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materials, such as wood or metal. Different tools and methods are used for drilling depending
on the type of material, the size of the hole, the number of holes, and the time to complete the
operation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
o 1.1 Process Characteristics
o 1.2 Process Schematic
o 1.3 Workpiece Geometry
o 1.4 Machining operations for drilling
2 Setup and Equipment
3 Tool Style
4 Toolholding Methods
5 Workpieces
6 Common Geometry
7 Material
o 7.1 Drilling in metal
o 7.2 Drilling in wood
o 7.3 Drilling in stone
8 Microdrilling
9 Drilling as a Manufacturing Process
o 9.1 Operation definition
o 9.2 Hole making operations
o 9.3 Measuring drilling depth
o 9.4 Considerations for drilling
o 9.5 Center drilling
o 9.6 Deep hole drilling
o 9.7 Twist drill
o 9.8 Gun drilling
o 9.9 Trepanning
o 9.10 Power Requirements
10 Lubrication and Cooling
11 Time Calculations
12 Cost Elements
13 Safety
14 Workholding Methods
15 Tolerances and Surface Finish
16 Factors Affecting Process Results
o 16.1 Orbital drilling
17 See also
18 References
19 External links
[edit] Overview
[edit] Process Characteristics
-Generates small burrs upon entry and more coarse burrs upon exit of the workpiece.
-May produce coarse, helical feed marks, depending on machining parameters (feed, speed,
tool geometry, coolant, etc.)[1]
Drilling may affect the mechanical properties of the workpiece by creating low residual
stresses around the hole opening and a very thin layer of highly stressed and disturbed
material on the newly formed surface. This causes the workpiece to become more susceptible
to corrosion at the stressed surface.
Drilling involves relative axial and rotations between the drill and the workpiece. Usually, the
drill rotates and proceeds into the workpiece, but sometimes the opposite is true. Chips are
removed by following along grooves of flutes in the drill. Although long spiral chips usually
result from drilling,adjustment of the feed rate can result in chips with a range of many
different shapes and sizes. Material of workpiece can also change the range of different chip
shapes and sizes. [1]
A drilled hole may be distinguished from one produced by piercing, casting, molding, torch
cutting, etc. by the presence of helical feed marks inside the hole and small burrs on the
workpiece as the drill enters and exits. Drilled holes are usually sharp around the edge where
the drill has entered the workpiece. [1]
a) Reaming - to provide better tolerance of its diameter and to improve the surface finish.
e) Centering - creating a hole to accurately establish its location for subsequent drilling.
f) Spotfacing - similar to milling where it is used to provide a flat machined surface on the
workpiece in the localized area.
[edit] Workpieces
A drilled hole can be distinguished from piercing, casting, molding, and torch cutting. Drilled
holes are usually sharp around where the drill entered the workpiece. The different pieces that
can be used are rods, plates, castings, extruded, and more.
[edit] Material
[edit] Drilling in metal
High speed steel twist bit drilling into aluminium with methylated spirits lubricant
Under normal usage, swarf is carried up and away from the tip of the drill bit by the fluting of
the drill bit. The continued production of chips from the cutting edges produces more chips
which continue the movement of the chips outwards from the hole. This continues until the
chips pack too tightly, either because of deeper than normal holes or insufficient backing off
(removing the drill slightly or totally from the hole while drilling). Lubricants and coolants
(i.e. cutting fluid) are sometimes used to ease this problem and to prolong the tools life by
cooling and lubricating the tip and chip flow. Coolant is introduced via holes through the drill
shank (see gun drill). When cutting aluminum in particular, cutting fluid helps ensure a
smooth and accurate hole while preventing the metal from grabbing the drill bit in the process
of drilling the hole. Only a few drops are needed at a time.
Straight fluting is used for copper or brass, as this exhibits less tendency to "dig in" or grab
the material. If a helical drill (twist drill) is used then the same effect can be achieved by
stoning a small flat parallel with the axis of the drill bit.
For heavy feeds and comparatively deep holes oil-hole drills can be used, with a lubricant
pumped to the drill head through a small hole in the bit and flowing out along the fluting. A
conventional drill press arrangement can be used in oil-hole drilling, but it is more commonly
seen in automatic drilling machinery in which it is the workpiece that rotates rather than the
drill bit.
Peck Increments: If a peck cycle is needed while drilling a deep hole, the peck
increment should not exceed 1/2 the diameter of the drill.
Machinability Ratings
Wood being softer than most metals, drilling in wood is considerably easier and faster than
drilling in metal. Cutting fluids are not used or needed. The main issue in drilling wood is
assuring clean entry and exit holes and preventing burning. Avoiding burning is a question of
using sharp bits and the appropriate cutting speed. Drill bits can tear out chips of wood
around the top and bottom of the hole and this is undesirable in fine woodworking
applications.
The ubiquitous twist drill bits used in metalworking also work well in wood, but they tend to
chip wood out at the entry and exit of the hole. In some cases, as in rough holes for carpentry,
the quality of the hole does not matter, and a number of bits for fast cutting in wood exist,
including spade bits and self-feeding auger bits. Many types of specialised drill bits for
boring clean holes in wood have been developed, including brad-point bits, Forstner bits and
hole saws. Chipping on exit can be minimized by using a piece of wood as backing behind
the work piece, and the same technique is sometimes used to keep the hole entry neat.
Holes are easier to start in wood as the drill bit can be accurately positioned by pushing it into
the wood and creating a dimple. The bit will thus have little tendency to wander. In metal
working, an accurate position needs to be marked with a punch to avoid the bit wandering
from the desired position of the hole.
When drilling in stone, one must pay particular attention to the type of stone one drills into.
There are three different classifications of drill bits used for drilling into stone: soft, medium,
and hard. Soft formation rock bits are used in unconsolidated sands, clays, and soft
limestones, and red beds, etc. Medium formation bits are used in calcites, dolomites,
limestones, and hard shale, while hard formation bits are used in hard shale, calcites,
mudstones, cherty lime stones and hard and abrasive formations.
[edit] Microdrilling
Microdrilling refers to the drilling of holes less than 0.5 mm. Drilling of holes at this small
diameter presents greater problems since coolant fed drills cannot be used and high spindle
speeds are required. High spindle speeds that exceed 10,000 RPM also require the use of
balanced tool holders.
On most workpieces it is vitally important that the hole be drilled precisely in reference to the
x, y, z-axes. When possible drilled holes should be located perpendicular to the workpiece
surface. This is due to the large length-to-diameter ratio which causes the drill bit to be easily
deflected which can cause the hole to be misplaced, or the drill bit to break or fatigue.
Because there are so many types of production operations that involve making a variety of
holes in countless different materials, there are many methods for hole making.
Unless you are working with a very short workpiece, you will want to measure the depth of
the hole you are going to drill in order to stop at the desired depth. A depth gauge, a cylinder
of brass with a locking screw which slides on a piece of 1/16" drill rod about 3" long, is a
simple depth gauge. It is important to measure the depth of the hole you are going to make in
order to not damage or alter the final product.
Because drilling can often be such a critical process there are a number of considerations that
should be taken in order to ensure the most accurate drill hole possible.
As mentioned before the hole and drill motion should be perpendicular to the surface of the
workpiece to reduce the tendency to fatigue or break the drill bit. This also helps to reduce
'walking' of the drill bit over the workpiece surface.
The bottoms of the hole should match the standard drill point angles. Avoid flat bottom hole
or odd shapes.
If a blind hole must be drilled and tapped, it should be drilled deeper than the tapped depth.
Holes that need to be reamed must also be initially drilled deeper than the reamed hole
depth.
A part should be designed such that it won't need to be repositioned or manually moved
during the drilling process. This also reduces production time and overall cost.
Drill speed should be another consideration. Some materials like plastics as well as other
non-metals and some metals have a tendency to heat up enough to expand making the hole
smaller than desired.
Consideration of the effects on the work material properties. A mechanical effect of drilling
is a very thin layer of highly stressed and disturbed material created on new surface.
Increased probability of corrosion at stressed surface.
In considering the speed of the entire operation there are multiple factors needing to be
considered. Speed is of more concern when multiple cuts need to be made by machine. The
speed of a cut can be derived by Length of cut Feed rate. How quickly the drill can be
retracted from a cut is obtained by Length of cut Retract rate of the drill. How long it
takes to get a drill into position for all planned cuts is found by Number of holes Distance
between holes the drill's speed of Rapid travel. The drill's rpm is a approximated by 4
Cutting speed Diameter of the drill. The feed rate is a result of Feed per teeth
Number of teeth Rotations per minute.
In deciding which drill(s) to use it is important to consider the task at hand and evaluate
which drill would best accomplish the task. There are a variety of drill styles that each serve a
different purpose. The countersink (center drill) is used to ensure accurate positioning of a
hole. The subland drill is capable of drilling more than one diameter. The spade drill is used
to drill larger hole sizes. The indexable drill is useful in managing chips.[1]
The purpose of center drilling is to drill a hole smaller than the desired hole that will act as a
guide for drilling the final hole. While drilling the center hole one must remember to only
drill 3/4th of the way into the workpiece. Since the center hole is only a guide hole, there will
be no need to drill any further.
Deep hole drilling makes reaching extreme depths possible. A high tech monitoring system is
used to control force, torque, vibration, and acoustic emission. The vibration is considered a
major defect in deep hole drilling which can often cause the drill to break. The monitoring
system is essential in this process for this reason. the coolant is used for this operation is more
than that of simple drilling process.
The most common type of drill is a standard-point twist drill. This type of drill is versatile
and can be used on a variety of materials such as wood, plastic, masonry, ceramic, and metal.
These drill bits have two spiral grooves running the length of the drill. These grooves aid in
transporting cutting fluid to the drill tip and in removing the chips from the hole. These types
of drill bits are held in chucks or collets on machines that are either hand-held or automated.
This type of drilling can often cause burrs at both the entrance and the exit of the hole and
parts will often need a subsequent deburring operation to smooth out the holes.
[edit] Gun drilling
Another type of drilling operation is called gun drilling. This method was originally
developed to drill out gun barrels and is used commonly for drilling smaller diameter deep
holes. This depth-to-diameter ratio can be even more than 300:1. The key feature of gun
drilling is that the bits are self-centering; this is what allows for such deep accurate holes. The
bits use a rotary motion similar to a twist drill however; the bits are designed with bearing
pads that slide along the surface of the hole keeping the drill bit on center. Gun drilling is
usually done at high speeds and low feed rates.
[edit] Trepanning
Trepanning is commonly used for creating larger diameter holes (up to 915 mm or 36 in)
where a standard drill bit is not feasible or economical. Trepanning removes the desired
diameter by cutting out a solid disk similar to the workings of a drafting compass. Trepanning
is performed on flat products such as sheet metal, granite(curling stone), plates, or structural
members like I-beams. Trepanning can also be useful to make grooves for inserting seals like
O-rings.
To determine the Horsepower (hp) needed for doing the drilling, simply multiply the unit
power by the removal rate (in.^3/min)
Tool Geometry
MATERIAL Point Angle Helix Angle Lip Relief Angle
Aluminum 90 to 135 32 to 48 12 to 26
Brass 90 to 118 0 to 20 12 to 26
Cast Iron 90 to 118 24 to 32 7 to 20
Mild Steel 118 to 135 24 to 32 7 to 24
Stainless Steel 118 to 135 24 to 32 7 to 24
Plastics 60 to 90 0 to 20 12 to 26
[1]
rpm: 4xv/D
D = Diameter of tool
A = Approach time
O = Over-travel
F = Feed rate
V = Cutting Speed
r = Retract rate
H = Number of Holes
S = Distance to next Hole
R = Rapid travel
N = Number of teeth
L = Length of cut
d = Depth of Hole
[1]
setup time.
load/unload time.
Idle time.
Cutting time.
Tool costs.
Direct labor rate.
Overhead rate.
Amortization of equipment and tooling.[1]
[edit] Safety
Risks should be taken into consideration when drilling. Quickly rotating tools, hot sharp
chips expelled from the workpiece, and skin irritation from cutting fluids all create situations
that could pose a problem for the operator.
A drilling procedure developed for use in composite materials, orbital drilling removes
material both axially and radially by rotating the cutting tool about its axis while also moving
it eccentrically about the desired axis of the hole being machined. This procedure differs from
a milling machine, because the cutting tool is advanced through the material similar to a
regular drill press, producing a smooth hole that is larger than the diameter of the cutting tool
(the difference between tool size and hole size is a function of the eccentric offset).[3] This
procedure produces smaller chips, requires smaller axial force, removes chips better and
reduces heat buildup during the cutting process.
[edit] References
1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Todd, Robert H and Allen, Dell K. Manufacturing Processes
Reference Guide. 1994. pg. 4348. Industrial Press Inc.
2. ^ Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Kalpakjian, Schmid, 2006
3. ^ Orbital Drilling Goes Mainstream for the Dreamliner, Aerospace Engineering &
Manufacturing, SAE International Publications, March 2009, p. 32
Boring (manufacturing)
In machining, boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled (or cast),
by means of a single-point cutting tool (or of a boring head containing several such tools), for
example as in boring a cannon barrel. Boring is used to achieve greater accuracy of the
diameter of a hole, and can be used to cut a tapered hole.
Contents
[hide]
1 Machine boring
2 Lathe boring2
o 2.1 Tolerances and surface finish
o 2.2 Workholding methods
o 2.3 Effects on work material properties
o 2.4 Time calculations
3 See also
4 References
The boring machines (similar to the milling machines such as the classic Van Norman) come
in a large variety of sizes and styles. Boring operations on small workpieces can be carried
out on a lathe while larger workpieces are machined on boring mills. Work piece diameters
are commonly 1-4m (3-12 ft) but can be as large as 20m (60ft). Power requirements can be as
much as 200 hp. Cooling of the bores is done through a hollow passageway through the
boring bar where coolant can flow freely. Tungsten-alloy disks are sealed in the bar to
counteract vibration and chatter during boring. The control systems can be computer-based,
allowing for automation and increased consistency.
Because boring is meant to decrease the product tolerances on pre-existing holes, several
design considerations must be made. First, large length-to-bore-diameters are not preferred
due to cutting tool deflection. Next, through holes are preferred over blind holes (holes that
do not traverse the thickness of the work piece). Interrupted internal working surfaces
where the cutting tool and surface have discontinuous contactshould be avoided. The
boring bar is the protruding arm of the machine that holds cutting tool(s), and must be very
rigid.1
Lathe boring usually requires that the workpiece be held in the chuck and rotated. As the
workpiece is rotated, a boring bar with an insert attached to the tip of the bar is fed into an
existing hole. When the cutting tool engages the workpiece, a chip is formed. Depending on
the type of tool used, the material, and the feed rate, the chip may be continuous or
segmented. The surface produced is called a bore.
The geometry produced by lathe boring is usually of two types: straight holes and tapered
holes. Several diameters can also be added to each shape hole if required. To produce a taper,
the tool may be fed at an angle to the axis of rotation or both feed and axial motions may be
concurrent. Straight holes and counterbores are produced by moving the tool parallel to the
axis of workpiece rotation.
A woman machinist operating a gun turning lathe during World War II.
For most lathe boring applications, tolerances are held within +/-0.002in. for deep holes. For
precision applications, tolerances can be held within +/-0.0005in. only for shallow holes.
Surface finish may range from 8 to 250 microinches, with a typical range between 32 and 125
microinches.
The three most commonly used workholding devices are the three-jaw chuck, the four-jaw
chuck, and the face plate. The three-jaw chuck is used to hold round workpieces because the
work is automatically centered. The four-jaw chuck is used to hold irregular shapes because
of its independent action on each jaw. The face plate is also used for irregular shapes that
need to be through-bored.
Speed, feed rate, retract rate, and length of cut are major variables for economic machining.
Feed Rate(ipr) = F. Retract Rate(ipm) = R. Length of Cut(in.) = L. Boring Time=L/F. Retract
Time=L/R.
[edit] References
1
Kalpakjian, Schmid. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall, 2001.
2
Todd, Robert H.; Allen, Dell K. (1994). Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide.. New York:
Industrial Press.