203x79x1.9 6.0 3.66 9.70 3.66 3.66 3.66 3.66 MV 2.96 14.46 2.96 2.96 2.96 2.96 MV 1.24 0.67 1.24 1.24 1.24
S'
9.6 1.40 2.65 0.70 1.40 1.40 1.40 MV 1.18 3.21 1.17 1.18 1.18 1.18 MV 1.19 0.83 0.60 1.19 1.19
3.6 22.24 139.13 22.24 22.24 22.24 22.24 MV 15.81 303.27 15.81 15.81 15.81 15.81 MV 1.41 0.46 1.41 1.41 1.41
300x100x2.4 9.0 3.40 10.43 2.69 3.40 3.40 3.40 MV 2.73 15.59 2.73 2.73 2.73 2.73 MV 1.25 0.67 0.99 1.25 1.25
14.4 1.30 2.85 0.48 1.30 1.30 1.30 MV 1.09 3.46 0.79 1.09 1.09 1.09 0 1.19 0.82 0.61 1.19 1.19
Mode o f Failure: Notes :

M Ve Combined bending and shear at end o f lap
The yield strength o f all sections is 350 N/mm2.
MV Combined bending and shear over internal support
0 Lateral torsional buckling along the hogging moment region W0 Factored load capacity under gravity
Wuo Factored load capacity under wind-uplift with no intermediate restraint
B o lt configuration Lap length a.f.s a f,m Wjji Factored load capacity under wind-uplift with one intermediate restraint
Config. W4 2D 0.53 0.28 WU2 Factored load capacity under wind-uplift with two intermediate restraints
In the conventional design method, the values o f the effective WU3 Factored load capacity under wind-uplift with three intermediate restraints
flexural rigidities are equal to 2.0 in all cases. WD Unfactored load capacity under gravity load against deflection
V
IO
K)

Table 9.3 Comparison on load carrying capacities o f lapped purlins in internal span condition. (2Lp / D = 4)
Lap length = 4D
DxBxt length (kN/m) (kN/m) WpDM/ WCDM
(m) wG wD wuo Wu, WU2 w u3 FM wG wD Wuo Wui WU2 w U3 FM WG wD wuo WG1 Wu2
1.2 44.33 186.33 44.33 44.33 44.33 44.33 MV 38.75 354.47 38.75 38.75 38.75 38.75 MV 1.14 0.53 1.14 1.14 1.14
102x53x1.5 3.0 6.01 11.96 6.01 6.01 6.01 6.01 MVe 5.92 16.59 5.92 5.92 5.92 5.92 MVe 1.02 0.72 1.02 1.02 1.02
4.8 2.05 2.92 2.05 2.05 2.05 2.05 MV e 2.13 3.84 2.13 2.13 2.13 2.13 MVe 0.96 0.76 0.96 0.96 0.96
Cold-Formed Steel Z -Sections

2.4 31.68 188.98 31.68 31.68 31.68 31.68 MV 26.03 359.61 26.03 26.03 26.03 26.03 MV 1.22 0.53 1.22 1.22 1.22
203x79x1.9 6.0 5.14 12.13 5.14 5.14 5.14 5.14 M Ve 4.78 16.84 4.78 4.78 4.78 4.78 MV 1.08 0.72 1.08 1.08 1.08
K' 1.82 2.96 0.94 1.82 1.82 1.82 MVe 1.88 3.89 1.28 1.88 1.88 1.88 MVe 0.97 0.76 0.73 0.97 0.97
9.6
tj
3.6 30.46 203.44 30.46 30.46 30.46 30.46 MV 24.70 387.51 24.70 24.70 24.70 24.70 MV 1.23 0.52 1.23 1.23 1.23
300x100x2.4 9.0 5.18 13.06 3.99 5.18 5.18 5.18 MV 4.55 18.16 4.55 4.55 4.55 4.55 MV 1.14 0.72 0.88 1.14 1.14
14.4 1.88 3.19 0.64 1.88 1.88 1.88 M Ve 1.82 4.20 0.87 1.82 1.82 1.82 0 1.03 0.76 0.74 1.03 1.03
M ode o f Failure: N o te s :
0 Lateral torsional buckling along the hogging moment region WG Factored load capacity under gravity
B o lt configuration Lap length CXf.s XXf.m Wy, Factored load capacity under wind-uplift with one intermediate restraint
VIO
N
t-o)

Table 9.4 Comparison on load carrying capacities o f lapped purlins in internal span condition. (2Lp / D = 6)
lgJength = 6Q
DxBxt length (kN/m) (kN/m) W pdm/ W cdm
(m) wG wD W uo W u, wU2 wU3 FM wG wD W uo W ui W u2 W U3 FM wG wD W uo W 01 W U2
1.2 42.61 260.84 42.61 42.61 42.61 42.61 MV 41.45 362.13 41.45 41.45 41.45 41.45 MV 1.03 0.72 1.03 1.03 1.03
102x53x1.5 3.0 6.74 15.92 6.74 6.74 6.74 6.74 MVe 6.89 20.23 6.89 6.89 6.89 6.89 MV, 0.98 0.79 0.98 0.98 0.98
4.8 2.18 3.54 2.18 2.18 2.18 2.18 MVe 2.33 4.08 2.33 2.33 2.33 2.33 M Ve 0.94 0.87 0.94 0.94 0.94
Cold-Formed
2.4 32.77 264.45 32.77 32.77 32.77 32.77 MV 30.13 367.07 30.13 30.13 30.13 30.13 MV 1.09 0.72 1.09 1.09 1.09
$sr 203x79x1.9 6.0 5.73 15.58 5.73 5.73 5.73 5.73 MVe 5.68 19.09 5.68 5.68 5.68 5.68 MV 1.01 0.82 1.01 1.01 1.01
o 9.6 1.94 3.59 1.15 1.94 1.94 1.94 MVe 2.04 4.14 1.40 2.04 2.04 2.04 MV e 0.95 0.87 0.82 0.95 0.95
3.6 32.17 284.40 32.17 32.17 32.17 32.17 MV 29.14 394.56 29.14 29.14 29.14 29.14 MV 1.10 0.72 1.10 1.10 1.10
300x100x2.4 9.0 5.78 16.79 5.34 5.78 5.78 5.78 MVe 5.55 20.59 5.55 5.55 5.55 5.55 MV 1.04 0.82 0.96 1.04 1.04
Steel Z -S e c tio n s
14.4 1.87 3.87 0.78 1.87 1.87 1.87 MVe 1.63 4.47 0.95 1.63 1.63 1.63 0 1.15 0.87 0.82 1.15 1.15
M V, Combined bending and shear at end o f lap
B o lt configuration Lap length ttf.s t^f.m Wm Factored load capacity under wind-uplift with one intermediate restraint
V
IO
N>

Table 9.5 Comparison on load carrying capacities o f lapped purlins and continuous purlins in internal span condition.
La^Jen^th-6^
S ection System Lapped purlins Continuous purlins Comparison ratio
D xB xt length (kN/m) (kN/m) W Lp / W CP
(m) wG wD W uo W u, W u2 W U3 FM wG wD Wuo W u, W U2 wu3 FM WG wD Wuo W u, W U2

1.2 42.61 260.84 42.61 42.61 42.61 42.61 MV 13.94 187.87 13.94 13.94 13.94 13.94 MV 3.06 1.39 3.06 3.06 3.06
102x53x1.5 3.0 6.74 15.92 6.74 6.74 6.74 6.74 MVe 3.78 12.02 3.78 3.78 3.78 3.78 MV 1.78 1.32 1.78 1.78 1.78
4.8 2.18 3.54 2.18 2.18 2.18 2.18 MV e 1.67 2.94 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 MV 1.31 1.20 1.31 1.31 1.31

2.4 32.77 264.45 32.77 32.77 32.77 32.77 MV 7.85 190.54 7.85 7.85 7.85 7.85 MV 4.17 1.39 4.17 4.17 4.17
$ 203x79x1.9 6.0 5.73 15.58 5.73 5.73 5.73 5.73 MVe 2.61 12.19 2.61 2.61 2.61 2.61 MV 2.20 1.28 2.20 2.20 2.20
s:J
o 9.6 1.94 3.59 1.15 1.94 1.94 1.94 M Ve 1.30 2.98 1.06 1.30 1.30 1.30 MV 1.49 1.20 1.08 1.49 1.49
3.6 32.17 284.40 32.17 32.17 32.17 32.17 MV 7.31 205.12 7.31 7.31 7.31 7.31 MV 4.40 1.39 4.40 4.40 4.40
300x100x2.4 9.0 5.78 16.79 5.34 5.78 5.78 5.78 M Ve 2.50 13.13 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 MV 2.31 1.28 2.14 2.31 2.31
14.4 1.87 3.87 0.78 1.87 1.87 1.87 M Ve 1.28 3.21 0.72 1.28 1.28 1.28 MV 1.46 1.21 1.08 1.46 1.46
Bolt configuration Lap length f.s Ctf.m Wu, Factored load capacity under wind-uplift with one intermediate restraint
KI
4^)
C H A P T E R TE N
OVERALL COMMENTS AND CONCULSIONS
A fter the detailed presentation o f the experim ental investigations, the theoretical
investigations, and the num erical investigations on lapped connections betw een cold-
form ed steel Z sections, the overall com m ents and conclusions o f the research
project are presented as follows.
10.1 Structural perform ance o f lapped connections betw een cold-form ed steel Z
sections
A n experim ental investigation on the structural perform ance o f lapped connections
betw een cold-form ed steel Z sections w as carried out. A total o f 38 restrained
lapped connection tests and 14 unrestrained lapped connection tests w ere executed
w ith different sections sizes, lap lengths, test spans and bolt configurations. The
results o f test series ZA, ZB, ZC, ZD, ZE and ZF are presented in Table 3.2, while
the results o f test series ZG, ZH, ZI and ZJ are presented in Table 5.1. M oreover, a
total o f 4 different connection configurations were exam ined, and refer to Figures
3.2 and 5.1 for details o f the connection configurations. The follow ing conclusions
are draw n from the experim ental investigations on all the restrained lapped
connection tests from the test series m entioned above:
In all tests, section failure at the end o f lap o f connected sections is found to be
critical under com bined bending and shear.
10-1
. B o th the m om ent resistances and the flexural rigidities o f lapped connections
depend on not only the lap length to section depth ratios but also the lap length
to test span ratios.
T he assum ption that lapped sections always have doubled m om ent resistances
and flexural rigidities o f those o f connected sections is not alw ays correct.
A s show n in the test results, Config. W6 is stronger and stiffer than Config.
W4F2. M oreover, Config. W4 is stronger than Config. W2F2 while their
effective flexural rigidities are similar. Config W6 is stiffer than Config W4
w hile their m om ent resistances are similar. Thus Config. W4 will attract less
internal forces in m ulti-span lapped purlin system s than Config. W6. Thus
Config. W4 is recom m ended in practical application in order to achieve a
structurally efficient and econom ic design.
The follow ing conclusions are draw n from the experim ental investigations on the
unrestrained lapped connection tests in series ZA, ZE and ZF:
B oth lateral torsional buckling and distortional buckling are alw ays found to be
critical in the tests.
For test specim ens w ith the same test spans, the m om ent resistance ratios are
directly proportional to the lap lengths. In com parison o f the m om ent resistance
ratios betw een the tw o bolt configurations, nam ely, Config W4 and Config. W6,
10-2
it is found that Config. W6 gives a stronger connection against lateral torsional
buckling due to its larger restraining effect.
In com parison with the conventional design m ethods, it is dem onstrated that the
existing design rules for estim ating the buckling resistance m om ents are often
unconservative. It is highly recom m ended to revise the current design method
in order to achieve a safe and econom ic design.
It is show n that the conventional design assum ption about full continuity o f lapped
connections is not always valid. It carries a great impact to the conventional design
concept on lapped connections betw een cold form ed steel sections that not only the
strengths o f the lapped connections are important, but also the stiffnesses o f the
lapped connections are im portant as w ell in practical design and construction o f
indeterm inate structures.
10.2A nalysis and design o f lapped connections
A rational analysis and design m ethod for lapped connections betw een cold-form ed
steel Z sections is proposed after careful calibration against test data obtained from
one point-Ioad tests on lapped connections. A num ber o f design recom m endations
are proposed as follows:
C om bined bending and shear at the ends o f lap in bolted m om ent connections is
always critical and hence, it is im portant to check section failure at the ends o f
lap against com bined bending and shear.
10-3
B o th the m om ent and the shear capacities o f the critical cross-sections at the
en d s o f lap should allow for the presence o f bolt holes.
B ased on test observations, the length o f the shear buckling m ode shape is
show n to be 0.8 to 1.2 tim es section depth in lapped connections due to the
restraining effects from both the lapped sections and the purlin-rafter
connections. Thus, the shear capacities o f the critical cross-sections are
increased w hen com pared with the basic section capacities.
D esign expressions for the effective flexural rigidities o f lapped sections are
also proposed, so that both the m axim um and the m inim um effective flexural
rigidities m ay be readily obtained.
10.3A nalytical prediction o f deform ation characteristics o f lapped connections
A n analytical m ethod is proposed to predict the deform ation characteristics o f lapped
connections betw een cold-form ed steel Z sections. The proposed m ethod is able to
assess the flexural rigidity o f the lapped connections, and com parison betw een the
m easured and the predicted m om ent end rotation curves is show n to be highly
satisfactory. It provides im portant understandings on the overall structural behaviour
o f bolted m om ent connections in lapped Z sections.
10.4N um erical investigations on lapped connections
In order to assess the structural perform ance and to predict the load carrying
capacities and the deform ation characteristics o f lapped connections betw een cold-
form ed steel Z sections, a total o f 10 finite elem ent m odels on lapped connections
10-4
w ere executed. It is interesting to find that local and distortional buckling is
apparent at the critical cross-sections near the ends o f lap w here com bined bending
and shear is significant. Com parison betw een the predicted and the m easured
m om ent rotation curves o f lapped Z sections is also show n to be highly satisfactory.
Consequently, the num erical m odels are show n to be effective in assessing the
structural behaviour, in particular, the m om ent resistance and the effective flexural
rigidities o f lapped Z sections over the entire deform ation ranges. The findings
provide new understandings to the overall structural behaviour o f m odem purlin
system s, and are useful in assessing the load carrying capacities o f m ulti-span purlins
using lapped cold-form ed steel Z sections which take advantage o f m om ent re
distribution over internal supports.
10.5D esign o f m ulti-span lapped purlin system
A n analysis and design m ethod is proposed for m ulti-span lapped purlin systems
incorporating the effect o f partial continuity o f lapped connections, and the m ethod
is form ulated as a supplem ent to current codes o f practice and design
recom m endations. A set o f design rules and expressions for the internal forces o f
cold-form ed steel Z purlin system s under both gravity load and w ind uplift are also
provided. It is show n that the proposed analysis and design m ethod is effective and
rational in both strength and deform ation assessm ent o f these purlin m em bers
incorporating w ith the partial continuity o f lapped connections. The optim al lap
length to section depth ratio ranges from 4 to 6 w h ich gives a significant
enhancem ent to the load carrying capacities o f m ulti-span purlin system s ranging
typically from 110% to 150% in com parison w ith continuous purlin system s.
10-5
T he proposed analysis and design m ethod incorporates the effects o f effective
flexural rigidities o f lapped Z sections over internal supports during the entire
deform ation ranges. This will greatly facilitate the practical design process of m ulti
span purlin system s with improved load carrying capacities. In case o f any changes
to the connection configurations and the arrangem ents o f interm ediate restraints, the
design developm ent o f the m odified purlin systems will greatly speed up using the
proposed design m ethod which only requires limited confirm atory full scale tests.
10.6L im itations o f current analysis and design m ethod
There are a num ber o f lim itations o f the proposed analysis and design m ethod for
m ulti-span purlin systems.
The section depths o f Z section are lim ited from 100 m m to 350 mm and the
thicknesses are lim ited from 1.2 m m to 3.0 m m. The yield strengths o f Z
sections are limited from 280 N /m m 2 to 450 N /m m 2.
O nly lapped Z sections should be used.
The analytical predictions o f the bolt force distribution and the deform ation
characteristics o f lapped connections are only valid for those bolt configurations
in w hich all bolts are installed on the section webs.
The proposed analysis and design m ethod for m ulti-span purlin systems is valid
up to the form ation o f first plastic hinges.
10-6
10.7O riginality o f the research study
Throughout my study, I have applied my technical knowledge to investigate the
structural performance of cold-formed steel Z sections during the design
developm ent o f multi-span cold-formed steel purlin systems. The following tasks
are perform ed in my independent manner:
Data analyses on one point load tests and four point load tests on lapped Z
sections with bolted connections, as well as complementary lap shear tests
between cold-formed steel strips.
Establishment o f the proposed design and analysis method to determined
internal force distributions within lapped connections; this enables the
important check o f section failure under combined bending and shear at the
ends o f lap.
Formulation o f the proposed analysis method to evaluate the effective
flexural rigidities o f lapped connections based on measured load-deflection
curves.
Formulation o f the normalized bearing-extension curve o f bolted fastenings
based on lap shear tests; this enables general design o f bolted connections
between cold-formed steel sections
Establishment o f the proposed analysis method to determine analytically
deformation characteristics o f lapped connections at both the initial and the
failure stages; this provides an important design and analysis tool to predict
the structural behaviour o f cold-formed steel Z sections with lapped moment
connections without testing.
10-7
Finite element modeling o f multi-span lapped purlin systems with different
degrees o f continuity over lapped connections as well as different amount o f
moment redistribution from internal supports to mid-span region.
Establishment o f the proposed design and analysis method to determine
internal force distribution in multi-span lapped purlin members with a wide
range o f lap length to section depth ratios and lap length to system length
ratios.
The Formulation o f a rational design o f multi-span lapped purlin systems
under both gravity load and wind uplift.
10.8Further development on lapped purlin systems
The load carrying capacities o f multi-span purlin systems depend primarily on the
m oment resistances and the effective flexural rigidities o f the lapped connections.
Hence, the bolt configuration should be further developed to achieve a structural
efficient lapped purlin system. Besides, both the experimental and the numerical
investigations on multi-span purlin systems with sleeved C and Z sections should be
conducted. As the proposed analysis and design method for multi-span purlin
systems is valid up to the formation o f first plastic hinges, the plastic analysis with
allowance o f moment redistribution is recommended for further research and
development.
My research aims to investigate the structural performance o f lapped connections
between cold-formed steel Z-sections under fully restrained condition. However, the
purlin systems are commonly under partially restrained condition. Therefore it is
10-8
desirable to incorporate the stability problem and the restraint effect by roof sheeting
in the analytical and numerical model for further research development.
10-9
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THE HONG KONG POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

A thesis subm itted in

ProQuest Information and Learning Company

CERTIFICATE OF O R IG INA LITY

knowledge and belief, it reproduces no material previously published or written nor

except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.

ACKNOW LEDGEM ENTS

T he author is greatly indebted to his supervisor Dr. K.F. Chung, Associate

Professor o f the Department o f Civil and Structural Engineering, for his

encouragement, continued inspiration and enlightening guidance. He has provided

The financial support by the Research Committee o f the Hong Kong

Polytechnic University (Project No. G-W 039) is gratefully acknowledged. The

beams and columns to form primary structural frames.

1.1 M odem Purlin Systems

different degrees o f continuity:

the single span system,

the double span system,

the continuous system with sleeves, and

the continuous system with lapped sections.

sim ple and effective connection configurations o f purlin-rafter connections. In

general, building product manufacturers have developed various proprietary purlin

associated structural behaviour. Therefore, it is highly desirable to examine the

load carrying capacities o f lapped purlin systems.

1.2 Scope o f work

analysis and design o f lapped Z sections,

numerical investigation, and

design development for multi-span lapped Z purlins.

In order to examine the structural performance of the lapped Z sections, a total of 38

different connection configurations. Both the strength and the deformation

characteristics o f these connections were examined in detail. A comprehensive

Consequently, it is shown that the degree o f structural continuity in lapped Z

assumption o f full strength and stiffness connections in lapped Z sections is not

out to examine the effect of lateral torsional buckling on lapped Z sections. It is

lapped Z sections can be determined accordingly.

3. Analysis and design of lapped Z sections

Based on the findings o f the experimental investigation, an analysis and design

3.1 Force distribution within lapped connections

o f lapped Z sections is found to be fairly localized, and the length of a typical

under combined bending and shear.

3.3 Deformation characteristics of lapped Z sections

a normalized bearing deformation curve was established. It was then adopted to

G ood comparison between the measured and the predicted deformation

In order to allow for moment redistribution in m ulti-span lapped purlin system,

an empirical formula is also proposed to describe the unloading part o f the

deformation characteristics o f the lapped Z sections. It should be noted that the

lengths, and the moment resistances o f the lapped Z sections.

4.1 Lapped Z sections

bolted connections. Moreover, material non-linearity was incorporated in order to

thickness. Initial geometric imperfection in the lapped Z sections was obtained as

predicted deformation characteristics o f the test specimens followed closely to those

measured from tests over the entire range o f deformation.

4.2 M ulti-span lapped purlin systems

obtained. Thus, it is possible to reveal the exact mechanism o f moment re

at the ends o f lap to those at mid-span.

5. Design development for multi-span lapped Z purlins

5.1 Analysis and design procedure

Based on the results of various tasks of investigation, a complete analysis and

incorporated in determining the distribution o f internal forces of purlin members,

shear forces in purlin members o f practical material and geometrical

the proposed deformation characteristics o f lapped Z sections, a non-linear

5.2 Load span tables

practical material and geometrical configurations as well as connection