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International Symposium on

296 Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM2014)


Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM2014)
February 1921, 2014, CWRDM, Kozhikode, Kerala, India

Biosand Filtration: A Sustainable Option for


Household Treatment of Drinking Water
1
Abhillash T Nair and Mansoor Ahammed M
Civil Engineering Department, S V National Institute of Technology, Surat395007, India
E-mail: 1mansoorahammed@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Biosand Filter (BSF) an intermittently operated household Slow Sand Filter
(SSF) is one of the most promising POU water purification methods used for rural areas.
Full-scale BSFs were constructed using locally available materials. Two filtration runs of
96 days and 41 days were carried out using E.coli (~106 CFU/mL) and sewage (total
coliform ~104 MPN/100 mL) spiked tap water (20L) respectively and turbidity (~ 25
NTU). Initially in run 1 less than one-log reduction of E.coli was observed for BSF and
after maturation, BSF gave a consistent performance with about 2.5-log unit removal.
Similar removal was also observed for Salmonella and Pseudomonas added after 62 days
of the filter operation. In run 2, 2-log reduction was observed after maturation for total
coliform. No significant difference was observed for parameter such as alkalinity, calcium
and magnesium hardness. Overall, this study provides evidence that BSF gave ~2.5 log
bacterial reduction from the water and produce water average effluent turbidity of ~1.1
NTU. Increasing the charge volume can significantly affect the microbial quality of water
treated. BSF can provide relief to water borne disease in rural areas to a great extent.
Keywords: Bacteria Removal, Biosand Filter, Drinking Water Treatment, Household
Water Treatment, Turbidity.

INTRODUCTION
About 884 million people in the world especially in the rural areas and low-income communities
still do not have access to safe drinking water sources (WHO and UNICEF 2010). Five million
people lose their lives due to water-related disease each year (Baumgartner et al., 2007). It is
estimated that around 37.7 million Indians are affected by waterborne diseases annually, 1.5
million children are estimated to die of diarrhea alone and 73 million working days are lost
due to waterborne disease each year (GOI 2002). Millennium Development Goal (MDG),
Target 10 aims to half the population in 1990 without sustainable access to safe drinking
water and sanitation by 2015 (UN 2006). Even so, 672 million people will still lack access to
improved drinking-water sources in 2015 (WHO and UNICEF 2010). Central water treatment
and distribution system can be economical in urban and densely populated areas but may not be
feasible in rural areas with sparsely and remotely located population. The outcome is an
unreliable water service in terms of quantity and/or quality (Peter-Varbanets et al., 2009).
Providing safe drinking water also becomes crucial after any disaster to prevent the spread of
waterborne diseases (Loo et al., 2012). Hence onsite water treatment using Point of Use (POU)
Biosand Filtration: A Sustainable Option for Household Treatment of Drinking Water 297

technologies is more practical and sustainable than continuously delivering water (Peter-
Varbanets et al., 2009; Loo et al., 2012).
Various POU technologies have been reported to improve the microbial of drinking water
which includes the use of disinfectants (such as chlorine and iodine), filtration, distillation,
reverse osmosis, solar disinfectant and water purifiers (Sobsey 2002; Stauber et al., 2006). At
least 2050% frequency of diarrheal illness has been reduced due to improvement in water quality
(Sobsey et al., 2008; Tiwari et al., 2009). Biosand Filter (BSF) has emerged as the most effective
POU technology among the five different household treatment technologies (Sobsey et al.,
2008).
The BSF consists of a bed of fine sand supported by a layer of gravel enclosed in a box with
accessories to deliver and collect the water. While the traditional slow sand filters are
operated continuously at constant head and upper layer of sand is replaced periodically, the
BSF is operated intermittently, head and flow rate vary and the upper few centimetres of sand
containing schmutzdecke are not replaced but rather cleaned periodically by agitation and
decanting of the released contaminants and excess biological growth (Stauber et al., 2006). It is
estimated that over 140,000 BSFs are in operation and this is expected to increase annually by
about 25,000 (Clasen 2009). Manufacturing costs of BSF is ~US$60 per filter exclusive of
delivery to the homes (Fiore et al., 2010). The objective of the present study was to evaluate the
efficiency of the BSF in reducing the bacterial counts in laboratory by employing spiked tap
water.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Biosand Filter
Full-scale BSFs were constructed using locally available materials as per the specifications of
the Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technologys Biosand Filter design (CAWST

Fig. 1: Schematic Diagram of the Experimental BSF Constructed for the Study
298 Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM2014)

2009) for conducting the filtration runs. River sand passing through 1.18 mm and retained on
0.150 mm with an effective size of 0.23 mm and a uniformity coefficient 3.1 was used as filter
media in the study. The filters had a 5 cm underdrain gravel (4.7512 mm size) and 5 cm of
coarse sand (1.184.78 mm size) in addition to 40 cm of sand layer (Figure 1).

Filter Operation
Two filtration runs of 96 days and 41 days were carried out in Environmental Engineering
Laboratory of the Civil Engineering Department of Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of
Technology, Surat, India using spiked tap water (dechlorinated). In run 1, BSF was charged
with 20L E.coli spiked tap water (~106 CFU/mL) alongwith turbidity (~25 NTU). Pasteurized
sewage 1 mL per 10 litre of water was added for organic content for the development of
schmutzdecke layer in run 1. Salmonella and Pseudomonas were spiked after 62 days of filter
operation (~106 CFU/mL). After 85 days charge volume was increased from 20L to 40L charge
volume in batch of 20L at 12 hours interval. In run 2, diluted sewage was added as a source of
total coliform (~104 MPN/100 mL) to simulate the presence of wastewater in typical drinking
water sources of developing countries. Filter was cleaned between the runs as the guidelines of
CAWST. Microbial removal, turbidity removal and flow rate were analysed for both the filtrations
runs.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Filtration Rate
In run 1, from an initial value of around 1.0 L/min filtration rate decreased to around 0.075
L/min in 96 days (Figure 2). A rapid decrease in flow rate was observed when the daily charge
was increased to 40 L from 20 L. Similarly in run 2, the initial flow rate was 0.81 L/min and it
declined to 0.42 L/min by day 41. The pores in the sand on top portion of the filtering media are
filled up by the colloidal particles present in the influent water and reducing the pore size and
reducing the filtration rate. A biological layer called Schmutzdecke gets developed over top
portion the filtering media. After a period of use the schmutzdecke and accumulations of

1.2 0.9
24 h 12 h
1.0 Run 1 Run 2
0.8
Flow rate (L/min)

Flow rate (L/min)

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.4

0.5
0.2

0.0 0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40
Days of filter operation Days of filter operation

Fig. 2: Flow Rate Variation in Run 1 and Run 2


Biosand Filtration: A Sustainable Option for Household Treatment of Drinking Water 299

particulate material in the top surface of the filtering media will reduce the flow rate through
the filter to unacceptable levels. The flow rate can be restored by cleaning the Schmutzdecke
layer which was done in this study between the two the filtration runs. Schmutzdecke is
responsible for the removal of microorganisms and progressive head loss (Campos et al.,
2002; Mwabi et al., 2011). Lower filtration rate of BSF can result in improved quality of
water treated (Kennedy et al., 2012).

Turbidity Removal
Turbidity of the treated water improved with time and remained around 1.2 NTU throughout
the filter operation (Figure 3) for both the filtration runs. Turbidity removal takes places due
to the straining mechanism within the pores of the filter media. Particles too large to fit between
the sand grains are strained out at the sand surface. As particles accumulate the size of the pore
opening at the sand surface is reduced allowing even smaller particles to be removed by
straining. This particle accumulation is also responsible for reduced filtration rate in the filter.

24 h 12 h
25 Run 2
25
Run 1
Turbidity (NTU)

Turbidity (NTU)

Effluent
20
Influent
Effluent 20
6 Influent 4

4
2
2

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Days of filter operation Days of filter operation
Fig. 3: Turbidity Removal in Run 1 and Run 2

Microbial Removal
Performances of the biosand filter in removing bacteria in the two filtration experiments using
seeded tap water are presented in Figures 4 and 5, respectively. Initially, E.coli removal was
less than 1 log unit in run 1 which increased with the filtration days reaching maximum upto about
2.5 log unit as the filter matures. Maturation typically takes 4 to 6 weeks. Similar observation was
made in run 2 for total coliform removal (Figure 5). Addition of Salmonella and Pseudomonas did
not affect the removal efficiency of BSF on the contrary removal of Salmonella and Pseudomonas
was similar to that of E.coli.
Death and predation are mainly responsible for the removal of pathogenic bacteria. The
bacteria are preyed upon by the organism colonised in biological layer developed over the top
of filtering media called as Schmutzdecke layer (Buzuniz 1995). The pathogens also starve
due to lack of food in the filter as the organic matter in the influent water is trapped on the top
layer and consumed by the microbes colonised in Schmutzdecke (Buzuniz 1995).
300 Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM2014)

The influent water provides oxygen and food (by breaking down the organic matter) for
developing Schmutzdecke over top portion the filtering media. Schmutzdecke layer consist of
a film of algae, bacteria and protozoa with finely divided suspended material, plankton and
other organic matter deposited by the influent water (Ratnayaka et al., 2009). Schmutzdecke
development is highly influenced by source water characteristics which include concentration
of nutrients and microbes. Water temperature, dissolved oxygen and Natural Organic Matter
(NOM) also play important role in Schmutzdecke development (Elliot et al., 2008).

107
24 h 12 h
Concentration of E. coli (CFU/mL)

106

105

104

103 Effluent
Influent

1027
10
24 h 12 h
Concentration of Salmonella (CFU/mL)

106

105

104

103

102

101
107
24 h Days 12 h
Concentration of Pseudomonas (CFU/mL)

106

105

104

103

102

101
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Days of filter operation
Fig. 4: Microbial Removal in Run 1
Biosand Filtration: A Sustainable Option for Household Treatment of Drinking Water 301

Fig. 5: Microbial Removal in Run 2

The biological layer developed over the top surface of the filtering media act as extremely
fine straining mesh mesh trapping foreign mater as the water passes through the filter (Ratnayaka
et al., 2009). The depth of the standing water over the top of filtering media is kept sufficiently
small for oxygen from the air to diffuse through the water to the schmutzdeke keep them alive
and active even when water is not being filtered.
Previous studies reported by different researchers shows that BSF can achieve 58.399.7%
total coliform removal (Baumgartner et al., 2007); 099.99% E. coli removal (Murphy et al.
2010; Elliott et al., 2008); greater than 5 log10 protozoan removals for Giardia lamblia cysts and
99.98% Cryptosporidium oocysts removal (Palmateer et al., 1999); 0 to 0.75 log10 MS2 and
PRD-1 bacteriophage removal, 1.14 log10 of echovirus 12 removal (Elliott et al., 2008) and >75%
of iron and manganese (Stauber et al., 2009). The proportional reduction in bacteria is not affected
by the bacterial concentration of the source water (Baumgartner et al., 2007).
The quality of treated water reduced as the idle time was reduced from 24 hours to 12 hours.
Pathogen are attenuated or inactivated within the filter during the pause time (Elliot et al.,
2008). Longer idle time would increase pathogen removal through either adsorption to the
sand grains or natural death from nutrient starvation (Buzuniz 1995). Increase in idle time by
each hour can increase the bacterial removal by 0.050 to 0.063 log per hour (Jenkins et al.,
2011). Longer idle time can increase turbidity by 3.85%, bacterial removal by 0.29 log, viruses
by 0.670.77 log (Jenkins et al., 2011).
However the survival of microorganisms in the biofilm relies on inflow of contaminated
source water and hence longer idle time may reduce the capability of the biofilms removal
function relative to more frequent filtration (Palmateer et al., 1999; Baumgartner et al., 2007).
Thus an optimum combination of idle time and volume of water filtered has to be selected to
maximise the performance of BSF.

CONCLUSION
BSF gave ~2.5 log bacterial reduction from the water and produce water average effluent
turbidity of ~1.1 NTU. Increasing the charge volume can significantly affect the microbial quality
302 Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM2014)

of water treated. Performance of BSF depended on the maturation time and on the pause time.
BSF cannot provide zero coliform water and hence some amount of disinfection is required
after filtration.

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