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OF
THERMAL PO\iVER STATIONS
M. 11. P eammoe, 10. M. Jiunon
IIAPOBhiE KOTJl hl
TEIIJIOBhiX 8JIEKTPOCTAI-IIJ;MV:I M. I. Reznikov, Yu. M. Lipov
<<8 n epronap;aT>> • Mo ci\Ba
Trans la ted fr om the Russinn
by
Vadim Afanosycv

t}

Mir Pu lJli shers. · Mosco'"

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CONTEl\lTS

First published 1985

R evised from the 1981 R ussian edit ion Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Chapter 6. Effic ie ncy of Fuel Heat
Utilization . . . . .. 67
Chapter I . Steam Generation at Elec-
tri c l'owcr Stations 10 6.1. The Il ea LBalance ond Efficiency
of t ho S team Boiler . . . . 67
1.1. The Steam Boiler at a Power 0.2. Analysi s of Heat Losses . . . 70
S tation . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2. Cl assifica tion o f St.oam Bo ile rs 15 Chapter 7. J>ul vcrized Coa l-filed Fur-
1.3. Flow Di agram o f Steam Prod uc- naces . . . . . . . . . 77
ll.on • • • • • 0 0 • • • 17
1.4. Principal. Characteri stics of 7 .1. P rin cipal Characteris ti cs of
S team Boilers . . . . . . . 21 Chamber Furn aces . . . . . 77
7.2. Burners nnd The ir Arrangement 80
Chapter 2. Power-producing Fuels 7.3. Dr y-botto m Furnaces . . . . 85
and Their Characteristics 22 7 .4. Slagging-bo tt.om Furnaces . . 86
2.1. Kinds and Compositions of Fuels 22 Chapter 8. Gas ond Fuel Oil-fired Fur-
2.2. The H ea ting Value and Resolv - naces . . . . . 90
ed Charac te ri stics o f Fuels . . 25
2.3. T echnical Characteristics of So- 8.1. Furn ace Design . . . . · . • 90
lid Fuels . . . . . . . . 26 8. 2. Fuel Oil Burners . . . . .• 92
2.1o . Technical Characteri s tics of Fue l 8.3. Combus tion of Natural Gas . . 95
Oil and Natural Gnses . . . . 29 8.4. Combined Gas-fuolt:Oil Burners 96
2.5. !\lain De posits of Foss il Fuels 31
Chapter 9. Characteristics, Parame-
Chapter 3. Fuel Preparation at P ower ters and Molion"'Equations
Stations . . . . . . . 32 o[ Working Fluid . • • 98
3.1. Methods of Solid Fuel Combus- 9.1. Principal Hydrodynamic and
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Heat-transfer Equations for tho
3.2 . Pulverization Sys te ms . . . . 34 Water-steam Path . . . 98
3.3. Charact.oristics of Co al Dus t. 9.2. Characteristics o f Motion of a
Optimal Degree of Pulveriza- Steam-water Mixture . . . 100
••·on
" • • • • 0 • 0 • 0 • 0 •
38 9.3. Regimes o! Steam- water Mi xtu-
3.4. Pulverization Equipment . . 41 re Flow . . . . . . . 103
3.5. The Preparation of Fuel Oil and 9.4. Hydraulic Resi stances . . 1.05
Natural Gas . . . . . . . . 45 9.5. Thermopbysical Properties of
Working Fluid in the Path of a
Chapter 4. Theore tical Principles of Monobloc Unit . . . . . . • 107
Combustion • . . . • • 47
4.1. The K in otics of Combustion R e-
Chapter t O. Temperature (Conditions
action s . . . . . . . . . . . 47 on Be a ling Surfaces . • iiO
4.2. The Mechanisms of Fuel Com- 1 0.1. Classification o~ Heating and
bustion . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Cooling Mod es - . . . . 110
4.3. Kinetic and Diffusion Regions 10.2. Heat-transfer Cris is in Evapo-
of Combus tion . . . . . 54 rating Tubes . . . . . . 112
4.4. The Ignition of Fu el-air Mixtu- 10.3. Temperature Cond itions Along
re. Combustion F ront . . 56 the Length of a Channel .
4.5. The Burn-off Intensity of Fuel 59 10.4. Temperature Conditions Aro-
und tho Periphery of a Channel 118
Chopter 5. Com bust ion Producls . . 60 10.5. Heat Exchange in Steam Ge-
5.1. Tho Compos ition o f Co mbustio n nerators of Nucle ar Po wer S ta-
Products . . . . . . . . . . lions . . . . . . .. . . • • • 1.23
60
5.2. Dctcrrnin ntion of Excess Air Ro- Chapter I I. Hydrodynam ics of Open
tio for an Operating Boiler . . 64
5.3. Tox ic Subs tances in W aste Ga- Hydraulic Systems . . . 124
@ c3ueprOII'3AaTt, 1981 ses and Measures o f Environm en- 11.1. Classification of Open Hydrau-
@ English translation, Mir Publishe rs , 1985 t al Co ntrol . . . . . . . . . 65 lic S ys tems . . . . . . . . 124
 6
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Contents
11.2. Hydrodynamic Stability of
Flow in Horizontal Evaporat-
1-.ng 'l'ubcs - . . . . . . . . 126
11 .3. Hydrodynamic S tabil ity o(
Flow in Vertical Evaporating
Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . 130
11 .4. Maldistribution of HeaL . . . 136
11.5. Effect of Headers on the Di-
stribution of Working fluid
Between Tubes . 1ld
I H .6. Flow P ulsation s . . . . . .
143
Chapter 12. Hydrodynamics of Closed
Hydraulic Systems 145
12.1. Laws of Free Circulation . . 145
12.2. Calculation of Circulation Cir-
cuits . . . 148
12.3. General Hydraulic Characte-
ristic of Evaporating Tubes and
Tts Hole in Estimating the Ro-
liabili ly of Circulation . . .
151
12.4. Hydrodynamics of Descending
Tubes and Its Effect on t he
Reliability of Circulation . . 155
Chapter 13. llydrodynamics o f Bu bbl-
ing Systems 157
13.1. Laws of Bubbling . . 157
13.2. Dynamic Layer in S team Wash-
ers . . . .. ... . 162
13.3. Effect of Non-uniform Heat
Helease and I mpuri ties on the
Dynamic Two-phase Layer . 162
Chapter 14. Physico-chemical Prin-
ciples of Behaviou r of Im-
purities in Work ing Fluid 1.65
14.1. Impurities in Feed Water and
Their Effect on Equipment 165
11o.2. Solubility of Impurities in on
Aqueous Heat- transfer Agent
and Formation of Depos its . . 166
14.3. Passage of Impurities from
Water to Saturated Steam 172
Chapter 15. Waler Condi tions 178
15.1. R emoval of I mpurities from
tbe Circuit . . . . . . 178
15.2. Water Conditions of Once-
through Boilers . . . . 180
15.3. Non-scaling Water Conditions
. of Dru m-type Boilers . 1.83
15.4. Methods for Generating Clean
St~am . . .
Cbapter 16. Processes on lbe F ireside
of Heating Sudaces 192
16.1. Mech anism of Scaling . . . 192
16.2. Abras ion Wear o f Convective
Heating Surfaces . . . . . 196
16.3. Corrosion of Healing Surfaces 198
Chapter 17. Evaporating Heating S ur -
faces . . . . . . 202
Contents
I
7
17 .1. Heat Absorpti on by Evaporat- 23.5. Shut-down and Load -shedding 24 .4 Nuclear Reactor as a Steam Ge-
ing Surfaces and Their Layout Regimes . . . . . . : : . . . 303 nerator . . . . . . . . . . · 321
202
1. 7. 2. Reliable Designs of Water Walls 23.6. Regimes or Bo1ler fmng and
203 324
17 .3. Gas-li ght Water Walls and Me- Unit StarLing ...... . 306 Chapter 25. l\lelals £or Steam Boilers
th ods for Enhancing T hei r He- 25.1. Metal Behaviour at High Tem-
liability . . . . . . . . . . 210 Chapter 24. Steam Generators of Nuc- peratures . . . . . . . • . 324
17 .4. Refractory-faced Water Wails 216 lear Power Stations 312 25.2. Metals for Steam Boilers . . 327
25.3. Stren..:th Calculations . . 330
Chapter 18. Steam Supcrhcat.crs and 24.1. Classification and Characteri- •
stics of S team Generators fot· 25/t. Metal Contro l in Operation 333
Superheat Control . . . 217
Nuclear Power Statio ns . . . 312 ll c fere nces • • . .. 335
•
18 .1. Classification of Superh eaters 217 24.2. Steam Generators \\'i Llt Aqueous
18.2. Operation and Reliability of Coolant . . . . . . . . . . 314 Index . . • 337
Superheaters . . . . . . . . 24.3. Steam Generators with Liquid-
222
18.3. Positioning of S uperheaters . . 223 metal and Gaseous Coola~Ls 317
18 .4. Superheat T om perature Control 225
Chapter 19. Low-lcmt>erature Heat-
ing Surfaces 232
19.1. Arrange ment of Low-Lempera-
luro Heating Su rfaces . . . . 232
19.2. Economizers . . . . . .
234
19.3. Air Heaters . . . . . . . . 236
19.4 . Corrosion Control of Air Hea-
to.rs . . . . . . . . . . . . 2U
Chapter 20. Heat Exchange in Heat-
ing Surfaces of Boilers . . . . 246
20.1. Thermal Characteristics or Wa-
ter Walls . . . . . . . . . 2lt6
20.2. Flame Emissivity . . . . . . 2t,!)
20.3. Calculation of Radiant Heat I
Transfer in a Furnace . . . . 251
20.4. Radiant Hed Trmsfer in Boi-
ler Flue Ducts . . . . . . . 255
20.5. Couvcc tive H eal Transfer in
Boiler Flue Duels . . . . . . 257
20.6. Velocities of Gases and Working
Fluid in Convective H ealing Sur-
f aces . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Chapter 21. Layout and Heat Calcu-
lation o£ Steam Boiler . . 262
21.1. Boiler Layout and Structures 262
21.2. Thermal Diagram of a Boiler 270
21.3. H eat Calculation of a Boiler 273
Chapter 22. Steam Boilers of H igh-
capacity Monobloe IUnlts 276
22.1 . Selection of Boiler Desigp. Ac-
cording to the Type, Capacity
md Operating Conditions of
Power Station . . . . . . . 276
22.2. Characteristics of Modern Steam
Boilers . . • . . . . . • . . 281
Chapter 23. Stea m Boiler Operation 2QO
23.1. Operating Conditions and Cha-
racteristics . . . . . • . . . 290
23.2. Steady Regimes of Boiler Ope-
ration . . . . . . . . . . . 202
23.3. Unsteady Rogimos of Operation
Witltin Allowable Loads . . . 294
:!3.4. Starling-up Circuits o[ Mono-
bloc Units . . . . . . . . . 298
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PREFACE
This textbook has been written as
a higher-education course in steam
boilers for thermal power stations.
It presents the theory of the processes
which occur in steam boilers, designs
of boilers for thermal power stations
and steam generators for nuclear power
stations, and the operating principles
of boilers and steam generators.
The material in the book is based
on four fundamental principles which
are cl osely interrel ated and reflect
the current stale of progress in science
and technology: (1) the phys ico-chemi-
cal processes in the fu el, gas-air , and
water-steam paths of modern high-
capacity boilers; (2) the correlation
between these physico-chemical pro-
cesses and the design , layout and
arrangement of steam boilers and their
elements; (3) advanced technological
processes and their technical and eco-
nomical substantiation; and (4) the
carrel ation between the processes oc-
curring in boilers and the principles
of boiler operation. This method of
analysis encourages the optimal selec-
tion of technological processes, boiler
designs, and operating regimes.
At the beginning of the course, we
explain the role and place of the steam
boiler in the general scheme of elec-
tric power production at modern high-
capacity steam-turbine power stations,
give the classification of steam boliers,
describe the functions of the princi-
pal boiler elem ents and, in introduc-
tory form , the physico-chemical pro-
cesses which occur in the water-steam,
fuel and gas-air paths of boilers.
Thus, th e students are immediately
introduced to the range of topics which
are later discussed in more d etail .
A n u mber of chapters are devoted
Preface 9
cesses occurring in the steam boilers many years of lectw·ing a course on
of thermal power stali!)ns and steam steam generators of power stations at
generators of nuclear power st~t~ons the l\•foscow power engineering insti-
are discussed in parallel. In addttiOn, tute, which has been initiated by Acade-
a separate chapter is devoted solely mician M. A. Styrikovich.
to the steam generators of nuclear The authors would like to express
power stations. special tl18nks to their colleagues on
Tho authors have carefully selected tho faculty of steam generators of
' the illustrations for the book. For power stations at tho 1\'loscow pow~r
deeper analysis of the proble~s hei~g engineering inslitule [faculty cha•r
studied different types of b01ler cu- Prof. V. S. Protopopov, Dr. Sc. (Eng.)],
to power-producing fu els and their cuits a~d designs are compared in illu- the reviewers or the book, the faculty
characteristics , fu el prepnration for strations. In some illustrations, boi- of steam generators at the Saratov
combustion , the theoretical princi p- lers or their elements are shown in a polytechnical institute [faculty chair
Ies of combustion, techn ology of fuel simplified form to facilitate the rea- Prof. A. V. Zmachinsky, Dr. Sc.
combustion , and effi ciency with which
der's understanding of how they func- (Eng.)] and B. I. Shmukler, Cand.
heat is u tilized in steam boilers.
tion and the processes which take Sc. (Eng.), for their valuable com-
Next the hook focuses on the prin- ments on the manuscript.
ciples of hydrodynamics and the tem- place in thoro.
Tho present book is the result of
perature and water conditions in steam
boilers. This constitutes the r ange of
probl ems r elated to the procc!:ses of
steam generation.
Having studied the processes of fu el
combustion and steam generation, the
reader is acquainted with several par-
ticular designs of s team boilers and
'#
•
steam boiler elements. Special empha-
sis is placed on the processes and plants
for high and supercritical steam para-
meters, monobloc units, the uLiliza-
tion of non-traditional fuel s, and
methods for increasing the reliability
and efficiency of power plant equip-
ment.
Furtheron, the book explains tlw
principles, stages and sequence of heat
and hydraulic calculations for steam
boilers, including data on the appli-
cation of el ectronic computers and
the development of mathematical mo-
dels of steam boilers. Tho concluding
chapters are of a generalized nature
and describe certain particular de-
signs of modern steam boilers, trends
in their development, and principles
of boiler operation.
In view of recent progress and pers-
pectives in nuclear power engineering
and the construction of high-capacity
nuclear power stations, of l arge theo-
retical and practical interest are data
on tho steam generators of nuclear po-
wer stations. For the first time in
higher-education textbooks, some pro-
 Download From Boilersinfo.com 11
1.1. Steam Boller at Power Statton

Superheated steam Superheated steam

Waste gases Waste gases ,-----
•
((

Fuel 2_--, J fuel

tI
STEAM GENERATION AT ELECTRIC PO\VER STATIONS Air I Steam to
relleater
Air f
10 I I
Ash.stag W
Steam from relleater
Ash,slo 12
12
!1 9
r --
8
1.1. T he Steam Boiler in the Soviet Union comprise the
1 G 6
at a Power Station supergrid, which is the highest form
t
I
I
of organization of energy p1·oduction. (a) f (6) t
An electr-ic power station is an in- Thermal power stations. S t eam -tur-
dustrial plan L for generation of electric bine power stations are the:main type Fig. 1.1. Principal thermal diagram of (a) condensing station and (b) heat and powe~ station
energy. In the USSfi and industrially of power stations oper ating on orga- _ team boiler· 2-steam turbine; 3-clcc lrlc genera tor; 4- condcnser; S-;cond.ensate P~P· G-tee~
developed countries, the major portion nic fuels . They are subdivided into ~u,;;p. 7-low-pressu re hea ter;
8- hlg h-prcs.•ure hetllcr; 9- dcaernlor; 10-mnms \\aler heater, JJ-Indu
· s trial stcnm ex lrnctlou; r2- wntcr-treat.rnent plant
of electric energy is produced at fuel- condensation plants which produce elec-
fired (thermal) power .~lations which tric energy on ly and heat-and-power
utilize tho chemical energy of com- p lants which can prod uce both elec- of 200-300 m or even more to mi n i- The condensate is pumped by a
m ize local concentrations of conta- condensate pump thro ugh low-p ressure
bustion of organic fuels. A certain tr ic energy and h eaL.
quantity of electricity is a lso produced minants i n the air . Solid fuels leave water heaters into a deaerator, where
Steam-turbine power p lants nrc ad- ash and slag on combustion, which tho condensate is m ade to boil and
at nuclear power stations, a kind of vantageous over othe1· types in tha t
thermal stalions which utilize the they permit concentration of an enor- are disposed of from the hoi lor pl ant. is freed from oxygen and carbon dio-
energy of nucl ear ru els , and at hydraulic mous power in a single unit, h ave a The superheated steam prod ucod in x id e that might cause corrosion of the
power stations which uti I ize tho energy relatively high economic effi ciency a nd a boiler is supplied into a steam tur- equipment. Water from the deaerator
of fa lling water. bine where its thermal energy is con- is fed by means of a feed-water pump
require the lowest capital costs and v erted into mechanical work on the through a high-pressure water heater
Irrespective of tho typo of station , short time of their construction. The
turbine shaft. The latter is connected and then into the steam boiler. The
I electric energy is, as a rul e, produced main thermal units at a steam-turbine
on a centralized basis, which means power station are a steam boiler and a to an electric generator in which the
mechanical energy is transformed into
condensate in low-pressure water hea-
ters and the feed water in high-pres-
that individual power stations supply steam turbine (Fig. 1.1). A stea m boiler
e nergy to a common power grid, is a combination of heating surfaces electricity. The waste, or dump, s team sure water heaters are heated by the
and therefore, are combined into po- in which steam is generated from con- is fed from the turbine into a con- steam taken off from the turbine;
wer systems which may cover a large tinuously fed water by u t ilizing the denser, an ap paratus in wh ich the this is called regenerative water hea-
territory with a large number of con- heat liberated on combustion of orga- steam is cooled and condensed by tin g. Th is method increases the effi-
sumers . This principle increases the nic fuel which is fed into the boiler means of cold water supplied from ciency of a steam-turbine plant and
reliability of power sup ply to consu- furnace together with the air required a natural (river, sea, pond) or artifi- decreases the heat loss in the conden-
mers, decreases the required r eserve for combustion. The water supplied cial (cooling tower) water source. ser.
I power, reduces the cost of produced into a steam boiler is called feed
energy due to more rational load on water. Feed water is preheat ed to the
At modern condensation power
plantswithaunitpowero£150 MW or
Thus, the steam boiler of a conden-
sation power plant (Fig. 1.1a) is sup-
the power stat ions of a system, and saturation temperature and vaporized more, reheat superheating is employed, plied with the condensate formed hom
1 allows tho use of power plants of higher and the saturated steam thus formed usually by arranging a single-banlc the steam produced in the unit. Par t
unit powet·. At so me power stations , is further superheated. r eheat superheater (reheater) (Fig. 1.1a). of this condensate is lost in the system
the centralized principle is empl oyed D ouble- banlc reheat superheaters are as leaka.ge. At heat and power sta-
As fuel is burned, it forms com bu- employed at power plants of a very tions, anoth er portion of the steam
for the supply of heat to consumers in stion prod ucts which serve as a heat-
the fo1·m of hot water and low-pressure transfer agent in the h eating surracos high power; in this scheme, sleam is produced is taken off and supplied
steam, as well fot· tho supply of elec- where it giv es up its h eat to tho water returned to the boiler from two inter- as process steam to industrial consu-
tric energy. Electric power stations, and steam which are called th e wor- m ediate turbine stages. Reheat s uper- mers and for domestic p urposes. At
electric and heat power networks and king fluid. On passing the beating h eating increases the efficiency of a cond ensation plants, the steam leakage
consumers m.ake up wha t is called a surfaces, the combustion products ar·e turbine and accordingly decreases tho c.onslitutes only a small fraction of
power system. Individual power sy- cooled to a relatively low tem pet·ature unit steam consumption for power l.he total steam consumption, around
stems may be interconnected by high- and ejected from the boil er Lln·ough a generation; it also diminishes t he 0.5-1 %, and is compensated for by
tension electric power Jines into a stack into the atmosphere. The stacks moisture content of tho steam in tho mako-u p water pretreated in a water-
power grid. Most of the power grids of high-power stations have a height low-pressure turbine stages and do- treatment plant. At heat and power
I creases erosion wear of turbine bl ades. stations , the quantity of make-up
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 14
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Ch. 1. Steam Generation at Electric Power Station s 1.2. Clau!flcatton of Steam Bo!lerr 15

s team in the required quantity which

J can ensure the specified power of
f 2 2 9
f8 3 5 5 8
the turbine and the specified steam
J 9 f parameters.
3
8 -----·
4 +
5 ..::
18~::J==-_j 7 If 0
1.2. Classification of Ste am Boilers
17 15 15 14 According to the l aws of phase trans-
form atio ns, the production of super-
heated steam involves the following
f 13
Fig. 1.4. Combined steam-gas power plant 19. sequence of processes: preheating of
on nuclear fuel 0

12 feed water to the sat uration tempe-

J - rcactor: 2-comprcssor: J - gns turb ine· 4 - rature, steam generation, and super-
electric generator; 5-stenrn jlenerol or; e.:....rcccl
18 7 pump; 7- condenscr: 8- steom turbine heating of saturated steam to the spe-
Fig. 1.5. Principal thermal dia gram o[ MHD cified temperat ure. These processes can
3 ,..,. t 7 ters of steam, the unit fu el cons uwp- power plant occur only within striclly defined li-
J-fuP.I; 2- ionizing see ds· J- hot nlr; 4- combu- mits and can be effected in three t ypes
tion of a combined s team-gns plant is stion c ha mber; o-1\IH]) ci•onnct; 6-electrlc mns -
4-6% lower than that o( a stea m- nets; 7-gas duct; 8-a ir hea ter; 9- hcu Ung sur- of heating s urfaces. Water preheating
races or steam boiler; JO-cxlt or combustion pro-
t urbine plant. Tho capital expendi- ducts; 11-steom boil er; JZ-purflll ; H-condcnsc r; to the saturation temperature is dono
14-electric generator; JS-slco m turbi ne; JG - in an economizer, the formation of
tures are also lower by 8-12 %. comprcssor; 17- d.c.-n.c. converter; 18- cnc rg}'
Combined steam-gas plants wHh nuc- lo 1inc; 79- alr st eam takes place in evaporating Ilea-
t 14 ling surfaces , and steam superheating
t lear reactors have a lso boo11 d eve loped
(b) (Fig. 1.11). In this version, the co m- ties of an electtic conductor, arc fed is cat'l'ied out in a superheater.
bustion chamber is replaced b y n po- througl1 a nozzle inLo a channel and The working flu id in heating s ur-
Fig. 1.3. Thermal diagram of a steam-gas wer reactor with n gaseous lleai.-LI'IHIS- move in it at a speed of roughly faces (water· in the economizer, steam-
power plant fer agent, s uch as an inert gas, for 700 m/s. Powerful perman ent mug- water mixture i n evaporating tubes,
1-alr: t-comprcssor; J - fuel: 4- combuslion chom- nets create a magnetic field in the and superheated steam in the s uper-
ber: S-gas turbine; 0- cxlluust gases: 7-electric instance, helium, which allows the
generator; a-steam boiler; 9-steam turbine; temperature at the reactor exit to be channel. .A.s plasma moves in the power- heater) must move continuously in
10-condcnscr: 11-condcnsntc pump; 12- low-prcs-
surc heater; IJ-deacrator; u - rccd pump; JS- raised up Lo 1 500°C or even m ore. ful magnetic field, ionized gas partic- order to ensw·e continuous heat re-
blgh-pressure heater; 10- hc.1t exchanger; 17- les induce a direct current in an elec- moval and maintain the appropriate
hlgll-prcssure steam boiler; 18-cmcrgcncy waste High-temperature gas-cooled reactors
gns dlsposn I can be employed efficien tly at nuclear tric circuit which is then converted temperature conditions for the metal
power stations with steam tu rbines. into an alter nating current. The gas of the heating s urfaces. ln this process,
unit fuel cons u mption of steam-gas In steam-gas power plan ts operating flow l eaves the channel at a tempe- water in the economizer and steam
pl ants is 3-4.% l ower than that of a on nuclear fuels, the steam boiler uti- rature of 1 500-2 000°C. This high- in the su perheater come only once
steam-turbine plant with the same lizes t he beat of exhaust gases of gas temperature heat of the gases is uti- in contact wilh the heating surface
ini tial steam parameters . turbines . lized for preheating of the air to be (Fig. 1.6). The economizer offers hyd-
Another scheme (Fig. 1.36) com- Another t.ype or combi ned systems s upplied to the comb ustion chamber raulic resistance to the motion of wa-
prises a high-pressure steam boiler wilh steam cycle is a rnagnelohydrody- and for generation of steam which is ter, which must be overcome by pro-
in which fuel combustion and heal namic (MilD) plant. Its ch aracteristic fed into a steam turbine. The effi - vision of a sufficiently high head in the
transfer take place at a high pressure feature is that heat is converted into ciency of MHD plants may be as high feed pump. The pressw·e developed by
(0.6-0. 7 M Pa). This makes it possible electricity without the use of ma- as 50-60%. Roughly 70-80% of the tho feed pump must exceed the pres-
to intensify these processes and decrease chines (Fig. 1.5). Atmosph eric ai1· is total electric energy are produced in s ure at the entry to the zone of steam
the dimensions of the boiler and compressed in a compressot·, preheated the MHD ch annel and the remaind er, generation by the magnitude of the
t bus lo save metal substantially. As in in the boiler to 1 000-1 200°C and fed in the steam power plant. hydraulic resistance of the economizer.
the previous scheme, the gas turbin e together with fu el in to the combu- As may be seen from the above pl'in- S imilarly, the motion of steam in the
operates on the high-temperature heat stion chamber where th e comb ustion ci pal schemes of electric energy prod uc- s uperheater is due to a pressure g ra-
of combustion products, i.e. the fumace products form at a tom perature of t ion at power stations, the steam boi- dien t between the zone of steam gene-
gases of the high-pressure steam 2 500°C and are ionized. I ntensive gas ler at a thermal power plant and the r ation and the steam turbine.
boiler. The steam generated in the ionization is effected by addi ng com- steam generator at a nuclear power The combined motion of water and
high-pressure boiler is fed into a s team pounds of potassium, caesium and station are ind is pensabl e units and s team in evaporating tubes, which
turbine. The combustion products from other alkali metals into the combustion belong to the basic units of a power has to overcome the hydraulic resi-
the gas turbine are cooled by a part chamber. plant of practically any power ra- stance of these tubes, can be effected
of the water flow fed for steam gene- Hot ionized gases (high-temperature ting. A steam boiler and steam gene- in various ways. Accordingly, a di-
ration . With t he same initial parame- plasma). which possess the proper- rator are int.P.nded for productiou of stinction is made between n atural-
 16
J J
'·~
. Since the process of steam formation
4 occurs continuously and feed water
p'
s..,
~
2
s. . "'
' 5
( q)
Fig. 1.6. Principal schemes of steam generation in boilers
(a) nnturul clrculallon;
1- tccd pump; .11- cconomlzer; J-drum; 4-downtake tubes; 5-hcndc.r · 6- evoporatlng tubes· 7-super~
heater; 8- pump lor multiple forced circulation; 8- mlxcr:' 10- bacl<-prcssure valve
circulation boilers, forced-circulatio n
boilers and once-through boilers.
Natural-circ ulation boilers. Let us
considet· a closed circuit (Fig. 1.6a)
comprising two sys tems of tubes: a
system of lleatod tubes 6 and a system
of unheated tubes 4, which all are
connected to a drum 3 at the top and
to a header 5 aL tho bottom. This clo-
sed hydraulic system of heated and
unheated tubes forms a circulation
circuit. The volume of the drum oc-
cupied by water is called the water
space and that occupied by steam is
tho steam space. The surface that sepa-
rates the water space from the steam
space is called the steam-relieving,
or disengagement, area. The water space
of the drum and the evaporating tu-
bes aro filled with boiler water.
Boiler water is made to boil in the
evaporating tubes 6, which tllus turn
out to be filled with a steam-water
mixture of a density p0 . Unheated
Lubes 4 are filled with water of a
density p at the existing pressure in
the drum. Therefore, the lowermost
point of the circuit, i.e. the header,
is subjected on the one hand to the
action of a water column in the un-
heated tubes, which is equal to Hp'g,
and on tl1e other hand, to the pres-
sure of the steam-water mixture which
fills the heated tubes, Hp 0 g. As steam
is formed, the resulting pressure dif-
ference H (p' - Pa) g causes motion
of wa ter in the circuit and for that
reason is called the driving head in
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Ch. 1. Steam Generation at Electric Power Statlon 1
7 7 7 tho ci rculation circuit to be vaporized
9 fO
2 is fed to the drum continuously too,
4 6
6 6
I f 1 ils quantity is not changed. The ratio
8
5 5
- 5
(6) (C) (d)
(b) mulllplc forced circulation; (c) once-through scheme; (d) combined circulation·
natural circulation:
Sdr = H (p' - Po) g
where Sdr is the driving head in ua-
tural circulation, Pa, II is the height
of the circuit, m, p' and Pa are the
densities of water aod s team-water
mixture, respectively, kg/m 3 , and g
is ;he _acceleration due to gravity,
rn/s . Smce the steam-water mixture
in heated tubes moves upward, these
are called ascending, or uptalce, tubes,
while the unheated tubes in which
water moves downward, are called
descending, or downtake, tubes.
Steam boilers in which the motion
of the working fluid in the evaporating
tubes is due to the head formed by
circulation only which appears natu-
r ally on heating the tubes, are called
natural-circulation boilers.
In contrast to the motion of water
in the economizer and of steam in the
superheater, where the working fluid
passes through tho heating surface
only once, the working fluid moves
multiply through a circulation circuit.
This means that a[ter a single pas-
sage through the evaporating tubes
water is converted to s team only pa1·-
tially and enters the drum in the
form of steam-water mixture. With
natural circul ation, th e mass steam
content at the exit from evaporating
tubes is 3-25%. With the steam con-
tent at the exit, say, 20%, water
should b e passed fiv e Limes through
1.9. Flow Diagram of Steam Production
7
completely. . In the evaporating surfaces of once-
as the steam is consumed, water cir-
culates in the circuit all the time and
6
of the mass flow rate or circulating
water Gw, kg/s, to the quantity of
steam formed per unit time, G,, kg/s,
is called the circulation ratio (circu-
lation rate):
k = GjG. (1..2)
In natural-circulation boilers, th e
circulation ratio is within 4-30 or
sometimes more.
(1.1) The working fluid can be moved
forcedly in evaporating tubes, for
instance, by means of a pump inclu-
ded into the circuit. Such plants are
called forced multiple circulation boi-
lers (Fig. 1.6b). The driving head o[ cir-
culation in that case is several times
the driving head in natural circu lation.
This makes it possible to arrange the
evaporating tubes in any manner dic-
tated by the boiler design and to ef-
fect circulation with the steam-water
mixture moving not only vertically
upwards, but also horizontally or even
downwards. In steam boilers of this
type the circulation ratio may be 3
to 10.
Steam boilers with natural multiple
circulation feature a drum which is
a reservoir providing working fluid
circulation in a closed hydraulic system
and separation of water from steam.
The drum determines all the prin-
cipal zones of a boiler: economizing,
steam-generating and superheating.
Drum-type boilers operate at sub-
critical steam pressures, p < Per·
Once-through steam boilers have no
drum and the working f.luid passes
through the evaporating tubes only
once (Fig. 1.6c), since the circulation
ratio is equal to unity (k = 1). A OllCe-
through boiler rep rosen ts an open
hydraulic system. Hs another typical
feature is that there are no disti net
boundaries between the economizing,
2-0 15 2~
17
evaporating and superheating zones.
through boilers, water is continuously
converted to steam. Once-through boi-
lers can operate at subcritical and
suporcritical pressures, p ~ Per·
In combined-circulation boilers (Fig.
1.6d), back-pressure valve 10 is opened
at starting and the plant operates by
the circuit as in Fig. 1.6b. On attai-
ning the specified load, the circula-
tion pump is switched off and tho
back-pressure valve is closed automa-
tically to run the boiler by the scheme
of F ig. 1.6c.
1.3. Flow Diagram of Steam Production
The flow diagram of steam produc-
tion in a steam-turbine power sta-
tion with once-through boilers fired
with pulverized solid fuel is shown
in Fig. 1.7. Solid lumpy fuel is deli-
vered in railway cars to the fuel de-
poL. Cars are pushed into dumpers
to be turned on the axis through 180°
for discharging the fuel into bunkers
beneath. Automatic fuel feeders sup-
ply fuel onto belt conveyers of the first
lift which transfer it to crushers.
Crushed fuel (of a size not over 25 mm)
is delivered by the second-lift conveyer
into the boiler room bunkers. The
crushed fuel is then fed into grinding
mills where it is ground to the final
size and dried. The fuel-air mixture
formed in the mills is supplied into
the boiler furnace .
In Soviet power engineering, steam
boilers of n -shaped profile are roost
popular (for more detail see Sec. 21.1).
The boiler consists of two vertical
prismatic shafts connected at the top
by a horizontal gas duct. The first
(larger) shaft serves as the boiler fur-
nace. Its volume may be within a wi de
range h-om 1 000 m 3 to 30 000 m 8
or more depending on boiler capacity
and type of fuel. Tubular plane sy-
st'ems , or water walls, are arranged
around the entire perimeter and along
the whole height of the furnace chamber.
They are heated directly by radiant
beat of the flame and are essentially
1.8
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_____ _
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Cit. 1. Steanl Generation at Electric Power Stations
_..;....;.;;_
--------------------~1~~~-~F~lo~w~D~'=·a~g~
ra~r~
n~o~f~S~t=e~a~m~P~ro~d~u=c~tw~n~---------------- 19

can be arranged within the furna ce; 250-420°C at the outlet (hot air), de-
the working fluid passes from the pending on kind of fuel and method
lower radiation section directly into of combustion.
the water walls above it where steam With pulverized fuel combustion,
is superheated (radiant superheater). t.he preheated air is separated into
The radiant superheater can inc!ude two flows. T he prirnary air is used
either two heating surfaces: the me- for drying of fu el and transport of
dium radiation section and the upper fu el dust through burners into the
radiation section, which are connected boiler furnace. The temperature of
in series, or only the upper radiation this fu el-air mixture is 70-130°C. The
section immediately downstream of secondary air is directed immediately
the lower radiation section. Partially through burners into the furnace (by-
Fig. 1.7. Flow diagram of steam generation superheated stoam flows into tho last passing the fuel mills) at the te mpe-
1- coo l pile; 2- bclt conveyer; 3 and 4- bunkcrs; 5-car dumper with a car; G-crushing plant; 7- crusher h eating surface which is arranged in ra lure it has had after the a it· heater.
hunker; 8- coal;:rlndlng rnHI; 9- prhnary air; JO- IucHlir mixture· 11-bumcrs; a - boiler rronl; 13 - the convective duct; this is the con- Downstream of tl1 e air heater, the
Aicnm holler; 14- lurnnce space; J5- secondary nlr: JG - Iower rntllntlon section; J 7- mlddle radlat.lon sec-
tion: 18- upper rndlnllon section: 19- superhcn lcd steam; 20- convcctivc s uprrhc:Aler: 21- alr Intake· vective superheater whoro s t.earo is hea- combustion products have already a
rrom holler room: 22- air intake rrom the outsido•; 2J- cold air duct; 24-rcbcat superheater; 25- horhon-
tal gns duct; 2G-eonvective s h!!lt (vertical gas duct); 27- economher; 28-lccd water : 29- al r hea ter; ted to the specified t emperature. Su- rather low temperature (110-160°C).
JO- Iorced-drn rt t on: JJ- ash coll ector; 32-lnduced-drnll ran; .>J-stack ; .74-sl:~g-ash channel perheated steam of the required para- Further utilization of their heat is
motel'S (temperature and pressure) is economically inefficient and they are
the ra.diant hea.ting surfaces. In modern Feed water contains certa in impu-· directed into the turbine. Like any ejected through the s tack into the at-
plants, water walls in the furnace arc ri Ues. During the process of steam gene- heating sur:faco, the convective super- mosphere. They ru·c called waste, or
often made of finned tubes which are ration, the content of steam in the heater is a system of a l arge number of chimney, gases.
welded together to form a continuous steam-water mixture increases, water steel lube coils connected in parall el Upon bm-ning, fu el leaves fly ash
gas-tight (gas-impermeable) shell, which evaporates, and the concentration of and interconnected by headers at the which is mostly carried o[f by com-
is covered on Lhe outside by a shell impuriti es increases. At a certain con- inl et and outl et ends. bustion gases. Fly ash is catched (col-
of a heat-insulating material to mini- centration at the end of the steam- The tempornt.ure of combustion pro- lected) in a fly-ash collector which is ar-
mize beat losses to the surroundings; generating zone, impurities may be de- duels downstream of the convective ranged upstream of the induced-draft
this ensures proper sanitary conditions posited on the internal surfaces of s uperheater is quite high (800-900°C). fan. This arrangement prevents abra-
in the boiler room, and prevents burns tubes as scale. The cond uctivity of Part of the worked-off steam can be sion wear of the induced-draft fans
o[ the personnel. deposits is only a small fraction of r eturned from the turbine for secon- and contamination of the atmosphere
The second vertical shaft and the that of the tube metal. This impairs dary (intermedia.te) superheating, usu- w ith fly ash. The collected ash is re·
horizontal dueL that connects i t with heat transfer to the working fluid and , ally to the same temperatm-e as that moved by means of ash-removal devices.
the furn~ce serve for accommodating with intensive heating in the boiler of steam from the main superheater. Part of ash falls oot.o the bottom of the
beating surfaces which receive heaL furnace, can cause overheating of the This is the intermediate (reheat) super- boiler furnace and is removed con ti-
by convection (convective sm-faces) metal which then loses strength and heater (or, s imply, reheater) . nuously by the ash-handling system.
and are called respectively the convec- can fracture under the pressure of the The combust ion products at the Tho flow diagram of steam genera-
tive shaft and the convective duct. working ri u id. outlet from the intermediate supel·- tion i11 drum-typo boil ers di£fors frorn
H aviog given up their heat t.o tho The heating sm-face in which steam heater are s till rather hot (500-600°C) that described above only in the de-
water walls, com bustion products leave generation is completed and steam and their heat can be utilized in a sign and operation of the boiler pro-
the furnace at a tcmpet·ature of superheating begins is called the tran- convective economizer . Feed water per (Fig . 1.8). In this case, the steam-
900-1 200oc (depending on the type sition zone. Dcposil.ion of scale takes supplied into the convective economi- water mixture formed in the fumaco
of fuel) and enter the horizontal duct. place most! y in this zone. In earlier zer is preheated to a temperature be- water walls is fed into the boiler drum.
As water moves through the boiler designs of once-through boilers, the low the saturation point and is fed The steam separated in the drum is
tubes, it gradually transforms into conditio ns of operation of the metal into the lower r adiation section. The practically dry and is fed first into
steam. The heating surfaces in which of this zone were made easier by brin- temperature of combustion products the superheater and then into thf)
st.eam is formed are called evaporating, ging the transition zone out of the downstream of the economizer is 300- turbin e.
or steam-generating. In once-through furnace into the convective duct where 4500C or sometimes more. F urthe1· As follows from the flow diagram
boilers, the evaporating beating sur- the int eusity of heating was roughly heat util iza I. ion is effected in a n ext of steam generation (see Fig. 1.7),
face is arranged in the lower portion one order of magnitude lower (ofiset convective h eating surface, the air a boiler plant has the following basic
of the furnace and is called the lower transition zone). In modern practice, heater. It is a system of vertical tubes, paths :
radiation section. Vli Lh su percritical once-through boilers are fed with with combus tion products flowing in -the fuel path, i.e. a combinatioq
steam parameters, it also includ es a practically pure water, so that no the tubes and air, between them. Tho of elements in which solid fuel is trans-
radiant economizer. W a tor suppli ed scale forms und er normal opcraLi ng tcmperatUl'e of air is 30-60°C at the ported, crushed, groun d, and delivere<l
to a boiler is call ed feed water. conditions and the tran siti ou zone inlet to the air healer (cold air) and to the boiler furnace for combustion.
20
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Ch. 1. Steam Generation at Elutric Power Stations
Superheated steam following elements : an economizer,
5 to lur6ine furnace water walls, and steam super-
heaters;
7 r---- Steam !"rom - the air path includes a combina-
re!Jealer t o tion of elements for suction o( atmos-
turbine
pheric (cold) air, its preheating, trans-
I port and supply into the furnace. The
4 6 I
I air path comprises a cold air d uct,
air heater (ils air s ide), hot-air duct,
and burners ;
-the gas path is a complex o[ ele-
9 ments in which the combustion pro-
Feed water
ducts flow from the furnace into the
10 atmosphere ; it begins in the boiler
furnace and passes throug h the super-
heaters, economizer, air heater (its
gas sid e), ash collect or and stack.
11
The air an d gas paths are connected
Cold air in series forming what is call ed the
... gas-air path. The transition from one
to the other t akes place in tho Lloiler
~.u.w.'t:::'=-; Wo s te
furnace space. The diagram or a gas-
air path is shown in Fig. 1.9a. In this
Fig. 1.8. Diagram of free-circulation drum- circuiL, a ir is transported b y ulowers
type boiler and the corresponding air path in tho
1-Cumace space; t-wn ter walls· ~-b~trnero; port ion between th o blower and furnace
4-downtnke Lubes; s - drum ; 6-rndla nt superhea-
ter; 7- convecllvc su perheater; 8- lnLermedlatc is at a pressure higher than the atmos-
superheater (rehcntc r) ; 9-economizer; JO-con- pheric. Combus tion products are trans-
vectlve gns duct; 11-air heater
ported by induced-draft fans arranged
The fuel path comprises the crushing downstream of t he boiler, and there-
equipment, conveyers, crushed-fuel bun- fore, the furnace proper and all gas
ker, grinding mill, and pulverized-fuel ducts are at a pressure b elow the
duct leading to the furnace. Up to the atmospher ic. This is what is called
crushed-fuel bunkers, fuel is transfer- the balanced draft scheme.
red by conveyers. Beginning from the The transport of air to the furnace
grinding mill, the resistance in the and of combustion products to the
fuel path is overcome by the head of atmosphere can be ensured by forced-
the fan· draft fans only, i.e. without induced-
'
-the water-steam path, or circuit, draft fans (Fig. 1.9b). In that case,
.is a system of series-connected ele- the furnace and gas ducts are under
men ts for the transport of water, steam- a certain excess pressure (supercharged).
water mixture and superheated steam . For comparis on, Fig. 1.10 s hows the
The waler-steam circuit includes the pressure distribution in the g as-air path
Forcl!ll·ilrort
fan
t
Mill
I D Steam boiler
- --
lnduCI!d-drart
fan Steam 6oiler
( 6 ) ' - - - ----....J
Fig . 1.9. Diagrams of gas-air pa ths
~a) pulverized coaHired bul a nced-drufL bollrr: (b) fue l oil-fired superchurgcd holler: ---fuel;
J- primnry ui r; 11- S<•condnry u lr; - · - ·- · -co mbus t ion products.
1.4. Principal Chara cteristics of Steam Boller•
a
Air Air
6lower heater
(air side J
Fig. 1.10. Pressure distribution in gas-air path of (a} supercharged boiler plant and (b)
balanced-draft plan t
of a boiler with balanced draft and
in that wilh a supercharged furn ace .
1.4. Principal Characteristics
of Steam Boilers
The steam-generating capacity D,
t/h (or kg/s), is the quantity of steam
produced by a boiler per unit time .
A boiler is calculated for a rated steam-
generating capacity D , , which is under-
stood as the highest load of th e boiler
in stable operation for a long time on
the s pecified fuel and with the rated
parameters of s team and feed water.
The steam-generating capacity of in-
dustrially made boilers ranges within
very wide limits .
At present, power engineering in
the USSR is b ased on th e use of b oi-
ler plants producing 1 000, 1 650 or
2 650 t /h o£ steam of supercritical
parameters (pressure 25.5 MPa, steam
superheating 545°C, intermediate su-
perheating 545°C} and having the ef-
ficiency of 92-94%. Such boilers sup-
ply steam lo turbines of a power respec-
tively of 300 , 500 or 800 MW. The
steam boil er and tho turbine consti-
tu te a monobloc unit. R ecen tly a mo-
nobloc unit for a power of 1 200 MW
- a ir:
with a boiler or a capacity of 3 950 t/h
has been put into op eration. At some
21
Air
Steam healer Exhaust
boiler fgas sit/e) fan
heat and power s tations, smaller hoi-
l ers fo r lower steam parameters are
employed.
S uperheated steam is ch aracterized
by ils parameters: the pressure and
temperature in the outlet header of the
superheater. The boilers employed at
power stations differ in the pressure
of steam, which may be high (10 or
14 MP a) or supercritical (25.5 MPa).
Steam boilers for pressures of 14 MPa
and more are as a rule made with se-
condary stearn superheating.
B oiler preassembling. The time of
construction and mounting o( boiler
pl ants can be shortened appreciably
by making l arger (preassembled) hoi-
lor units at the manufactuiing works.
Preassembled units must match with.
the dimensions of railway cars. Preas·
sembled units are transported to the
boiler plant site to be mounted into a
boiler. T he coof[icient of preassem-
bling, which is the ratio of the total
mass of preassebled units to the whole
mass of a boiler plant , may be as h igh
as 80-90%. The l argest d iHiculties
arise in manufacture of preassembled
lUlits of tho boiler structure. Preas-
sembling places certain requirements
on the b oiler des ign , since preassom·
bl ed units should s atisfy th e spe-
cial conditions of their transport and
mounting.
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22 Ch. 2. Power-producing Fuels and Their Characlerlsllcs
PO,:VER-PRODUCING FUELS
AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
2.1. Ki nds and Compositions of Fuels
The development of power engineer-
ing is directl y linked to the const-
ruction of new thermal and nuclear
power stations, i.e. plant s operating
on organic or nuclear fu els.
Orga nic fuels are those which can
generate subs tant.ial quantiti es of heat
(per unit mass or unit volume) by
reacting with oxygen.
Organic fu els suitable for produc-
tion of l arge quantit ies of heat with
a sufficien t economy are termed power-
producing. Their reserves must be
enormous and relati vel y easily ex-
plorable. Besides, they mus t be of
low v alue as starting materials for
other branches of industry. The most
popul ar kinds of power-producing fuels
employed at thermal power s tations
are as follows: solid -coals and l ig-
nites and some products prepared
from them, anthracite and scmianth-
r acite, liquid-fuel oil , and gaseous -
natural gas. Peat, oil shal es, st abi-
lized oil and industrial gaseous fuels
(bl ast-furnace and coke-oven gas) are
used to a lesser extent, though in
some regions of the country t hey con-
stitute an appreciable share of the
fu el balance.
Of late, electric energy is produced
more and more at nuclear power sta-
tions which utilize the energy of nu-
clear fission of r adioactive heavy me-
tals: uranium (U 235 ) and plutonium
(Pu 239). The richest uraniu m ore, ura-
ninite, contains 65-90% of uranium
dioxide UOz in which only 0.72%
falls on radioactive U 235 and the ba-
lance is the common U 238 • The ori-
gin al nuclear fuel is processed in gas-
•
diffusion plants to ra ise the concen-
tration of um to 1.5-3.5%, after
which it can be charged into nuclear
reactors. One kilogram of U 230 libe-
ra tes on fission roughly 85 mln MJ
of heat, which is equivalent to the
combustion of 3 500 l of coal with
the heating va ltto 24.5 MJ/kg.
In the USSR, thet·mal power sta-
tions consume roughly 40% of the
total organic fuel. Coals, fuel oil
and natural gas are tho predomin a nt
kinds of organic fu el in their fu el
bal ance. The share of coals burned at
thermal power stations increases gra-
dually due to tho exploitation of new
coal fiel ds in Siberia and Northern
Kazakhstan . The consumption of fuel
oil and natural gas is ap proximately
at the same level as coal. Other k inds
of solid fu el , such as peat and oil shales,
constitute only 6-7% of the total fuel
consumption by thermal power sta-
tions. In new coal fi elds, l ess expen-
sive opencast mining will be employed
increasingly.
All fossil fuels, i.e. solid fu els and
petr oleum, h ave formed in the process
of long transformation of the original
vegetable mass and died-off animals
under a layer of earth or water. The
process occurred at, a different rate
as regards tho carburization of the
fuel, i.e. increasing carbon concen-
tration and decreasing cortcentrati on
of oxygen and hydt·ogen (Fig . 2.1).
The degree of carburization, which
characterizes the dopt.h of chemical
transformations in fu el (which is cal-
led t he chemical a.ge of fuel) is not de-
term ined directly by its geological age,
i.e. the duration of carburization pro-
cess.
2.1. 1\irzds and Compositions of Fuels
Fuel c.cr. 0~ r. H~i'·
50 ~2.5 6 85
Wootf
51 39 =
=s-
Peat
058- =:ti;;; ~
=
Brown coal
- 75 . /j : -5 ;
Coal § -
.90 - :r: 4:
Anthracite ~ ~
9J 2 2
Cru.de petroleum is a mixture of
-organic compou nds, including minor
-quantities of liquid su lphur and nit-
rogen compounds, paraffins and re-
:sins. Upon dis tillation of I ighL It· ac-
tions and oils (petrol , nnphta, kero-
:sene, gas oil, straw oi l), there remain
viscous heavy fractions - fuel oil which
is used as a liquid power-producing
-fuel. The m ineral impurities present
in the crude petroleum are mainly
-concentr ated in fu el oil.
Natural gases either form together
with petroleum or aro produced by
synthesis in the presence of water and
metal carbides at Large depths under
the action of high pressure and tem-
perature. In many cases, natural gas
accompanies petroleum. This is what
j s called a casing-head gas; it can be
used as a power-producing fuel.
Heplacement of solid fuels by li-
·quid and gaseous improves the opera-
ting conditions of power stations and
-can decrease sensibly the cost of the
equipment and increase its efficiency.
For instance, the capi tal expendi tu-
res for the construction o[ a power sta-
tion to be fired with gas or fuel oil
are lower by 20-24% than those for
a solid-fu el fired station of the same
power. The efficiency of fuel oil-
fired plants is 4% h igher (in terms
of electric energy produced) than th at
<>f a solid-fuel fired plant.
The exp lored reserves of natural
gases and petroleu m are however li-
mited and constitute only 6% of the
total world r eserves of organic fuel.
Besides, n atural gases and petroleum
a re of the highest value as starting
23
Fig. 2.1. Comparison or elemental ana-
lyses or principal fuels
vc.r.
70=
=:s~:=
37- -
.9 -
§
4
materials for various branches of na-
tional economy. On the other hand,
the reserves of coal exceed 7'1% of
the total expl ored reserves of fuel in
th o world and th erefore coals are the
principal organic fuel.
Tile organic mass of solid and liquid
fuels consis ts of a large number of
compl ex compounds of the pri ncipal
five elements: carbon C, hydrogen H,
oxygen 0, sulphur S, and nitrogen
N. Besides, any fuel contains mineral
impurities A, which enter the origi-
nal bed mainly from the outside, and
moisture W. For that reason, the
chemical analysis of solid and liquid
fuels is determined not in the terms
of their compounds, but as the total
mass of chemical elements in 1 kg
of fuel, i.e. the elemental analysis of
a fuel is determined .
One should d istinguish between the
following fiv o elemental masses of
fuels:
working mass
cw+Hw+Ow+Nw+S:,O+Aw+Ww= {00%
(2. 1)
analytical mass
ca + lJo+Oa+Na+S~+ Aa+Wa = 1.00%
(2. 2)
dry (moisture-free) mass
C<I+Hd + O'L+Nd+S~ +A<' = 100%
(2. 3)
resolved combustible mass
CC+ II•+O•+N•+S~=iOO % (2.4)
and organic mass
c o+ Jio+ Oo+ No + So =1.00 % (2.5)
 24
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Ch. 2. Power-producing Fuel1 and Their Characteristics 2.2. Characteristics of Fuels 25

and Coke residue Fig. 2.2. Diagram of elemental ana- butane ClH10 , etc.) which are often The higher heaLing value of solid
lysis of solid fuel written generally as CmHn (1-6%). and liquid fuels can be determined
Kon·com6usli6le experimentally by burning a sample
Volatiles muss _Besides, natural gas contains minor
quantities of non-combustibles: nit- of fuel in a calorimetric apparatus.
rogen N 2 (1-4%) and carbon dioxide The h eating value of fuels can be
cot (0.1.-0.2%). d etermined approximately from their
elemental analysis.
In this respect, the most simple and
2.2. The Healing Value and Resolved accurate are Mendeleev's formulae

I mass
Characteristics of Fuels
The quantity of heal liber ated on
combustion of n unit m ass or volume
which contain empirically found coef-
fici ents for various combustible ele-
ments. For instance, the formula for
determining the lower beating value
of fuel is the principal thermal cha-
The work ing mass of fuel is the of a fuel. The former includes moisture racteristic of fu els, called the heating, of the working m ass of solid and li-
mass in the form it is delivered to and mineral matter and the latter or calorific, value. One should di- quid fuels is as follows:
the plant. The consumption of fuel incl udes oxygen and nitrogen which st inguish between the upper and lower Q'{' = 339Cw + 1 030Hw
and the vol umes of combustion pro- enter the original organic matter. heating val ue. The upper heating value - 109 (OW - SID) - 25WU' (2.8)
ducts formed are calcul ated in terms Combustible elements in fuel are caT- Qu is the quantity of heat l.iberate~
of the working m ass. The working bon, hydrogen and sulphur, with carbon on combustion of 1 kg of sohd or li- where C"', H "' , etc. aro the concentra-
fuel upon grinding to pulverized state being the principal combustible ele- quid or 1 m 3 of gaseous fuel under the tions of elements in the working mass
and when dried in laboratory to ment. It has a h igh beating value (34.1 conditions that water vapours are of fu el, %. For gaseous fuels, if !h ei r
the air-dry slate, loses the free mois- MJ /kg) and constitutes the major por- condensed and the combustion pro- analysis is known exactly, the heattag
ture, and its mass is then called tion of the working mass of fuel (50-75%
analytical. The r emaining moisture in solid fuels and 83-85% in fuel
in fuel, wa, which is combined in the oils). Hydrogen has a very high hea-
I ducts are cooled to 0°C. The lower
healing value Q1 differs from tho up-
per heat.ing value by the heat of ev~­
value of 1 m 3 of dry gas can be deter-
mined by the formula:

original substance, is more often cal- ting value (120.5 1\0/kg), but its con- poration of the moisture present m
Q1 = +
0.01 (Qa2 H 2 QcoCO
led hygroscopic moisture, i. e. wa = tent in solid fuels is not high (Hw = the fu el and the moisture formed on + Qca,CH 4 + Qc,a,C2 Ha+ ... ) (2 .9)
= W h. = 2-4%) and is somewhat higher combustion of hydrogen. In power where H 2 , CO, CH 4 , C2H&, etc. are
l Upon h eating of fuel to 102-105°C, in liquid fuels (10-11%). Sulphur plants, moisture of the combustion the volume concentrations of com-
all its moisture evaporates, thus leav- has a low heating value (9.3 MJ/kg} products remains in a vaporized state bustible gases in fu el, % , and Qa,
ing the dry mass of fuel. The combus- and is present in fuels in minor quan- and the heat consumed for ·its evapo- Qco. Qca,, Qc,a•• etc. are their hea-
tible mass of fuel includes the ele- tities (S10 = 0.3-4%) and for that rat ion is lost. With a higher moisture ling values, kJ/m3 .
content of fuel, Q1 is lower.
l
ments of the origina.I organic matter reason is of low value as a combusti- Steam boilers of the same steam-
and the su lphur of inorganic combu- ble element. The presence of sui phur The lower heating value, kJ /kg, generating capacity can consume w_ide-
stible compounds (for instance, py- oxides in combustion products in- can be found by the formula : ly different quantities of fuel, s•nce
rite FeS,); for that reason, it is cal- creases the risk of corrosion of metallic Ql = Qu - Qw (2 ..6} the heating value of various fuel s may
led the resolved combustible mass. heating surfaces and in certain con- ;
vary within wide limits. For compa-
In equations (2.1) to (2.4), S., is the centr ations may be dangerous to ve- In the general case, the heat of rison o[ the efficiency of various po-
volatile sulphur, i.e. the sum of pyri- getation and animals; this necessi- moisture condensation, k J/kg, · is: wer plants and for simpler calcula-
te sulphur and organic sulphur which tates measures fqr the collection of sul-
can be oxidized in the boiler furnace: phur from waste gases. According to Qw = 2 500 ( :~ + ~) =22SH+25W tions of the combustion of various
fuel s , the concept of reference fuel
S., = Sp +So. their sulphur content, fuel oils are (2.7) has been introduced. It is a cond itio-
The organic mass of fue·l is essential- divided into low-sulphur (Sw < nal fuel whose heating value is Q, =
! y its combustible mass plus pyrite < 0.5%), medium-sulphur (Sw = 0.5- where H and W are the concentrations
of hydrogen and m oisture, %, and = 29 .33 MJ /kg (7 000 kcal /kg).
sulphur. Apart from the two kinds 2%) and h igh-sulphur (S"' > 2%) gra- The consumption of various kinds
of sulphur mentioned, there is also des. 2 500 is the heat of condensation of
I 1 kg of moisture at atmosph eric pres- of fuel at power plants can b e calcu-
the sulphate sulphur S. which enters In contrast to solid and liquid fuels, 1a ted in terms of the reference fuel
the composition of higher oxides (such gaseous fuels are mechanical mixtur·es
as CaSO,) and cannot be fur ther oxi- of combustible and non-combustible
dized in combustion. The various gases. Nat ural gases consist pref~rabl y
I sure, kJ/kg.
When finding the l ower heating
value for other masses of (uel, except
by the formula:
B, = BQ,
Q'f
(2.10)
m asses of solid fuel are shown dia- of methane CH 6 (up to 90-96%) , witl't for the analytical and working mass,
grammatically in Fig. 2.2. It should minor quantities of heavier hydrocar- formula (2.7) becomes simpler be- wh ere B r and B aro the consumption
be distinguished between the external bons (ethane C1 11 6 , propane C3 H8 , cause the moisture term is excluded: of the r eference fuel and natural fuel,
and internal ball~t in the composition Qw = 225 H respectively.
26
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Ch. 2. Power-producing Fuels and Their Characteristics
The method of expressing the ele-
mental analysis of fuels and theii
external ballast (moisture and ash
content) as percentage of the ori-
g inal mass of burned fuel is used wide-
ly in power engineering. This me-
thod, however, is not always conve-
nien t for the analysis of operating
~onditions of steam boilers. For in-
stance, as the external ballast. of a
fuel increases, the heating value of
the fuel becomes lower, and therefore,
more fuel must be burned to maintain
the same steam-generating capacity
of I he boiler . As a result, the mass
of the ballast en loring t.he furnace
increases much more appreciably t,han
the fuel cons umption, which can form
intolerable condilions for boiler ope-
ration . Thus, the percentage of moi-
sture, ash or su lphur in fuel is not
sufficient to characterize the valua-
b ilit.y of a fuel.
The mass consumption of fue ls bur-
ned in steam boilers can be characte-
rized more reliably by relating the
concentration of chemical clements and
ballas t, per cen t , to the unit of the
lower heating value, 1 MJ , which is
called the resolved characteristic of fuel.
The resolved moisture content, ash
~ontent and sulphur content (%·kg/
/MJ) are determined by the formulae:
W' = ww S' = sw
Qf , Q7
(2.11)
For instance, with the same ori-
ginal s ulphur content (S"' = 3%) of
fuel oil (Ql" = 39 MJ /kg) and brown
coal (Q't' = 12 MJ/kg), the mass of
sulphur oxides car-ried off with com-
bus t,ion products is in th e latter case
3.25 t imes h igher, according to the
r atio of the resolved sulphur con tents :
S' = 0.077 of fuel oil and S' = 0.25
of brown coal.
2.3. Technical Characteristics
of Solid F uels
Efficient combus tion of fuels in
steam boil ers requires knowledge and
correct account of a number of deci-
sive characteristics of fuel s whi ch,
apart from the heating value, include
the ash content, mois ture content,
the yield of volatiles, etc.
Ash content. Mineral impurit ies are
present in all kinds of solid fuol.
Their major portion is not associated
with the org,a nic mass of fuel. As l'e-
g ards their origin, mineral impurities
can be divided i nto internal which
accumulate in fuel bods in the course
of fuel formation and external which
pass into the fuel from the surroun-
ding gangue during exploitation.
As fuel is burned, its mineral com-
ponents are subjected to high -tom-
perature transformations. Complex m i-
neral compounds of Ute type of clays
Al20 3 ·2Si0z·2H 2 0, felds pars K 2 0·
· Al20u · 6Si0 2 , s ulphates and carbo-
nates CaSO 4 • 2H 2 0 · CaMg(C0 3 ) 2 , etc.
are destroyed and partly afteroxidi-
zed by atmos pheric oxygen . The resi-
due r emaining af ter t he combustion of
fuel, i.e. ash, consis ts mainl y of a
number of oxides: Si0 2 , Al 20 3 , Fe 20 3 ,
CaO, MgO, K 2 0, Na 2 0 and its mass
turns out, on the average, to be 10%
s maller than the original mineral mass
of fuel. The percentage of the ash re-
sidue r elative to unit mass of original
fuel is called the ash content.
The properties of ash play an .i m-
portant part in the operation of a
steam boiler. Finest solid particles of
ash are entrained by tho flow of furn ace
gases and carried off from the furnace;
this is what is caJled fly ash. Another
part of ash is melted in the flame core
and drops to the fumace bottom or
s Licks to the s urrounding f urnace walls
and forms slags on solidification, i.e.
solid solutions of minerals whose corn-
posi tion may differ from that of fly
ash.
Of special importance fot· the fuol
combus tion process are the fusibil i l.y
characteris tics of as h. Tho mel Ling
points of vat"ious minerals and th eir
alloys d iffer widely, ranging from
600° to 2 900°C. For that r eas on , ash
is not melted at a fixed temperature,
but is softened gradually and changes
from the solid to liquid s ta te with
2.3. Technical Characteristics of Solid Fuels
increasi ng temperatu re. Tho melting
temperature of ash is determined by
the standard con e t est, i. e. a .cono of
s tandard sizo is pressed from ash and
placed into a furnace (Fig. 2.3). Du-
ri ng h eaLing , the following characte-
ristic temperatures are marked:
t 1 is the beginning of d eformation ,
when the sha pe of the cone starts
·changing, t , = 1 000-1 200°C;
t~ is softening, when tho top of the
cone drops to the base or assumes a
·dropl et-like shape, t~ = 1100-1ll00°C;
and
t 3 is the fluid state, when as h beg i ns
to spread ove1· the plane base, t 3 =
= 1 200-1 500°C.
The basic characteris tic of slag is
its v iscosi t. y.
Mol ten slag, if i l is in an actual
liquid state, flows freely along a ver-
tical or inclir1ed wall when its vis-
·cosity is less than 200 P (poise). The
temperature of mol ten slag at which
i t can now out freely from a hole is
-called the temperat ure of normal I i-
quid slag removal, tsr- The tempe-
rature of fus ion of as h and the typical
-coefficients of viscosity can be found
from tables of power- producing fuels.
In burning, the major portion of
mineral composition of fuol is trans-
formed into fine fl y ash which is car-
ried off by the gas flow. In furn aces
·operating un der different th ermal con-
·d iti ons of combustion and slag remo-
val, the amount o£ fly as h carry-o ver,
CLc, may range from 0.85-0.95 to
•0.2-0.-1. The rema ining pot·tion drops
down onto tho furnace bottom as s lag
and is removed therefrom: a 3 1 =
= 1 - ac. ·w ith a higher ash con-
ten t of fu el and a higher concentra-
l ion of fly ash in furnace gases , more
intrica te and expens ive as h-collecting
·devices are needed to prevent poilu-
27
Fig. 2.3. Cone test of ash
J- hcro re heati ng; Z-bcglnning or dcror-
mntlon; J -sortenin((; 4-lluld state
Lion of the air basin . In th at case,
the s peeds of gases in convective ducts
of boilers are reduced to avoid abra-
sion weat· of tubes , while depositi on o£
ash particles on the h eating s urfaces
impairs the cond it ions o£ heat trans-
for. As a resu l t. , the boiJor plant beco-
mes too bulky in design.
The yield of volatiles and coke resi-
due. If a sa mple of dry solid Iuel
is placed into a cruci ble and heated
gradually in an inert medium without
air, i ts mass will decrease. At high
tern per a tures, oxygon-couta i ning mo-
lecules of the fu el dissociate and form
gaseous s ubsta nces which arc called
volatiles (CO, 11 2 , CJI 4 , C0 2 , etc.).
The evolution of volatiles from solid
fu els takes place in the temperature
range 110-1 100°C. The hig hest yield
(up to 95%) occUIS at a temperature
near 800°C (Fig. 2 .4). For that rea-
son , the yield of volatiles fro m solid
fuels is determined conditionally as
the decrease of the mass of fuel sam-
ple upon holding it in a crucible at
t = 850 ± 25°C for 7 min utes, rela-
ted to the combust ible mass of fu el,
vc %.
yc
50 - 1,- -
/ ~
40
JO
/
20 II
I --- -
~
,_~
2
to _,........... J I
- -l
0
. 4/JO 500 800 fOOO •c
Fig. 2.4. Evolution of vola tiles depending
on tern peru ture
/ - brown coal; 2- lean con i; J- ant11racit c; 4 -
ultimalc yield or volatiles lor particular tue l
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28 Ch. 2. Power-prodrlclng Fuels and Their Characteristics
Since the yield of volatiles is deter-
mined in the first place by the con-
centrat ion of oxygen in fuel, it is
higher in 'yo unger' fuels (Fig. 2. 1).
For instance, the yield of volatiles is
y c = 45-50% from brown coals, 25-
I 40% from coals, and only 3-4% from
I anthracites.
The solid combustible residue re-
maining upon evolution of volatiles
is called coke. It may be either dense
(sintered) or loose (powdered). In air,
coke ignites at a temperature of 900-
12000C. Volatiles evolving from the fu-
el ensure earlier ignition of coke, since
they can ignite at a lower tempera-
ture t han the coke residue (350-
600oC) and thus raise quickly the tem-
perature of coke particles. Their ef-
fect is especially strong at the initi-
al stage of fu el burn ing . Fuels wiLh a
higher yield of volatil es ignite mor e
quickly and burn more completely.
Moistu re content. It is distinguished
between the adv entitious, adsorbed,
cellular, and inh eren t moisture. All
kinds of moisture, except for inherent
moisture, are removed from fuel on
lI heating to 102-105°C. The inherent,
or hydr ate, moisture is firmly bonded
with the mineral por tion of fuel and
enters the composition of crystals of
I the substance.
Solid fossil fuels con tain mostly ad-
sorbed moisture which is determined
by the adsorptivity of complex col-
loids of the organic mass of fuel . The
high est adsor ptivity is exhibited by
peat, brown coals and some younger
coals. Th e adsorptivity of a fuel de-
Fiery coal
termines its hygroscopic moisture con-
tent Wh. This moisture characteri-
zes indirectly the age of fu el: it is lo-
Fiery fat
coal
Fat coa l
contact with water and remains on
its surface due to wetting. Its magni-
tude depends on the particle size of
fuel and the external conditions du-
ring transport and storage. Cellular,
or capillary, moisture is determined
by the porosity of fu el structure. It
is most pronoun ced in peat.
A high ' moisture content in t he
working mass of fuel may cause se-
rious difficulties in fuel combustion.
It decreases the heating value of fu -
el , increases fuel consumption and
the v olume of combustion products,
and involves higher h eat losses with
waste gases and greater energy con-
sumption for driving the induced-
draft fans. An elevated moisture
conten t of furnace gases can cause
s tronger corrosion of metal in the
air h eater and increase contamina-
tion of the h eating surfaces. Wet fu -
el is sticky, which involves difficul-
ties in its transport and preparation,
and besides, it can congeal in winter
t ime. The effect of tho sulphur pre-
sent in fuel on the boiler operation
will be discussed in the section to fol-
low.
Table 2.1. Grading or Coals
Coal type -
.,.."""
~
Yield or
volatil es,
V" , %
a::>
Long-flarno D 36 and
coal more
G 36 and
GZh
Zh
more
31-37
2'•-37
2.4. Characteristics of Fuel Oll and Natural Gases
Grading of solid fuels. Solid fuels are
grad ed mainly according to their mois-
t ure content in the working mass
·(brown coals) or the yield of v olatiles
(coals). For instance, brown coals ~re
divided into th ree groups: B1 w1th
moisture content W "' up to 40% ;
B2 with ww= 30-40%, and B3 wit.h
ww less than 30% . The grading of
coals is based on the yield of volatiles
and the characteristics of coke (Table
2.1). .-
F ine fractions of fuel (screenings)
which remain after screening of the
produced fu el are additionally graded
by a letter that shows their parl.icle
size for instance: Sh - fractions from
• •
6 mm and less; SSh- fract10ns from
13 rom and Jess; R - ord inary (un-
screened) fu el, etc.
2.4. Technical Characteristics
of Fuel Oil and Natural Gases
The q uality of fu el oil has·groat ef-
fect on its combustion in boiler fur-
naces and the scheme of fuel oil pre-
paration and supply to a power sta-
t ion.
Viscosity. Viscosity is ~ one of the
principal technical characteristics of
f uel oils and the basis for their gra-
ding. Fuel oils ar e divided into light,
Chu ractcrls tic
or coke
residue
medium and heavy grades. Light
grades include marine fu el oils (F5 and
F ig. 2.5. Effect of temperature on
t he viscosity or fuel oil
Powdered,
poorly sin to
red
- 150
-
-
~ 100 . l5
-.;;.. 80 10
.[ 60 .,., 8
29
F12), while medium and heavy grades
are used as furnace fuel in boilers
and other stationary power plants and
in process plants. Depending on their
viscosity and other physical characte-
ristics, furn ace fuel oils are subdivi-
ded into the following grades: high-
quality fuel oils 40V and 100V and
furnace fu el oils 40 and 100 (40V and
tOOV are heavy grades of fuel oil) [9 1.
Viscosity of fuel oils is measured
in units or kinematic v iscosity (cen-
tistokes, eSt) or iu degrees of Engler
viscosity (0 E) as measured in an En-
gler viscometer by.the time of ~l ow of
a portion of fuel 01l from a calibrated
hole at standard tem perature (80°C
for heavy fu el oils). F or normal trans-
portation through pipelines and for
fino atomization of fuel oil in burners,
ils Engler viscosity should be within
2-3.5°E. The viscosity of fuel oil hea-
vily depends on temperature (Fig.
2.5). Its variations with temperature
are due to the presence of paraffinic
hydrocarbons in fuel oil. For easy trans-
portation in pipes and for norm al
operation of fuel oil pumps, the tem-
perature of fuel oil should be mainta-
ined near 60-70°C .
Rheologic properties. At low tem-
peratures (10-25°C) viscous fuel oils
can stick to the surfaces of vessels,
pipes, etc. and remain on them in a
l ayer whose thickness is greater with
tOO
500 60
400
JOO
200
40 ('...
]0 It'-' I" t\.
zo I'\
"'"' r--..
I'.)',.
MfOO
I'\ AffOOV

wer in older fuels. For instance, ,.,_M~O

t::; 50··-G
W h = 10-13% in brown coals and Fat coking KZb 25-33 Densely "
~
40 ~
1:;
1>\.
v "
on I y 1.5-2.5% in anthracites. Know-
ledge of W 1' is essenti al for estimating
coa l
Coking coal K
s
17-33
sintered
-
-
.~
"'
..."'
Jo e ,1
.....
:;;:
I
M4
"' "r--. " :-..'
t\. ......
I'\
......

K "'
Leaned cu- 14-27 t\.
the admissible moisture content of ·~ 20 J r-._ ......
pulverized coal to avoid sticking of
king coal
Low-caking ss 17-37 Poorly SID- ~ 15 '
"
tered, pow-
2.5 r--.. r-._ r-._ ~'
particles (at an excessive moisture coal
content) or explosion of overdried de red "'E:~ 2 - - r--.. r--..
dust.
Lean con i T 9-17 Poo rly sin-
tered, pow- ·-
"' 10
50 50 70 80 90 tOO 110 120 fJO 0 'C
"
t'-. 1'\t'
The adventitious, or mechanically do red
retained moisture appears in fuel upon
30
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Ch. 2. Po roer-producing Fuels a nd The ir Characteristics
a lower temperature. T his effect is
due to the rheologic property of fuel
oil , i. e. to the rearrangemen t in the
structure of hydrocarbon molecu les
which takes place on a decrease of tem-
perature. Sticking of fuel oil is avoi-
ded by heating H to a temperature of
70°C or more.
Density. The densi ty of fuel oils
is usually measured in relative uni ts,
i.e. as tho ratio of the fuel oil density
to the density of water at 20°C which
is p 20 = 0.99-1.06. Wi th an i ncrease
of temperature, the density of fuel
oils decreases and can be found by tho
formula:
P:o
Pt =1 -H1 (t - 20) (2.12)
where Pt • p20 is the relative density of
fu el oil at a given temperature and at
20°C and ~ is the coefficient of vol ume
expansion of fuel oil on heati ng
by 1°C; for fuel oils, ~ = (5.1-5.3) X
X 10 - 4 •
Ash content:. During processing of
crude petroleum, the mineral impuri-
ties present in it a1·c mainJy concen-
trated in heavy fractions and especial-
ly in fuel oil. The ash residue remained
upon com bustion of fuel oil is not
large, not more than 0. 1 % of the dry
mass. Fuel oil ash is ch aracter ized by
a certain content of vanadium whose
concentration may be as high as 50%
or even mo1·e.
Moisture content. Fuel oils usu ally
contain 1-3% water. T heir moisture
content can rise substantially (up to
10-15%) in tho course of f uel oil pre-
healing before pouring it from tank
cars, owing to the condensation of low-
pressure s team which is used for hea-
t ing. A small concentration of mois-
ture i n fuel oil is favourable for ils
atomization i n burners and i mproves
t he in flamma bil ity ch arac teristics.
W ith an elevated concen tration of
moisture, there is a h igh risk of cor-
rosion of convective heating su rfaces;
this also increases t he loss of heal with
combustion products.
S ulphur conte nt. Petroleum and so-
lid fuels contain sulphur in the form
of complex sulphur compounds.
W hen petroleum is processed, the ma-
jor portion of sulphur compounds
(70-90%) passes to h igh-boiling fra -
ctions which are the main components
of fuel oil. During combustion of fuel
oil or solid fuel, su l phur is oxidized
to so~ and a minor portion of i t can
form the higher oxide 80 3 (if the1·e is
en ough oxygen in the combustion
zone), which forms a corrosive medium
on low-temperature healing surfaces.
The content of sulphur in fuel oils is
roughly the same as in solid fuels
(Sw = 0.5-3%),' but the corrosive ab i-
lity of the gaseous medium that forms
on the combustion of fuel oil is seve-
r al Li mes higher. Th is is due to t he
fact that, unlike fuel oil , solid fue ls
con t ain certain components in t he ash
which can neutralize acid med ia.
Congelation temperatu re . T he con-
gelation temperature of petroleum pro-
ducts is the te mperatu re at which they
become so thick that. remai n in pl ace
and do not flow out for 1 mi nute from
a test gl ass inclined at 45°. High-
sulphur fuel oils with a high concentra-
tion of paraffins (Grades M-100 and
M-100V) are characterized by a high
congelation tern perature (25-35°C).
T he congel ation temperature of fuel
oil should be considered properly
when sel ecting the schemo of its tran-
s port and storage.
F lash point. T he flash point is the
tem perature at which a rnixttue of
fuel oil vapours and air can be igni-
ted when it comes in contact with an
open fl ame. Fuel oil grades used at
power stations have a flash point of
90-140°C, while h igh- par affiu ic fue l
oil may have a l ower fl ns h poin t, (up
to 60°C); the fl ash point, of crude
petr oleum is only 20-40°C. In order
to av oid fire hazard, prehe:H i ng of
f uel oil in open systems s hou ld be car-
r ied out at tem per atures below i ts
fl ash point and in all cases, no t. above
95°C to p revent boili ng of the mo is tu-
re ·which may be presen t in th e bu l k of
fuel oil .
The basic technical characteri!'t ics
o[ natural gases are dens ity, ox plos i·
veness and toxicity.
2.5. Matn Deposits of Fossil Fuels
Fig. 2.0. Igni tion ranges of gas-air
mix lures at 20°C (p = 0.1 MPa) Bas
Hgdrogen
f:Jtf/r1de
Methane
[!IIane
Propane
ButontJ
Elhglene
Acetglene
Na/urul gas
IOlust·rurnau
gas
Coke·oYen gus
Density. Almost a ll kinds of gaseous
fuel are l ighter th an air, so that esca-
ped gases may coll ect under roofs. Be-
fore firing a boiler, i t is essential to
check that there are no gases in places
of their probable accumulation. Va-
rious gases are compared by using the
concept of rel ative gas density which
is the r atio of the density of a gi ven
gas u nder standard conditions (0°C,
1 015 Pa) t o the density of air:
(2.13)
where Pg and Pa are the densities of
gas and air respectivel y under stan-
dard conditions, kg/m 3 .
Explosive ness. A mixture of a gas
and air i n a certain proport ion can ex-
pl ode when in contact w ith open fl ame
01· even a spark, i. e. it igni tes and
burns at a speed near the velocity of
sound propagation. Explosive con-
centr ations of combus tible gasos i n a ir
d epend on the composition and pro-
perties of a particul ar gas (Fig. 2.6).
In concentrations below the l ower li-
m it of in.flammability (explosiveness),
a gas-air mixture cannot burn. In
concentrations above the upper in-
31
Ff/.rmulo InfLo.,mmabililglimits,
%by volume
Hz
CH
C2 H~ 117.7.'77: '7A
C2H2 I P'Z "// ' / // '//. '// /"/, '////
1'/ ///. '//, /"//,'1
V///////-
0 20 40 liiJ 80
Jlolvme propor tion Of !l_OS
ifl !JOS·oir mixture, %
flammab ility Jim i t, a gas-air m i xt.ure
burns without explosion .
Toxici ty. Tox icity is t he ability of
gases to poison the living organisms.
l n that respect, carbon monoxide CO
and hydrogen sulphide H 2 S are most
dangerous.
Since all components in natural gas
are intermixed evenly, the concentra-
t ion of harmful gases in air can be de-
termined by the pres ence of methane
whose concen tration is measured by
methanomeler. The test determines
the explosiveness of the gas mixture.
Almost all natural gases are odourless.
For easier detection of gas leakages
and taking proper safety measures, na-
tural gas is odoured before pum pi ng
i nto a gas pipeline, i.e. a s ubst ance
having a strong smell is added to it .
2.5. Maio Deposits of F ossil Fuels
Fossil solid fuels a re dist ributed nvor
t,he USSR terri tory extremel y un-
even ly. The most developed ind ustri-
all y regions in the European part of
the country aTe not rich in fuel. Of
greatest impor tance here is the Do-
 32
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Ch. 3. Fuel Preparation at Powcr..Stations 3.1. Met hods of Sollo l•'uel Combustion 33
----------------
netsk coal basin which possesses va- fuel of a high .heating value (around Fuel
,
/
rious grades of coal and anthracite, · 29.3 MJ/kg). Air
\''' .·.· ...
but its reserves can no more satisfy Petroleum fields in Tyumen di-
I
/
... . 0
·. . .. . : I
0 0

the growing demand. Besides, coal strict are being exploited intensi- I :. ·: 0 ' ;I
0 '•

I.. .. . .. . I
seams are thin and deep-lying which vely. The production of petroleum and :.
1r'· · .:' /.lJf •<·_.° ' IJ
0 0 •• '•: 0

makes coal production too expensive. condensed gas in this'region.amounts to 0

The main mass of coals is concen- about 50% of the total production in ',.. :.···:r.:·. .......:·:·-i
I·.".
~
. : ...·., ._:_
~ ~
..::·.-·.
...:.:: ...
trated in the Central and West Sibe- the country.
ria and Kazakhstan. These coals are Natural gas fields have been found Fuel /
:·
·:·./
:. ·.:. :,
·.·....·:....:..
.. ~ . . . . ·. ;
. . 0 .,

cheaper than Donetsk coal, notwith- in various regions of the country, the
l Airt
_;
~-....:.~·
Air
standirlg the costs required to trans- most widely known being the Shebe- 1'
port them to the European regions. l inskoe, Dashavskoe and Gazliyskoe. 0.
Further, there are Iarge reserves of Of late, unique gas fields have been Motten stag-
brown coals in the Kansko-Achinsky found and are being exploited inten-
basin (Central Siberia), with power- sively in Turkmenistan, South Urals (a) (6) (c)
ful shallow-lying seams which can be and Tyumen district (Shatlykskoe,
Fig. 3.1. Diagrams of combustion of solid fuels
produced profitably by open cast te- Orenburgskoe, Medvezhye, Urengoi- (a) !lame combustion; (b) cyclone combustion; (c) fluidized-bed combustion
chnique; this is the cheapest fuel in skoe, Yamburgskoe). The gas reser-
the USSR. Similar characteristics ves in these fields constitute almost
have Ekibastuz coals (East Kazakh- 50% of the total explored reserves of
stan). Kansko-Achinsky brown coals natural gas in the country. Large re- over by the flow and burn off more sfer from incandescent fu el particles
will be processed by a complex techno- serves of gas and petroleum have been quickly. The cyclone method permits to heat-absorbing sur[aces, though the
logy into valuable chemical products, discovered in Komi autonomous di- the combustion of coarse coal dust temperature of gases in the burning
brown-coal fuel oil and coke breeze, a strict. and even crushed coal. A cyclone fur- bed remains at a relatively low level
nace develops a higher temperature (800-'1 000°C), which prevents the me-
with the result that the slags are remo- tal from overheating and d iminishes
ved in the molten state (slagging- the concentration of harmful nitrogen
t.ype furnace). oxides in combustion products . In
In recent times, a new combustion addition, this method of combustion
method has come into use in the field makes i t possible to introduce solid
o[ power engineering called fluidized- additions (say, limestone) into the
bed combustion (Fig. 3.1c). Solid fuel , bed in order to neutralize the" sul-
ground to a particle size of 1-6 rom, phur oxides that form on combus- '
is placed onto a grate and blown from tion.
FUEL PREPARATION AT POWER STATIONS beneath with an air flow at such speed Large power stations consume as
I that the fuel pal'Licles are li fted above much as 1 000 t coal per hour or more.
! 3.1. Methods of Solid Fuel Combustion suspended state in the furnace space.
the grate and are reciprocated in the
vertical plane. In this process, the
E ven when delivered in cars of a large
load-carrying capacity (60-125 t), 15-
T his is what is called flame combusti- speed of the gas-air flow within the 30 cars of fuel must be unloaded eve-
Solid fuel combustion in boiler fur- on (Fig. 3 .1a). In this method, fine fluid ized bed is higher than above it. ry hour, which is only possible with
naces can be effected by various me- particles of fuel are easily moved by The fine• and partially burned parti- the use of highly efficient car dum-
thods: flame combustion, cyclone com- the flow of air and combustion pro- cles rise into the upper portion of the pers.
bustion, or fluidized-bed combustion ducts through the section of the fur- fluidized bed where the flow velocity The process of pulverization, i.e.
(Fig. 3.1). Flame combustion is the nace. Combustion takes place in the decreases , and there they burn comple- transformation of lumpy fuel into
roost popular in modern power engi- furnace space within a rather short tely. In operation, the fluidized bed dus~. includes two stages (see Sec. 1.3).
.
neenng. time of the presence of the particles increases in volume by 1.5-2 times; In the first stage, raw fuel is crushed
The classification of combustion in the furnace (1-2 s). The rate of fue l its thickness is usually 0.5-1 m. to a particle size of not more than 15-
methods is based on the aerodynamic burning, and therefore, the amount Heat absorbing surfaces in the form 25 rom. The crushed fuel is then deli-
characteristic of the process which de- of heat evolved in time, depend on of in-lin e or staggered tube bundles vered into raw coal bunkers and tran-
termines the conditions of contact of the combus~ion surface. are arranged in and above the volume sferred to grinding mills where it is
the burning fuel with an oxidant [58). In cyclone combustion, fuel particles of the fluidized bed. The unit heat ground to a final particle size of no
The capacity of a furnace can be ac- go through intensive turbulent motion absorption within the fluidized bed greater than 500 !LID. During gri nding,
tually increased without limit by bur- (Fig. 3.1b). In contrast to flame com- increases substantially due to the in- the fuel is dried by hot air to ensure
ning pulverized coal (coal dust) in a bustion, the fu el particles are blown t ensive conductive (contact) heat tran- it has good dust fluidity.
3-015 2 4
34
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Ch. 3. Fuel Preparation at Power Sta tions 9.2. Pulverization Sy3rcm.• 35-

more efficien l economically. especiall y the use of hot 11 ir only for fuel dryiug s upply can easily be automatically con-
3.2. Pulverization Systems troll ed . . .
when moist brown con I is pulveri zed, becomes economically inefficient and
The pul verizalion system is a com- but their equi pment is more intri- fu el combustion becomes unstable since The puhcrization syslem with closed
bination of equ i pment in which solid cate and ex pensive, and. in addition to the greater portion of puhcrizcd fu el 'drying an~ intermediate dust bun-
fuel is ground, dried and La nsf erred this, they are not sufficient I y rei iable fu el enters the combustion zone at a ke r (Fig. 3.3). ,A characteristic feature
to the burnCI·s of a boiler furnace. in operat ion. I nd i\'idu al systems reduced temp~raturc. I n such a case, of this system is that the prepared
By the method of delivery of pul- arc simpler and more rei iable and are fuel is dried by a higher-temperature pulverized fuel is separated from the
verized fu el to the furnaces; ·pul veri- widely employed by power stat ions agent, say, by mixing the primary air trans porting air i n a eyclone. The dust
zation systems can bo divided in to [29]. with a part of the furnace gases. is directed into an in termediate bun-
central and individual. In the former In dividual pul verizat ion systems If the pulverization system is ri- ker from which it is fed b y special
case, the system is .arranged in a se- can be subdivided into the fo llowing gidl y connected with the bo'iler, it feeders into ·pulverized fuel pipelines.
parate building (ceritral coal pulveri- ty pes: closed systems whid1 di rectl y should satisfy more stringent requi- The mois tened air at the exit from
zing plant) whore coal is pvlverized blow dust into the furnace s pace, clo- rements as regards the reliability of t.he cyclone hap a temperature of
on a centralized basis and Lhen die . sed systems with an i nter mediate its operation. The number of instal- 80-100°C and contains 10-15% of the
s tribu ted thro ugh pipelines between dust bunker, open syst e m~ which use led grinding mills must bo no less fin est coal .dust. This air cannot be
the boilers of the s t.alio n . In the lat- hot air as a dust carrier . The type of than three and the number of m ills disch arged through the stack and for
ter case, each boi ler is provided with system (either closed or open) is de- in operation minus one mi ll mus t en- this reason it is blown by the mill ex-
i ts own pulveri zing eq uipm en t, with termined by the way in whid1 tho dry- sure at least 90% of the rated load of haus ter into the primary air duct to
certain prov isions being made to tran- ing agent is utilized upon fuel dry iug . the boiler. Hence the productivity of be distributed among the pulverized
sfer th o pul vorized fuel to neighbou- In a closed system, it is directed in to a mill, Bm, should be: fuel pipelines {Fig. 3.3a). The number
ring boi le rs so ns to in crease t he relia- the furnace together wit h dried pul - of pulverized-fuel pipelines and dust
bility of t.h c fu el suppl y. verized fuel; in an open system, the feede rs is eq ual to the number of bur-
T he selecti on of a partic ular pul- drying agent is carefully c.lcanod from ners in Lhe boiler furnace.
,·eri zalion system for a power station fu el fines and ejected into tho s ta ck , where Bb is the fuel consumption by Due to the provision of the inter-
presents a co mplicated technico- bypassing the boil er furn ace. the boiler at the rated load, kg/s, mediate bunker, there is no need to·
economical probl em. Cen tralized pul- The pulverization system with closed and zm is the number of ins talled m ills match the productivity of the mill
vel'izalion sys tems turn ou t to be fuel drying and direct dus t blowing belonging to the boiler. with that of the boiler, thus each on
into the furnace. Crushed fuol is Upon exi ting from the m ill sepa- them can operate at the optimal load_
delive red from the coal bunker by a rator, fuel dust is divided between The mill exhauster forms a negative-
coal feeder into a g l'inding mill 2-4 pulverized fuel pipelines which pressure in the system, which avoids
(Fig . 3.2). Hot air at a tem perature are connected with different, not ad- dust ej ection to the surroundings. AUt
to t 1, 0 = 250-400°C is also fed into the jacent, burners. This is done in order inleakage through places where the-
1--..., mill in order to dry the fu el and tran- to avoid an uneven temperature d i- system is in contact with the surroun-
sfer i t further to the boiler furn ace bur- stribution in th e furnace space should ding atmosphere {raw coal chutes,
ners. This is what is called primary the mill he stopped for re pairs. dust chutes downstream of the cyclone)'
air. Coarse fractions of pul verized In the scheme of Fig . 3.2 the resi- is prevented by m eans of flapper
fu el a re separated in a sepa rato r, af- stance in the pulverized fuel path from val ves which open only for a short
ter which the fuel and ait· {which has the mill to the burners is overcome by time to allow the mass of fuel that has
been moistened by the moisture of the. head developed by the forced- accumulated on a valve to pass through.
II
fuel) are supplied at a temperature of draft fan, so that the pulverization In the combustion of low-active-
18
fJ
80-130°C through pulverized fu el pi- system operates under a slightly ex- fuels with a low yield of volatiles~
f§ pelines to the furn ace burners. T he cessive pressure (stLpercharged); the the temperature of the pulverized fu:..
r emaining h ot air, which is cn ll od pressure upstream of the mill is 1- ol air mixture should be raised to fn:-
secondary air, is fed sepnrntely l.o t;ho 2.5 kPa. An essential condition for ci litate the ignition of the dust. This·
burners. the safe operation of the pulverizati- is achieved in a system where hot air
The quantity of prirna1·y air I o be on system and for maintaining the is supplied together with pulverized
Fig. 3.2. Individual pu lv erization s ystem used for the drying and I rans port of required · .cleanliness in the room is fuel (Fig. 3.3b). In addition to the pri-
with direct blowing o[ pulverized fuel into pulverized fuel depends on tho fuel mary air which is fed into the pulver
furnace for the opera~ion on compressed hot that the equipment must be ke pt per-
nJr quality, in particular, tho mois ture fectly tight. rization system in an amount of 15-
J - r a w ron I bunker; f - cut-otr gnle va lve; J - coal content. The amount o[ pri mary nir The direct blowing system has cer- 25%, another portion of hot air
rccdc•·: 4- rnw coa l chute ; 5-coal mill; G- dust se- {r1 ) is us ually equal to 0.3-0.5 of the (20-25% ) is directed into the air duct
parator; 7- dusl duct; 8- burncr; o-stea m holler; tain advantages: it is s imple, the pul-
Jo- rorcQd-drnrt run; JJ- alr hea ter; 12-prlmnry total consumption of a ir for c.ornbu- verizing equipment is compact, tho and then into the pulverized fuel pi-
ai r path; 13- sccondnry nlr path; N -secondary
nir duct; J5- cold nlr lor mill venltlnllon; 16 - stion and increases with the mois ture consumption of electric energy for pel iues by an auxiliary hot blast fan:.
exploslon re lic! vnlve; 17- !ln pper ' 'a lve; 18- content. With extreme! y moist fuel, Tn this case, the temperature of th~
nutomatlc cut-orr gate vnlve pust transport is low, and the fuel
a•
 36 Ch. 9. Fuel Preparatton
Download From Boilersinfo.com
aJ Power Statton•
7 more, the system bas an elevated hy- one to adjust the fl ow rate of primary
2f
4 20 fj
17
I
I f9 5 26
• 12
N mes, a new system of pulverized coal and lower unburned carbon loss in
( a)
7 28
f nal systems , the concentration of dust ducts a~ a temperature of 4.00-4.50°G,.
29
21
• 20 fj f7 2/l
27 9
2F
!0
23 32
f9
Jf
24 13 •
f2 30 'f4' if
(b)
Fig. 3.3. Individual closed pulverization system with intermediate dust bunker
(a) wltb pulverized rue! carried by drying aecnt; (b) wttb pulverized fuel carried by ho t air and with drying
agent discharged Into boiler furnace. Items 1· 11 as In Fig. 3.2· additional Items: 19- lueHirying device;
1!0- Cbutc for rctur_n ol Coarse fractions; 21- Cyclone; 2.11- pulvcrlzcd fuel hunker; 1!3- pulveri1.Cd fuel feeder;
4- mlxer ·. 25- pnmnry uir duct; 26- mlll ventilator; 27- revers ible screw feeder; 28- molst drying agent
1!wl
11' fuel 1mcs; 29-!low meter; JO- valvc lor admitting cold air; J1-hol blast ran; J2- dlscbargc burner
pulverized fuel air mixture is close Usually two such systems are provi-
to that of the hot air. The quantity of ded for a boiler . Their productivity
~ir supplied to the burners turns out, in terms of fuel is 15-20% higher than
however, to be insuificient for complete the maximum fuel consumption by
fuel combustion. To correct this, the boiler , because of which one of the
low-temperature moistened primary systems remains inoperative for a cer-
air with a slight concentration of fine tain time. The system can transfer
coal dust is fed from the cyclone into part of the prepared pulverized fuel
either the combustion zone through into the bunkers of other pulverizing
special discharge burners or into the an- systems through a reversible screw
nular channel around the m ain bur- feeder. The available reserve of pulve-
·ners. rized fuel in the bunkers allows short-
In the system described above, the term stoppage of both mills for inspe-
load of tho steam boiler is controlled ction or repairs.
b y the dust feeders by using the re- A disadvantage of the intermediate
serve of pulverized fuel in the bunker.
bunker system is that its equipment
3.2. Pulverization Systems 37
is too intricate and bulky. Further- for pneumatic transport and enables
draulic resistance, which increases air to the boiler load, which is
the consumption of electric energy for an improvement over the earlier sy-
dust transport. Tbe storage of a large stems.
mass of dry dust increases fire and P ulverization with the open drying
explosion hazard. Noneth eless, the system. Open pulverization systems
to system can reliably supply steam boi- are employed only with fuels which
lers with pulverized fuel and for that have a resolved moisture content wr
reason has found wide application. of more than 3.6 % · kg/l\1J. The extra
fl The above-mentioned drawbacks of cost and more intricate design of the
..
this system become especially prono- system are compensated for by the
unced in the operation· of modern higher efficiency of the boiler due to
high-capacity boilers. In recent ti- smaller heat losses with waste gases
supply h as been developed which is the furnace. A fuel with a high moi-
characterized by a high concen tration sture content is dried by a high-tem-
of dust in fuel pipel ines. Jn conventio- perature agent, i.e. combustion pro-
in the primary air fl ow is usually which are taken of£ in an amount OF
0.4.~0.6 kg per kg air. In the new meth- 6-10% of the gas volume from the gas
od, pulverized fuel is transferred duct downstream of the economizer
by compressed air, wi th a low air (Fig. 3.4.). In another version, drying
flow rate (only 0.1-0.3 % of the total is effected by a mixture of hot air
air flow ra te to burners) and with a and combusLion products, with the
dus t concent ration as high as 30- mixt ure temperature being 500-600°C~
60 kg/kg air. Since the quantity of air The worked-off drying agent from
is not h igh, t.he dust acquires a high tho cyclone is fed, Loge thor with the
fluidity for motion through s mall- unseparated finest fuel fractions (ro-
diameter pipelines (60-90 mm). In ughly 10%), into the second stage of
burners, the dust is spread by hot dust collection, where coal dust is
air. The system does not require the separated in'1 multicyclones (a set of
bulky, 300-500 mm pipelines for the 150-250 cyclone elements of small dia-
transport of dust from the dust bun- meter), electrostatic precipitators or
kers to the furnace burners, sharply cloth bag filters. The separated dust
decreases th e unit energy consumption flows by gravity through chutes into.
14
ro 18
16'
20
fl !3
Fig . 3.4. Open pulve rization system with gas drying of fuel
1- ruw rurl bunker; 2- cul-oll gate valve; J - raw coa l I eeder: 4- b'11S and raw coni mi xer; ~-;-grinding mill;
6- dust scp!lrn tor; 7- cyc l one; a- dust co ll ec tor; 9- dusl bunker; JO- sl cam boil er ; 1 1. - ou beat er · J 2 -
burncr; 13- lllnin electrostatic l} rccipl tntors; 14- tui l l v cn\ilutor; .15- hot blnst fan; IG- mduccd-drart
ran; 17-rtnppcr valve; J&- t orccd-drnf t fa n; H - pul verl zf·d fuel f c<•dcr: 20- pulvcrlzcd fuel-air mixer
 Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 3. Fuel Preparation at Power Stations
an intermedia te dust bunker,. \Vhile
the drying agent after . the dust col-
lectorS is discharged· in to the m ain
electrostatic precipitators of the boi-
ler plant and is then combined with
waste gases. The transport of the dry-
ing agent is effected by t,be mill ex-
hauster, and the supply oJ primary
air by the hot blower (hot blast fan).
The open system of fuel drying sub-
stantially improves the quality of fu -
el and increases the efficiency of fuel
combustion . The volume of combustion
products in the boiler flue ducts
diminishes, which results in lower ae-
rod ynam ic resistance and · a lower
waste gas temperature.
An essential drawback of the open
system is that some fuel fractions are
lost with the discharged drying agent.
Another drawback is an elevated ener-
gy consumption for separation and
purification of the mo ist drying agent.
Despite the complicated system of
dust collectors , roughly 1-2% of the
fuel are lost to combustion and dis-
-charged into the atmosphere, resul-
ting in air pollu tion . The loss of fuel
may rise substanti ally with improper
.Operation of the dust collectors or a
·h igh moisture content in the drying
agent. For .these reasons, application
of the open system is limited only to
cases o'f rat her moist fuels which can-
no t be burned efficiently by .conventi-
.onal methods.
I" • •
: scissae, x, and the total sieve residues,
3.3. Characteristics: or Coal D~st.
Optimal Degree of Pulverization
Upon being ground in a mill, pul-
verized coal is essent'ially a , polydis-
perse powder with a particle s ize of up
to 300-500 11m. Coarse-ground brown
coal may have a particle size of up to
.1 m m. Fine particles of pulverized
-coal can adsorb an appreciable quanti-
ty of air on their surface . Freshly
poured coal dust h as a density of
.p = 500-600 kg/ m3 but is slu mped in
the course of lime and its de nsity in-
-creases to 800-900 kg/ m3 . When m ixed
with air, coal dust has a high fluidit y
and can be easily transpo rted in pipe-
lines. : R
Sieve analysis of pulverized coal. The
. 80
quality of pulverized coal is determi-
ned by the milling fineness (milling
dispersity) and the relative concentra-
tion of individual frac tions. These
ch aracteristics are determined by sieve
analysis. A , sample of pulverized
coal is screened through 4-5 sieves
with a progressively decreasing mesh
size. I n the Soviet Union sieves are
characterized by the clear size of
mesh expressed in micrometres. Using
the standard technique of sieve aualy-
sis, the total s ieve resid ue is determi-
n ed by the total numb er of p ar ticl es
of a size greater than the given mesh
size x, 11m, ex. pressed as a percentage
of the initial sample mass. This resi-
due is designated as Rx· Jt includes
the dust residue on a given sieve and
that on all other sieves above i t with
larger mesh s izes.
Sieves can be also used for the fra-
ctional separation of dust with a p ar-
ticle size of not less than 40 ~tm.
Finer-fraction particles stick readily
to tho sieve material and coalesce
with one another. For this r eason ,
the finest dust is blown in an air clas-
sifier to grade it to size. . persity coefficient of dust. It characte-
For more clarity and convenience,
the results of a sieve ·dust analysis can
be represented graphically as a par-
ticle-size distribution curve. If the mesh
sizes of sieves are laid off as the ab-
Rx, as ordinates, the resulting curve
is called the integral particle-size di-
stribution curve, or total-residue curve
(Fig. 3.5). The curve is plotted by
using the results of screening through
sieves and of blowing the fin est fra-
ctions in an air classifier. This meth-
od of dust s ize analysis is, however,
labour-consuming and takes up much
time.
The analysis of numerous particle-
size distribution curves for ·various
kinds of fuel has demonstrated that
all such curves can be described by the
equation:
R,. =100e - bx" (3.2)
3.3. Characteristics of Coal Dust 39
•
I
J 4
$0 ' J
\
I
I
~
70 ~ i ·~ \ y •
n• t. 5
50 \ \ I 1.2
50 1- -
\ 1?90 =55"/o I •
f.O
I\,
40 \ \ ' l'i l\
fls0 =.15~ . 0.8
30 \.
"' l I ~ ~f.25
20 ~ "\..Rzoole12"/. 0./l
} t0 ~n = f.O
n=0.8. ~ R~(J(J 2.3~· 0.4
10 I .J' R41HJ 0.2.._"/o n= 0.85 '~ ~
2 1/ 0.2
0
50 90 150 200 250 300
. 40.
0 40 80 120 lBO 200 210 280 pm
§1:_-
-
:r
Fig. 3.5. Complete grain-size characteristics
''Fig. 3.6. Differential curves of the fraction-
of pulverized brown coal ob tained in mills al distribution of pulverized fuel particles
of two types
1 -grinding in hammer mi ll: 2- grlnding in ball
mill; J- region or fine dust fractions; 4- region
of coarSI! dust )Jar! icles
where b and n are constants for a gi- E nergy consumption for pulver iza-
ven fuel and particular grinding meth- tion. When grinding a particular ma-
od. They tum out to be unknown on terial , it is possible to estab lish cer-
grinding fresh dust (they can be deter- tain quan ti ties which will characte-
mined by screening a sample of fuel rize the energy consumption in grin-
through two sieves, with the mesh size ding. As relates to grinding fuels in
x = 90 ~m and 200 ~tm). grinding mills, Rittinger's law is com-
Of particular importance is the coe- monly used and is formulated as fol-
fficient n which is called the polydis- lows: the work spent on grinding a
material is proportional to the n ewl y
rizes the structure of dust and its par- formed sur[ace area:
ticle-size distribution. This can be N .
seen upon differen tiation of equation E= 73 = A (id- !c) (3.4)
(3.2) with respect to x :
where E is the ·energy o£ grinding,
y = - dRx = 100bnxn-•e-b·•" = Rxbnx"- 1 kW h/kg, N is the mill power, kW,
dx
(3.3)
B is the mill productivity, kg/h, f c and
f d are thl} init ial surface areas o£ 1 kg
fn this case, the ordinate y,% /11m, crushed fuel and the final surface area
in Fig. 3.6 will give the concentrati- of 1 kg of produced dust, respectively,
on, %, of particles of the size x. m 2 /kg, and A is the unit consumption
With n. > 1, the curve has a maximum of electric energy in grinding related
in the zone x = 15-25 ~m. Such dust to 1 m 2 of newly formed surface, k \V
has a relatively small content of the h/m2 •
finest fract.ions. ~With n = 1 and Since f d is ·much larger than 1c• ex-
n < 1, on the cont.r ary, t he highest pression (3 -'*) can be simp! ~fi ed:
quantity of par~icles falls on the very (3.5)
g -~ Afd ·
fin e fractions . The loss of heat with
unburned carbon in boiler furnaces The unit consumption of energy A
depends ma inly on the concentration has been measured for most kinds of
of coarse particl es in pulverized coal fuel , and therefore, it possible to is
(of a size more than 2:'>0 ~tm). d etermine t.he energy consumed in fu-
40
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Ch. 9. Fuel Preparation at Power Stations
el grinding if the surface area of the
dust is known.
'l'he s urface of dust. As illustrated in
Figure 3.6, the theoretical surface area
of pulverized fuel consisting of d if.
ferently sized particles can bo found
with tho following simplified formula-
assuming the particles aro spherical
or c ubic in shape and have the poly-
dispcrsity coefficient n:
450 X 10
3
1 (ln -=--
100 ) 1/n
I, , = Pi
-
n llt o
(3.6)
where p1 is the unit density of ground
fuel , kg/m 3 , usually p1 = 1 700-
1 840 kgf m3.
The actual surface area can be fo-
und by introducing the shape factor
lc, in to the formula above. The aver age
vn lue of the shape factor for pulve-
rized coal may be taken ask. = 1.75.
The actual s urface area is then found
as fd = k.fu,.
The surface area of the dus t is de-
termined mainly by the concentration
of fine fractions. The loss of heat with
unburned carbon in chamber furnaces
is usually associated wHh a high con-
tent of coarse fractions (above 250-
300 ~tm for anthracites and coals with
the yield of volatiles v· less than 25%
and above 500-600 ~m at v• more than
30% ). It then follows that pulverized
fu el s hould have n > 1, a small con-
ceo tration of fine fractions (below
25 ~m) and a small concentration of
coarse fractions.
Moisture content of pulverized f uel.
Moisture conten t W, %, is an impor-
tant ch aracteristic of pulverized fuel.
An increase in moisture content above
the recommended level may res ult in
lower boiler productivity and involve
d ifficulties in dust transport: the dust
loses fluidi ty and slumps in bunkers,
clogs feeders, chu tes, etc. On the oth er
hand, overdried brown coal and
coal dust is liable to self-ignite
in places where it is stored or accumu-
lates and may be explosive when mi-
xed with air. The moisture content of
pulverized fuel is usually d etermined
in terms of the hygroscopic moisture
content Wh (see Sec. 2. 3).
Dust explosiveness. \'Vhen coal dust
suspended in air is confined in a closed
volume, it will explode more inten-
sively if its unit s urface area is larger
(i.e. if it contains mo1·e fine fract ions)
and if it has a higher y ield of vol at il es .
The temperature of the mi xt ure is al-
so of crucial imporl,ance. The most
dangerous concentrations of coal dust
lie within 0.3-0.6 kg/m 3 a ir.
The ignition of nn nir-dust mixture
in a closed volume res ults in a sharp
rise in temperature and pressure. The
pressure may rise well above the li-
mits safe for pulverizing equipment.
Damage to the boil er plant by explo-
sions is proven led by ins talling safe-
ty (relief) valves which discharge part
of the mixture from the system should
t he pressure rise excessively. The con-
centration limit of o~ in the drying
agent, i.e. tho concentration below
which f uel d ust cannot explode, is equa I
to 16% for pu lverized peat and oi l
shales, 18% for brown coals, and
19% for coals . The concentration of
0 2 can be decreased by dr ying pulve-
rized fuel with a m ixtu re of hot air
and combustion products. The proba-
bility of explosion is lower in fuels
with a lower yield of volatiles. With
the y ield of volatil es less than 8%,
fuel is explosion-safe. A high tempe-
rature of tho dust-air flow promotes
the formation of explos ive mixtures,
and therefore the temperature of the
air-dust mixture downstream of the
mill must be strictly con trolled. For
most pulverized fuels, it should not
exceed 70-80°C (fuels with a high yield
of volatiles) and 130°C in other cases.
The optima l degree of grinding. The
grinding properties of various fuels
are compared in terms of the l aborato-
ry coefficient of grindability, k,
which is understood to be the ratio
of the unit consumptions of electric
energy for grinding , in a standard la-
boratory mill, a reference solid fuel
and the fuel being tes ted, provided
that both have the same inil ial parti-
cle size and the s nme g round dus t cha-
racteristics. Thus
k 1 = E ,I E 1 (3.7)
9.4. Pulverization
(R;:')'
Fig. 3.7. Determination of the optimal
grinding degree of fuel
J - luel with low v" a nd low h 1: z - tuel with higher
values or vc and hr
The conditions in indus trial grin-
ding mi lls may d i[fer from the stan-
dard laboratory conditi ons in tho ini-
tial moisture content o[ fu el and its
particlesize, therefore, th e grindab ilily
k o£ working fuel may differ from the
laboratory value /c 1•
As foll ows from formula (3.4), grin-
ding of fuel to a coarser size res ults in
energy savings, fiE pu" but inevitabl y
increases the time o[ complete combu-
stion in the furnace and tho heat loss
with unburned carbon fiB 1. Therefore,
each kind of fu el has a particul ar fi-
neness range within which the total
expenditures on mill grinding Em
and the cost, of heat loss with unburned
carbon in the furnace, q,, will be at
a minimum. Expressing these items
in tho same units, say, in roubles per
ton dust, they may be plotted and
compared in a single gra ph (Fig.
3.7). The fineness of grinding is usua-
lly estimated in terms of the sieve re-
sidue R 90 • To fi nd the optimal value
Table 3.1. Grinding Mills Charact cris li <:l:l
Mi II type G rlndln g principle
I rnpact., abrasion
Ball-tube mill
Roll er mi II Crushing
Hammer mill Impact
Paddle-type mill Impact
Pulveri zing fan Impact
Eqr~lpme nt 41
of R 90 , tho boiler plant and th e pul-
verization s ys tem arc tested at dif-
ferent degrees o£ fuel grinding.
The optim al value of R 90 depends
even more on tho yield of volatiles
yc, type o[ mill, nnd lype of dust se-
parator. Tho effect of these factors is
expressed by l it o pol ydispersity coef-
ficien 1. n . Tho opti mal fineness of fuel
grinding can be fou nd by the formul a:
R~C' = 4 + O.Bnvc (:~. 8}
3.4. Pulverization E quipment
The g rinding mill is lhe principal
element in an y pulverization system.
The characteris tics of the ma in types
of grind ing mills ore given in Table
3.1. They d iffet· from one anot her in
the principle of fuel grinding and the
rotational s peed of the movable ele-
ment. Ball-tube mills and hammer mills
are used mos t often for tho purpose,
the form e r being preferred [or grinding
fu els with a relatively low yield of
volatiles and the latter for grinding
younger coals , brown coals, peat, and
oil shales . Around 98% of the total
fuel ground in pulverization systems
fall on these two types of mill. Some
kinds of coal can be gro und more eHi-
ciently in roller mills . 'Soft' (with
k 1 > 1. .5) and very moist brown coals
are ground i n pulverizing fans.
A ball-tube mill (or simply ball
mill) has a drum 2-4 m in diame ter
and 3-10 m long which is partially
fill ed with steel balls 30-60 mm india-
meter (Fig. 3.8). The drum is clad
with armour pla tes on the inside and is
heat- and sound-ins ulated on tho out-
side. Raw fuel and hot air are sup-
plied to the drum through the inl et.
Rot.n llonn 1 sroccd , S peed char ncLe rls-
s- • (rpm) lie
().25-0.42 ~1 5 -25) Low-speed
0.85-1. 3 50-80) l\·ledium-spood
12.5-16.3 (750-980) High-speed
25 (1 500) Jl igh-spced
12-24 .5 (735- 1470) Hi gh-speed
 42
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Cit. 3. Fttcl Preparation at Power Stations 3.4. Pul vcriztltiO n EqrL!pment

rue! suppl.f
Th o basic parameter that determi -
1 nes the effectiveness o£ grinding is
. tho circumferenti al s peed of the ham-
J
I
mers. T he prod ucti vi ty of a mill is
7 proportional to the cube of circumfc-
renli al s peed. T he productivity of
mills can be increased by increasing the
ro tational s peed or the ro tor diameter,
but this increases th o dynamic l oad
2 < •\ on tho rolor , resulling in a header
J~J~ 5 7 mass of the m ill and higher energy
5o I
co ns umption . As the coal charge of a
1.0 •.. 5 2.0 m iII i ncreasos , the energy cons u mcd
increases firs t rela tively slowly and
Fi" . 3.9. D cpeud e n c~ of ko/Jr on k1 thon rather quickly. The unit energy
"' ls k
g -Donc anlhl"acile c· oal; 2- Donetsk ~:as co ni ; cons umption for g rinding [see formu-
Fig . 3.8. Dall mill (general view and cross section) .:;-Ciu·J yabiu:-;k coa l gr·ade B: 4- VorkuUl cu al
,g rade G Zh; .s - Karagand;l <'onl ~rndr· GZ h: tJ-
la (3.11)1 decreases smoothly to a mi-
7- inlcl pipe; 2-s upporUnrr llcarln,;: 3-heat- and sound-Ins ulated mill drum; 4- ouL h: L p ipe ; ·1\fOSI;ow di stri ct l'OH I g-ru dc B ; 7- E stontnn oi l nimum at a certain charge o[ the mill,
s car whee l; 6 - rcducer gear; 7-c le<!tric motor •ha les making iL poss ible to vary the mill
•

pipe. The drum is t'Olated by an ele-
ctric motor via a reducer gear and a
driven gear wheel attached to the
drum.
The optima l capacity o[ a mill is
obtained at a rotational s p eed
nd = 0.76n cr (3.9)
where n c r is the critical rotational
speed of the drum, s-1 , at which balls
can 'stick ' to drum walls due to cen-
trifugal forces :
(3.1 0)
where Dd is the drum diameter, m.
With the optimal rota tional s peed
of the drum. the balls firs l rise over
the drum wall and then detach from
it and fall. Fuel is ground by the im-
pact of the falling balls and by Lhe ab-
rasion between them. Fin al dust is
continuously removed from the mill
by the ventilating agent - air.
The grinding capacity of a mill,
B "" depends s ubs tantially on the
drum leng th and diameter. Yet a
larger diameter D rl a ppreciabl y increas-
es the required power oE mil l motor
N m which is roughl y proportional to
the third power of D d.
Grinding mi lis arc also ch aracteri-
zed by the drying capacity, i.e. Lhe
quanLity of fu el that can b e dried in
the mill from the original mois ture
content ww to the desired value
Wd. The two characteris lics of a mill
should be matched properly, which is
done by controlling the flow rate and
temperature of the drying age nt at
the mill inlet.
The power for mill rotation N m
is virtually independent of the mass
of charged fuel in view of the large
mass of balls and drum. For this rea-
son, as the quantity of charged fu el
decreases, the unit energy cons umpl ion
f?r grinding , E g, kW h/kg, increases,
smce
E c = N n/ B m
Thus, it is advisable to run ball
mills at full load.
The armour plates and balls of n
mill are inevitably s ubject to wear
during mill operation. The extent of
wear depends on the abras ive proper-
ties of fuel which can be characterized
by the relative abrasi vil.y k abro which
is the ratio of the actu al wear to that
taken as the re[orenco value 10.3
g/ (kW h)).
As has been found by experiments,
the two rei ati ve ch aractel'is tics , k 1
and k , bro are cl osel y interrelated
(Fig . 3 .9). Hard er fu els cause greater
abras ion wear of t he mill elements
[29].
The wear of the balls is compensated
t·ot· by adding new balls periodically
into the operati ng mill. Ball -tubo
mills are suitable for g rinding all
"kinds of coal. "tl!etallk ohjecls occa-
s ionally present in coal are not dange-
t·ous to them . On the other hand , ball
mills, as a 1·ule, make coal dust wi t h
the polydis persi ty coeffi cient n less
than unitv. For this reason and a lso
'because or" their l a1·ge d i mansions, they
have a typically hig h uni t cons ump t ion
<>f energy (15-25 kW hit for coals
and up to 35 kW hit for anthracites).
The a pplica t ion of hall mills in pui-
Yerization systems with an in lermo-
(3.'11 ) <liale bunker is profitabl e onl y when
g rinding high-abrasive low-reactive fu -
els with R !lo ~ 10 % and k1 ~ 1.1.
A hammer mill has a s teel casing
dad on the ins ide with s mooth armour
plates 20-30 mm thick and a rolor
with d iscs to which hamme1· hold ers
and hammers aro hinged ly attached.
In operation, the circumferential s peed
.of Lhe h a mmers attai ns 50-60 m/s .
Hotaling hammers break fuel lu n~ps
i nto s maller pi eces which t hon s tnke
the armour au d are additionall y d i-
sint cgra ted by abras ion in the gap be t-
ween the hammers and casing. Tho Fig. 3 .10. Hammer mill with centrifugal
hammer mill is usually ins ta lled to- dus t separator
;gether with a dus t separa tor (l"ig . J- hnmtllc r mill ; 2- dust separa tor; J - ra"· fuel
Inl et·; 4-c hutc for ret urn or coarse dust ; s -safety
3 .10). va l ve
44
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Ch. 3. Fuel Preparation at P ower Stations
5 4
ff50
(a)
Fig. 3.i1. Dust separators
(a) cent.rilugal dus t separator lor coals and anthrn
c ites; J - pipc lor admlttins dust- ai r mix tu re ·
2- externa l hou• ing; J - intcrna i housing; 4 -
S\\' irl vanes: S- dust-dischnrglng p ipe; 6-chu tc
lor the rctum of coarse dust lrom extern a l hous-
ing ; 7- d lllo , 11om intcma l hous ing; (b) In er tia l
separator l or br0\\11 coal and coats ; 1-ha mmcr
mill; .!?- separator bousin,;; J - b n~: for collec ting
coa rse luel particles; 4- dust- discharging pii)C;
5-conll'ollt ng gutc va lves ; G- c hule tor dc h vr·q '
or luol und drying ngcnl into mill
charge in a rather wide range withou t
noticeably worseni ng the mill effi-
ciency. For that reason and in con-
trast to ball mills, hammer mills can
pal'ticipate in contl·oll ing the boilet·
load.
Hammer miHs may be recommended
for grinding fuels with k 1 ~ 1.1 which
can be burned as a rather coarse dust
(brown coals, coals with the yield of
volatiles Vc > 28%, pea l. and oil
shales). With such fuels, the unit ener-
gy consumption of hammer mills is
33-50 % lower than that of ball mills
(8-12 kW h/t).
Roller mills are usually employed
in systems with direct dust blowing
for grinding moderately hard coals
with relatively low humidity and a
low content of bard fractions (pyrite)
in the mineral portion, such as Ekiba-
stuz coals . Series manufacture of rol -
ler mills has recently b een started in
the ussn.
A common disadvantage of all rol-
ler mills is that they arc sensitive to
metallic objects-should these get oc-
casionally into the mill with coal.
Other drawbacks include uneven wear
of the working members and certain
r epair complexities . On Ll1 e othet·
hand, 1·oller mills are advantageous
in having a low unit energy consum-
ption (12-15 kW h/t), small dimensi-
ons, and a low noise level.
Soft b rown coals (k 1 > 1.5) of
high humidity are pulverized in pul-
verizing jan.~. The rotor of a fan car-
ries a pulverizing wheel wil.h hammer
blades arranged at ils periphery. The·
grinding effect is produced by the im-
pact from rapidly ro tating hammer
blades on fuel lumps. The blades crea-
te a head (1 200-1 500 Pa) behind the
fan, which obviates the need for a
mill exh auster. Pulverizing fans are
noted for th eir simple design, small
dimensions and low cost. Their produ-
ctivity is , however , not high, ran-
g ing from 3 .5 to 45 t /h for brown coal
(at R uo = 55% and lc 1 = 1.7).
T he auxiliary equipment of pul-
verization s ystems includes dust se-
parators , eye]ones, raw coal feeders,
dus t feed ers, and bunkers.
A dust separator is used for control-
ling the fineness of fu el dust produced
in a mill. The separation of dust into·
coarse and fine fractions in dust sepa-
rators is effected by using centrifugal,
iaertial and gravitational forces. Th e
effectiv eness of operation of a sepa-
rator determines to a l arge exten t the·
quality of the dust supplied into boiler
furnace bul·n ers . The type of separator
is usually selected accord ing to the·
characteristics of the respective mill.
Centrifugal and inertial dustseparator&
are the most popular (Fig. 3 .11).
A centrifugal separator (Fig.
3.11a) has two cones inserted on e in-
to the othel'. The dust-air flow is sup-
plied into the separator bottom at a
flow rate of 15-20 m/s . Owing to ex-
pansion, the flow r a te in the annula r
space between the cones drops down
to 5-6 m/s , producing the effect of
gravitational separation. The coarses t
particles slide down along the walls
of the cone and return to the mill.
Tilti ng vanes arranged at the inlet to
the inner cone cause the flow to swirl,
producing the centrifugal effect. The-
necessary fineness of dust is obtained
by varying the angle of the vanes .
3.5. Preparation of Fllel OiL and Natural GGs
3 5
- -~~
•
c....t:s
..... !'>..
Dust - air rtow
from seporafor '*
~~
~:;
6 ::s !:S
_£ \ ...-+- -A c::..!::
A
1 ·-
PalYerlzetl.
filet to bin
Fig . 3.12. Cyclone dust separator
J - hou~lng ; :!- cont rol p ipe with v anes ; 3-lnte~­
n a l cylinder; 4- explosion rellel valve; S- cxtl
Ol lTa nsler a gent (air); 6- tn!Cl pipe
In an inertial separator (Fig. 3.11b),
dust separ ation i nio fractions is
brought about by changing the direction
of dust-air flow, i.e. by utilizing the
forces of inertia . The magnitude of
t.R ~0 can be controlled wi thin 10-
15% by varying the position of a gate
v alve. Inertial-type separators are em-
ployed in combination with h ammer
mills fo r coarse pu l.verization of brown
coals , oil shales and milled peat
(with Ro 1 > 40 %) .
Cyclones are employed in systems
with intermediate bunkers for separa-
tion of pulverized fuel from transpor-
ting air (Fig . 3.12). The separation
takes place as a result of the centri-
fugal effect and the deflection of the
flow into the central outlet pipe. The
efficiency of cyclones is 80-93% and
increases inversely with the ,diame-
t er .
Raw coal feeders are used for unifor-
mly controlling the supply of coal to
the grinding mills. The productivity
of a feeder is selected with a reserve
of 20% above the rated mill producti-
vity. At power stations, belt feeders
(for dry coals) and chain feed ers (for
45
moist coals prone to smearing) are
most often employed.
Dust feeders are arranged under dust
bunkers and are used to control the
dust supply in to the pipelines.
Screw-type and p addle dust feeders
are the most common at power sta-
tions. The throughput capacity of a
feeder is con trolled by changing tho
rotational speed of d.c. electric drive
motors .
Dust bunkers are reservoirs for the
storage of a certain reserve of pulveri-
zed fuel. The volume of a bunker is
determined so as to ensure the opera-
tion of the boiler at the rated load for
2-3 hours upon stoppage of the pul ve-
rization system. To evenly discharge
dust into the dust feeders, the height
of the dust bed in a bunker should be
no loss than 3 m.
3.5. The Preparation of Fuel Oil
and N alural Gas
To facilitate transport, filling and
disch arge from reservoirs, fuel oil
should have a temperature of at least
60-70°C, at which ils v iscosi ty will
be not more than 30° E.
The flow path of fuel oil preparati-
on at a power station (Fig. 3.13)
comprises a receiving-discharging fa-
cility (pouring trestles with chutes
and receiving vessels with submerged
pumps), main reservoirs for storing a
permanent reserve of fuel oil, fuel oil
pumping house, fuel oil and steam pi-
pelines , fuel oil heaters , and filters.
The preparation of fuel oil for com-
bustion consists in separating mecha-
nical impurities and increasing the
pressure and t empera ture of fuel oil.
T his is essential for minimizing the
energy consumption of transporting
fuel oil to steam. boilers and for its
fine at omization in burners. Tho tem-
perature of fuel oil when in tanks is
maintained at a level of 60-80°C in
all seasons by circulation preheating,
i.e. by recirculating back into the sto-
rage tank a part (up to 50%) ~f the
fuel oil that has beert preheated tn ex-
ternal heaters.
 4G
(;h. 3. Fuel Prcparatiofl at Power Stat i ofls
Steam extracted
from lur&itre
--- ----
11 ff!r-..~
8 ---- - --- - - - - - ---'
Fig. ·3.13. Flow diagram oi fuel oil preparation at a power.statioo . .
J - fucl oil tank c~ r; t - dratnlng ~rY icc: J --;-conrse tille r: 4- heatcd discharge' t a nk; .1- JWrnp; 6- rnail)
fMlk ; 7, 8-furl 011 rcclrculnlion lmes; 9- flrsHIJt pump: 10- back-p rcs..ure ' ' nh·e: 11- fucl oil heater:
12- tinc filler: 13-second-Htt pump; H - c tosing gate valw·: 1 ~ -rJow ratr controller; 16-flow me ter;
17- gate vatvc; I S- burner - ·
A tn·o-stage scheme of fuel oil sup-
ply is typi cal for th erma l power sta-
tions. In this scheme, preheating the
fu el oil , agitating it in tanks , and fil-
tering are performed nt a low fu el oil
pressure (around 1 MPa) , while se-
cond-lift pumps supply fu el oil to the
main building at a high pressure
(3.5-4.5 MPa).
The fuel oil is ejected from the ato-
mizing burners at a high rate, which
may result in the quick abrasive wear
and fa ilure of the burne1· channels.
Also , small channels (less than 3 mm
in diameter) may become clogged with
large solid particles or blobs of tar or
asphal t. P urification of fuel oi l from
solid impurities is performed first
in coarse fil ters with a mesh s ize of
1.5 rom x 1.5 mm a nd then in fin e
fi ltet·s with 0.3-0.5 mm meshes, both
of which arc mounted upstream of the
pumps of h ot fu el oil in the second-
s tage fu el oil line.
The fuel oil is preheated in steam
healers to a temperature no greater
than the ignition point of fuel oil va-
pours. Thefueloil temperature is main-
tained at the specified level , irres-
pective of the fu el oil consumption by
the boiler, by continuously recircula-
ting the fu el oil through the storage
tank.
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To other steam 6oilers
17
f-!Xi---t> <
14 15 IS 1-~-1> <
1-~-1><
From nfllor .
steam /JoilerY
~
.
Gaseous fuel is suppli ed to a power
station from n gas main or gas-d istri-
buliotl station at a pres:>urc of 0.7-
1.3 M Pa. P o\\·er :>lations ;~ro not pro-
vided wilh gas holders. The suppli ed
gas is throttled in a gas-metering house
unt il it reach es the pressure it should
have in the burners (0.13-0.2 i\fPa) .
Since gas throttling produces much
noise and involves a hig h explosion
hazard, the gas-metering house is lo-
cated in a separate buil ding at t he sta-
tion s ite (Fig. 3.14) .
Each gas-metering house has seve-
ral (roost often three) gas pipelines
with pressure regu lators, one of which
is a stand -by line. A bypass line aro-
und the pressure regulators is also
provided . The gas is purified from me-
chanical impurities by filters arran-
ged upstream of the control valves.
The control valves main tain the spe-
cified pressure ' downstream'. Safety
valves are provided to protect the sy-
s tem against occasional pressure
jumps . The quanLity o[ gus passing
through the gas-metering house is mea-
s ured by flow meters. Each gas pipe-
line leading to a boiler h ns an automa-
tic flow governor ond quick-closing
CUL-off valve. T he automatic n ow go-
vernor adjusts the gas fl ow rate to the
current l oad of the boiler. The pulse-
4.1. Kinetics of Co m bustion R eac tio 1u 47
Fig. 3.i4. Gas-supply scheme of po- Slulioo bolter hol/se
wer station . ----- - - --- - - - , '
1- hond-contro llcd ga to valve; t-clcctrlc
motor-driven cute valve: J - gns pressure
I
BolLer Boiler fJ"iter
I.
regulator; 4-safety vnlve : ~-gas flow rnlc I llo. I No.2 No.•1 I
rcgulntor ; o- qul ck-ac tlon c ut-otrvnl vc; 7 - I I
18
manometer: R- tlow me ter; 9- p ressure " '- ·
gulator sensors; 10- tlltcr; JJ-gas vent ;
12-~:as suppl)' to burner Igniter: 13-
druin: 14-gns sampling for anolysls
I
I
II
..., I
I.
I I
. I I
I 7 I
I I
I r
I
I 1 =atJ-0.2HPc '
I
I
I
I
Ill t r .
t+-r£:......:E._.!£.$t~~~-"'.:..om
..2.::.f!11S matn
"'=a7 - t.JHPa
operating cut-off val ve slops the gas inaccessible t o people. Gas vents also
supply to the boiler furna ce in emer- serve to displ ace the gas-air mixture
gency situations when the supplied from gas pipelines before firing a boi-
gas m ight cause explosions (flame ler. The blow-through of a gas line is
breakoff, l oss of a ir pressure at the bur- slopped when th e concentration of
ners , shu tdovm of the motors of ex- oxygen in a sample is not more than
haust or forced-draft fans, etc.). 1%.
To avoid explosion h azard during All gas-supply facilities of a power
standstills, the gas pipelines are blown station shoul d not be operated witho-
through with air through special gas ut observ ing the n ecessary safety pre-
vents. T hese vents are mounted out- cau tions.
side of the building in places that are
THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES OF COMBUSTION
4.1. The Kinetics the physical phenomena which pre-
of Combustion Reactions cede or accompany the ignition and
su~sequent burning of the fuel , spe-
The combustion of fuel in a furnace cial emphasis should be l aid on the
involves a number of complex phy- process of mixing the fuel and the oxi-
sical and chemical processes . Among dant (aerodynamic factor). Among the
48
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Ch, 4. Theoretical Principles of Combustion
chemical factor-s, the temperature and
concentration of the reacting substan-
ces are the most essential. One also
has to deal with the complex fields of
velocities, concentrations and tempe-
ratures, which together determine the
kinetics of chemical reactions.
The reactions involved in fuel com-
bustion proceed with heat evolution,
i.e. they are exothermic. These include
the burning of carbon, hydrogen and
sulphur in atmospheric air. At high
temperatures, such as in the core of a
flame, some reactions may occur with
heat absorption. These are called
endothermic reactions. The formation
of nitrogen oxides N 2 + 0 2 = 2NO-
- 180 kJ / mol and the reduction of
carbon dioxide to monoxide on the
incandescent surface of coke parti-
cles under conditions or oxygen defi-
ciency C + C0 2 = 2CO - 7.25 MJ /kg
are both examples of endothermic
reactions. Chemical reactions which
can proceed in either a forward or
reverse directiou are called reversible,
though the conditions that foster the
reaction in the forward or r everse dire-
ction may differ substantially from
one another. For instance, the forma-
tion o[ nitrogen oxides can take place
only at very high temperatu res, while
the reverse reaction, i.e. their dis-
sociation into gaseous oxygen and
nitrogen , can occur in the earth's
atmosphere under the effect of solar
radiation. During fuel combustion in
furn aces, the rate of a direct process
is immeasurably higher than that of
its reverse counterpart, meaning that
the equilibrium of these reactions is
shifted towards tho formation of the
final products of the direct reactions,
and therefore, those processes can be
regarded as irreversible.
Tho intensity of combustion is cha-
r acterized by the rate of the reaction
involved. The rate of a homogeneous
reaction is understood as the mass of
a substance that reacts in unit volume
per unit time. Tho reaction rate is
measured in such a case in terms of
the variation of the concentration of
one of the reacting substances,
D.CA, mol/m3 or g/ro3, 111 a givon time
i nterv a ! D.<, s:
Wr = - D.CA/D.-r (4.1)
Tile rate of a heterogeneous reacti-
on is expressed as the quantity of sub-
stance, D.g, g, that has reacted on the
surface of solid combustible substance
S, m 2 , during a time interval D.-r, s :
61!
K. = - Sti-r (4.2)
Reaction rates obey the law of mass
action, according to which the rate o£
a reaction in a homogeneous medium
at a constant temperature is propor-
tional at any given moment to tho
product of the concentrations of tho
reagents:
w, = kC'X c~ (4.3)
where lc is the reaction rate constant
which depends on the t,emper-ature and
chemical nature of the reagents, CA
and C n are the current concent.t·ations
of the reagents A and B in tho gas
mixture, and m and n are tho numbet·
of moles of A and B, respectively.
Since the partial pressures of the
components in a gas mixture at a con-
stant temperature are proportional to
their concentrations, formu la (4.3) can
be written in another form:
Wr = /cp':._p'JJ (4./t)
In heterogeneous combustion, the
concentration of the combustible sub-
stance (solid fuel) is constant, and the-
refore, the rate of this reaction depends
onl y on the concentration of the oxi-
dant (oxygen) on the surface of solid
fuel:
Wr = lcCb 1 (4.5)
where Co, is the concentration of oxy-
gen on the fuel surface.
If the concentrations of the ron-
gents do not vary in time, I.he reacti-
on rate is determined by the reaction
rate constant k which depe11ds on the
temperature and nature of the substan-
ces that enter the reaction. This rela-
tionship 1s expressed by Arrhenius'
law:
4.1. Ktnetlcs of Combudlon Reactions
f'~g. 4.1. Dependence of reaction
r ate on (a) temperature, (b) acti- Wr
vation energy, and (c) concentra-
tion of combustible matter
·c,L- Iower llmlt; U L-upper limit
(a)
where k 0 is the pre-exponential factor,
E is the activation energy, R is the gas
constant, and T is the absolute tem-
perature of the process.
Thus, the rate of a reaction quickly
increases with temperature (Fig.
4.1a). A chemical reaction is possible
due to the collisions of the molecules
o£ reacting substances. If all collisi-
ons resulted in a reaction, combusti-
on would occur at an enormous rate
and the reaction rate constant would
be equal to k 0 • Actually, a reaction
can take place only when tho energy
o[ collisions can break the old mole-
cular bonds and the fragments of old
molecules can rearrange themselves
into molecules of new substances.
The energy that is sufficient to de-
stroy the molecular bonds of the star-
ting substances is called the activation
energy E. With a higher activation
energy, the molecular bonds of the
original molecules are destroyed less
easily, and consequently, the reacti-
on rate is lower (Fig. 4.1b). For in-
stance, the activation energy of the
reaction C + 0 2 = C0 2 is Eco1 =
= 140 kJ/mol and that of the reac-
tion C +1
12 02 = CO, Eco
= 60 kJ/mol. It then follows that the
r ate of formation of carbon monoxide
in the reactions of carbon oxidation by
oxygen is substantially higher than
that of the formation of carbon dioxi-
de C0 2 , and therefore, carbon monoxi-
de CO will be formed predominantly
at the surface of burning carbon
[29, 481.
Combustion in furnaces requires the
continuous supply of fuel and oxi-
dant (air) to the combustion zone, and
therefore, the concentrations of the re-
agents are practically invariable in
time. Under such conditions, the hig-
4.-01 52.4
49
I
.tUr Wr
r
r
I
I
I
T E ' I Cr:
OLL Ul 100 1o
(6) (C)
hest reaction rate can be attained at a
nearly stoichiometric ratio of the
concentrations of reagents. An excess
of fuel (rich mixture) or a fuel defi-
ciency (lean mixture) will cause the
rate of the reaction to decrease due to
lower heat' evolution . per unit volu-
me.
Combustion cannot take place at
any arbitrary concentration of fuel
in the mixture, but only in a definite
range of its concentrations .in the air
(oxidant). Thoro exists a lower concen-
tration limit below which combustion
is impossible, and an upper concentra-
tion limit when any further increase
of the concentration of the fuel pre-
vents combustion (Fig. 4.1c). Thus,
combustion is possible only in the
concentration range between these two
limits.
If a gas-air mixture is prepared for
combustion and completely fills in a
particular volume, an ignition source
will induce the oxidation reaction
which will propagate with a high rate
all over the volume, resulting in a
sharp increase in temperature and pres-
sure. This type of process is called
explovise combustion, or simply ex-
plosion. In such cases, we speak abo-
ut the upper and lower explosive li-
mits of a mixture, meaning that a gas-
air mixture is capable of exploding
in the whole range of concentrations
between these limits. Thetemperature
above which a self-sustained rea-
ction is possible in a. mixture (system)
is called the ignition temperature.
The rel ationship between heat evo-
lution and heat removal at various
temperatures of a combustible mix-
ture can be represented graphically
(Fig. 4.2). Heat evolution at the ini-
tial stage of a chemical reaction can
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Ch. !l. TheorelicaLRrlni:lples. of Combustio n 4.2. Mechar~ tsms of Fu el Combustlor~ 51
50

Ou impossible. The state in point 1 can cular fragments (radicals and atoms of
be characterized by an 'insignifica~t H, OH, 0, etc.) particip~te along with
Or heat .evolution and low temperature. molec·u les. As a result, each of these
I This is the zone of slow oxidation intermediate reactions has a low level
which may continue for a l ong time. c::
I of the activation energy E, since radi- ·~ c:::
t;·~
I Let the temperature of the cooling cals and individual atoms possess a .......
c::: ..... ~
I walls be r aised up t o T n · Again free valency, and can therefore form ·~ Col Qa

Or > Oo i nitially, and the tempera tu- ~ ~ ...

I free-valency p articles. Such reactions
I r e of the mixture rises . Fin ally, in can proceed at a high r ate. The star t ...~ OH
I point 2, Or = 00 , but in con tras t to of a reaction between substan ces is ~
..,
+

~
·~

I point 1, the state in this point is un-
T stable. A slight rise of temperature is
sufficient to make Or greater than.
Tc
Oo again and heat evolulion will in-
P"ig. 4.2. Graphical determination o[ igni- crease more quickl y than heal remo-"
ti on temperature (T1g). combustion tem p1!7 val. The temperature in point 2 is
rature (Tel and ex tinction tcmpcrnt11re (Texl
at a given temperature o£ heat-transfer sur- exactl y what is called the ignition tem-
face (T,) perature Tign · The process now deve-
lopsJrapidl y to a stale of stable high-
be found fl'om th e equat ion: temperature oxidation, or combustion
(point 3 ). This process w ill be stable
Or = koe - li:JR1'C';'Vmq (4 . 7) as long as the fuol and oxidant are·
The quantity of heat removed from supplied properly. If heat remova1
the r eaction zone is determined by is done more forcibly (along a slee-
the equation: per line 00 ), the combustion tempera-
ture will decrease to point 4 where the·
Oo = a.S (T - T ,) (4.8) high-temperature process will be in-
In theso formulae, Ce is the con- terrupted since Oo becomes greater-
centration of the combustible sub- than Or in the whole temperature-
stance, V m is the volume of the prepa- range up to p oin t 5. The temperature-
red gas-air mixture, q is the thermal of a combustible m i xture in point I
effect of the reaction per unit mass of is called the extinction temperature.
fuel, a is the heat- transfer coefficient, Combustion extinction al ways takes
S is the surface area of the cooling place at a higher temperature than
walls, and T and T, are the tempera- ignition does, since the concentra-
ture of the m ixture and the cooling tion of the starting s ubs t ances in the
walls, respectively. zone of active combustion is lower
Heat evol ution at the initial stag~.> than their initial concentration at ig-
of r eaction can be described by an ex- n i tion.
ponential curve wHh Or rising sub-
s tan tiall y. l n the region of high tem-
4.2. The Mechanisms
peratures, the growth of 0 r is limited of Fuel Combustion
by the possibilities of oxidant suppl y,
i.e. by the cond itions of m ix ing . Assu- As has been found by experimentt
ming a = cons tant, heat removal can the rates of combustion reactions sub-
be represented by a s traight line incli- stantially exceed the r ates calculated
using the l aw of mass actior1 and Ar-
ned at an angle determined by a .
lf the fuel-air m ixture in a chamber rhenius' law by considering the number
and the surrounding walls are prehea- of active molecules of the initial
ted to a temperature T . , , owing to heat substances entering a reaction. Actu-
evolution in the reaction, the mix- ally, reactio ns do not occur i mm edia-
tely between the original moleculest
ture will be heated to a temperature
T 1 > T.,. In point 1, Or= Oo and but pass through a number of i oter-
furth er preheating of· the mixture is mediate stages in which active mole-
preceded by a period d uring .which ac-
ti ve reaction centres i n the' form of
charged particles accumulate in the
medium, owing to tho parlial des t ru-
ction of original molecules by other
molecules which possess an energy
higher than the energy of the atom ic
bonds in the original molec ules. This
is what is called the induction period.
The combustion of gaseous fuels. Com-
bustion of gaseous fuels occurs by tho
laws of branched chain r eactions which
were discovered by Soviet Academi-
cian N. N. Semenov and C. N. llin -
shelwood . The conversion of the ori-
ginal substances to the fin al products
passes through a sequence of reaction
links which are connected in succes-
sion with one ano ther and develop in
the volume of a combustible mixture
like the b ranches of a tree develop
from its trunk. This results in the for-
mation of the final reaction products
and of an even greater number of active
centres which further ensure the de-
velopment ,of the r eaction in the con-
fining volume.
Let . us consider the m echanism of
branched chain reactions, taking as
an example the combustion of hydro-
gen in air. By the s toichiometric equa-
t ion
2I-T2 + o. = 2fh0
the r ate of the reaction between mole-
cules of the combustible substance
Wu 2o = k oC - Elll1'C~II 2cOe
cannot be very l arge. Actually. howe-
ver, combustion o£ hydrogen at tem-
peratures above 500°C is an explosive
chain reaction proceedi ng at a v ory
high r ate. Indeed, according to
N. N. Semenov, t he beginning of the
4*
l:1
~ Fi nn[
CQ protluc{
Chain
initiator ®®
etc. '
Fig. Chain reaction cycle of hydrogen
lt.3.
burning ·
0 - elwin rtuclion exciter; 0 - final product
active reaction is preceded by the for-
mation of active centres:
H z+ Ma-. 2H+ M
'
H 1 +0~ -+ 20H
where Ma and 0~ are active molecu-
les which possess high energy levels
in the volume.
Atoms and r adicals formed by this
mechanism actively enter the reacti-
ons with the surrounding molecules,
i.e. chains of s uccessive r eactions de-
velop which result in the formation of
the final reaction products and ever
greater number of active cen tres .
Figure 4.3 schematically shows the
first cycle of this reaction. As may
be seen, each of the active hydrogen
atoms H that has given rise to a chain
reaction has produced three new active
centres, owing to which the rea-
ction progressively develops i n the
volume confining th~ gas mixture. As
(4 · 9) tbe reaction products accumulate and
the concentrations of the starting sub-
stances become lower, chains are dis-
rupted more often in the volume and
at the walls of the r eactor:
H + H - H2
OH + H-+ H 2 0
52
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Ch. d. Theoretical Principles of Combaltion
Tho aclual reaction rate is described
by the equation:
WH vr
= 10 11 CuCo,e- E'fRT .(4.10)
The dccisi ve factors for tho reacti-
on rate arc tho concentrations of hy-
droge n atoms (reaction cen tres) and
oxygen molecules, with the aclivali-
on energy E' of the reaction between
them being s ubs tan tially lower t han
E in equation (4.9). Similar laws of
chain reactio ns govern the combustion
of carbon monoxide CO, methane CH,
and other combustible gases.
lL follows from the foregoing that a
l!hort time, the i nd uclion period, pre-
cedes tho beginning of an active rea-
ction, during which a suJfi.ciently large
quantity of activo cenl.res (atoms and
radicals) accumulates in the reaction
volume. During th.is period, tho rea-
ction is almos t unnoticeable and its
thermal effect is negligible. After this
period, the reaction rate increases due
to the development of a large number
of parallel reaction chains over the
whole volume, uotil an equilibrium
between the appearance and disappea-
rance o( active cent res is established
[361. The reaction then attains its
m aximum rate and will proceed at
this rate, provided that fresh porti-
ons of starting s ubs tances are regular-
ly supplied to the combustion zone.
Combustion of a gaseous fuel in a
mixture with air occurs at a very high
rate (a ready methane-air mixture
burns in a volume o£ 10m3 in 0.1 s).
For this reason, I.he intensity of com-
bustion of natural gas in steam boiler
furnaces is limited by the speed at
whicl1 it mixes with air in the burner,
i.e. by phys ical factors. The difficul-
ties which arise when high flows of
gas and ail· should be mixed thorough-
l y in a very short time in a burner are
linked with tho fact that the volume
flow rates of the gas and air dHfer sub-
stantially, as approximately 10 m3 of
.air are needed for the combustion of
1 ro 3 of gas. For thorough intermixing,
gas must be introduced into the air
flow in the form of numerous fine jets
and at a high rate. For the same pur-
Fig. 4.4. Mechanism and combusti on cha-
racteristics of a liquid fuel droplet
pose, the air flow is thoroughly t.ur-
bulized by special swirling arrange-
ments.
The combustion of l iq uid fuels. In
the combustion of liquid fuel s (petro-
leum, fuel oil), both the igni Lion and
combustion temperatures (es pecially
the latter) turn out to be higher than
the boiling temperature of the indi-
vidual fuel fractions. For this reason,
liquid fuel first evaporates from the
surface under the effect of t he suppli-
ed heat, then its vapours are mixed
with air, preheated to the ign ition tem-
perature and start burning. A sta-
ble flame forms at a certain distance
from the surface of liquid fuel (0.5-
1 rom or more).
Figure 4.4 schematically shows the
combustion of a liquid fu el droplet
in stagnant air. A vapour cloud forms
around the droplet and diffuses into
the environment, with the diffus ion
of oxygen of the air occuning in the
opposite direction. As a result., the
stoichiometric relations hip between
the combusti ble gases and oxygen is
established at a certain distance r 8 1
from the droplet, i.e. tho burning
fuel vapours form a spherical combu-
stion front around it. The magnitude
of rat is equal to 4-10 droplet r adii,
i.e. r 31 = 4-10rd, and depends hea-
vily on the droplet size and the tom-
perature in the combustion zone. [n
4.2. !tfechanisms of Fuel Combustion
the zone where r < rat> fuel vapours
prevail, but their conc~ntration do-
c reases i nversely with the distance
from the liquid surface. The zone
with r > r, 1 contains primarily com-
bustion products mixed with the oxy-
gen that bas diffused into the combu-
stion zone. The highest temperature
is established in the reaction zone . Al-
though at both sides of this zone th e
temperature decreases gradually, its
decrease is more intens ive in the inside
direction, i.e. on approaching l.he
droplet, since some heat is s pent there
for heating fuel v apours.
Thus, the burning rate of a liquid
fuel droplet is determined by the rate
of evaporation from its surface, tho
rate of chemical reaction in tho com-
bustion zone, and the rate of oxygen
diffusion to this zone. As staled ear-
lier, the reaction rate in a gaseous me-
dium is very high and cannot limit
the total rate of combustion. The qu-
antity of oxygen diffused througl1 the
spherical surface is proportional to
the square of sphere diameter , and
therefore, a slighl. removal of the
combustion zone from the surface of
the droplet (under oxygen deficien-
cy) noticeably increases the mass flow
rate of supplied oxygen. Thus, the rate
of combustion of the droplet is
mainly determined by evaporation
from its surface. The combustion rate
of liquid fuels is increased by atomi-
zing the fuel just b efore burning,
which. substantially increases the to-
tal surface of evaporation. Besides
all this, as the size of the drople ts
decreases, the intens ity of evapora-
tion per unit area of their surface in-
creases. Fine liquid fuel droplets s u-
spended in an ail- flow move at low
Reynolds numbers, Re <t::1. In s uch
cases, the heat flow through a s phe-
rical surface is determined solely by
the conductivity A. through tho boun-
dary layer, which is much thicker
than the droplet diame ter. Under
such conditions, the heat-transfer co-
efficient a is given by Sokolsky's
formula:
Nu = adi'J.. = 2 (<i.11)
53
whence
a = 2"A.Id = "Air (4.12)
where Nu is the Nusselt number.
As follows from formula (4.12), the
heat exchange between a droplet and
the surrounding m edium increases as
the s ize of the droplet decreases, i.e.
wi t h a decrease in i ts mass. It turns
out thai. tho evaporation time of a
dropl et is proportional to the square
of its initial diameter.
The combustion of solid fuel. When
combined with air in a furnace, pul-
verized coal first passes through the
stage of thermal preparation (Fig.
4.51), wl1ich consists in the evapora-
tion of residual moisture and separa-
tion of vola tiles. Fuel particles are
heated up to a temperature at which
I
volatiles are evolved intensively
I
(400-600°C} in a few tenths of a se- I
cond. The volatiles are then ignited,
so that l.he temperature around a coke
particl e increases rapidly and its
healing is accelerated (III'). The in-
tensive burning oi the volatiles (/I)
takes up 0.2-0.Ss. A high yield of vola-
tiles (brown coal, younger coals, oil
shales, peat), produces enough heat
through combustion to ignite coke
particles. When the yield of volatiles
is low, the coke p articles must be hea-
ted additionally from an external
source(/ I r). The final stage is the com-
bustion of coke particles at a tempera-
t
t......_
(1 ,... ----
!--"
/
/
/ '-z
~----
.
'C'
][ c
[ Dl' /lf JY
Fig. 4.5. Temperature conditions of burn-
ing or nn individual solid fuel particle
J- t<'mpcroturc or ttaseous mediun1 around the
porlic lc: 2-pnrlicle"tc mperntur<•; !-thermal pre-
flMnllon zone; //-zone or burning or volatiles:
1 l/' - heullng or coke particle due lo burning or
Its vo lulll es: 1 11• -beating or coke particle rrom
an ex ternal source; lV-burning or coke particle

Ch. 4. Theoretical Principles of. Combustion
Fig. fo.(j . Variations of concentration of ga-
seous subst.a..oces at the surface of burning
carbon
(a) burning Ht modera te tcmpcrntures; (b) burning
at higb t•·tnperaturcs; 6 -thickness or boundr.r y
1
!lim
ture above 800-1 000°C (IV). This is
a heterogeneous process whose rate is
determined by the oxygen supply to
the reacting surface. Tho burning of a
coke particle proper takes up the gre-
ater fJOrtion (1/ 2 to 2 / 3 ) of the total
time of combustion which may con-
stitute 1 to 2.5 s, depending on the
kind of fuel and the in i tia I size of par-
ticles.
Tho reacting mechanism between
carbon and oxygen seems to bo as fol-
lows. Oxygen is adsorbed from the gas
volume on tho surface of particles and
reacts chemically with carbon to form
complex carbon-oxygen compounds of
the type c.;Ol/ which then dissociate
with the formation of CO. and CO.
The resulting reaction at temperatu-
res near 1 200°C can be written as fol-
1 lows:
I s idered to be homogeneous, i.e. It
4C+30, =2C0+2CO,
I tion in the volume.
l• As has boon . establishea by expe-
riment ·(r.;.:· Moyer, L. N. Khitrin),
the ratio of the primary products,
COtC0 2 , increases sharply with the
increasing temperature of burning par-
ticles. For instance, tho resulting equ-
ation at temperatures near 1 700°C
can be written in tho form:
3C+20.=2C0+C02
where the CO/CO: ratio is equal to two.
The primary reaction products arc
continuously removed from the surface
of particles to the environment.
In this process, carbon monoxid e en-
counters the difrusing oxygen, which
moves in the op\)osite directi on, and
I
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reacts with it within the boundary gas
film to be oxidized to C0 2 , with the
result that tho concentration of. sup-
plied oxygen decreases sharply on ap-
proaching the surface of particles,
while the concentration of C0 2 in-
creases (Fig. 4.6a). At a high combu-
stion temperature, carbon monoxide
can consume all the oxygen supplied,
which, consequently, will not reach
the solid surface of particles (Fig.
4.6b). Under such conditions, the en-
dothermic reduction reaction will oc-
cur on the surface of particles, i.e.
COt will be partially reduced lo CO.
Thus, heterogeneous combustion of
a carbon particle from its surface can
be represented as a process embracing
four subsequent reactions (according
to A. S. Predvoditclev), two of which
are the main ones:
C+01=C02+q1
2C+0 2 = 2CO +2q•
the otl10r two being secondary
2CO + O, = 2C02 I- 2q3
C+C0, = 2CO-q•
where q is the thermal effect of a rea-
ction, MJ / mol.
The thermal effect of the first rea-
ction q1 = q~ +q3 , while q4 =
= 0.57q 3 • The latter equation implies
that even when the endothermic rea-
ction takes place, the temperature of
combustion is maintained at a rather
(4.13) high level due to a higher heat evolu-
As follows from an analysis of the-
se reactions, the combustion of car-
bon from the surface takes place with
partial gasification (formation of CO
and its afterburning in the volume).
This process accelerates the burning-off
of coke particles.
(4.14)
4.3. Ki netic and Dilfusion Regions
of Combustion
follows from an analysis of the
A:,
mechanisms of solid and liquid fuel
combustion, tho total rate of combu-
stion is determined not only by the
rate of chemical reaction:; propot·, but
4.3. Kln~ttc. and Dlffuston . R~gtons of :Combustion -- 55
The highest supply of oxygen, to the
surface 1Jl~.l}gh the, boundarY layer
r'· will be observed a(· Cb; . 7= p. Then
.:. ....... r' ('-)
'
"''' ~, .... .... (K~)max = ctc:tC~2
'
:-- \ "' "' "' To simplify the solution, let us
Cr 1\ N "' N 0 yo
----~-11 1 "' "'
,, 7
. "' "'
assume that all the oxygen supplied
by diffusion reacts on the particle sur-
_.--.:::J,f; "' f:.tce. In that case the rate of the reacti-
'I .j '\o '\o
~ i' '\, '" on per unit surface area in terms of
7;:;e;, ,'',, ,''( ·' oxygen consumption will be expres-
sed by formula (4.5) as follows:
1 "t '\. 2 ~3 K~ = kCo 2 ( 4.16)
Fig. 4.7. Diagram of burning of carbon The maximum reaction rate will be
particle at Co2 = CJ'2
1-pat·tlcle surtur:n; 2-boundary !lim; J-turbu·
it'nL !low rc11lor: (K~)max = /cC&2
also by the intensity of oxygenTsup- The pattern of variations of. them~­
plv to the reaction zone by turbulent ximum rates, (K~)mu x and (K,)max• lS
ar(d molecular diffusion. This complex shown in Fig. 4.8. Noting that the oxy-
process can be analysed by \tsing t.he gen consumption in the surface rea-
follo\\·ing model of combust1on (F1g. ction must be equal to the oxygen sup-
4. 7). ply through the boundary film, i.e.
A burning particle is assll:med ~o ~e K Id = K•I = K. equations (4.15) and
J •
surrounded by a boundary ftlm wttl.un (4.16) can be solved together to give:
the boundaries oi which afterburmng
of carbon monoxide takes place; mass (4.17)
transfer is assumed to be due l.o mole-
cular diffusion only. Concentrations The structure of this equation is
of substances and temperature vary · similar to that of a common kinetic
within the film. Beyond that film, equation with the reaction rate con-
in the main flow around a particle, stant k being replaced by the resolved
int ensive turbulent mass transfer oc- coefficient lcr with due consideration
cms . Therefore, the main flow is co~­ given to the reactivity of the fuel and
the conditions of oxidant supply to
h as no gradients of temperatures ~d the reacting surface.
concentrations. It may be assumed m Temperature has only a weak effect
tho final result that the oxygen CO?- on mass transfer by diffusion (ctdc-:>
c entration in the bulk of the mam c-:>T0. 5), but determines to an _appre-
flow, CJ'2 , is equal t~ the oxygen cor ciable extent the rate of react10n on
centration at the h im surface,! Co,· the surface (kc-:> e- EIRT). The nature
The quantity of oxygen that passes of variation of tho maximum rates of
by diffusion per unit surface area of oxygen diffusion to the surface and
particles is determined by Fick's law: oxygen absorption by t.ha~ surfa~e
(Fig . 4.8) suggests two pnncipal .regi-
K~ = ctti:(C~, -Co,) (4.15) ons of combustion of coke particles.
where a.d = D/o is the mass-transfer At relatively low temperatures (less
coefficient which characterizes the ra- t:ban 1 000°C for coke particles), tho
te of mass transfer of the substance surface reaction proceeds rather slowly
through the layer of thickness o, and oxygen consumption is only a
rn/s, and D is the coeffici ent of mole- small fraction of the quantity of oxy-
gen that can be supplied t.o the sur-
cular diffusion, m 2/s.
 56
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Ch. 4. Theoretical Principles of Comba1tlon 4.4. 1gnltlon of Fuel-<~lr Mlzture. Combartlon Front
57

k, cot to co takes place at the incandes- Fig. 4.9. Structure of free turbulent
jet development
cent coke surface, while the diffusing 8 9
oxygen is completely consumed in t11& . J -cnd portion of nozzl e (burn'er); 2-Jet 1
core; J- boundary layer; 1- tcmperature
boundary film by gaseous CO where dlstrl butlon In tile Jet; 5- dlstrlbutlon or
conccntrallons or combustible matler in tbc
this is oxidized to carbon dioxide )ct; G-veloclty dlag•am nt burner outlet;
co!. 7-velocity diagrams In the main region;
8-)et sprea d angle; 9- lntemal angle
T In this zone, the rate of combusti-
Co' I on increases with the increasing rate
1-~--~ ----,- - -COz~ of gas flow around particles and with
the decreasing size of solid particles.
I I T At intermediate temperatures
6
Initial sectiufl Main section
I li DI (1 000°-1 400°C), the rate of reaction ·'
at the surface becomes commensurable
with the rate of oxygen supply, and transient section and the distance from
Fig. 4.8. Regions of constant-size particle city w0 , temperature T 0 , and fuel con-
burning and variations of oxygen concentra- the total r ate of the reaction is deter- centration C 0 • At the interface bet- it to the burner end is called the
tion at i ts surface mined by both processes. This is cal- initial section of jet , S 0 • Downstream
1-1 II-respecllvely kinetic, transition and dlrtu- led the transition zone of combustion. ween the jet and environment , tran-
s lon reclon or burning sverse components of pulsation velo- of the transient section, the boundary
Its position in the temperature scale layer extends across the whole jet,
depends on the size of coke particles. city cause the penetration of the jet
face, i.e. k« ctd. In that case k, ~ /c With smaller particles, the transition mass into the surrounding volume. so that the parameters at the jet axis
begin to vary with distance from the
and C/]2 ~ C<S2 • Then zone appears at a higher temperature. I n the mixing zone, which is called
the boundary layer of a jet, the intera- transient section (jet velocity decrea-
K, = kCb 2 (4.18) The ignition of any fuel begins at ses and its temperature increases).
relatively low temperatures und er con- ction of the masses ob'eys the law of
conservation of mo~1on: The length of the initial section of the
i.e. the total r ate of reaction is limited ditions of ample oxygen supply, that
by the kinetics of the chemical rea- is, essentially in the kinetic zone. As jot is found as :
cting on the surface. This temperature the temperature rises, the oxygen con-
M 0 w0 +M 1 w1 = (M0 +M 1 )wm
(4.22)
(4.20)
region of reactions is called the kinetic sumption in tho reaction zone rapidly
combustion zone. In this zone, the increases and the process passes through where M0 and M 1 are the interacting where r 0 is the initial radius of a ro-
combustion process is independent of the transition zone into tho diffu- masses of the jet and environment and und jet or 1/2 of the equivalent dia-
the conditions of oxygen supply. sion zone. The end of combustion is w0 and w 1 are their velocities; under meter of a jet with a rectangular cross
At high tern peratures (above 1400°C), usually well in the diffusion zone where the conditions considered, w1 = 0. section, and a is the experimental coe-
the rate constant of the reaction on the residual concentrations of the In view of this , the average velo- fficient of the jet structure, which ac-
the surface increases rapidly and, at a oxidant turn out to be rather low, sub- city of translatory motion of the rn•x- counts for its initial turbulence and
certain moment, exceeds the maximum stantially retarding the burning-off ture, wm , may be found as the non-uniformity of the init ial ve-
rate of oxygen supply to the surface, of the remaining fuel [291. locity field.
which varies only slightly with tempe- (4.21) In a turbulent flow with Reynolds
rature. Then, k » ad and the total 4.4. T he Ignition of Fuel-air Mixture. number Re > 2 X 10\ the coeffici-
reaction rate is determined by the On approaching the external boun- ant a = 0.07-0.08, whence the length
Combustion Front dary of the jet, the proportion of the of initial section is S 0 = (4.2-5) dc,Jt
rate of oxygen supply:
In power engineering, chamber fur- mass entrained in motion, M 1 , incre- where d eq is the equivalent diameter
(4.19)
naces are the main type of furnace ases, and the velocity of the mixture of a jet. In the transient sect ion, the
In this zone, the reaction rate va- used for high-capacity steam boilers. Wm decreases. half-width, depending on the external
ries slowly, notwithstanding the in- The fuel-air mixture from a burner en- Owing to the turbulent m ass trans- angle of jet expansion , will be
creasing temperature. The oxygen sup- ters the furnace in the form of straight
plied to the surface by diffusion re- or swirled jets whose develop-
fer, the boundary layer gradually wi-
dens to the inside as well as to the out-
r 1, = r 0 +
S 0 tan ~Xex (4.23)
acts instantaneously and its concentra- ment in the furnace space determines side, so that its potential core, which thus, it exceeds roughly 3 times the
tion at the surface becomes virtually the conditions of ignition and combu- retains the initial parameters w 0 , initial jet radius.
equal to zero. The reaction might pro- stion intensity. T0 , C0 (undisturb ed portion of the The supplied fuel is heated to the
ceed at an appreciably higher rate, Let us fi rst consider the mechanism jet) , gradually diminishes. The exter- ignition temperature by two heat so-
but is retarded by an insuHicient sup- of development of a straight jet which nal angle of jet expansion is equ al to urces: by the radiant heat flux from
ply of oxygen. This temperature region flows into the furnace space filled 12-14°, while the in ternal angle of the flame core and , more important,
is called the diffusion combustion zone. with furn ace gases (Fig. 4.9). T he jet expansion of the boundary layer is by convective heating due to the in-
With oxygen deficiency at the surface, flows ITom the burner embras ure with around 6°. The section in which the termixing of the jet mass with hot
the reaction of the reduction of the initial parameters as follows: velo- potential core disappears is called the furnace gases.
58
·Ch. 4. Theoretical Principles of. Combrut.t on
(a)
Fig. 4. 10. Structure of swirled annular jet at burner outlet
(a) l!eneral view; (b) axial velocity distribution; So-length of initial
In view of this, burners should be
designed so as to intensify as much as
possible the entrainment of hot fur-
nace gases into the fresh jet in the ini-
tial section, thus accelerating fuel
ignition. An example of such a burner
is the vortex burner with an annular
swirled jet (Fig. 4.10). Swirling of the
jet is determined by the vorticity para-
meter n = 2-5, which is found as the
ratio
4M
n= KD ·
where M is the angular momentum re-
lative to the jet axis, K is the proje-
~tion of the angular momentum ve-
~tor onto the jet axis, and D is the cha-
racteristic size of the jot; for round
(continuous or coaxial) jets, the cha-
racteristic size is their equivalent dia-
meter deq·
The vorticity parameter can be ap-
proximately found from the formula:
where w 1 is the maximum tangential
~omponent of the flow velocity at the
burner exit, and Wa is the axial velo-
dty component (3, 57].
An increase of the n parameter re-
sults in greater turbulization of the
jet, more intensive entrainment of the
:surrounding gases into i t, and a wider
.expansion angle.
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(b)
region; srec - length or gas
recirculation region
A turbulized jet has a zone of redu-
ced pressure in its core near the axis
into which high-temperature gases
may tend to move, meaning that recir-
culation of gases to the jet root may
take place. The length of the recircula-
tion zone depends on the vorticity pa-
rameter: S rec = 1.4nr0 • Thus, a swir-
led annular jet differs from a straight-
flow jet mainly in higher turbulence
and in the appearance of an internal
zone for entrainment of hot gases into
(4.24) the jet, whereas a straight jet has only
an external zone of intermixing. For
these reasons, a turbulized jet heats
up more quickly.
For the ignition of a hot mixture,
two conditions are essential: the tem-
perature of the combustible mixture
must be not less than the ignition tem-
perature and the concentration of the
combustible substance must exceed
the lower inflammability limit.
At the external boundary of a jeL
(4.25) where the temperature tm is the high-
est, the concentration of the combu-
stible substance is insufficient for ig-
nition. On the other hand, in the core
of the jet, the temperature is too low
for ignition. Therefore, combustion
can start only in a rather narrow jet
band near the periphery where both
conditions are fuHilled.
The combustion front is characteri-
zed by au elevated turbulizatioo due
4.5. Burn-of/ Inte.nslty of Fuel 59
to a sharp increase in the volume of
gases. The combustion front will be 1.0
t •c
stable if fresh portions of fuel and air 0.8
1600
are continuously supplied to it. Com-
0.8 (400
bustion always takes place at a certain
distance from the burner end, since Q.l,
~-.J(20Q
the jet just near the burner does not 0.2
l/ln _
possess the required temperature. The
combustion front is established in a ~ 0 0. z 0.4 0.0 D.ll f.(!
place where the translatory velocity Fig. 4.12. Fuel burn-or£ and gas temperature
of the flow turns out to be equal to variations along the flame height
the velocity of propagation of, a turbu- 1 - anthracilc burn-orr characteristic; 2- luel-oil
burn-orr characte •·is tic; 3- gas temperature on
lent flame. · · anthracite combustion; 4 -~as . temperature on
rucl-oil combustaon
4.5. The Burn-off Intensity of Fuel
in the diffusion region and proceeds
The initial stage of fuel burning ta- slowly.
kes place at a high concentration of the The degree of fuel burn-off in a fur-
combustible substance and oxidan t nace space is usually related to the
and an elevated turbulence of the flow resolved flame length lfl, which i::; un-
which is formed by the burner. The derstood as the horizontal distanc!}
zone of the furnace within which in- from the burner end to the furnace axis
tensive combustion of fuel takes place plus the vertical distance from the bur-
to a burn-off degree 'lilt = 0.85-0.9 ner level to the level of the horizontal
is called the flame core zone. It can be gas duct plus the horizontal distance
characterized by a high temperature to the furnace outlet (see Fig. 4.11 ).
and substantial thermal radial.ion onto Figure 4.12 shows curves of fuel burn-
the surrounding water walls (Fig. off and temperatures in a furnace
4.11). The size of the flame core zone which depend on the relative flame
may constitute 1 / 3 to 1/ 5 of the furnace length in combustion of solid fuels
space volume. The remaining por- and fuel oil obtained by the results of
tion of the furnace volume is what is tests of high-capacity steam boilers.
called the zone of fuel afterburning As follows from the figure, the burning
and gas cooling . It is characterized by of a solid fuel is essentially completed
a low residual concentration of fuel at the relative flame length l/lfl =
and oxidant and a weak gas flow tur- = 0.35 and that of fuel oil at llln =
bulence, because of which fuel after- = 0.25. In the latter case, the flame
burning (burn-off) takes place deep core disappears in the initial horizon-
tal portion of the resolved flame length.
Pulverized coal is characterized by
polydisperse particle size distributi-
on. Its burning begins from the finest
fractions which are heated up to the
ignition point in a few hundredths of
a second. As the fine particles burn,
they accelerate the heating of the lar-
ger particles; but these begin burning
when the major portion o£ oxygen has
already been consumed. For this rea-
son combustion of larger particles ta-
Fig. 4.11. Zones of fuel burning in furna ce kes place mainly in the diffusion re-
space g ion and they are mainly responsible
1-Ciamc co re tone; R- zone or fuel attcl'burning for the loss of fuel as unburned carbon
and ~a s coollng ; J- resolved flame length; h 11 , -
br ight Of hOrizontal g as d uc t
in waste gases.
60
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Ch. 5. Combustion Products
COMBUSTION PRODUCTS
5.1. The Composition mes of individual gas components in
of Combustion Products combustion products, m3 /kg or m3fm3*.
Combustion products of a fu el can
A knowledge of the composiLion of be convenienLly divided int.o throe
a fuel and of Lhe reactions by which its groups. Group 1 in formula (5 .1) in-
combustible components are oxidized cludes the products of complete com-
makes it possible to calculate the vo- bustion of fu el elem ents, i.e. dry tria-
lume of combustion products obtained. tomic gases usually denoted as l'Ro,:
ln boiler plant operation, combustion
products are analysed continuously or l'Roz = l'co2 + Vso, (5.2),
periodically in order to control the
completeness of fuel combustion and and water vapours Vu,o. In th e com-
the density of gases in tho wnste gas position of dry triatomic gases, V co.
path. is always much greater than llso ,
In thermal calculations of boiler since fuel s common ly have a low suf-
pl ants, the composition and tempera- phur content. Gro up 2 con tains lh &
ture of flu e gases are used to del ermine volumes of nitrogen and oxygen which
the enthalpy downs tream of each represent the residual dry ai r left
heating s urf ace. [ t is also essential upon fuel combustion and water vapo-
to kno w tho volume of gases for cer- urs. In this group, l'N, is much lar-
tain aerodynamic calculations. ger than Vo,, since oxygen has been
Combustion reactions at high tem- consumed in a large amount for oxida-
peratures proceed at a high rate. The- tion. The volume of water v apours in-
refore, the composi tion of the final cludes the evaporated moisture of the
combustion products is close to the fuel and the moisture conten t of th&
equilibrium value. In zones where air proper. Group 3 denotes tho pro-
oxygen bas been deficient, products of ducts of incomplete combustion of fu-
incomplete oxidation of the original el elements ; in this group, Vco >
> TTH, > VcH,· The r atio of volu-
combustible components may remain
in fuel gases. The composition of com- mes Vco:l'H , is 3:1 on the average.
bustion products formed on the com- The presence of l'cN, in the products
bustion of 1 kg of solid or liquid fuel of incomplete combustion is indicative
or 1 m3 of gaseous fu el can be written of strong deviations from the s pe-
in the following forrn: cified conditions of combustion.
Fuel (1 kg) + air~ Let us analyse complete fuel combu-
-~ V co2 + V'so~ + V H 20
stion, assuming the combust.ion pro-
' - - --....- - --' ducts have Vco = 0, l'H, = 0, l'cH = 0
I and no r esidual oxygen, i.e. V 0 ~ 0
+ VN~ + Voz + V w 11 The quantity of air required f~ r th~
2 complete ~o.m IJustion or 1 kg (1 m3) of
fuel to ut1ltze lhc oxygen of the air
-1- V CO -1- V Hz -1- V CH . 1 ( 5. 1)
3 • The concentrations of CO, and 50s ia
• In furthe~ di scussion, only uuit volum-
where l'co,, l'so,, etc. are th e volu- es and enthalp1es per kg fu el will be used.
5.1. The Compotltlon of Combustion Products 6f
without residue is called the theoreti- the furnace (1-2 s) is not sufficient
cally required air volume ,V0 • In that for the thorough intermixing of fuel
case, according to formula (5.1), the and air in ~he large volume of the
theoretical volume o( combustion furnace. For this reason, the actual
products is volume of air that can ensure complete
fuel combus tion is always somewhat
v~ = vcas+ l'so. + v~.o + lft.!. (5.3) greater than the theoretical value. The
We must distinguish between tho ratio of these volumes is called the
excess air coefficient (ratio) m combu-
theoretical volume of dry gases:
stion products:
V~g = V COs -1- l'S0 2 + 11¥-. 2 = l' ROt -1- n., a. = TTa/1' 0 (5.6)
(5.4)
and the total volume of gases: The required excess air ratio of a
~ = v~, + v~.o (5.5) furnace, a.1, depends on the kind of
fuol, method of combustion, and fur-
In this case, the volume v~L,O in- nace des ign. High-reactive solid fuels
cludes all the water-vapour components with a high yield of volatiles. are igni-
in combustion products which have ted more easily and burn off more
been considered earlier, while the quickly, and therefore, require a lo-
volume v~. is formed mainly from wer excess air ratio than those having
the nitrogen of the air, with a slight a low yield of volatiles. In gas-air
addition of t he nitrogen of the fuel mixtures, fuel can be intermixed effe-
which evolves from the latter whe n cti vol y with air, for which reason fuel
heated together with other volatile oils and gaseous fuels require a still
components. lower air excess. The same grade of
The volume of dry triatomic gases (uel may require different excess air
l' RO· in formulae (5.2) and (5.4) is ratios when burned in various furnaces
the ·same and does not depend on (say, in a straight-jet and vortex fur-
whether the theoretical air volume naco) which difier in effectiveness of
V 0 or a greater quantity Va is supplied fuel-air intermixing.
for burning*, while the volumes of The rated excess air ratio a.1 can be
other components of combus tion pro- found according to the Norms of ther-
ducts will change. In this case, the mal calculation of steam boilers by
volumes corresponding to the theoreti- considering all the factors involved
cal conditions of combustion are m ar- [201. For the various kinds of fuel, it
ked by the superscript ·o·. can us ually be taken within the follo-
When the combustion of fuel is wing limits:
complete and there is any excess
. • . . • i.15-i.25
quantity of air in the combustion zono, Solid fuels
Liquid fuels . . . . . 1.03-i.i
•
i.e. with l'a > lfO, there forms the Gaseous fuels . 1.05-U
same theoretical volume of gases v~.
However, the actual gain in tho volu- A decrease in the excess air ratio
me of combustion products is deter- may save energy for driving blowers
mined solely by the excess quantity and increase tlte boiler efficiency, but
of air 6.l'a = l'" - l'0 and by Lhe its reduction below the rated value
water vapours contained in it, 6.V"II,O· a.1 may result in a sharp rise in heat
Under real conditions, fuel cannot loss with unburned carbon and a lo-
b e burned completely at Lhe theoreti- wer boiler efficiency.
cally sufEicient air volume 1'0 s ince In steam boilers with supercharged
the short time the gases are present in [urrtaces , the excess air ratio at the
exit from the furnace, a.1 , is equal to
i ts value in the burner, a. 11 , and re-
atmospheric air are insignificant and disreg- mains unchanged along the whole gas
arded in calculations. path, since all gas ducts in this case
 ·62
·· · Ch. 5. Combustion Products
Superhealtor
1
't10C d
furnace
.d~r
Fig. 5.1. Inleakage of cold air into boiler
operate under an excess pressure and
are made gas-tight (except for the re-
generative air heater).
In · steam boilers operating at a ne-
gative pressure (which is formed by
induced-draft fans), cold air from the
surroundings can leak into the gas
path through untight joints .b~twe~n
various elements {cracks and JOints m
the lining, places where the tube~ pass
through the lining, 'etc.). For th1s rea-
son the volume of combustion pro-
duc'ts increases, thus increasing t.he
excess air r atio, while the temperature
of gases decreases (Fig. 5.1). Inlea-
kage can be found as a fraction of the
theoretically required air volume:
where D. V 1 is the volume of sucked.-in
air within a particular i-th heatmg
surface of tho boiler.
In such a case, the air inl eakage
downstream of the i-th heating sur-
fa ce afler the furnac.e will be found as:
Air inloakage may also take place
in the furnace proper {D.a:,). Noting
this, the excess air ratio in the com-
bustion zone will be:
O:com = a:, - /).a;/
The volume of waste gases downstream
of the last heating surfacP. of the
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boiler can be found using the for-
mul a:
Ywg = ~ + (a:w&- 1) yo (5.10}
As may bo seen, it consists of the
volume of products of complete com-
bustion V~ and the total excess air
t::,. V whose amount increases on t.he
patlt of motion of waste gases in Ilue
ducts. In turn, the total amoun l of
excess air can be divided into two
components:
!lV x = (~com -1) yo+ ~ D.ciiYo
e {5.11)
where ~com = O:com is the excess air ra-
tio at the burner exit.
The first term in formula (5.11) lS
. I I
the excess air that is deliberately
added to ensure complete combustion
of fu el, and the second term repre-
sents harmful air inleakage.
The volume of air for complete com-
bustion of solid nnd liquid fuel s is
determined by writing down the re-
actions involved in the combustion of
fuel clements [20, 37). In the combu-
stion of carbon and sulphur, the volu-
mes of C0 2 and 80 2 which form
Vco and V50 , turn out t o be equal
to the volum~ of oxygen consumed in
combustion: YRo~ = Vo, an ~, since
the volume of nitrogen remams pra-
ctically unchanged , V,Jg = vo.
When the h ydrogen of fu el is burn-
(5.7)
ing, the volume of water vapours
formed is twice tl•e volume of t~e
oxygen consumed. Thus, the theoreti-
cal volume of gases, V3, of a fuel
con laining hydrogen is alw.nys gt:eater
than the theoretically reqmred a1r vo-
lume V 0 , even when ' dry' fuel devoid
of adventitious moisture is burned.
For gaseous fuels, the consumption
of oxygen for combustion is calculated
for each of the gas components sep~­
rately, noting the percent age of the1r
concentration in the gaseous fuel.
The total volume of air and flue
gases is found as the product of the
( 5·9) volume calculated for 1 kg (m 3 ) of the
fuel by the total consumption of fuel.
In addition, the method of resolved
thermal characteristics can be used for
5.1. The Compo1ttlon of Combustion Products 63
Fig. · -·£•
~ .., 1·, A-diagram
v o[ air and com-
bustion products kJ/kg I
(a) In operation ni reduced pressure; (b) with
su rcbarge· .IIH-air heater; Ec- econo·
mfzcr: · R FI- rebeat.cr; SH-supcrbealcr;
F-lumnce
r, at cCr!r
I I (a) I
kJ/kg I I I r
I 1/g at cCco 117 •c!nstanf
I i
). at Jah
0 AH [c RH SH r
(b)
the purpose, in which case the c~lcu­ perature {}, oc, is:
lated values are related to the umt of
heat liberated by the fuel {1 000 k1 1~:= (VnozCRot + v~ ~CNz + Vif:oCHtO
or 1 MJ). The development and appli- A1D 2
cation of this method is largely due to + aa•l• 100 Ca•h) {} (5.1 ~
the work of Prof. S. Ya. Kornitsky,
where cno , cN,, ca,o are the mean
M. B. Ravich, and Ya. L. Peeker [45).
specific volume heats of flue gas com-
The method is based on the Welter-
Berebier rule which states that the ponents in the temperature. ~ange 0-(},
quantity of heat l!ber.ated on com- kJ/(ms. K), ca.1• is the specific beat ?f
bustion of dry fuel 1s directly propor- ash particles, kJ /(kg· K), and a~h 15
the relatively quantity of ash particles
tional .to tho quantity of consumed
carried off by flue gases.
oxygen, i.e. Q" =a' V 0 , . Thus. with a
fuel of the known heating value and The last term in equation (5.12),
which characterizes the en thai py of
moisture content, it is possible to d~­
termine the theoretical volume of au ash particles carried off by flue ga~es,
is considered only for the combustiOn
for combustion and the volume of
combustion products. of high-ash fuels.
The enthalpy of gases at an excess
Tho enthalpy of combustion pro-
ducts is found for the volume of gases of air a: > 1 can be found by the
equation:
obtained on combustion of 1 kg or
1m3 of fuel. I t is denoted as I, kJ/kg +
or kJ/m 3 • Since the specific heats of
I 8 =I~ + Ma = I~ (a: - 1) Ig
various gases are different, enthal pies (5.13)
are calculated separately for each
component of flue gases. For i~stance,
wl~ere J O is tho enthalpy of the theo-
retical .:olume of air:
the on thai py of the theoretical vo-
lume of combustion products at a tom- JOa = VOca{) (5 .14)
64
Ch. 5. Com brutlon Produ.ctl
where c 4 is the volume specific heat
capacity of air, kJ/(m 3 ·K).
Calculated enthalpies of gases at va-
rious temperatures can be plotted as
an I, {}-diagram, which is convenient
for practical use (Fig. 5.2).
5.2. Determination of E xcess A ir R atio
for an Operating Boiler
The excess air ratio in the gas path
of a boiler plant should be continuous-
ly controlled in order to provide the
optimal conditions for fuel combu-
stion and to minimize air inleakage.
Two such methods of control are cur-
rently in use at power stations. The
most popular method is to directly
measure the residual oxygen in the
Uuo gas flow by means of oxygen me-
ters . This method is based on using
the magnetic properties of oxygen mo-
lecules, a property that is not posses-
sed by other components in a multi- ·
component gas mixture.
The percentage of oxygen can be
recalculated into the excess air ratio
in the following manner. Neglecting
the slight increase in the volume of
combustion products due to the libe-
ration of nitrogen from the fuel, it
may be taken that t he v olume of dry
gases is V dg = V 0 • The residual oxy-
gen in combustion. products can be
expressed as a fraction (per cen t) of
t he volume of dry gases:
0 - 21 (a. - 1) vo
z- Vdg
As h as been stated earlier,
= ex V 0 , and therefore:
0 2 = 21 (a.-i)
a.
and the excess air r atio is:
21
ex = ...,2""1---0""2-
where 0 2 is the concentration o( oxygen
in combustion products, %, as measu-
red by an oxygen meter.
This formula h olds true when fuel
combustion is complete and air hu-
midity can be neglected. The necessa-
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ry corrections should be introduced if
the flue gases contain products of in-
complete combustion (CO, H 2 ).
Another popular method for deter-
mining the excess air in combustion
products is based on finding the per-
centage of dry triatomic gases R 0 2 =
= C0 2 + S0 2 in comb ustion pro-
ducts:
v Natural gas
R02 = vnos 100
dg
With complete fuel combustion in
the stoichiometric ratio (ex = 1) and
provided that tho content of hydrogen
and oxygen in fuel correspond to the
equality Hw = ow/8, all the hydrogen
in the fuel is considered to be oxidi-
zed by tho oxygen of the fuel , and
therefore
v 110 2
RO~- = ,,,
dg
100 = 21 %
In all solid and liquid fuels, howe-
ver, Hw > o w/8. The residual hydro-
gen LlH10 = Hw - 0'0 /8 will then be
oxidized by atmospheric oxygen and
form water vapours. The remaining vo-
lume of nitrogen, llVN,. enters the
composition of dry gases, and the ma-
ximum concentration of dry tr iatomic
gases will be less than 21%:
Rozmnx -- V' VHOz
+O.VNz
dR
v on of this method for de termin ing ex
x 100 = ~o. 100
vdg
(5.15) and will depend on the differenc.e bet-
ween Hw and 0'0 /8.
Vdg = The difference in the concen trations
of hydrogen and oxygen can be expres-
sed in terms of tho fuel coefficient ~­
(5. 16) For solid and liquid fue ls~ ~ is found
by the formula:
~ =2.37 HID-QID/8
~C"'+O. 375S::'+P
(5.17)
where S::' +P is the sum of organic and
pyrite sulphur in the working mass of
fuel.
Using the fuel coefficient ~, R o~u
can be written as follows:
21.
RO~nx = t +fi
Gaseous fuels contain no oxygen,
but their hydrogen conten t is sub-
stantially higher, and therefore, R o~u
turns out to be much lower than that
of solid and liquid fuels.
The RO~ax values of various fuels
are within tho follow ing limil.s :
Solid fuels
Fuel oil . . . . .
• • • • • 0
(5.18)
With ex > 1, the volume of dry ga-
ses will be:
vdg = v~ 11
and the volume or tri atomic gases is
Vno
R02 = v•dlf +;V 100
i.e. smaller than HO~mx. Since Vno 2
remains unchanged, we have:
n.o~nx lf~c +Ill'a
H02 V~g =vo = ex
The accuracy of the excess air ratio
ex determined by this method depends
on how accurately we k now the
R o~ax of the fuel (since tho compo-
sition of fuel deli vorcd to a power sta-
tion is not always perfectly constant)
and how accurately tho fluo gases ha-
ve been sampled and anal ysed for
R0 2 •
Certain difficul ties in the ap plicati-
(5 .19) arise in the combustion of fuels con-
taining carbonates in their mineral por-
tion as .they dissociate thermally with
the evolution or an additional, often
variable, volume or C0 2 •
5.3. Toxic Substances in W astc Gases
and Measures of E nvironmental
Control
(5.20) Thermal power s tations consume
around 40% of the Lot~ al fuel produced
in the world and thus ca n substanti-
ally iniluence the environment by
ejecting heat and cel'tain harmful pol-
Lutants into the atmosphere and wa-
ter basins. This necessitates system-
atically protecting tho environment
(5.21) from the harmful effluents of indu-
5 - 0 1 52 4
5.9. Tozlc Sub.tances In W ad e Ga1e1 65
strial plan ts for the sake of both the
present generation and those of the
future.
Certain components in the gaseous
erfluents from power stations arc safe
for man; these include water va pours,
carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitro-
. • 18-20% gen. Other ingredients are h armful to
. 1.6-17% v arying degrees.
• •
11-13% Thermal power stations and l argo
boil er houses pollute the atmosphere
by ejecting nitrogen oxides (NO"' =
=NO + N0 2 ), sulphur oxides (SOt+
+ ll V 0 + S03 ), solid ash par ticles, and
vanadium pontoxide V 2 0 5 • Moreover,
if combustion is incomplete, flue ga-
ses may contain carbon monoxide CO ,
hydrocarbons, such as CH 4 or C2 H, ,
(I
benzpyrene C20H 12 , and soot. The
length of: Lime the h armful gaseous
substances may exis t in the environ-
v,. ment ranges from a few hours to a few
(5.22) days. Many are gradually destroyed or
transformed into harmless substances
under the effect of solar radiation and
atmospheric oxygen . Air-borne solid
particles (soot, vanadium pentoxide,
benzpyrene) may settle and accumu-
late on the earth's surface and be in-
volved into the circulation of the
lower atmospheric layers.
By their effect on the h uman orga-
nism, harmful substances are divided
into a number of cl asses. Vanadium
p entoxido and benzpyrene relate to
extremely dangerous substances. The
former appears in minor quantities on
the combustion of fuel oils. Benzpy-
rene may appear in waste gases on
the combustion of any fuel with oxy-
gen deficiency and is also formed on
the slow decomposition of soot. Nitro-
gen dioxide N0 2 and sulphuric an-
hydride belong to the class of highly
dangerous substances. Nitrogen oxides
NO, mainly fo nn in the high-tempe-
rature zones of the flame. T he y ield
of N0 2 constitutes around 10% or the
total yield of NOx. Sulphur of fuel
mainly burns off to form sulphurous
anhydride S0 2 which, like NO, is
placed in the third class of harmful
substances by their effect on man (mo-
derately harmful substances). Sulphu-
66
Ch. 5. Co mbu• llon Product.
ric anhydride 5 0 3 may form in fur-
naces from S0 2 at the fin al stage of
fl ame burning when t here is an excess
of atom ic oxygen or by cat al ysis on
the high-t emperature depos its of steam
s uperheat ers. Its y ield is 2-5% the
vield
. -
of SO •. In t.he zone of l ow-tern-
p erature heat ing s urfaces, is
transformed int o s ulphuric acid vapo-
urs and is partially spen t in t he pro-
cess of low- temperature corrosion (see
Ch . 16).
The risk f rom the effect of a p arti-
cul ar substance on a living organism is
det er mi ned as the ratio of the actual
concentration of the s ubs tance C,
mg/m 3 to the highest perm issible con-
centr ation (HPC), mg/m 9 , in air a t the
breathi ng l ev el:
k 1 = C 1/HPC 1
T h is ra tio is called the tox ic ra te of
an i- th s ubstance. Tl should always be
less than uni ty.
1I air contains a number of harmful
subs tances with a s imilar biological
effect on th e living organism, its to xi-
city is enhanced. T herefore, the pre-
sence of such substances in air is inad-
missible even in concentrat ions n ear
tho HPC l evel. In such a case, the t o-
xic h azard is es timated by adding t o-
gether th e toxic rates of the individual
substances. For waste gases, the addi-
tivi ty principle is appli ed t o N0 2 , N O,
S0 2 , 5 0 3 , and CO. No t ing this , the
addi tivi ty formula of toxic effluents is
as follows :
c l'\ Os + CN o + Cso.
II PCNo" HPCNo HPCso 2
Csos Ceo
+ HPCso + HPCco ~ 1
3 s ulphur compounds can be extracted
I n many cases , benzpyrene is inclu-
ded i nto this formula. For solid (par-
ticulate) effluents, the addi ti vity for-
m ula is :
Co + HPC.
c. + Cv~os ~1
HPC 0 HPCv,o5 """"'
where t he subscr ipts 'a' and 's' stand
for 'ash' and 'soot' .
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The highest p erm issi bl e concen t.ra-
tions of selected hnrm ful s ubs ta nces
are g iven i n T able 5. 1.
Table 5. 1. H ij!hcsl Perrnissiltle
Concentrations of Selec ted ll armful
Subs tances in ,\ ir, mg/m3
so3 In inhabi ted a r ras:
..
Suhs tnnce -
E
~
...
0 was te gases de pends heav il y on com ·· ction a t. thermal power s ta tio ns is most
Nitrogen dioxide NO: 0 .085
Nitrogen oxide NO 0.25
Sulphuri c anhyd· so3 0.30
rid e
Sulphurous nnhyd- so~ 0.50
r ide
Carbon monoxide co 3.0
Benzpyrene C,o Ht:
Vanad ium pen to- Y:O~
(5.23) xide
Soot (gr it) 0 .15
Dust (ash pa rt icles) 0.50
P ower s t ations account for roughly
3/4 of tho total s ui phur oxides ejected
i nto the atmosph ere. I n vi ew o[ the
increasing indus tr ial utilization of
h igh-sulphur fuel oils and solid f uels.
reducing the total discharge of s ul-
phur oxides in the atmosphere is an
urgent concern. Si nce the volume con-
centration of sulphur oxid es in waste
gases is rather l ow (around 0 .2%) and
th e vol umes of was te gases are enor-
mous, purification of gases from so~
is difficul t to accomplish . I t seems
m ore reasonabl e t o purify petro leum
fro m s ul phur at petrole um processing·
plants or to s ubject fuel oil and h igh-
sulphur solid f uels before combus tion
to a deep thermal processing which
can produce gaseous fuel and v al uable
liquid prod ucts. In s uch processes,
(5.24)
and collected much m ore easily. Such
methods of fuel processing are being
used on an ev er i ncreasi ng scale.
T he extraction of NO"' from waste
g ases involves even 1arger eng ineering
(5 25) d ifficul t ies than th at of S0 2 • This is
• due to a lower concentration of NO"
in gases (which is only 1/2 to 1/5 of
t h at of S0 2 ) and the lower chemical
ac ti Yily of the N O whi ch is present i n
6.1. Heat B ala nce and Efficiency of Sleam B oiler 67
the gases in u much I arger concan tra- ase in the future due to t.lte increasing
tion than N0 2 • Around 40% of the power of s t ations and the increMing
total quantit y of nitrogen oxides ej e- usc of sol id fuels. l n this res pect, the
.cted into the atmosphere is from power problem of how dee pl y to purify flue
stations [471. g ases from ash pari icles is growing in
l n contr as t to gaseous so2 whoso magnilud e. Fly u.sh formed by the
presence in was te gases is uncontrol- comb ustion of solid fuels conLoios a
lable and de pe nds only on tbe concen- number c f harmf ul components, s uch
tra tion of s ul phur in the fu el, tho ::s fh 10:·ide and arsen ic compounds and
concentration of n itrogen oxides in t ile ox tdes Si0 2 and CaO. Ash colle-
bus tion org anization in th.e furna ce. oft en carded out in electros tatic pre-
0.085 N itrogen oxides are mainl y produced ci pitators. For many fu els wi th an ele-
0.25 from the at mos pheric oxygen a nd vated content of ash, t he degree of
0 .10 nitrogen in the high-tempera ture com- ash col lectio n must be no less than
bus t ion zone (at temper atures a bove 99% .
0.05
1 600°C} and by the oxid a tion of th e For the presen t , until efficient indu-
1.0 nitrogen of fuel (this reaction can strial pl ants cap ab le of removi ng harm-
t x to-e: occur at temperatures below 1 600°C}. ful impurities from fuel or from waste
0.002 T hus , the main means of r educing the gases are developed, one method of
format ion of NOx in fu rnaces are to decreasing the concen tr ati on of toxic
0.05
0. 15 reduce the t em peratu re i n t.he com- substa nces in th o l ower atmosph ere is
bus tion zone ('I ow-tern pern t.u re ' com- to bu il d tall s tacks up to 320 m high
bustion) and li mit the quantity of which can s pr ead flue gases to l arge
excess air. It s hould b e noted , howe- distances. With high er stacks. the
ver, that with improper operation of concentratio n of harmful impurities in
the furnace or burners , these m eas ures the at mos phere at th e earth's s urface
m ay resul t in the a ppearance of other decreases in inverse proportion to the
equally harmful subs tances (such as square of the stacks ' h eight ratio.
soot or benzpyrene). Tall s tacks are n ot, however , a radi -
Around 20% of the tota l contami- cal l y effeclive means of pr ot ecting the
nation of the atmosphere with solid environment from in dus trial effluent;
dust p articles falls on ash discharge by they si mply dim i nis h the local con -
power stations. Th e discharge of solid central ions of harmful s ubs t ances in
fractions by power stations may incre- t he lower atmos phere.
EFFICIENCY OF F UEL HEAT UTILIZATION
6. t. The H eat Balan ce and E fficiency
(1) complete combustion of the fu el
or the Steam Boiler i n the boiler furnace;
(2) deep cooling of t h e combustion
p-roducts during their p assage through
T he effi cient u tiliz ation of fuel in the l1 eating surfaces ; and
s t earn bo ilers is primaril y determined (3) minimization of heat losses to
by the foll owing three facto rs : the env ironmen t .
68
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Ch. 6. Efficiency of Fuel Heat Utilization
The extent to which the heat of the
fuel is transferred in the boiler to the
working fluid is determined by the
boiler's gross efficiency. This is defi-
ned as the quant ity of heat absorbed
by\the working fluid Q1 , kJ/kg of so-
lid or liquid fuel or kJ /kg of gaseous
fuel, related to the available heat of
the working mass of fuel, Q::'v. kJ/kg:
l]b= g~ao 100 (6 .1 )
The available heat of burned fuel is
dt' t.erroi ned by the general formula:
Q::'o = Q't' + Qph + Oaex
+ Q,b - Qed (6.2)
where Ql" is the lower heating value
of the working mass of fuel, kJ /kg,
Qp 11 is the physical heat of solid or li-
quid fuel before burning, kJ/kg, Oae:r
is the quantity of heat absorbed by
the supplied air during preheating
outside tho boiler (most often in exter-
nal air h eater·s) kJ/kg , Q,b is the heat
of steam' used in steam burners for
fu el oil atomization, kJ ; kg, and Ocd is
the h eat from the dissociation of car-
bonates in the mineral mass of fuel,
kJ/kg (the last term is applicable only
to oil shales).
The physical h eat of fuol before
burning depends on its temperature
Qph = c1t1 (6.3)
where c1 is the specific heat of fuel,
kJ /(kg K), and t 1 is its temperature,
oc.
The average temperature of solid
fuels may range from 0 to 20°C, but
may be even sub-zero in winter time.
In the combustion of fuel oil, the
term Qph m ust always be taken into
account since, for atomization, fuel
oil is preheated in the burnor up to
100-130°C.
The quantity of heat absorbed b y
the air for combustion during prehe-
ating outside the boiler is fou nd from
the formula:
Oau = ~a V 0 ca (t~ -tea) (6.4)
where ~ a isr the rela tive~ air q uanti ty
passing through a~ heater, c0 is t he
specific heat of air, tea is the tempera-
t ure of cold air, and t; is its tempera-
ture at tho entry to the boiler air heater
(or behind the external ai r heater).
The heat introd uced by steam for
fuel oil atomization is:
Q•b = d,IJ (i,b - i ;)
where d,b is the uni t flow rate of steam
for atomization , kg/kg fuel (usual-
ly d,u = 0.05-0.1 kg/kg) , i,b is its
enthalpy, kJ/kg, and i; is the en-
thalpy of steam carried off by flue ga-
ses at a temperature {}wg. kJ/kg.
The quantity of heat that is spent
on tho dissociation of carbonates in
oil shales is proportional to the quan-
t ity of carbon dioxide that evolves on
combustion , CO"f, so that the for-
mula for determining Oed is:
Qed = 40.5CQ~d (6.6)
To s um this up, the heal available
on the combustion of various kinds of
fuel can be determined by the follo-
wing formulae:
- for anthracites, coals and brown
coals of a low humidi ty and l ow
sulphur conten t:
Q•c-
Qawo --
1'
- for moist brown coals and for
coals and fuel oil with a high sulphur
content:
Q;,"c = Q~ Qph+ Oae:r; + tion of the heat supplied to a boiler
- for fuel oil atomized by steam
in burners:
Q;,", = Q'{' +QPI• +0aex +Q,b;
- for natural gas :
w _ Q1 .
Q01' - I ,
- for oil shales:
Q::'. = Q't' - Qed·
The heat absorbed by the working
fluid (water and steam) in the boiler
per kg (or m3 ) of fuel can b e found
fro m the formula
QI = DB,,, ("L,. - t/w
. )+ Drh ( ""
B LrJo -
,, )
Lrh
+ D; w (i!- itw)
6.1. ll eat Balance and Efficiency of Stea m Bo ller 69
where D • h and D rh are the flow rate of Table 6.L Heat Losses in Steam Boilers
fresh superheated steam and s team
from secondary superlieating (re- Relallvc
Heat l oss llem Joss, %
heated steam), kg/s, D bw is the flow rate q. %
or Qw
at>
of blow-off water from the boiler
drum to maintain the required salt
conditions in the circulalion circuit , Wi th waste gases 4- 7
(6.5) kg/s, D bw must be considered if it is T hrough i ncornplcte 0-0.5
combustion
more than 2% of D.,,; i,., i1w, and i' Wi th unburned car- 0.5-5
are respectively, the enthalpy of su- bon
perheated sleam, feed waler and wa- By cooling through 0.2-1
ter at the saturation line at the pres- the lining
As physico l hea t of 0-3
sure in the drum, kJ/kg , iri. and i;,, removed s lag
are the enthalpies of secondary super- Sum of heat losses 6-12
heated steam at the inlet to and outlet
from the reheat superheater, k J /kg,
and B is tho fuel consumption, kg/s Tho direct calculation of the boiler
or ro 3 /s. efficiency by formul a (6.1) may turn
The heat utilized in a boiler can out to be insufficiently accurate and
also be expressed in terms of heat ab- involve difficulties in accurate measu-
sorption by the individu al heating sur- rement of certain parameters, e.g. m ass
faces: fl ow rates of steam and fu el , heating
v alue of fuel, and some components
Ot Q, + 0.~~ + Q,,, + Oee
= (6.8)
or the available heal.
where Q1 is the heat absorption by The gross efficiency of a steam boiler
tho working fluid in tho furnace water can be found by the inverse balance
walls , kJ /kg, Q·.~:· is the heat absor- method if we know the sum of its heat
ption in tho convective surfaces of losses:
superheater, kJ/kg, Q,1, is tho heat
absorption in the secondary su per- Tl b = 100 - (q2+ q3 + q4
heater, k J /kg, and Qe c is the heat ab-
sorption in the economizer, kJ /kg.
+ q~ + q,) (6.11)
The inverse balance method, i.e .
During boil er operation, some of the
available heat is inevitably los t and determining the boiler efficiency by
constitu tes heat losses. The dis t ribu- the sum of heat l osses, gives a more
accurate value than the direct balance
as useful heat and lost heat is the ba- method, since the sum of beat losses
constit utes roughly 1/10 of Q::'. and
sis for compiling the heat balance of a
all its items can be reliably measured.
steam boiler. The h eat balance equ-
ation corresponds to steady-stale ther- This is the sole m ethod available for
estimating the therm al efficiency of
mal conditions or boiler operation . It
is usually written for 1 kg or 1 m 3 of now steam boilers at the design stage.
lf we know the heat losses and, con-
burned fu el :
sequently, the gross boiler efficiency,
Q::'v = Or +Qz + Q3+ Q, + Qs+Qa (6.9) we can use formulae (6.1) and (6.7) to
~~h~
ca~t~l~o~ -
find the fu el consumption by the boiler,
D iv iding both sides of equation (6.9)
kg/s:
by O::'v and expressing the result as a
percentage, we get: B=
D 1 11 (iu - If wH- Drh (t;h - l~h) +Dbw (i' -iJw)
100 = q1 + qz + q3 + q4 + q& Q;:',TJb
+ q6 (6.10)
Tho typica l items of the boiler h eat
(6.12)
balance and their values are given in The fuel consumption thus obtained
(6. 7) T able 6.1. is the rated value for calculating the
70
Ch. 6. Efltctency of Fuel Heat Uttllzatlon
pulverization system of the boiler. In
solid fuel-fired boilers, more often
than not, fuel is not burned complete-
ly, i.e. there is a heat loss with un-
burned carbon q4 • To find the actual
volumes of combustion products and
the air flow rate for combustion, the
concept of rated fuel consumption is
introduced:
B.= B (1- 0.01q 4 ) (6.13)
The gross efficiency characterizes
the perfection of operation of a steam
boiler proper. Its normal operation,
however, depends in addition on a
large number of auxiliary machines
and mechanisms, which consume a
portion of the energy produced by the
power plant (station). The use of
energy for this purpose is called the
auxiliary power consurnption, N oux• of
a boiler plant. The auxiliary power
consumption includes the power cou-
sumed by forced- and induced-draft
fans, feed pumps, pulverizing equip-
ment, blowing devices, and a large
number of electric motors in the auto-
matic remote control system. For
boilers operating in monobloc units
with turbines, the auxiliary power
consumption can be found as a per-
centage of the total power production
by the following formula:
A Nau:x 100
LlTJaux = BQw -n (6 .14)
()1J'ISf
where B is the fuel consumption by
the boiler, kg/s, and lJat is the effi-
ciency of power production at the
station.
In high-capacity boilers, flTJau :x is
equal to 4-5%. By subtracting the
auxiliary power consumption flTJaux
from the gross efficiency of a boiler
TJb, we obtain what is called the net
boil er efficiency, which characterizes
the efficiency of t he boiler plant ope-
ration in terms of the electric energy
delivered to consumers:
(6.15)
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6.2. Analysis of Heat Losses
Heat loss with waste gases. Accord-
ing to Table 6.1, heat loss through
waste gases is the largest item in the
heat balance. Its relative magnitude ,
per cent, can be found by the formul a :
02 tOO
q2 = QW
au
(6 .16)
where Q2 is the absolute heat loss,
kJ /kg:
Qz = (fw g - awgf~a) (1 - 0.01q 4 )
(6 .17)
Here, I wg is the en thai py of waste
gases, kJ/kg, and I~a is the enth alpy
of the theoretically required volume
of cold air, kJ /kg. The first multiplier
in the equation gives the gain in en-
thalpy of waste gases relative to that of
the air suppl ied t.o the boiler (both
organized and unorgan ized). The se-
cond multiplier is a correction for in-
complete combustion of fueL As fol-
lows from formula (6.17), the heat loss
through waste gases Q2 is determined,
first of all, by the enthalpy of waste
gases I we• i.e. it depends on their
temperature f>wg and their volume
which is characterized by the excess
air ratio awg·
By reducing the temperature of the
waste gases by 15-20 deg C, it is possible
to decrease q 2 and thus raise the boiler
efficiency by roughly 1%. This can be
achieved by arranging an additional
convective heating surface !J.H c whose
dimensions will be the larger, the
greater the reduction in the waste gas
temperature (Fig. 6.1). It should also
LJH2
Fig. 6.1. Variation of the additional heat-
ing surface area in various temperature
regions
6.2. Analysis of Heat Losses 7t
be noted that f>w 11 depends substantial- and feed water with the temperature
~y on the temperature of the feed wa- of hot air remaining the s ame, the
ter t 1,0 at the inlet to the "economizer additional expenditures involved can
.and the temperature of air at the inlet be found as follows :
to the air heater, t~. This can be exp- Z = !J.Sah + !J.Sec - flSwh
ressed by the following relationship
{61:
+ !J.Sbt- flStu+ t:J.S.t (6.20)
where !J.Sah and !J.S ec are the costs of
A
Vwg 6l fw •
+
= Cil-1 (t ..!- !J.t)
2
t~+ L\tl
Cil
th e additional heating surfaces of an
air heater and an economizer, !J.Sb
(6 .18) is the extra cost of electric energy for1
where w = L(Vc) 111(l'aca) is the ratio driving the blowers, associated with
of the water equivalents of the gases the increased resistance of the air-gas
and air in the lower stage of the air path, !J.S •t is the cost for constructing
heater , !J.t1 is the temperature gra- a taller stack, !J.Swh is the saving in
dient (between gas and air) at the feed water heaters, and flStu is the
'hot end' of tho air heater, and !J.t 2 fuel savings.
is the temperature gradient (between The optimal" temperature {}':}'J is
gas and water) at the 'cold end' of the found by minimizing the calculated
economizer. expenditures, which is done by sol-
The recommended minimum values ving the equation:
of temperature gradients [20) are
8Z/a{1wg = 0 (6.21)
!J.t1 = 30 deg C and !J.t2 = 40 deg C; but.
somewhat higher values are usually ta- Typical curves of the optimal tem-
ken in tho boiler design, since the perature o[ waste gases as functions
yalues i ndicated require excessively of the decisive economic factors are
l al'gO s urfaces of air h eater and eco- shown in Fig. 6.2. The optimal tem-
nomizer. The ratio o[ water equiva- perature of waste gases depends sub-
len ts depends on the quality of fuel stantially on the cost and quality of
and the excess air ratio in the air fuel, and, firs t and foremost, on its
heater zone. moisture content. When the cost of
For a particular kind of fuel and the fuel is high, the savings in consumed
selected values of !J.t1 , flt 2 and excess fuel can justify the extension of heat-
air ratio, formula (6.18) takes the ing surfaces and thus allows a lower
form: temperature of waste gases (Fig. 6.2a).
(6.19) A high moisture content in the fuel
increases the volume of combustion
As foJlows from t he above, a comp- products and their s pecific heat, since
lex engineering-economical approach water vapours possess the highest
is essential for selecting the optimal specific heat in these gases. To cool
temperature of waste gases f>':fi. A chan- by the same number of degrees flf>we•
ge of f>wg will substantially influence waste gases with a high humidity
the size of the heating surfaces of the must give up a greater quantity of
economizer, air heater and regenera- heat, which requires a further increase
tive heaters. This circumstance wi1l in the heating surfaces compared with
change the hydraulic resistance of the dry fuel. For the same or lower priced
gas and water patlts and the energy moist fuel, extending the heating sur-
consumption by feed water pumps and faces is not economically feasible,
blowers. A probable change in the which means that the optimal tem-
h eight of the stack to better disperse perature of the waste gases will inc-
the waste gases should also be consi- r ease along with the moisture content
d ered . of the fuel (Fig. 6.2b).
Thus, if measures are taken to lower An i ncrease in the initial parameters
tl1e temperature of the waste gases of steam (pressure and temperature )
 72
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Ch. 6. Elftclency of Fu.el Beat UtUtzatlon
. , _. _.,
z v"'' Z•J rouJ/psff ref.
' J "'Y fa l
flO
150
4.0
~)
24 MPa
can s ignificantly raise th e effi ciency
of heat regeneration, which jus tifies a
certain incrensc in the feed water tem-
perature . On the other h and , an
in crease in the initial pressure of
steam incr eases the expenditures on
boiler equipm ent as well as energy con-
sumption by the feed water pumps.
As shown earlier, an increase in the
temperature of feed water, t1w, results
in a higher waste gas temperature -ltw 11 ,
and therefore, in higher cost and lower
economic efficiency of the boiler plant.
For this reason, thermodynamic pos-
sibilities for increasing the efficiency
of boiler plants are always restricted.
As follows from the calculated rela-
tionships (Fig. 6.2c), the effect of t1w
1
on {}'::, is more pronounced with the
less expensive fuels.
In boiler plant design, practical va-
lues of {}w11 are usually taken in the
range of 120-160"C.
As r egards semi-peak load boiler
plauts, which are put in operation only
duri ng periods of elevated electric
loads, tho problem of m inimizing boi-
ler cost is mo re important than th at of
decreasing the waste gas temperature.
For this reason, boilers of tbis type
are char acterized by lower steam pa-
rameters and higher t emperature of
waste gases ({}w 11 = 160-200°C}.
Fig. 6.2 . Dct{!rminntion of opti-
f-" mal temperature of waste gases
(a) dependence on the cost or hen-
ling surfaces and fue l; J- expend l-
turcs on bea ting surrn ces: 2 und
e'-expendltures on more cxpcns h•c
8
tO
nnd less expenslYc fuel; J and J'-
total cnlculnted expenditures with
more expensive and lebS cxpcnsh'c
12
IS
...
- "!,IV
fuel: (b) dep~ndcnce on the feed wn-
lcr temperature and the moisture
content ot fuel; 4 a nd 4' - llmlts tor
dry fuels wi th w• < 0. 7; s and
0
S'-ditto, Cor moi st fuels with w• -
= 1-5; (c) correlation between the
optimal temperature or waslc gnscs.
the temperature o r reed water and
the cost ot tucl for n s upercrltlca l
pressure monobloc unit
When selecting the optimal was te
gas temperature, one shoul d also con-
sider the probable corros ion of low-
temperature heating s urfaces - espe-
cially the surface of th e air heater
(see Sec. 16.3). To forestall this , boilers
to be fired on high-s ulphur fue ls (S10
more than 2%) are des ig ned for a
higher lemperature of was t e gases
(up to 140-1 60°C) and with additional
preheating (to 60-80°C} of the air s up-
plied to the air heater. Certain meas u-
res are also t aken to minimize corro-
sion in the air heater (see Sec. 19.4) .
Heat loss by incomplete combustion.
The products of combustion m ay con-
tain gaseous combustible componen ts,
s uch as CO, H z or CH 4 • Their after-
burning beyond the boiler furn ace is
practically impossible since tho tem-
perature of gases and the concert trations
of the combustible components and
oxygen are too low. The h eat th a t
m ight be produced by afterburning
these components constitutes wh at is
known as tbe h eat loss by incomplete
combustion Q3 , kJ /kg, or q 3 , %. 1:1.
can be calcula t.ed by Lhe I orm u I a 159 1:
q3 = (126.4CO+ 108H2 + 358.2Ci f.)
v dg {100- q.)
X- "-;:;-;;;----
Q:fv
(6 .22)
6.2. Analv 1 t1 of Beat Losses
'l:s
''
' J
a97 O!ltJ 0.99 1 !.Of f.02f.OJ l04 1.03 1.06
Fig. 6.3. Heatlos...<es due to incomplete com-
bustion ·'
where CO, H 2 and CH ~ are tho volu~e
concentrations of the products of m-
compl ete combustion in dr y gases, %,
V is tbe volume of dry gases, m 3 /kg
r:J, (100-q~) i~ the d_egree of co~­
bustion of the sohd portton of fu el, Yo,
the nu mbers at tbe symbols of gases
are their respective heating val ues,
kJ Jm3 divid ed by 100 .
On burning gaseous and liquid fuels,
the h eat loss by incomplele combus-
tion q 3 = 0-0.5% . With solid fuels,
tbis item is, as a rule, ratb~r sma!l
and neglected. In boiler pract1ce, th~s
item of heat losses is mainly determi-
ned by the concentration of CO ~d,
to a lesser extent, Hz in combust1~n
products. The ap p ear~c_e ~E C~l4 1n
combustion products 1s md1cat1v~ of
an improperly organized combustl?n.
Analysis for incomplete combustwn
should always be done for all the
componen ts of combustion products
since as follows from formula (6.22),
even' a slight quanti ty of CH, may
h ave a noticeable effect on q3 •
Heat loss from incom plete combu-
stion substantially depends on the
excess air ratio and boiler load
(Fig. 6.3). Thoroughly intermixing the
fuel and oxygen (curve 1) ensures t~at
h ea t loss by incompl ete combust10n
may t ake place only at a < 1. Under
real conditions (curve 2), tbe appea-
rance of this loss at a = 1 and full
boiler load is indicative of an im pro-
per interm ixing of fuel and air. In-
complete combustion can n?t. t ake place
at what is call ed the cnt1cal excess
air ratio a which is usually equal to
1.02-1.03 ~~d th us characterizes tho
73
aerodynamic perfection of the burner
arrangement. With the boiler opera-
ting at a reduced load (curve 3), the
exit rate of Lhefuel and air from the bur-
ner decreases (thus decreasing the ener-
gy [or intermixing the fuel and air
fl ows) and the temp e~·a~u~e l evel in
the combustion zone d_Imtms~es some-
whnt, which results In an mcre~sed
heat loss from incomplete combustion.
H eat loss with unburned carbon. I n
the combustion of solid fuels (peat,
coals and oil shales), ~he heat _loss
with unburned carbon ts essentt_ally
the loss with unburned coke parttcles
carried oH from the .combustton z?ne
b furn ace gases; dunng tl~e short Ltme
tl~ey are present in the htgh-tem~era­
lure zone of the flame, the.se part_tcles
evolve volatiles, but rema1~ partially
unburned . In the combustiOn of fuel
oil and n atural gas, t he unburned ca_r-
bon loss may b e in the form of soltd
particles (which remain upon the eva-
poration of [uel oil drop~ ets) _or soot
particles which c~n form tn h~gh-ten:­
perature combust10n zones at a defi-
ciency of oxygen (a < 0.6). . .
Under normal operating cond1t10n~.
the unburned carbon heat loss of solLd
fuels q 4 may range from O.?% to 5%,
"th the lower values relatmg t o fuels-
:~th a high yield of volatiles (peat
and brown coal), and the higher ones-
to those of a low reacting ability (~ow
yield of volatiles), s uch as anthracite.
For coals, q4 = 0.5-2% . The heat l oss
q from the combustion of natural gas
a~d fuel oil is not high (usually less-
than 0.1 %) and is considered along
with q9 , i.e. as tbe sum qs + q_4·
In chamber-furnace com~ust10n of
solid fuels, the heat lo~s "~1t~ un?ur-
ned carbon Q~· kJ /kg, ts d1v1ded w_to-
the carry-over loss Q~· and_ the loss wa~
.~lag Q.~', the former betng predomi-
n ant. . d . db
T he carry-over loss 1s_ etermme . Y
fino coke particl es whtch are earned
of[ (over) by the gas flow from the
furnace, channeled through all ~he·
boiler flu e ducts and, tog~ther w1th
ash particles, are collected m electro-:
stnlic precipitators or other types of
 Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 6. Efficiency of Fuel Heat Utilization
Anthracite, yc.:J. 5%
Senrio11fhrocile, vc· 9%
oat, vc. f5 "j.
8 Brown cool, p!4s1.
fi
2
Fig. 6.5. EHcct of hot air temperature on
0 Lmta tmtnlN lUlUL45
o(f
Fig. 6.4 . Heat losses with unburned carbon
in dry-bottom furnaces
·d ust collectors and discharged to ash
·dumps. The loss with slag is due to
the fact that some unburned fu el par-
t.iclos in t.he combustion zone are fu-
.sod with molten slag and drop onto
the furnace bottom.
Wh en the optimal fineness of fuel
pulverization is obtained and under
normal operating conditions of the
boiler, the loss q4 depends on excess
air and varies widely with changes in
the yield of the volatiles (Fig. 6.4).
When the excess air ratio is below the
·optimal level, g4 may rise owing to an
improper intermixing of fuel and air
at the exit from tho burner or to the
appearance of an oxygen deficiency
zone though t he temperature level de-
veloped by the burner is quite high.
With a> a 0 pt. the temperature in
the combustion zone decreases, resul-
ting in a lower rate of oxidation reac-
tions (see Ch. 4). On the other hand,
the volume of combustion products
increases, thus diminishing the time
the particles are present in the high-
temperature zone. These two factors
~re responsible for an increase in the
hoat loss with unburned carbon.
An elevated value of g 4 in low-re-
active fue ls (anthracite, somianthraci-
te) is due to the delayed ignition of
·coke particles and prolonged burning
in the diifusion region. These kinds of
fuel are, therefore, rather sensitive to
variations in operating conditions. As
an example, Fig. 6.5 shows the effect
heat loss with unburned carbon
0 0. 2 0.4 0.5 0.8
Fig. 6.6. Variations of unburned carbon
heat losses in slagging-bottom furnaces as
a function of the degree of non-uniform it v
of air distribution between burners at tha ·
= 400"C
of variations of hot air temperature
and Fig. 6.6 shows the effect of a non-
uniform distribu.tion of air between
the burners on the unburned carbon
h eat l oss g4 ; in tho latter figm e, lla. is
the relative dev iation of excess air
ratio from the rated value.
Heat loss by cooling. Since the tem-
perature of the lining and casing of a
boiler and of its other elements (such
as drum, headers, pipel ines, etc.) is
higher than that in the surrounding
air, they give up heat to the environ-
ment. In general, the heat loss by
cooling, Q5 , kJ/kg, can be expressed
by the formula:
(6.23)
where F bw is tho exposed surface area
of the walls and the high-temperature
elements of the boiler, m~. a, and
a, are the coefficients of heal trans-
fer by convection and radiation,
kW/(m2 K), and tbw and t,u r are respe-
ctively, the average temperature of the
6.2. Analyt ls of H eat Louu
F ig. 6.7. Heat losses due to external
cooling
hailer surfaces and the surrounding air,
oc.
The heat loss by cooling is the hig-
h er, the higher the external tempera-
ture of the lining and heat insulation
<>f the boiler. Tho external surfaces of
b oilers and boiler elements should be
proper!y heat-insulated so that tbru is
not higher than 55°C. In rough calcu-
lations, the heal flux from the boiler
surfaces to the surroundings is taken
a t an average level q11 = 200-300
W /m 2 . For boilers with a different po-
wer rating, the absolute heat loss lo
the surroundings, Q5 , is determined by
the ratio F bwlB ,. With increasing boi-
ler power, the absolute heat loss Q5 ,
k J /kg, and the relative loss q5 , %,
b ecome l ower, because the total heat
release and the volume of combustion
.products increase more quickly than
the area o[ exposed boiler surfaces
(Fig. 6.7).
As is · seen from Fig. 6.7, the heat
loss item q5 for high-capacity boilers
i s not high. It. is commonly assumed
th at. these losses are proportional to
the heat absorbed by each heating
surface of the boiler and are accounted
for by what is called the heat reten-
tion coefficient:
(6. 24)
ln this formula , the ratio q5/(llb
+ q~) characterizes the relative beat
:loss to the outside.
In boilers of a lower capacity, the
absolute heat loss through enclosing
walls remains virt.ually unchanged,
75
and therefore, the relative heat loss
increases:
(6.25)
where the subscript (superscript) ·,.·
relates to rated values. Heat losses q5
at D < Dr are shown by dotted lines
in Fig . G.7.
Heat loss with physical h eat or slag.
The slag removed from the bottom of
a boiler furnace has a rather high
t emperature, and therefore, possesses
a certain quantity of beat wl1ich is
transferred to cooling water in the
slag bath and is lost irreversibly. This
constitutes the heat loss with the phy-
sical heat of slag, Q6 • The relative
loss, q6 , can be found by the formu ..
la ( %):
_ a,, (ct)8 t.A"'
q6 - owav (6. 2B)
where a, 1 = 1 - a, is the fraction
of the total ash that is removed as
slag from the furnace, (ct), 1 is the
enthalpy of slag, kJfkg, and A"' is
the ash con tent in the working mass
of fuel.
The heat loss q6 can be determined
graphically' as in t~e wg~aph in
F ig. 6.8, where A' = A !Qt IS the re-
solved ash content of fuel. The heat
loss q6 depends substantially on ~he
+ method of slag removal from the boiler
furnace (see Ch. 7). In dry-bottom
furnaces, a, 1 = 0.05-0.1 and the tem-
perature of the slag is 600-700°C; in
that case and with a rel atively low
ash content in the fuel, q6 is insigni-
76
Ch. 6. Efficiency of Fuel Heat Uttllzatlon
ficant (Fig. 6.8). This heat loss is re-
levant onl y to high-ash fu els with a
resolved ash content A' greater than
2.5. In slugging-bottom furnaces, the
temperature of flowing slag is on the
average t, 1 = 1 400-1 600°C. The fra -
ction of ash removed through the fur-
nace bottom also increases up to a, 1 =
= 0.15-0.3 in single-shaft furnaces
and up to as much as 0.5-0.7 in those
with primary cyclone furnaces. I n
such cases, the heat loss q6 should be
given due consideration.
As follows from the analysis of heat
losses , some heat l oss items depend
significantly and in different ways on
the excess air ratio (q 2 , q3 , q4). It is
therefore essential to establish the
optimal excess air ratio for a furnace
which will minimize the total h eat
1.0 «opt O(cr t O «cr CCupl
(a)
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Fig. 6.8. Heat losses wilh physical beat.
of removed slags
losses. In this case, the heat loss q~
is related to the excess a ir ratio in
the furnace, a. 1 , assuming that inleak-
ages in the flu e ducts are constant:
~t.a. 1 = constant. Figure 6.9a shows
a typical curve or heat losses q2
+ q 3 = I (a.1) in the combustion of
natural gas and fu el oil when the beat
loss q4 can be neglected. As we can
see, the optimal excess a ir ratio in
the furnace turns out to be close to
a.cr and is always slightly lower than
a.cr since the curve q2 = f (a.) is steep-
er in the zone nea1· a.cr·
I n tho combustion of solid fuels
(Fig. 6.9b), the heat losses q1 and q~
have a v ital effect on the optimal
excess air ratio. In that case, a. 0 p 1 is
somewhat smaller than the value ct
corresponding to the minimum of q4 •
Fig. 6.9. Determination of tbe opti-
mal excess air ratio in tbe furnace by
the minimum of hea\ losses
(h) (a) combustion or natural gas ond rual
(I•) combustion or solle1 tuet
7.1. Principal Characteristics of Chamber Furnaces 77
PULVERIZED COAL-FIRED FURNACES
7.1. Principal Characteristics The product ft = ab, m 1 , is the cross-
of Chamber Furnaces . sectional area of a furnace through
which hot fumnce gases pass at a ra-
In the furnace the chemical energy ther high speed (7-12 f!!ls) . An e~or­
of fuel is converted into the beat of mous quantity of heat IS released m a
combustion prod ucts as tho pulveri- furnace at the level of the burners,
zed fuel (coal dust) is burned iu s us- and the temperature of gases in it
pension in the furnace space. Com- increases substantiall y.
bustion products give up part of their The principal thermal ch~acterist~c
+ heat by radiation to water walls. Thus of steam boiler furnaces IS what 1s
they leave the furnace at a safe tem- called the heat power of furnace, kW:
perature which will not cause clinke-
r ing of the subsequent convective hea- Q1 = BQ'{' (7.1)
ting surfaces. i.e. tho quantity of heat released in
A furnace cnn be characterized geo- the furnace at the rated consumption
m etrically by its linear dimensions: B, kg/s, of fuel with the beating va-
front width a, depth b, and height h1 lue Qr, kJ/kg. Relating the total heat
(Fig. 7.1) which arc calculated accor- release in the combustion zone of a
d ina to the rated fuel consumption furnace to its cross-sectional area, we
and" the thermal and physico-chemical obtain another important characteri-
characteristics of the fuel to be used . stic called the heat release rate per unit
fu rnace area:
lI
q1 = Q1Jt1 (7.2a)
)
The highest allowable value o~ q, is
1:.I assigned depending on the kLnd of
fuel and tho arrangement and type of
...
. -<:: I burners used. T his value may range
' I; from 3 500 kW/m 2 for clinkering coals
1- '~-' I I
' and brown coals up to 6 400 kW/m 2 •
0 .;,..;..-
An increase of q1 results in an increase
b
i n the flow rates and temperatures of
I I gases in the furnace as well as heat
absorption by the furnace water w_alls.
If the burners are arranged m a
oil~
number of tiers, the furnace can also
~ ' bo characterized by the h eat release
"'-::::.::: rate per burner tier:
4:. 1:1
~ q~ = Q tlf,: (7 .2b)
~ 0
~ - where Q 1 is the heat released by all
the burners of a tier, k\.V.
b
For various fuels, q, may range
Fig. 7.1. Main dimensions of furnace from 1 200 kW/m2 to 2 300 kW/m2 •
78
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Ch. 1. Pulverized Coal-/Ired Furnace.
An increase o( q1 and q: above their
limiting values can result in intensive
cl in kori ng of tho water walls, espe-
ciAlly in tho burner zone, and in a
dangerous rise in temperature of the
tubes' metal. Tho rated value q•· is
taken to be sligh lly lower thau tho
highest allowable limit. When the heat
power of a furnace is known [from
formula (7 .1 )I, the required cross-sec-
tional area of the furnace chamber
can be determined as:
f, = Q,lqj (7. 3)
The depth b of a furnace is chosen in
the range of 6 to 10.5 m so as to pro-
perly arrange the burners (see Sec. 7 .2)
on the furnace walls and ensure free
development of the flame in the fur-
nace space such that the high-tempe-
rature flame tongues do not touch the
water walls. The depth of the furnace
is increased up to 8-10.5 m when us ing
more powerful burners with l arger
ports arranged in several tiers (two or
three) on tho furnace walls.
The front width of the furnace a is
equal to 9.5-3'1 m depending on the
kind of fuel and the thermal powet·
(steaming capacity) of the boiler and
can be calculated from the known va-
lues of !1 and b. As the boiler capaci-
ty increases, so does a although not
in direct proportion. This characteri-
zes an increase of the heat release rate
and gas flow rate in higher capacity
boilers. The front width of the furnace
can be found from the formula:
a = 0.67 V/5 (7 .4)
where D is the steaming capacity of
the boiler, tlh.
The height h 1 of the furnace is ta-
ken to bo in the range of 15 to 65 m
to ensure virtually complete combus-
tion of the fu e l along the flame l ength
within the furna ce and allow space for
arranging the water walls on tho fur-
nace walls to cool the combus tion pro-
ducts to the specified temperature. Tho
furnace height required to e nsure
complete fuel combustion can be
found from tho formula:
(7.5)
Crq~~r--~-----.----~
200
Fig. 7.2. Correlation between the heat rc-·
lease rate per unit fumace volume and the·
Lime of presence of gases in furnace
where wg is the average velocity of
gases in the furnace cross section,
m/s, and 'tpr is the time a unit volu-
me of gas is present in the furnace, s.
It is essential that the time ,;1, be-
much larger than 't con» the timo for
complete combustion of the I nrges l.
fractions of fu e l (see Sec. 4.2).
The t her mal conditions in the vo-
lume of a fu rnace can be charac teri-
zed by what is called the allowable
heat release rate, or energy release ra-
te, per unit volume k\V/m3 :
where V 1 is the furnace volume, m 3 .
The values of allowabl e heat release
t·ate per unit volume are stand ardized.
They may ran ge from 120 kW/ m:1 for
coal-fired dry-bottom furn aces to-
210 kW/ma for s lagging-bott.om fuma-
ces. The mag nitude of qv deter mines
the average time the gases are pre-
sent in the furnace space. With a n
increase in qv, the time of gas pre-
sence in the furnace decreases' (Fig . 7.2).
The highest allowable value of qv
corresponds to the equality ,;1,, =
'tcom• which al so determines th e lo-
west allowabl e volume of a [u1·n ace
V•.nln.
J
As indicated earlier, wate r wn ll s in
a furnace s hould coo l the combusti on
products to t he s pec ifie d tom per a I urn
at their exit fro m I ho furna ce s pace ,
\t; , which is ac hi eved by properly se-
locti ng tho dim ells ions of water w nlls,
7.1. Principal Characteristics of Chamber Fumaces
Fig. 7.3. Diagrams of furnaces
with (a) one and (b) two platens:
J-water walls; t - pl nl cns
.-
and consequen tl y, the volume of the
furnace.
To this end, it is reasonable to
compare the minimal volume of a
furnace v;ln as found from the con-
dition of complete combustion of fuel
with its value v~ as determined by
the conditions of cooling of the gases
to the specified temperature -t}j. As a
rule, v~ > Vi
111
for all solid fuels,
and therefore, the furnace height
should be determined by the conditi-
ons of g.as cooling to the specified
torn perature 0/. J n many cases, the
required furnace height as found by
calculations substantially exceeds the
minimum value obtained from its
volume vrn (especially with coals
that have an elevated value of exter-
nal ballast), resulting in an excessi-
vely high boiler m ass which in turn
s ubs tantially increases expenses. On
the other hand, as the steaming capa-
c ity of boil er increases, tho furnace
volume increases relatively more sub-
stantially than the surface area of the
wnt er walls. Therefore, the unit sur-
face area of cooling surfaces per m 3
of furnace volume becomes lower,
(a)
(b)
which e xpla ins why an increase in
boiler capacity i nvolves an increas e
in the temperature \tj.
The cooling surface area of a boiler
can be increased without changing the·
furnace dimensions by arranging cur-
tain walls, or platens (Fig. 7 .3) -
additional tube walls mounted in tho
furnace space a nd dividing this into
two or more sections. In high-ca pacity
boilers wi th a l arge width of furnace,
the latter can be divided by platens
into nearly rectangular sections, whi ch
facilitates fuel combustion and pro-
duces a more uniform field of gas •
temperatures and heat release rates
on the water walls. In contrast to
conventional water walls on t he sides
of a furnace, a curtain wall is heated
intensively from both sides and is
characterized by a higher heat re lonso
rate, which necessitates more careful
cooling of the tube metal.
The arrangement of c urtain walls
can .noticeably roduco the height and
volume of t he furnace, bringing bo th
c l oser to the m inimal allowable valu-
es. Comparable characteristics, with
and without a pl aten, for a 300-MW
~0
Ch. 7. Pulverl:ed Coal- fired Furnace.
wonobloc boiler plant operating on
.ant hracite at the ratod furnace tempe-
rature {}i = 1 150oC are given in Tab-
le 7 .1..
Table 7 .l. Effect of P laten on Roiler
furnace Cha racteristics
•
Without
Ch or nctcr 1st lc platen
Minimal furnace vo- 5 190
lume vmln m~
I '
Furnace volume do-
.sigoed by
cooling cond i Lio ns,
,. 1
yc m~
V/!V/ n ratio 1.63
Designed furnace ,.8.0
heigh t, "'' m
To obtain the best ratio between the
radiant and convective heat transfer
in boil er surfaces, it is advisable to
maintain the temperature of furnace
gases at the furnace outlet near
1 250°C. For roost solid fuels, howe-
ver, this is not possible since the gas
temperature at the outlot from the
iurnaco space to convective heating
surfaces must not exceed the softe-
ning temperature of ash, t 1 (see Sec.
2.4.). With curtain walls at the fur-
nace outlet, t he temperat ure {}J is
usually taken to bo in the range of
1 100-1 200°C and for some clinkering
fuels, even in the lower range of
1 000-1 050°C.
7.2. B ur ners and Their A rrangement
The desired intensity and complete-
ness of pulverized fuel combustion in
the furnace space can be achieved
through the proper supply and inter-
m ixing of pulverized fuel (air-borne
·dust) with secondary air in a burner
assembly (called simply 'burner' in
further discussion). Burners do not
ignite the fuel. Their function is to
prepare two individual flows, a dust-
air m i xturo and secondary air, for
ignition and active bUI·ning in tho
furnace space. To achieve this, part
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of the hot furnace gases should be
sucked into the fresh dust-air jet to
preheat it and the ignited fuel should
be intermixed in due time with the
secondary air. For this purpose, hot-air
and dus t-air flows are introduced into
the furnace space at different speeds
and with different degrees of turbuli-
With
platen zation.
There are two main types of burner:
the straight-flow bumer and the turbu-
5190 lent, or vortex, burner. In a vortex
burner, dust-air mixt.ure and secon-
6 016 dar y air are fed as whided (turbulized)
jets which form a cone-shaped expand-
ing flame in the furnace space (sec
F ig. 4.10). Vortex burners have a cir-
1.16
36 .2 cular cross section. Tn straight-flow
burners, the air-dust mixture and se-
condary air are blown in as parallel
j ets . Their intermixing in the furnace
space is ensured mainly by an appro-
priate arrangement o[ burners on the
furnace walls and by providing a
particular aerodynamic pattern of jets
in the furnace space. Burners of this
type may be eil;her circular or rectan -
gular in cross section.
Turbulent burners. The main types
of turbulent burners are as follows:
(a) two-scroll burners (Fig. 7 .4a) in
which two scrolls are provided for
whirling the dust-air mixture and
second ary a ir; (b) straight-scroll (sin-
gle-scroll) burners (Fig. 7.4b) in which
the dust-air mixture is supplied in a
straight flow and spread by a disse-
ctor and the secondary air is whirled
in a scroll; (c) sct·oll-vane burners
(Fig. 7 .4c) with a scroll fot· the dust-air
mixture and an axial vane-type whir-
lor for the secondary air; and (d) vane-
type burners in which tho whirling of
the dust-air mixture and the secon-
dary air is ef£ected by n xial and tan-
gential vanes.
Turbulent burners h ave a throug h-
put capacity ranging from 1 kg to
3.8 k g reference fuel per second, with
their heat power ranging rcspecti vel y
from 25 MW to 100 MW. Two-scroll
and scroll -vane burners are more po-
pular, th o latter being rnade for a
high heat. power (75-100 MW). The
7 .2. Burn ers and Their Arrangement 81
J
11
z t' 9
(u)
(6)
Fig. 7.4. Types of t urbulent pulverized-coal burners
(a) two-scroll burner; (b) straight-scroll burner; (c) scroll-vane burner: J-scroll tor fuel-air mixture; J ' -
tuel-alr mixture inlet pipe; .!!- secondary air scroll; 2 · -secondary air Inlet duct: 3- annular channel !or
discharging the tuel-alr mixture into the furnace; 4- ditto. tor secondary air; s - maln fuel otl burner· S -
tiring fuel oil burner; 6- dlssector at tuel·alr mixture outlet; 7-swirl vanes tor secondary atr; a-admission
ot ternary air through axial channel; 9-dlssector adJustment control; JO-swirlcr ot axia l atr flow; JJ-
turnncc lining; A 8 - boundury of ruel-alr mixture ignition; C- suction or furnace gases to flame root
...
principal aerodynamic ch aracteristic The compl eteness of fuel burning
of a burner is the vorticity parameter n heavily depends on the ratio of the
(see Sec. 4.4.). It ranges from 1.5 to 5, axial velocities of the primary and se-
the greater values (n = 3.5-5) rela- condary air flows in a burner. The
ting to the whirling of the secondary velocity of the primat·y flow (dust-air
air fl ow. mixture) is usually w1 = 16-25 m/s,
Burners with a higher vorticity pa- higher v alues being typical of power-
rameter give a wider jet with a larger ful burners. The optimal velocity of
angle of expansion and with a l arger secondary air is w~ = (1.3-1.4.) w1•
zone for recircul ation of the hot gases Turbulent burners can be used
to the flame root, which ensures qui- with any kind of solid fuel, but are
cker fuel preheating and ignition. used more widely for low-v olatile gra-
Burners with an elevated value of n are des. Burners of elevated heat power
employed for the combustion of low- are provided wi th two controlled co-
r eactive poorly ignitable f uels (with a axial channels for secondary air (see
relatively low yield of volatiles). In Fig . 7.4.c), which make it possible to
vane-type burners, tilting vanes are maintain the required air velocities at
sometimes employed, making i t pos- reduced loads: at loads less than 70%
s ible to control burner aerodynamics. of the rated val ue, the peripheral chan-
Among v arious types of whiders, nel is closed.
pro£iled vanes have the least resis tan- Straight-flow burners. Burners of
ce for the same vorticity parameter and this type turbulize the air flows less
for that reason are employed widely in substantially than do turbulent bur-
powerful burners for whirling the dust- ners and produce a long-ranging jet
air mixture and the secondary air. Bur- with a low expansion angle and weak
ners with dissectors (of t he type of intermixing of the pdmary ond secon-
Fig. 7 .4b) have a lower vorticiLy para- dary flow. Efficient combustion is
m eter n and produce a less expanding achieved by making the jets from va-
jet; they are usod in some cases with rious burners interact with one another
fuels with a high yield of volatiles, in · the furnace s pace. Straight-flow
but the dissector may not function burners may be either fixed or til-
reliab ly und er the action of an inten- tab I e which facilita los combustion con-
sive radiant heal. flow. trol (Fig. 7. 5a). Burners of recta ngu-
G- 0 1524
I
82
(a)
(b)
l ar sh ape, especially t hose extended
along the height, are char acteri zed by
a high injection of the surrounding ga-
seous medium into the j et sides. For
th at reason, such burners with the ex-
ternal mixing of dust-air fl ow {Fig.
7 .5b) possess certain adv an tages over
t h ose with internal mixing, particu-
l arly in that they ensure easier igni-
tion. Str aight.-flow burners are, as a
r ule, o[ a relatively low tluoughput
capacity; in high-<:apacity boilers, a
number of such burners are combined
J 2
-.....J
0 L I
<1---:E
-f · . . . ;-...
I
. .
.. . . . .. . . - . . . . ·. .
-<J4• '· -···-- · · .. ·.·:··-···.
_,.
:. : . ........ ·.·:· .
[ J
Fig. 7.6. An assem bl y of three straigb tr-flow
pulverized-coal burners
1 -sup pi y or fuel-air mixture to burner; .t-secon-
dnry nlr supply to burner; J-pipe lor mounting
~he !Iring Juel-oil burner with electric gas
4 - tilting air pipe
Ch . 7. Pulverized Coal-fired Furnaces
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Fig. 7.5. Slmightr-fl ow burners for
pulverized coal
(a) with lillfng noul~ at the exit ol fuel-air
mixture; (b) with ccntrn l channel for hot
air; J- s ul'ply or ru ~ l-nir mixture; 2 -
s upply or 10t air; .7-lur l-air mixture out-
let; 4-hot nlr ou t let; s-suction or fur-
nace gases
3
4
J ..
5~ ;;; ::./\
....
"'
::· :.
c mov al of slag from the furn ace (in from the sid e walls of the furnace,
in a burner assembly (Fig. 7 .6).
Str aight-flow burners arc main ly emp-
loyed with high-reactive fuels : brown
coals, peat, oi l shales and h igh-vola-
tile coals. The velocity of the dust-ai r
mixture at the burner outlet is taken
as w, = 20-28 m/s and the op ti mal
velocity of secondary a ir, w~ = 1.5-
1. 7 of w 1•
Combined burners. In some cases,
power stations h ave to oper at e, simul-
taneously or alternately, on a variety
of fuels, and must employ combined
burners which can eff icien tl y burn
1 each kind of fu el. As an example,
I I F ig . 7.7 s hows a combined burner in
J a high-capacily steam boiler which
can operate on th ree kinds of fuel:
' solid {basic), fuel oil and natural gas.
The burner h as an enl arged diameter
in the central channel in wh ich the
main fuel oil b urner and a whirling
• • • .. 0 ••
device for turbulizing the axial air
.... ..
\ __-
• • • 0 • flow are arranged. N a t ural gas is fed
through feeder tubes in thin jets into
the space between the turbulizecl axial
and secondary air flows ensuring tho-
rough intermixing and stable burning
of fuel.
Burner arrangement. Burners are
arranged on the wal ls of a furnace so
lgni~r; as to ensure as complete fuel combus-
83
7 .2. B urners a nd Their Arrangement
Fig. 7. 7. Schema tic o[ a burner for
three kinds of [uel
Numbering as in Fig. 7.4; addillonnlly:
13-annular duct for natural ~as; H - pillCR
lor admitting natur11l r;as to burner. arrnn-
~cd around tlte pri mary ulr c;hnuncl 3; JS -
natural r:ns to lurnnce; JC-clcctrlc gns
Igniter 3
10
,' j
tion in the fl ame core as possi ble, pro- a t a d istance of (2.2-3) D p fro m ono
vide favourable cond itions for the re- an other and at a distance of (1.6-2) Dp
either dry or molten s late), and avoid which bel ps t.o prevent the flames
clinkering of the furnace walls. The from interacti ng prematurely and
optimal arrangement of burners is touching the walls (571.
found b y properl y consideri ng their Some t ypical arrangements of tur-
type and characteristics. For instance, bulent pul verized-coal b urners in the
tmbulent burners give a shorter and furnace are illustrated in Fig . 7.8 . The
wider fl ame than do the straight-flow front and double-fro n t arrangements
type. The prim ary and secondary air (Fig. 7 .8a and b) m ay have one or two
fl ows ar e i ntensively interm ixed due to rows (tiers) of burners along the
the energy of turbulent motion, which height. With a s ingle-fron t arrange-
ensures a t horo ug h burning-off of fuel . m ent, the rear water w all of the fur-
in the flame core (up to 90-95% ). n aco has an eleva ted heat absorpt ion
The main parameter of t m·bulent (10-20% above t he average value) , so
burners is the diameter of their port , or that l.he furn ace depth (in a dry-bot·
embrasure, Dp. Burners aro arranged t om furnace) must b e not less than
b = (6-7) D p in order to keep the rear
wall fl·om clinkering . The opposite
double-front arrangement of uurners is
typical of h igh-capacity steam boilers
wh ere the required number of burners
®®® cannot be arranged on a single front
w al l even in two tiers.
W ith the opposite arrangement of
bur ners, heat absorption by water
'r.? '
walls in a furnace is m uch more uni.
form . The opposite burner arrange.
m ent is employed p1:imarily in slag•
ging-bottom furnaces, since colliding
' flam es are de£l ected both upwards and
downwards and thus can m aintain a
a
(OJ {6} (c) high temperature level at the furnace
bottom . Efficient int eraction of oppo-
Fig. 7 .8. Arrangement of pulverized-coal
turbulent burners on furnace walls site fl ames is achieved if the furnace
(a) front arrangement; (b) double-front (opposite) width is b = (5-6)Dp . In low-capacity
nrrangemenl; (c) opposite arrangement on side
walls boilers, burners are usually arranged
 84
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Ch. 7. Pulverized Coal-fired Furnaces
7 .9. Dry-bottom Furnaces 85

tion of heat flows b etween the furnace

• coals and young coals.
: c
~ opposite displ aced j ets, devel oped at
~ and encountering jets (block arrange-
:.. t:
t"'
(a) (c)
Fig. 7.9. Arrangement of straight-Uow
v eriled -coal burners on furnace wal s
rul-
(a) orroslle displaced nrmnscmcnt; (b) corner
arrangement with encountcrlrtg Jets (blocl< nrrnnRe-
mcnt); (c) cornE~r arrnnumnt:nl with t anacntlol
Je ts (tangentia l nrl'llngement)
opposite each other in a single tier on
t he side walls of tho furnace (Fig. 7 .8c);
the depth of the fumace is then doter-
mined on ly by their a rrangemertt. In
this scheme, an elevated temperature
of gases is obtained in the middle
portion of the furnace across i ts width.
'
I tion which can be straight, vertically
II
:•
Pori o~/s
• walls at an angl e of 50-60° so that the
Typical arrangemon ts of straight-
flow burners are illustrated in Fig. 7.9.
Burners of this type can ensure comp-
lete combustion of fu el onl y by the
turbulization of the flames from indi-
vidual burners upon their collision in
the furnace s pace. All the a rrangements
shown in ~he figure a r·e widely emplo-
yed for tho combusLion of peat, brown
I n the burner arrangement wilh
t he Moscow power engi neering ins ti-
tute, peal a nd brown coal can be effe-
ctively burned as a result of the i n-
tensi ve turlmlization of the flame in
the main combustion zone. This is
achieved by forming a large velocity
gradient between adjacent jets moving
in opposite directio ns.
A burner arrangement with corner
burners and fl ame j ets directed tan-
gentially to an imaginary circle 1-2.5 m
i n diameter in tho furnace centre
(Fig. 7. 9c) has found wide application
in many types of steam boilers, i nc-
l uding high-capacity units (Fig . 7.10).
This arrangement is advantageously
characterized by the uniform distribu-
walls and by the l ow probabilHy of
clinkering of the walls s ince they are
· in contact w ith furnace gases which G
have already been cooled appreciably. IGDD"C
When applied in sl agging-botlom fur-
naces, this arrangement causes mol ten
sl ag droplets to settle on the walls of
tho primary furnace and thus i ncrea-
ses the fraction of ash trans ferred to
slag .
An arrangement with corn~r burn ers
ment , Fig . 7 .9b) is employed fo r coal
combustion. l n this arrangement, the
£lame core is highly turbulized. Its
drawback is the likelihood of clinke-
ring of the front and rear furn ace walls
if the flame moves from the furnace
centre (the zone of r elatively h igh
pressur e) to both side walls.
Fig. 7 .f2. Dry-bottom [urnacc
A tangcn l.ial burner arrangement
J- d ry bot.tom hopper: 2-slag ba llr wit.It watc t:
can be empl oyed in furnaces with a J- hydraulic ash dis r•osa l channel: 4- hurner;
nearly square c ross section, i.e . with 5-water walls; 6- tlnme core; 7-slag-removina
· screw mehanl~•n: s-electric motor
the alb ratio equal to 1-1.2. This en-
s ures good aerodynamics in the fur-
naco s pace. bottom to b' = t -1.2 m. The dry-
bottom hopper i11Le nsively cools the
furnace gases in the furnace bottom,
7.3. Dry-bottom F urnaces so that molten sl ag particl es which en-
Dry-bot tom furnaces, i.e. those in ter this zone are cool ed quickly, soli-
which sl ag is removed in tire solid dify, and fall along the hopper s ides
state, are mos tly of the open type- into a slag pit (Fig. 7 .'1 2). The quan-
with a cons t ant cross section along tity of ash collected in this way in the
the ir height. Their design is deter- dry-bottom hopper is not h igh, usual-
m ined by the flame's pattern of mo- ly 5-10% of Lhe total ash content of
the fuel. Granulated slag particles are
t urbul ized or hori zontally turbulized continuously removed hom the bath
(Fig . 1.11). Dry-bottom furn aces are by a screw, paddle or rotor device.
characterized by the provisi.on of a The wa ter bath also servos as the
dry-bottom hopper which is f ormed in hyd raulic seal preventing the suction
the l ower portion of the furnace by of cold a ir from booeath into the fur~
inclining the front and rear water n ace. The aerodynamics of the furnace
s pace should be s uch that the gas

l distance between them decreases at the tem perature ncar the water walls be

7-'
I

Fig. 7.11. Patterns of flame motion

in dry -bottom furnaces • f'
Fig. 7.10. Arrange ment o£ s traight-flow lbu rncrs in tb c furnace of P-67 boiler of 800-MW
(a) strai~;ht-tlow S-shnrJed I lame; (b) or>POSile
s lrnlght-rlow rtamu: (c) vertically turbu-
' \1{6) (c)
monobloc unit fir·cd with Bcrczoyo brown coal ' lizcd rt nme· (d) co mbination ol strn ight-
llow and horizonta ll y turbulized 11 om(\
Ir-lronL wnll or lurnnr·~: 2-strnigbl-flow burner port; J- hoL (sccondar')') olr duct: 4-t uel-al r
mix ture channel; 5-firtn~ fue l-oil burn~r: G- Ilead o t fuel-oil burner; 7- tem pcrature com r.cnsa tor
86
Ch. 7. Pulverized Coal-fired Furnaces
below the temperature t 1 (see Sec. 2.3)
at which ash particles become sticky
and can cause clinkering of Lhe water
walls. For this reason, the average heat
release rates (per m 2 of furnace cross
section and per m3 of furnace volume)
of dry-bottom fumaces are usually not
high (q1 = 3-4 MW/m 2 , qv = 100-
140 k\V /m 3 ). This inevitably results in
large dimensions of dry- bottom furn a-
ces, and therefore, a high consumption
of metal.
For instance, the furnace of a once-
through boiler type P-59 of a 300-MW
tnonobloc unH, when designed for the
combusl.i.on of Moscow d ist.rict brown
coal with tho straight-flow flame as
shown in Fig . 7.11b, has the dimen-
sions a X b X h1 = 2'1.8 m X
X 9.56 m X Ll8 m.
Dry-bottom furnaces are usually
employed for Lhe combustion of pul-
verized solid fuels with a high or mo-
derate yield of volatiles (V< > 25%).
The most popular combustion sche-
me in d1·y-bottom furnn ces is that
with a rising straight-flow flame
(Fig. 7.11a and b), which is formed by
turbulent burners arranged on the
front wall or by straight-flow burners
arranged on two walls (opposite ar-
rangement). To fire high-capacity boi-
lers on Siberian brown coals, another
combustion scheme is preferred (see
Fig. 7 .10) in which a vertical turbuli-
zed flame is formed by straight-flow
burners arranged in several tiers along
the furnace height (see Fig. 7.9c). This
scheme decreases the probability of the
flame touching the furnace walls and
the associated risk of clinkering, whi-
le the distribution of the burners
along the furnace height (on a length
of up to 12 m) results in less heat re-
leased at each tier, thus lowering the
temperature level in the extended fla-
me core and noticeably diminishing
the form ation of harmful nitrogen
oxides NO,.. Furnaces with a hori-
zontally turbulized flame, designed by
Prof. V. V. Pomerantsev, successfully
operate on milled peat and brown coals
(Fig. 7.11d). Fine fractions of fuel
burn up in the straight portion of the
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flame, while tho coarser particles are
thrown to tho bottom, entrained by
the secondary air jet, and involved
into vortex motion until completely
burnt off.
In dry- bottom furnaces, virtually
complete combustion is achieved at
nn excess air ratio at the fumace outlet
a 1 = '1.15-1.20. Because of the ine-
vitable suction of cold air from the
outside (t:J.a 1 = 0.05-0.1), the excess
air ratio in burners is somewhat lower:
a.b = a 1 - t:J.a1 = 1.05-1.1.
7.4. Slagging- bottom F urnaces
To remove sl ag in the molten stale,
the temperature of gases at the walls
in the lower portion of a furnace sho-
uld be higher than the temperature of
slag fluidity, i.e. {}g > tn. where t/1 =
= t3 + (50-iOOtC is the temperature
of the normal fluid state of slag. Such
conditions at the furnace bottom can
be provided by moving tho flame core
closer to the furnace bottom and by
protecting the water walls in that zone
with carborundum refractories (fa-
cing of water wall tubes). For better
attachment of the facing, pins 10-
12 rom in diameter and 12-15 rom
long are first welded onto the tube
surface on the fire · side, then the re-
fractory facing is applied (Fig. 7. 13).
In the design of heat-insulated water
f 2
Fig. 7 .13. Portion of refractory-faced water
wall
1- water wall tube; 2-pins bclorc lacing; 3 -
•·e rractory racing
7.4. S lagglng-bottom Furnac es
walls proposed at the Ordzhonikidze
machine-building works in Podolsk,
helically finned tubes are used instead
of pinned tubes.
The bottom of a stagging-bottom
furnace is either horizontal or slightly
inclined towards the furnace centre.
Tho tubes of tho hoi.Lom arc covered
by l.wo or three courses of refractory
bricks laid on refractory mortar. One
or two refractory-lined holes 500 mm x
X 800 rom (slagholes) are left in the
bottom centre to pour off molten slag.
Thin j ets of molten slag flow over
the ouges of the slagholes into the
slag bath where they solidify on con-
tact with water.
The fraction of the total ash removed
to slag in slagging-bottom furnaces is
substantially highe1· than that in dry-
bottom furnaces: a81 = 0.2-0.4. Soli-
dified slag is removed continuously
from the slag bath by paddle, screw
or rotor conveyers.
Slugging-bottom furnaces may have
a single shaft (open and semi-open
furnace) or two Ol' three shafts. Com-
bustion can be organized in a straight-
flow flame, intersecting flame jets or
by the cyclone principle.
The s implest ty pe of slagging-bot-
tom furnace is a furnace with a single
ll J nace may be as high as q~ = 500-
'
. ~-
~--'-7
(a) (!J)
Fig. 7.14. Slaggi.ng-bottorn furnaces with
straight-flow flame
(a) s trnir; ht-wall (opcn-shult) lurnace: (b) cons tric-
te d-section lurnnce
Si
(a) (6) rcJ
Fig . 7.i5. Turbulent furnaces with inter-
secting jets
designed at the Moscow power engineering
(a.)
institute; (b) dcsigm:d at the Central boiler nnd
turbine insl.itute; (c) gamma- furnace , d<:signed
at the All-U nion hent •:n ~: ln ecr ing institute
shaft and straigh!Alow flame (Fig.
7.14a). The lower portion of tho water
walls and the [urn ace bottom are
refractory-faced to form a zone of ele-
vated gas temperature (slag-melting
zone). ln that case, turbulent burners
are employed and arranged at a lower
height above the bottom. Since, ho-
wever, much heat is gi vcu up to the
upper r.one, the furnace has limited
possibilities for combustion control:
at loads below 0.7-0.8 of the rated
value, slag may start solidifying,
first on the walls and then on the
bottom. Also, the fraction of total ash
removed to slag in an open-type fur-
nace is not high: a, 1 = 0.1-0.15.
Constructing two opposite walls in
a furnace ensures the isolation of a
combustion chamber, or primary fur-
nace within that furnace (Fig. 7 .14b).
T his substantially reduces the heat
transfer into the upper zone, making
it possible to appreciably raise the
temperature of gases in the primary
furnace (up to 1 600-1 800°C). The
heat release rate in tho primary fur-
800 k WI rn3 , and the fraction of total
ash removed to slag: a. 1 = 0.2-0.4 .
The boiler can operate in a wider ran-
ge of loads with slags being removed
in the molten state.
In a furnace with intersecting flame
jets (Fig. 7 .15), the primary furnace is
iso]ated by constructing one or two
walls. Straight-flow burners are anan-
 88
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Ch. 7. Puluerlzed Coal-fired Furnaces
) w
I'
'}'\
-~ ~ :'
f Jl,;..
(!J) ~-==-
(a)
ged so as to turbulize the flame around
a horizontal axis. The flame makes a
full turn in the zone of refractory-
faced water walls, after which hot
gases pass in inters paces between the
burners, in te rsect the jpts of fresh
dust-ai r mixture and thus ensure their
quick heating and stable burning. The
organized motion of gases along the
walls and bottom of the furnace pro-
vides favourable condi tions for the
s table removal of molten slag even at
boiler loads 40-50% of the rated va-
lue. The heat release rate of the pri-
mary furnace is 500-600 kW/ m3 .
A more efficient separation between
the zones of combustion and gas coo-
ling is attained in furnaces provided
With cyclone-typ'e primary ,furnaces
(Fig. 7.16). These furn aces 'may be
classed with · two-shaft furnaces. The
cycl one method of combustion con.:.
sists essentially in the flame in the
priTTUI.ry furnace being whirled by
either , tangential high-speed jets of
secondary air (80-120 m/s) or tangen-
ti al 'dust-air jets from buniers (see
Fig. 3.1). Tbe entire surface of the
primary furn ace is covered by water
walls made from refractory-faced pin-
ned tubes. Fuel particles in the pri-
m·ary furnace are acted upon by two
forces: the centri fugal force which
throws th em onto the walls of the
pri mary furn ace and the aerodynamic
force which lends to carry off fuel
particles and gases from tho prim ary
Fig. 7.:16. Cyclone (urn aces
(o) furnace witb horizontal c yc lone-type
primary furnace: (b) bottom-type prima ry
furnace open at the top; J - prlmal')' fur-
nace (cycl one); 2 - slo g-ca tc hing tube bun -
dle ; .J-coollng chamber: 4- burner· $ -
secondary olr nozzles: 6- • lo!f"holc;' 7 -
1'- J slag bath
~ -.... I
§ r-
G
-- 7 from plane water walls connected to
furnace . The ratio of these forces de-
pends on particle size, because of which
fuel particles are unevenly distributed
in the primary furnace: coarser parti-
cles are thrown agains t the walls and
becom e involved in the vortex motion
until they bum off completely, while
finer fractions burn in the centre.
A cyclone-type primary furnace can
operate on coarse pulverized fuel and
in some cases (horizontal cyclones) ,
on crushed fu el, which can thus redu-
ce the cost of fuel pulverization. In-
tensive vortex motion also ensures
that a 1arge fraction of ash be remo-
ved to slag (a, 1 up to 0.6-0.85), the
greater value relating to l10rizontal
cyclone-type primary furnaces.
Horizontal cyclone-type primary
furnaces (Fig. 7.16a) are made to a
diameter of 1.8-4 m. The length of
the cyclone is 1 .2-1.3 times its diame-
ter. T he heat power of a cyclone may
be as high as 150-400 MW. The h eat
release rate in cyclones is r ather high
(qv = 2-6 MW/m 3 ) at the gas tempe-
rature 1 800-1 900°C and excess air ra-
tio etc = 1.05-1.1. Since, however, an
extended shaft is needed to coo l the
gases, the total heat release rate of
furnaces with horizon tal cyclones does
not exceed 200-300 kW/m3 , i.e. it is
only slightly higher than that of the
conventional single-shaft slagging-bot-
lom furnaces.
High s peeds of the secondary air arc·
attained by using s pecial-type bl o-
7.1. Slagging- bollom Furnaces
wers wbich can develop a head o[ 10-
20 kPa (1 000-2 000 mm H 2 0), i.e.
2~3 times the common air head. The
design of furnaces with cyclone- type
primary furnaces is more intricate than
that of conventional single-shaft fur-
naces and their cost is correspondingly
higher.
In the slaggiog-bottom furnace do-
sign developed at the Barnaul boiler
works, a vertical primary furnace in
which gases exit from the lop is ar-
ranged below the cooling 'chamber
(Fig. 7.16b) . The primary furnace is
octahedral in shape and is assembled
the circulation circuit of the water
walls of the main furnace. This fur-
nace design is much less expensive to
implement than that with a horizon-
tal cyclone. Usuall y two primary fur-
naces are provided for a single cooling
chamber. Straight-fl ow slit-type bur-
ners are arranged on the four walls
of the primar·y furn ace; the jets are
directed tangentially, with the velo-
cities of primary and secondary air
being in the common ranges (w 1 =
= 25-35 m/s, w 2 = 40-50 m/s). All
water walls of the primary furn ace
are refractory-faced.
The advantages of slagging-bottom
furnaces over the dry-bottom type are
essentially as follows. When burning
the same kind of fuel, the heat loss
with unburned carbon, q4 , in a slug-
ging-bottom furnace can be reduced
roughly _by 30%. The total heat relea-
se rate per unit furnace volume turns
out to be 20% higher on the average,
which means that the slaggiog-botLom
furnace can be made smaller. Due to
better tightenillg of the bottom porti-
81)
on, air suction into the furnace decrea-
ses, with the result that, heat loss with
was te gases is somewhat lower. Fur-
thermore, slagging-bottom furnaces nre
characterized by lower expend i Lures
on ash disposal.
On the other hand, slagging-bot tom
furnaces possess certain drawbacks.
For instance, si nee more ash is remo-
ved as high-temperature slag, the heat
loss with slags, q6 , is higher and in
many cases can overbalance the redu-
ction in q4 • In single-shaft stagging-
bottom furnaces, the possibilities of
boiler load control aro restricted by
the conditions of slag removal (which
must remain liquid). A higher tempe-
rature level in the flame core resulLs
in a higher yield of harmful nitrogen
oxides. Therefore, the choice between
dry-bottom and slagging-bottom fur-
naces for a particular kind of fu el
should be made by properly conside-
r ing all their advantages and draw-
backs. One should also take into
account that not all kinds of fuel can
be burned in slagging-bottom furna-
ces. Those which form low-fusible ash
(t 3 = 1 150-1 300°C) cause no diffi-
culties, while for fuels with t 3 >
> 1 350°C the conditions for the for-
mation of molten slag should be pro-
perly calculated.
SJ.agging-bottom furnaces are ad-
vantageous for the combustion of low-
reactive fuels (anthracite, semiauthra-
cite, lean coals), when they e nsure a
noticeable reduction of Lhe heat loss
wi th unburned carbon, and of fuels
with a low tem perature of ash fusion
which might cause strong clinkering
of the water walls in dry-bottom fur-
naces.
90
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Ch . 8. Gas and Fuel Oil-fired Furnace~ 8.1. Fumace Design 01

GAS AND FUEL OIL-FIRED FURNACES
8.1. Furnace Design
Tho conditions of combus tion of na-
tural gas and fuel oil h a ve much in
c ommon , and t herefore, b oth fu els can
be burned in furnaces of tho s amo d e-
s ign . In most cases, s uch furn aces a re
d esig ned primarily for fuel o il with
natural g as as the auxiliary fu el. The
combus tion characteristics of fu el oi1
and natural gas are similar in the fol-
lowing res pects:
1. Both fuels contain prac ticnJly no
advcntilious moisture and fo rm roug h-
ly the same volumes of combus tion
prod uc ts ; therefore, the blowers of a
steam boiler can efficien t l y operate
irrespective of whether fuel oil or na-
tural gas is being burned in the boiler
furnace.
2. Burning of fuel oil and natural
g as occurs in the vaporized s tate {ho-
mogeneous medium) following the laws
of b ranched chain reactions (see Sec.
4.2). The intensity of burning in both
cases is determined by the conditions
of intermixing, and the hig h est allo-
wable heat release rates of the furnace
volume are rather close to each other
With intensive burning, both fuels
i or m a rela t iv ely shor t flam e core zo-
ne nea r the b urn ers. In f uel o il com-
.bustion , this zo ne is cha racte ri zed by
a rathe r h igh temperature l evel and
.an e xtremely intense h eat flu x radia-
ted onto the water wa ll s. This may
.l ead to the overheating of the tube
metal and the appearance of high-
temperature corrosion, res ulting in a
(300 kW/m 3 for fuel oil and 350 kW/ma ~tigh concentra tion of nitrogen oxides
for natural gas). Thus , for the same i n t he flame core. ·.,
steam out put of a boiler, the furnace In the vert i cal s ection , gas and
dimens i ons for these two k inds of fuel fuel oil furnaces m ay be open , with
c an b e taken to be practic ally t he 'restr ic tion or w it h cyclone primary
same. f urnaces (Fig . 8.1). Most industrially
3. Both fuels form almos t no ash on made gas a nd fuel oil-fi red boile rs a re
c ombustion (t he ash content of fuel pro vided with conve n t ional furnaces
oil Ad is less than 0.3 %), which avoids -of prismatic shape with a s ingle-front
clinkering of the water walls in the -or doubl e-front (opposite) arrangement
furnace and makes slag-handling fa- -of burners. I n the single-front arran-
cilities unnecessary. In view of this( gement, burners are mounted in seve-
furnaces for both fu els are made with ral (three or four) tiers. This a rrange-
a horizontal or s lig htly inclined bot- mont is Jess e xpens ive and m ore con-
tom, with m a n-hol es provided for re- v enient in o peration , b u t cannot ensu-
pairs (Fig. 8.1). re uniform filling of t h e furnace space
4. Since the fuel is in the gaseous by t he fl ame and is i napplicable in
(or vaporized ) s t ale, i t c an be more furnaces of a short dep t h (l ess th a n
easily intermixed with a ir, which en- 6 m), s ince the tempera tu re and heat
sures virtually complete combustion a bsorption of the rear water wa ll wo-
at a high heat releas e rate and low uld then increase intolerably.
excess air ratio a c = 1.02-1.05. For In an opposite arrangement of bur-
both fuels, air can be preheated to ners the water walls of the furnace
the same temperature (t 11 a = 250- <>perate' under more favo urable con-
3000C), which makes it possible to ~itions. The flame is concentrated in
employ combined gas-fuel· ·oa burners the central high-texnperatu re zone of
with close values of the volume flow the furnace space. The opposite mo-
rate of air and almost the same resis- ·tion of . the flam es creates unfavou-
t ance. nble conditions for turbulization and
better fuel burn-up in the tail por-
tions of the flames and , under ident i -
~al c onditions, resul ts in an inc rease
\ in t he h eat release rate in the flame
~ ~ore zone by 20-30%. A constriction
I oil combus tion, the degree of whirling
sit y o r heat fl ows on to t he furn ace
w ater walls {Fig. 8. 1d) . T he h igh
turbuli za t.i o n o f fl ow in the cyclone
prima r y I urn ace e nabl es 85-9 0% of
the fuel to be burned. Cyclone prima-
ry furnaces a re covered with pin-
finned tubes with carborundum re-
fractory fnci ng . This design, however,
leads to a h ig her temperature of the
flame and hig her heat flow onto the
water walls, making it not t h e best
solut ion for some kinds of fuel.
Gas eous fuels a re known to produce
flames of a l ower emissivity than fuel
oil so tha t when a boiler is chang ed
fro:U fuel oil to natural gas firing,
he a t absorpti on by the furnace s pace
decreases, while the temperature of
combus tion products at the outle t
from t.he furnace bec omes higher. In
open fu rnaces at I,be rated load, this
temperature difference may be as high
as 100 d eg C, which inevitably chang es
the temperature co nditions of the sub-
sequent heating s urfaces , primarily
that of t he s uperheater. In o pen fur-
naces with m ulti-tier s ingle-fron t bur -
ner arrang ement, the tempera t ure of
gases at, the furnace outl et is equalized
in such cases by changing the pattern
of the flame core: when burning natu-
ral gas, only two or three lowermost
burner tiers are in operation; for a
change from gas to fuel oil, burners of
the upper tiers are fired; in later de-
signs, the gases are recirculated into
the furnace to accomplish the same
purpose.
Recently, it has been proposed to di-
minish l ocal heat flows on furnace wa-
t er walls by arranging the burners in
the bottom of an open furnace and by
controlling the whirling of the se-
condary air flow (Fig. 8.1e). In fuel

~j
\
in the furnace can increase flow tur-
Jmlizati.on in the flame core zone and is d ecreased, so that the fl ame extends
ln the zone where fuel ufterburoi ng to a greater height in the furnace and
. -occurs at the outlet from the combu- thus noticeably decreases local heat
~ -- ~ s tion chamber. flows onto the water walls, while the
- ''-- te~peruture of g as es at the furnace
(a) (6} (C) (d) (e)
In an e x perimental series of s team
b oilers for 300-MW monobl oc u nits, outlot ris es s ubstan t.ially. When bur-
fig . 8.1. Types of fuel oil-fired furnaces a new proposal is to organize combus- ning n atural gas, the d egr ee of whir-
(a) open-type furnace with single-front multi-tier arrangement of b urners: (b) f urnace with constriction
t ion i n opposite cyclone-ty po pri mary ling is increased t,o m ake t he fl ame
and OIIPOSite (double-front) burner nrrongcmcnl; (c) open- type furnace wit b opposite double- tier burner
a rrangement: (d) f urnace With oppositf! cyclone primary furna ces; (<) furnace wHit strnight.-Ciow or turbu- {urnaces in ord er to decrease the inten- wi der and shor ter.
lent bollnm burners (dotted lines)
92
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Ch. 8. Gas and Fuel Oil-fired Furnaces 93
8.2. Fuel Oll Burner~

8.2. F uel Oil Burners nel , and R is the distance between

Burner

Gas and fuel oil-fired boilers are
provided with combined burners sin-
ce the volume flow rates of air for the
combustion of natural gas and fuel
oil are practically the same. The type
of burner is selected depending on the
heat power of the boiler and on the
burner arrangement on the furnace
walls, so as to ensure the best filling
of the furnace space by the flame. For
more efficient combustion, fuel oil is
atomized in nozzles (see Sec. 4.2).
A fuel oil burner comprises a nozzle,
a channel to sup]>ly hot air, and a de-
vice for air whirling (air register).
Depending on tho method of atomiza-
tion, burners at·e classified as mechani-
cal, steam-mechanical or steam ato-
mizer burners [131.
Mechanical burners arc t ho most po-
pular type of fuel oi l burner. Atomi-
zation is effected by supplying fue l
oil under an excessive pressure (2.5-
4.5 MPa) into tho whirling chamber
and ejecting it through a narrow hole,
or nozzle (Fig. 8.2a). Fuel oil enters
tho whirling chamber through a num-
ber of tangential channels and is tur-
bulized into an intensively rotating
whirl with the potential velocity di-
stribution:
w 1r = w 0 R (8.1)
where w 1 is the tangential velocity at
a distance r from the axis of the outlet
section of the nozzle, w 0 is the vel ocity
at the inlet to the tangential chan-
~
....s
__ j { --
the axis of the burner and that of the
tangential ch annel.
The whirled flow has a reduced
pressure in the core which is filled
with a gas whirl, so that the fuel
fl ows from the nozzle through an ann-
ular section of a thickness r0 - r;""
where r 0 is the nozzle radius and r; 111 is
the radi us of the internal gas whirl.
Depending on the ratio of the tangen-
tial and axial velocity components,
the fuel film at the burner outlet
expands at an angle qJ and is disinte-
grated by the oncoming air flow inl~
numerous droplets which move along
a parabolic patlt.
The theory of centrifugal burners
has been developed by G. N. Abra-
movich. T he principal characteristics
of a b urner are the dimensionless geo-
metric parameter:
A = Rrolrtnl (8.2)
which is determined by the design
characteristics of a burner (see Fig.
8.2); the coefficient of the free cross-
sectional area
~ = 1 - (rin l/r0) 2 (8.3)
the flow rate coefficient ll which cor-
relates the total pressure of the fuel
at the inlet to the centrifugal cham-
ber with the energy of the outcoming
flow, and the jet expansion angle Cj)
(see Fig. 8.2b).
T he throughput capacity of a me-
chanical centrifugal burner, Bm, kg/s,
depends in· the first place on the cross-
sectional area of the ej ecting nozzle.
~ at lower loads the fuel oil is atomized
rinl
JL
rp
t.O
~
0.8
0.6
'~
/
r
supporting
f plane
\
2 fuel oil
(a) e(it
2
. I 2 4
..
{6)
Fig. 8.3. Steam atomizer fuel-oil burnet· type 'fKZ-4
(a) sclJematic; (b) long i ludlnal scc:Uon through burner Mad; J - lucl oll Inlet; 2-sleam inle t;
3- hea d houslnr;; 4- whll'l er; 6- cllssector
/ 0, mt, and the fuel pressure Pm• droplets. The flow rate o[ steam
[or atomization is not more than
MPa:
10% or that of fuel oil. The burner
Bm = bJJ.fo V PmPm (8.4) capacity can be controlled within
wher e b is in addition a numerical 20-100% of the rated value.
Multi-nozzle steam-mechanical oil bur-
factor and Pm is the fuel oil density,
kg/m3 . ners, which form a flat flame, are also
in use (Fig. 8.4).
The throughput capacity of power-
ful centrifugal burners with tho nozzle In solid-fuel fired boilers, steam
atomizer oil burners are employed
d iameter d 0 = 4-10 mm may range
from 0.83 kg/s t o 4.5 kg/s (3-16 t/h). only at boiler start-up. They are
inefficient in long-term operation be-
The burner capacity can be control-
led within 60-100% of Lhe rated
A -A
-value by lowering the fuel oil pressure.
Steam-mechanical burners have a
wider range of capacity control since
'f
by the energy of steam. A burner of - -1--- · -+---2
lOfT this type is essentially a common

I" t-o.'-
80
60
mechanical oil burner provided with
an additional annular channel to
.supply steam at t.he pressure p. 1 =
0.4 1,0
0.2
1/
0
I
•1
""' 2
>

J 4
e zn·
ff A·
= 0.2-0.4 MPa (Fig. 8.3). In Lho
burner design shown in tho fi gu re,
the centrifugal whirling chamber is A
( _. f.'
~. /
../J
.
.
·-
replaced by a n axial whirling dev ice '..,_ _
(a) (b) with a conical dissector. The steo m T
flow, whose speed is near tho cri-
Fig. 8.2. Principal diagram and main characteristics of a centrifugal mechanical burner
!a) princopal diagrnrn; (b) cllcct or the geometric cbarac lerisllc or a burner (A) on the tree area coctrlclrn t
IU. !low rat e cocrtlclcnt (;l), and Jet expansion angle (<J)
tical value, penetrates the fu el oi I
jet and disintegrates it in to ri no
""'
Fig. 8.1,. I lead of a Ila t-fl ame burner
z- ruel oil lnlt·t; 2-stcam inlet

j
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94 Ch . 8. Gas and Fuel Oil-fired Furnaces 8.3. Combrutton of Natllral Gas 95

ca use of the high consumptiou of
steam for atomization (30-40% of
fuel oil consumption). Steam is ejec-
ted at a pressure of 0.4-0.6 MPa and
disintegrates t ho fuel oi I jet into
fin e droplets. The fuel oil can be
supplied at a ]ow pressure. Burners of
this type are simple in design and
ensure fine ato mization of fu el oil
even at a rather low preheating
temperature (up to 80°C). Starting-
up burners can usually cover up to
30% of the rated boiler capacity.
Due to centrifugal force, fu el oil
is ejected from the nozzle of a mecha-
nical burner as a thin llollow cone.
The tl1ickness of the initial oil film
is {) 1 = 0.56f.Lr 0 , which is 0.5-2 mm.
Tho film then expands and breaks
into fin e droplets, the largest of
which are roughly equa l to the film
thickness in diameter.
Oil droplets move at n sp eed of
60-80 m/s and arc furth er atomized
by the dynamic pressure of the on-
coming gaseous medium (air or steam).
This process is called secondary atomi-
zation.
The average diameter of oil dro p-
Jets in mechanical burners is roughly
{)a v = 300 flm; il depends propor-
tionally on a;- 6
and i n inverse pro-
portion on p.,;.:&. As may be seen ,
oi 1 pressure has only a slight effect
on the size of the droplets. The burner
nozzle diameter d 0 has a somewhat
great er influence on t he finen ess of
atomization.
In steam-mechan ical burners, 60 v =
= 50-100 11m and depends on the
energy of supplied steam and the
efficiency of its utilization for fuel
oil atomization .
in powerful mechanical burners,
the largest oil d I'Oplets may be up
to 1.5-2 mm in size. The time for
their evaporation and burning is rou-
ghly 2 s. H ence, the heat release
rul e per unit volur.oe of t he furnace
must not be more than 200-250 kW/m 3
flow more slowly than tho surround-
ing gases, and therefore. the time·
of their presence in the furnace is-
somewhat longer. ·with the help of
steam-m echanical burnm·s , the heat
release rate of the furn ace ca n be
increased.
Controlling the burner throughput
capacity. The flow rate of fuel oil
supplied for combustion can be von-
trolled by two methods: by varying
the fuel oil pressure in all operating
burners (qualitative rnethod) or by
switching some of the burners on
and off (quantitati~.;·e method) .
As follows from formula (8.4), the
first method requires substantial re-
duction of the initial pressure, since
Brn is proportional to p':;, 6 • For instan-
ce, to diminish the throughput capa-
city by 40% (from 100% to GO%
of the rated value), the fuel oil pres-
sure must be reduced to 0.37 of the-
initial value. On the other hand, a
sharp pressure reduction in mecha-
nical burners is inadmissible, since
a lower intensity of whirling will
result in a thicker oil fi lm, lower ve-
locity at the nozzle outlet, and larger
droplets. An increase in the initial
pressure of fuel oil will require more·
intricate and expensive equipment for
oil transport and flow rate control
and higher operating exp end itures.
For these reasons, the throughput
cap acity of mechanical burners is:
controlled by using the combined qua-
litative-quantitative method .
When the number of oil burners in
a furnace is sufficiently high, the
load on the boiler can be diminished
by switching off some of the burners-
in a group. In such a case, the pressure
of fuel oi l supplied to the remaining
burners increases, allowing the boiler
load to be further controlled by vary-
ing the fuel oil pressure.
I n high-capacity steam boilers.
steam-m echanical burners are more po-
pular, as they ensure proper control
8.3. Combustion of Natural Gas
An essential feature of natural gas
combustion is that the mixture is
fo rmed from sharply different volu-
mes of gas and air: combustiou of
1 m 3 of natural gas requires roughly
20 m 3 of bot air. For this reason,
the gas supply channel in a burner
has a rather small cross-sectional
area. Proper intermixing of the gas
and air can be ensured only by· intro-
ducing the gas into the air flow in
the form of thin jets of a high pene-
trability (the gas velocity is up to
120 m/s while the velocity of pri mary
air is only 25-40 m /s) . Gas burners
belong to the class of b urners with
partial internal mixing, since com-
plete intermixing of gas and air is
not effected in the burner proper,
but is att ained in the furnace space.
As a result, part of the gas in th e
high-temperature zones, where oxy-
gen may be deficient , is subjected to
thermal dissociation (p yrolysis) with
the form ation of soot particles. This
is why a gas burner, 1ike an oil bur-
ner, form s a sufficiently bright flame,
with the highest combustio n tem-
perature appearing at a certain di-
stance from tho burner port, which
diminishes the risk of burner burn-up.
In most cases, gas is introduced at
right angles to the air flow or, in
some cases, a t a cert ain a ngle a
to the air flow lines (Fig. 8.5). For a
Fig. 8.5. PeneLmtion o£ gas jet
unifo rm distribution of gas in the vo-
lume of air, tho dep th of penetration
of the individual gas jets must be dif-
ferent. The penetration depth h is the
decisive characteristic in calculations;
it is determined by t he ratio bot.ween
the momenta of a gas jet a nd air flow
and char acterizes the distance along
the normal from the jet root to the
point where its direction becomes
coincident with that of the a ir flow
[26].
The depth of jet penetration is de-
termined mainly by the diameter of
a jet and by the ratio of ga~ and. air
velociti es . With gas h oles bemg onen-
ted along the air flow and .arrauge_d
in two or three rows, a umform dt-
stribution of the gas in air flow can
be achieved by decreasing the diame-
ter of holes in the direction of air
motion (Fig. 8.5c).
The principal parameters of a gas
burner are as follows:
1. The relative length of the in ter-
nal mixing zone l.,. = Lm1D 0 , where
D is the diameter of tho outlet por t
ol the burner (Fig. 8.6); it ch aracte-
rizes the conditions of partial internal
mixing of flows.
2. The aerodynamic parameter
which characterizes the intensity of
turbulent mixing:
(8.5}
c (a) c
/ / / /////////////////////
.
//
- . .,....:::::
•I
J.'/ ..,- (c)

so as to ensur e complete fuel combu- in the whole range of operating loads-

into drifting air flow I
1/~ ~ ' ......
(a) single Jet entering an a ir n ow at • - ~
stion (see Fig . 7 .2). It should also Atomization of fuel oil can be im- right angleR: ( b) ditto , entering at an
"'
ungle tt < no•: (c ) penetration or mul- '//// r/1'777/
be taken iuto consideration thai, lar- proved by preheating the fuel to t11 ttpac-row en s Jets into nn air !low; h - cI Cz Uj. '
ger droplets move in an ascending higher temperature (sec Sec. 2.4). d<'i>lh o r Jet penetration
96
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Ch. 8. Gas and Fuel Oll-fired Furnaces
Hut air
Swirler
'Nuturat gas
Fig. 8 .6 . Gas burner with central gas supply
where Wwh is the actual velocity of
the whirled air flow which is roughly
twice the axial velocity (flow rate);
ww 1, = 2w0 ; the optimal range of
n 0 is n 0 = 1-1.2.
3. The dimensions, shape and ar-
rangement of gas ports, which depend
on the general design of the burner.
Gas jets can be introduced into
the air flow in burners in a periphe-
ral, central or two-sided mode. Figu-
re 8.6 shows the central supply of
gas jets. A two-sided gas supply (from
the periphery and fr om a central gas
header) is employed in high-capacity
gas burners (see Fig. 8.9).
8.4. Combined Gas-fuel Oil Burners
Among the ad vantages of combined
gas-fuel oil burners (gas-oil combu-
stion burners) is that the change from
one fuel to the other can be done
quite easily. Furthermore, both fuels
can be burned under almost optimal
conditions.
The air channels in such a burner
are common for both fuels, and each
type of burner is arranged so as to
ensure qu ick and thorough intermix-
Fig. 8.7. Air registers
.(a) scroll ty pe; (b) tangential vane-type;
(c) ax ial vane-type
ing of fuel and air. For efficient in-
termixing with the fuel, the air flow
is strongly turbulized in the burner
by means of an air-guiding device
called an air register.
Air registers may be of the scroll
type or with axial or tangential uanes
(Fig. 8.7). Scroll-type air registers
are too bulky because of the large
volumes of air used for combustion,
and are employed only in low-capaci-
ty burners. Air registers with axial
vanes are the simplest in design and
have the least hydraulic resistance,
but the diameter of the channel must
be quite large to accommodate the
entire air flow. Tangential vane re-
gisters have a somewhat higher resi-
stance than the axial-vane ones, but
their passage section can be easily
varied at load variations by moving
a regulating disc along the burner
axis (Fig. 8 .8).
For the most part, high-capacity
boilers employ gas-oil combination
burners of the three types shown in
Figs 8.8-8.10. These burners differ
from one another in the method of
gas introduction into the air flow
and in the method of gas flow rate
control at v arying loads.
A coaxial gas-oil combination bur-
ner with a central gas supply is
shown in Fig. 8.8. Natur al gas flows
from the central annular header
through two rows of holes of different
diameter. Air is supplied through a
tangential vane register. The air flow
rate is controlled by a moving disc
valve. Thus, at a reduced boiler load,
the air flow rate decreases mainLain-
ing the original whirling intensity and
the necessary conditions for fuel-air
intermixing. Fuel oil is atomized in
a mechanical burner mounted in the
I
.fll ill!
/ Fig. 8.9. Gas-fuel oil burner with peripheral and central gas supply
(b) (c)
(a)
· 8.4. Combtn.ed· Gas-fuer Oil Burners
Fig. 8.8. Coaxial gas-fuel oil burner
with central gas supply
) - annular gas c hannel; 2- fucl oil burne r;
3- tangential vanes; 4-air control gate valve;
.5- flame-proteCLing disc or gas head; 6- air
box; 7-nir supply to cool tbe head and d isl!;
8-conical port.~ 9- ig niter channel
central channel of the combination
burner. The gas pressure upstream of
the burner is 2.5-3.0 kPa. The air
velocity in the narrow section of the
burner is 40 m/s. The mixture (Euel
oil-air or gas-air) is ignited by an
electric igniter.
The gas-oil combination burner for
a supercharged once-through boiler of
a 300-MvV monobloc unit (Fig. 8.9)
has a tangential-axial air supply
through a set: o[ vanes, where the main
air flow is distributed between two
channels. In addition to this, ternary
air is continuously supplied through
the central channel to cool the fuel-
oil burner. At a reduced boiler load,
the air flow rate through the peri-
pheral annulat· channel is diminished
~
~
~~
1'5
"'
.....
.....
t:s '
:t.., J
~
l..·:::
. 2
~
1, J'- centra l a nd periPheral air boxes; 2-Lnngenlial vanes; 3-axial vanes; 4--<:hannel or mechanical
s t<!11m burne r; s - a ir inlet to central air flow; 6- gas Inlet to coaxial channel; 7-perlpheral gas supply;
a-arrange ment or water wall tubes around tbe burner
7-01 52 /o
97
'.
J
1
Fa!!l oil
••
by means of a control gate. The fuel
oil supply is effected by means of a
TKZ-4M steam-mechanical oil bur-
ner with a rated capacity of 1.28 kg/s
(4.6 t/h) at a fuel oil pressure of
4.5 MPa and steam pressure of
0.2 MPa. Natural gas is introduced
into the air flow from the periphery
mainly through a large number of
32-mm tubes and partially through
holes in the central coaxial channel.
·Figure 8.10 shows a gas-oil combi-
nation burner in the once-through
boiler of an 800-MW monobloc unit.
The burner capacity is 5.2 t/h fuel
oil. A uniform distribution of air
between the burners is ensured by a
common large air box for all the
burners located on one side of the
7
Cas ~I
1
5
!;;
--
Fuel oiL
Steam
~ 5
~
'-' Ca~t
2550
 98
Ch. 9. Parameter• a nd Motion Eq!UJtlon• of Working Flatt:!
ff 1 " t' 6 5 2 ;[8
furnace. Each air box is separated
along its length into two sections to
channel air into the internal and
peripheral channels of burners. An
additional box is provided to recir-
culate the flue gases to the burners .
Air flows are whirled by tangential
vanes, and the gases enter the furnace
in a straight flow and ar e mixed with
the expanding flow of secondary air.
Natural gas is introduced through
the central coaxial cl1annel arranged
at an angle of 45° to tho flow axis.
The difference in the thermal expan-
sion of the air box with burners and
the furnace water walls is absorbed by
means of corrugated expansion joints.
When changing to gas combustion,
the oil burner is switched off auto-
matically and retracted into the cen-
tral channel. If both fuels are burned
CHARACTERISTICS, PARAMETERS
AND MOTION EQUATIONS OF WORKING FLUID
9.1. Principal Hydrodynamic
an d Heat-transfer E quations
for the Water-steam Path
The hydrodynamic and heat-trans-
fer processes in the water-steam path
of a boiler take place in tubular ele-
ments. Tube walls possess such pro-
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Fig. 8.10. Gas-fuel oil burner: of
throughput capacity of 5.2 t/h fuel
oil or 5.54.0 00 mn natural gus for
on 800-MW monobloc steam boiler
1. J'-ccntral and peripheral channels
lor bot air; 11-reclrc ulating gas chan·
ncl; a-corrugated expansion Joint; 4,
6-tru>gcnllul whirling vunes; 6- cen-
tral channel for natural gas; 7-air
seal to pre,•ent furnace gas outbreak
rrom the burner; 8- arrungement or
water wall tubes around tbe burner
port; 9- tucl oll burner channel; JO-
elcctrlc gas Igniter; 1 J- lmpuloo lines
or air pressure control
simultaneously, one of them (most
often fuel oil) will not be completely
burned, because of the different mix-
ing conditions and different ignition
times.
Gas-oil combiuation burners are de-
signed for furnace operation with
the least excess air ratio (a.1 =
= 1.02-1.03) in [uel oil combustion.
so as to minimize corrosion in the-
low-temperature portion of the gas
path (in the region o[ air heater).
For operation at a low excess air-
ratio, burners and air-supply path
elements should be carefully manu-
factured and assembled so as to avoid
a non-uniform distribution of fuel and
air between the burners. All fuel
nozzles are calibrated, the allowable
differ ence in their throughput capa-
city being not more than 2%.
perties as heat conductiv ity, heat
cap acity and mass. The surfaces of
lubes are in contact with the sur-
roundings on the outside and with
the working fluid on tho inside and
are thus involved in the processes oc-
curring in these media. The proper-
ties of the tube walls antl the procos·
9.1. Principal Hydrody namic and Heat-transfe r Equa tions
ses occurring on their surfaces arc
included into the boundary conditions
of the equations which describe the
processes in the water-steam path.
These are the equations of material
balance, of the balance of energy of
the working fluid and surrounding
walls, and the equation of motion
(or equation of momentum).
All these equati ons are discussed
in the courses on hydraulics and
heat transfer and will not be ·derived
h ere. We write these equations in
their final forms:
-material balance equation:
~+1~
IJz IJ-r:
=0
-equation of the energy balance of
the working fluid flow:
IJ (Gi) +I IJ (pt) = . (9.2)
/Jz /JT: q' n
- equation of the heat balance for
channel walls:
In these equations, G, p and i are,
respectively, the flow rate, density,
and enthalpy of the working fluid
in the channel, f is the cross-sectional
area of the channel, z is the coordinate
along the direction of motion of the
working fluid, qin and qex are the
linear heat flux densities on the
internal . and external surface of the
channel, m is the linear mass of the
metal of channel walls (the mass of
tube at a length of 1 m), tm and
em are the temperature and specific
heat of the tube's metal, a. is the
coefficient of heat transfer from the
wall to working fluid, and II is the
internal perimeter of the channel
cross section (for a tube, II = nd 1n).
The second law of mechanics as
applied to the flow of a fluid through
channels can be specifically written
as follows
_ !.J!.. = iJw + w iJw +k wzp
a. p /JT: p IJz 2 density and by the difference in
± pg sin a. (9.4)
7•
99
This is the equation of motion, or
the equation of momentum. Integrat-
ing equation (9.4.) between the limits
z = 0 (w = w1 , p = p 1}-the beginn-
ing of the channel and the end of
the channel-in the general case the
section z = l (w = w 2 , p = p 2 ) gives
an integral form of the equation of
motion:
w,
dz + J (wp)dw
t h
+ Jp :; dz ±
0
g 10
p dh (9.5)
(9.1)
where h = l sin a..
As follows from equation (9.5}, the
pressure gradient in the channel,
D.p = p 1 - p 2 , is spent on overcom-
ing the following forces which ap-
pear in the moving fluid:
-friction forces (the proportionali-
ty factor k is determined experimen-
tally; it is related to the coefficient
of fri ction by the formula k = 'J,./d):
(9.3) I
Jk w;p dz
0
- forces due to different velocities
at the inlet and outlet of the channel ,
or the acceleration of the flow, i.e.
the non-uniform velocity field along
the channel length :
w,
1
w,
(wp) dw
-forces due to time variations of
the velocity field, or the inertia
component of the pressure gradient,
which is other than zero in transient
processes only:
II
1p
0
IJw dz
/JT:
~the component of the gravity
force, or l1ydrostatic component,
which is determined by the 11verage
heights , or levels (it is essentially
100
Ch. 9. Parameter~ and flioUon Equations of Worlctng F!1~td
the hydrostatic pressure o( a fluid
column of height h):
,,
g ~ pdh
0 = qex = q. As follows from equa-
Thus, the hydrodynamic and heat-
t ransfer processes that take place
i n the water-steam path of a boiler
can be described by a set of equa-
tions: the equation of mass balance
(9.1), equation of energy balance of
the working fluid flow (9.2), the equa-
tion of heat balance for the heated
channel walls (9.3), and the equation
of motion (9.4). They can be supple-
m ented by the equation of state
p = p (p, i)
which relates a thermody namic para-
meter to two other parameters, and
by the empirical relationships for the
heat-transfer coefficient a and the
coefficient of fri ction, k. The set of
equations (9.1) through (9.4) and (9.6)
together with the empirical relation-
ships for a and A. represent a closed
system: the number of unknowns
(G, p, i, tm, and p) is equal to the
number of equations (since w = G/fp) .
T he exter nal actions on the system:
q.," Glnh ilnh and Gout are assumed
to be known.
Under steady-stale conditions, all
derivatives with respect to -r in equa-
tions (9.1) to (9.4.) and (9.6) are equal
to zero, and all the parameters are
functions of the coordinate z only,
because of which the fundamental
equations take the forms:
-eq ua tion of mass conservation
-equation of energy conservation
d (Gi)
Oz =q
-equation of motion
dw w'p . dp
wp d:
1
+ rc 2
± pgsma= -Tz
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- equation of state
p = p (p, i) (9.10)
E quation (9.3) is excluded from the
system (9.1)-(9.4.), (9.6), since q1n =
tion (9.7), the mass flow rate under
steady-state condi tions is the same
in all sections of the channel, i.e.
G (z) = constant. Noting this, we ob-
tain from equation (9.8):
(9 .11)
or
(9 .12)
(9.6) 9.2. Characte ristics of Motion
of a Steam-water Mixture
The principal characteristics of a
steam-water flow are as follows:
The rna1;s velocity wp of a nwdium
(wat er, steam or steam-water mixtu-
re). The cooling effect o[ a Oow de-
pends on its density p, as well a s on
velocity w. The cooling effect of a
flow is estimated in terms of the pro-
duct of these parameters, i.e. through
t he mass velocity wp, kg/(m 2 s),
which is essentially the mass flow
rate per unit area of the tube cross
section:
wp = -
G
(9 .13)
1 fraction, x, is the mass fraction of the
The circulation velocity w 0 , m/s, is
the velocity of water at the saturation
temperature; it corresponds to the
flow r ate of the working fluid in tubes:
(9.14)
(9.7) where Gm is the mass flow rat e of the
steam-water mixture through tho tube
system, kg/s (at the entry of water
into steam-generating t ubes, G,., =
= G10 ) , f is the free cross-sectional
(9.8)
area for the passage of tho working
fluid, m 2 , and p' is the density of
water at the saturation temperature,
kg/m3 .
The resolved velocity of water w~,
(9.9) m /s, is the velocity that water would
9.2. Characteristics of Motion of a Steam-water Mixture 1.01
have in a particular cross section of The mass water content, or wetness
a steam-generating tube if it occu- fraction is determined by the for-
pied that cross section completely: mula:
(9 .15) 1- X= 1- g: = ~= (9. 20)
The velocity of steam-water mixture
The resolved velocity of steam w;,
Wm, m/s. Using the expression for
m /s, is the velocity t hat s team would
the circulation velocit y, we can write:
have in a particular cross section of
a steam-generating tube if it occupied Gm G8 +G ~ (9 21 )
that cross section completely: Wo = fp' = fp' .
••
( In turn, t he mass flow rates, kg/s,
(9.16) of water and steam are:~
where G3 is the mass f low rate o[ steam Gw = V10p ' = w~p' f
tl•rough the tube system, kg/s, and
G, = V,p"( = w;p• f
p" is its density, kg/m 3 •
The relative velocity of steam Wr, where Vw and v. are theJvolume flow
m/s. The actual velocities of water r ates of water and steam, m 3 /s.
and steam differ from their f low Substituti ng for Gw a nd G, i nto
rates, since under the actual conditions equation (9.21), we obtain:
of combined motion of wa ter and
steam in a mixture they move with (9.22)
different velocities: w. =/= w,,. The velocity of the steam-water
In an ascending flow, steam moves
faster than water, w. > w10 ; in a d es- mixture cnn be written as the sum
cending flow, w, < ww; their dif- of the volume flow rates of its com-·
ference is equal to the relative velo- ponents, v. + v w• related to the to-
city of steam: tal cross-sectional area for the passage
of flow:
(9.17)
m--
- V....!•:.-+.!.:--V-"w~i
The relative velocity of steam has a
vital effect on the motion of the
w
or, noting Gw and G,,
-
t~ .
. (9 .23)
steam-water mixture (see Sec. 12.1).
The mass steam content, or dryness Wm = Wo I + Wo• (9.24.)
Substituting w~ from equation (9.22)
flow rate of steam in the flow rate into (9.24) gives:
of the steam-water mixture at w, =
-- IJ)
w·• (9.25)
X= G,/Gm (9 .18)
It is often essential t o express Wm
For a flow in thermodynamic equi- through the mass steam content x.
librium, the mass steam content can Taking into account that the sum of
be expressed by the formul a: cross-sectional areas occupied by s team
Itt - t' and water, f 3 and fw is equal to f, we
x = .....<.:.-- (9. 19) h ave
r
• . f.w.+ fwWw = wmf (9.26)
where in is the unit enthalpy of the
flow in a particular cross section of which may b e re-written as
the tube system, k J /kg, i' is the
unit enthalpy of water at the satura- G,v• + Gwv' = GmVm
tion line in that section, kJ /kg, and r whereby
is the heat of the phase transition at
the same pressure, kJ /kg.
 102
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Ch. 9. Parameters and Motion EqrUJtlom of Working Fluid
or any p ressure, d~/dx decreases as x
Vm = xv" + (1 -
x) v' (9.27) i ~creases. These relationships have a
It is also known that v1tal effect on the regime and tempe-
rature of t wo-phase flows through
W _
m-
Gm"m
f (9.28) tubes.
T~ actual steam content (p is the
Substituting Vm from equation
(9.27) into (9.28), we have:
fract10n of the tube cross section
occupied by s team , /,, which corres-
ponds to tho actual velocities of water
Wm = Giv' [1 -j- X ( ~~ -1 ) J and s team:
rp = /,If (9.32)
= W0 [ 1+ X ( f - 1) J The actual steam content q> accounts
for the rela tive velocity of steam
or
Wn i.e. it relates to cases when w, =fo
Wm = Wo [ 1-J- x ( f- 1) (9.29) J =I= Ww· As indicated earlier, the volu-
me steam content assumes these velo-
The volu~"Le steam content ~ - The vo- cities to be equal to each o ther , w, =
l ume fracllon of steam in a steam- = Ww. T he relationship between the
v:ater mixture flow with equal veloci- actual steam content and volume
Lles of water and steam is called the steam content is as follows:
volume steam content:
~= v.
(9.30)
v.+llw -
whereby
Taking account of equations (9.18)
and (9.20), we have:
~ = -----;i~i:..._.....,p·--- (9.31) Denoting Wmlw 8 = c, we obtai n:
• 1+ -%
q> = c~
x IT
The correlation between the mass For an ascending flow
steam content x and the volume w, >wm, c< 1 , cp<~
steam conte nt ~ in a steam-water mix-
ture flow is s hown i n Fig. 9.1. At low For a descending flow
pressures, t he effect of x on ~ is espe- w, < Wm, C > 1, rp > ~
cially strong at low values of x and
decreases inversely with pressure. At If t~ere is no difference in velocity,
that IS w, = Ww = Wm, c = 1 and
The proportionality fac tor c cha-
racterizes the ratio of the velocity of
the steam-water mixture Wm to the
~ctual velocity of steam w., and t hus
1t characterizes the relative velocity
of steam w,. With a n increase in
pressure, the relative velocity of steam
decreases and, as pressure appro-
ac~es the critical value, c tends to
uruty while rp tends to ~-
The mass steam content in a uni-
formly heated evaporating tube va-
Fig . 9.1. Relation between mass steam con-
lent z and volu.me steam content ~ at vu- ries linearly along the tube length
nous pressures between its extreme values: x = 0 at
9.3. R egimes of Steam-water Mtztare Floro 103
in a flow where wat er and s t eam have
f .O
~ .,.... /
the same velocity:
0.8
I/ y I/ _ G, + Gw (9.39)
0.5 Pm - w'Qf IDo/
0.4
r; :r: 7
The actual density of the steam -
./
O.'l
0
v 20 40 50 80 %tOO
l
water mixture, Pa• kg/m3 , i.e. the
density at the actual v el ocities of
s team and wa ter, can be found from
the Eollowing consideration. Let us
s eparate a tube element of height !J.h
Fig. 9.2. Variations of ~. <p and z along
lhe length of a steam-generating channel filled with a steam-water mixture
(Fig. 9.3). L et steam and water i n
the inlet (iE i 1,. 1 = i') and x = 1 at the element be represented by corres-
ponding elementary volumes. The frac-
the outle t (i[ i 0 u t = i"), (Fig . 9.2).
On the other ha nd, t he volume steam tio ns of the cross sections occupied by
content ~ and the actual steam con- steam and water may be denoted as
f , 1 and !w a nd thei r sum, as f. The
tent rp, which both have zero initial
values, increase sharply in the initial masses of t he two components may be
written as /, 16.hpw and fw!J.hp' and
portion of a tube. Further in the
tube, they increase less intens ively their s um is the mass of the sepa rate d
volume of the steam-wa ter mixture,
(9. 33) to the maximum value oE unity at the
tube end. Wi th an increase in pres- f!J.hp 0 • This gives us an expression
s ure, rp and ~ approach x . for the actual density of steam-water
The pressure steam content q> is an mixture:
(9 .34) i mpo rtant flow characteristic, since Pa = p' - (p' - P *) = (1 - cp) p'
!p
it describes the actual distribution of
water and steam in a mixture and their
+
rpp. (9.40)
(9.35) individual velocities in the combined In an ascending tube, the steam
£low. has a relative velocity W ro which re-
The actual velocity of steam is sults in a decrease in the fractio n of
tho cross section occupied by the
w, = w;trp (9.37)
steam, rp, and an increase in the frac-
tion occupied by water, (1 - rp), s o
and the actual velocity of water is
t hat Pa > Pm· With increasing pres-
Ww = w~/(1 - rp) (9.38) sure, Pa tends to Pm·
The circulation ratio K is an inverse
The_apparent density of a steam-water
m ixture, Pm• kg/m3 , is the density of the mass steam content and is
(9.36) essentially the ratio of the quantity
of circulati ng wa ter to the quantity
of steam produced for the same time
interval (see Sec. 1.2}:
K = 1/x (9.41)
4h
9.3. Regimes of Steam-water
Mixture Flow
The intensity of heat removal from
f
a heating surface substantially de-
pends on the con ditions, or regimes,
of the motion of the steam-water
Fig. 9.3. To derivation of the formula for mixture on t hat surface. Under iden-
the density or steam-water mixture tical conditions, the s t ructure and
I 104
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Ch. 9. Parameters an¢ Motion Equations of Working Fluid 9.4. H ydraullc Resis.t.ances 10!)

·- •
.-.• column moves aloog the tube core
-•- . • and i~ ·surrounded hy a continuous ..
,_
--.
·- --
·- • .
..-·-
•
.
.
.,_qr_.
••
.• '
•••
••
•
annular water film which moves aloog
the tube wall. The water film intensi-
vely cools the internal surface of the
• -

a
_ _o _
'- -'
_ G_ a_
.... ..
--~~'­
-r--·
•• •
••~ : .
tube. This is what is called the disper-
se-annular (wet-wall) flow (Fig. 9.4d).
--
0
a !~..
••t . -
. ••
• The thickness of the water film de- (a)
0
0 0
.
•0 •
•• pends on the ratio between the flow
0 !..~
o__o_ . . rates of water and steam. At a high
•• •
•
•
--•
•
0 •
• pressure and high steam velociLy,
-'-· •
.!...!..... the major mass of the film is broken
... - 0
•••
• •
•• off and carried as droplets by the
-.-
--~

••
-.!.-
- - '-
(a) {b) (c)
Fig. 9.4. Steam-water mixture flow modes
in vertical tubes
(a) bubble !low; (b) emu ls ion flow; (c) slug now;
(d) dispersed annulnr flow; (c) inverse dispersed
annular f low
regime of flow are determined by the
spatial orientation of the heating
tubes, which is used to organize the
motion of th e working fluid in
steam-generating tubes.
Vertical tubes. An adiabatic flow of
a steam-water mixture at a low steam
content and slow velocity is essen-
tially liquid with rare fine vapour
bubbles distributed in it. This is
what is called bubble flow (Fig. 9.4a).
As the steam content increases and
if wp is high, the moving mixture
I contains a larger number of fine
vapour bubbles; this is the emulsion
flow, or frothy flow (Fig. 9.4b). At
low values of wp, an increase in
steam content may result in the coa-
lescence of fine bubbles into larger
formations whose size may be com-
parable with the tube diameter and
whose l ength may be many times
the diameter. These formations are
called 'slugs' and, correspondingly
the flow regime is the slug regime
(Fig. 9.4c). Behind a slug there is a
thin liquid bridge containing fine
vapour bubbles.
With a further increase in the steam
content, water bridges between the
slugs disappear and the slugs merge
into a continuous vapour column with
atomized water droplets in it. This
•• • ·-. -
•• = steam flow, leaving only a very thin
(d) (e) water film on tho wall, which soon
evaporates. In heated channels, some
specific flow regimes may take place.
In film boiling, for instance, a vapour
film may separate the liquid from
the heat-exchange surface, while li-
quid fills in the core of the channel;
this is called the inverse disperse-annu-
lar flow (dry-wall flow), Fig. 9.4e.
The flow regimes described above
are rather conditional since they gra-
dually change from one typo to ano-
ther with no distinct boundaries be-
tween them.
Horizontal tubes. The flow of the
steam-water mixture in a horizontal
tube is characterized by a non-uni-
form distribution of structural flow
components over the tube cross sec-
tion. Since steam has a lower density,
it moves primarily along the upper
tube wall, while the main mass of
water is concentrated at the lower
wall. The asymmetry of flow rela-
tive to the horizontal depends on the
velocity of the steam-water mixture
and tube diameter. At higher veloci-
ties, the flow is less asymmetrical.
In steam-generating tubes 30-40 mm
in diameter and at relatively high
inlet velocities (w > 1 m/s), vapour
bubbles form in the initial tube sec-
tion. They are detached from the
tube surface and move along with
the liquid (Fig. 9.5a). The vapour
bubbles increase in number in the
direction of the flow and begin to
merge into larger · formations. An
ever increasing quantity of steam is
involved in the combined motion of
• (6)
Fig. 9.5. Two-phase flow modes in horizontal tubes at (a) high and (b) low inlet velocity
the two phases, so that at a high
steam content the flow in a tube
becomes almost axisymmetrical and
resembles the; disperse-annular re-
gime in vertical tubes.
\Vith a low velocity of water at the
inlet to a steam-generating tube
(w < 0.5 m/s), asymmetrical motion
of water and steam may result in the
exposure of substantial portions of
the tube surface (Fig. 9.5b). The flow
then becomes essentially asymmetri-
cal along the whole length of the
tube, with the steam moving along
the upper tube wall. In other words,
the two-phase flow is separated, as
it were, into two individual flows.
This flow regime is unstable. With
an increase in the flow velocity, waves
may form on the separating surface
with their tops periodically touching
the superheated upper wall.
At supercritical pressures, the work-
ing fluid is a homogeneous medium .
Nonetheless, even with a directed
motion of the fluid at supercritical
pressure in a horizontal channel, free
convection may take place in a trans-
verse direction, resulting in density
variation along the height of the
flow. This inhomogeneity can be
characterized by the motion of a
lighter (less dense) medium along
the upper surface of a tube and of a
heavier (denser) medium, along the
lower surface, with no distinct boun-
dary between them. The difference
in densities increases with an increase
in the vertical size of a channel or of
the tube diameter.
In tube bends, some portions of
the tube surface may be washed less
intensively by the fluid than others,
which is due to the centrifugal effect
by which water is thrown towards the
outside surface of a bend, while the
tube wall at the inside surface is insuf-
ficiently cooled by water.
9.4. Hydraulic Resistances
Since tubes offer resistance to the
motion of water, steam-water mixture
or steam, a pressure gradient forms
between any two sections along the
length of a tube. The general equa-
tion of the total pressure gradient l~ns
been given in Sec. 9.1. For practical
calculations, it can be written in a
more convenient form:
t:..p = t:..p/r + t:..p, + t:..Poc ± t:..ph
(9.42)-
i.e. the total pressure gradient between
any two sections of a heated tube is
the sum of pressure gradients due to·
fdction, t:..p1,, local resistances t:..p,
acceleration t:..Pac• and hydrostatic
head t:..p h·
The resistance due to friction is
caused by the viscosity of the moving:
1 06
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Cit. 9. Parameters and Motion Equations of Working Fluid
fluid. For a single-phase isothermal
flow in a straight channel of constant
-cross section, this term is found from
the formula:
l
t.p,, = Ik
•
(9.43)
0 a flow. It can appear as the steam
whore t.p1, is the resistance due to
friction, Pa, A. 0 = A.ld is the resolved
friction coefficient, 1/m, l is the
length of the channel , m, w is the
velocity of the fluid, m/s, and p is
the density of the fluid, kg/m 3 •
Tho friction resistance for a two-
phase flow can be principally deter-
mined by tho formula for single-phase
flows, by replacing the s ingle-phase
Jlow velocity by the velocity o.E steam-
water mixture wm, provided that tho
two-phaseflowcan be considered homo-
geneous, i.e. obeying the following
relationship:
(9.44)
Noting the law of mass conservation
{soe Sec. 9.1), we can write:
PmWm = pfwo (9.45)
Noting equation (9.25), formula
(9.44) can be re-written as foll ows:
t.p,, = "-ol ~0 p' [ w+ w; (1 - ~:)]
0 may be found in reference books):
(9.46)
{)f, noting equation (9.29):
I!.Ptr = Aol 4- pf [ 1+X(f.- -1) J
(9.47)
I 11 most flow regimes, the structure
{)[ a two-phase flow differs noticeably
from a homogeneous structure (see
F ig. 9.4), for which reason correction
factor 'iJ is introduced into the last
~qu ation to account for the effect
{){ the flow structure. With a constant
steam content, we then have:
t.p,, = A0 l 4-;P' [1+ x'IJ (f.- -1 )J
(9.48)
The pressure loss due to friction
for a flow of variable steam content
can be determined from the formula:
w~
l!.pfr = "-ol--fp' [_1+XI!J p' -
- - ( rr
where x is the average steam content
in the channel and
- \~jXJ-IJ>t.:Z:j
"' = --'-....;___
Xf - Xj
where 'IJ 1 and 'i'J are correction factors
to account for the effect of the initial
and final steam content, x 1 and x 1 ,
on tho flow structure.
Pressure losses due to local resi-
stances are explained by the energy
consumption for detachment of the
boundary layer from the tube wall
and the formation of whirls in the
flow. Local r esistances appear in pla-
ces where the shape or direction of a
channel changes; conditionally, they
are considered to be localized in a
particular section and do not include
fr iction resistance.
The pressure loss in local resistan-
ces to a single-phase flow is determi-
ned by a formula similar to (9.43)
in which the resolved friction coeffi-
cient A.0 = Aid is replaced by the
coefficient of local resistance ~~ (it
For a two-phase flow:
[t.p 1 = 1:£{ L4p' [1+x ( :~ -1) J
where !;! is a conditional coefficient
of local resistance for a steam-water
mixture, usually !;; > £1• For a s in-
gle-phase flow across a tube bundle,
the hydraulic resistance is
w2
t.p,b =stb 2 p
The coefficient !; 1 for a flow across
a tube bundle depends on the design
of the bundle.
1.07
.•
9.5. Thermoph ytlcal Properties of Working Fluid
For a two-phase flow: 9.5. Tbermophysical Properties
of Working Fluid in the Path
ilPtb = s;b ~~ p'[ 1+ x( f.--1)](9.53) of a Monobloc Unit
1) J The pressure loss due to accelera- Va1·iations of the parameters and
(9.49)
tion is caused by a change in the volu-
me, and therefore, in the velocity of
physical properties of the working
fluid in various sections of the water-
steam path of a supercritical-pressure
-content of a fl ow increases due to monobloc unit are shown in Fig. 9.6.
heating, as the fluid passes through a T he highest pressure of the fluid is
reduced cross section, or both. at the inlet to the high-pressure water
_ The pressure loss due to fl9w acce- heater, downstream of the feed water
l eration can be found by the· formula: pump, Pw 1, and tho lowest pressure
is in the turbine condenser, p c· For
D.Pac =tot wp dw (9.54) supercritical-pressure pl ants, this pres-
sure range is from 32 MPa to 0.003 MPa
wl and for high-pressure power plants,
For a steady-state flow: from 17 MPa to 0.003 MPa. In the
condensate path, which includes a con-
WtPt = w 1 p, = wp = constant densate pump, and in the feed water
Therefore, at p >Per path with a feed water pump, the
llPac = wp (w, - w 1)
= (wp) 2 (v1 - v 1) (9.55)
For a two-phase flow, p < p cr·
t
Expressing v1 and v 1 through the (A
mass steam contents:
I
v1 = v' (1 - x1) +
u·x, I
u1 = u' (1 -xi) +
v •x 1
---l'- -
I
and substituting them into formula
(9 .55), we finally have:
llPoc = (wp) 2 (u • - u')
X \xl - Xt) (9.56)
(9.50) The hydrostatic component of pres-
sure loss for single- and two-phase ''I .
v ertical· flows is:
h
t.p,. = g ) p dh = pgh (9.57)
0
(9.51)
For a single-phase flow, p is taken
as the average density of the fluid
in section h, and for two-phase flows
is determined by formula (9.40). Mtrln 1/iglr· :;; l ow· ~
When determining the total pres- S11por- , prt.·~-sll ti Pl'l!~·svriJ ~
!JMior :ylintfe ~ -ylri ufpr "l:l
sure gradient, l!.p h is assumed to be .. .§
positive for ascending flows since it I II "ill IY Y 1!1. Y11
(9.52) increases the total resistance of a tube,
and negative for descending flows
where it ceases to be a resistance and,
{)n the contrary, acts in the direction
Fig. 9.6. Variations of parameters and ther-
mophysical properties of the working flu id
in the water-steam path of a supercritical-
{)f the flow. pressurc monobloc unit
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i08 Ch. 9. Parameters and Motion Equations of Working Flulct
pressure of the turbine condensate is
raised to a value equal to tho pressure
at the inlet. to the high-pressure water
heater, which ensures the motion of
the working fluid through the entire
water-steam path of the boiler.
In tho turbine, steam moves due to
a pressure gradient between tho inlet,
where the pressure is equal to that
downstream of tho boiler, and the
outlet, where it is equal to the pres-
sure in the condenser.
The highest temperature of the work-
ing fluid is the temperature of super-
heated steam and the lowest is that
in the condenser. In high-pressure
and supercritical-pressure plants, this
temperature interval is from 545° to
30°C.
Turbine condensate is preheated in
the low-pressure water heaters and
the deaorator of the condensate path
from 30° to 105-165°C aud further in
the higl1-pressure water heaters of
the feed water path to the feed water
temperature t1w (usually 145-270°C).
Water pressure in this path varies
from p = 0.3-1.0 MPa to 15-17 MPa
in high-pressure plants or to 30-32 MPa
in supercritical-pressure pl ants.
The total pressure gradient in the
path, flp = flP ec+ flPdca + flp31,
constitutes 20-30% of the pressure of
superheated steam. On the other hand,
the temperature of the working fluid
is raised substantially, from t1w to
superheated-steam tomperature t ••.
Superheated steam is fed into the
turbine with the parameters t,. and
p ••· As steam expands adiabatically
in tho turbine, its pressure and tem-
perature decrease. In power plants
of high and supercritical parameters,
the total efficiency is increased by
taking off steam from an intermediate
stage of t.he turbine (at a pressure of
3-4 MPa and temperature of 290-320°C)
and recirculating it back into the
boiler where it is reheated, usually
to the initial steam temperature,
54SC, in an intermed iate steam super-
beater (rehoater).
Since t,he working fluid changes its
pressure and temperatm·e in the wa-
ter-steam path or a supercritical mo-
nobloc power unit, this involves cer-
tain changes in its thermophysical
properties. As shown in Fig. 9.6, the
water-steam path can be divided
in to seven zones in which typical
changes in the th ermophysical proper-
ties of the working fluid take place.
The first zone includes the conden-
sate and feed water path of the power
unit with convective and radiation-
heated economizers. In this zone,
feed water pumps create tho highest
pressure in the water-steam path
needed to produce steam of the requi-
red pressure. The working fluid in
this zone remains liquid and therefo-
re, its thermophysical characteristics
are changed relatively weakly, not-
withstanding the high rise in pressure;
its dielectric permittivity e, however,
decreases to a smoll rraction of its
initial value.
The most t.yp ical is the second (near
critical) zone which is usually located
in the boiler furnace. In this zone,
the change from water to steam takes
place, so that even a small rise in the
temperature of the flow causes sharp
changes in the thermophysical charac-
teristics: near tho temperature of
the highest heat capacity, the enthalpy
of tho flow increases sharpl y, while
the viscosity ll• heat conductivity A.,
and, what is especially important,
the density p and dielectric permitti-
vity e decrease substantially, though
smoothly, not jumpwise.
In the third zone, which iocl udes
the main superheater, the temperature
and enthalpy of the superheated steam
increase further, but all other para-
meters, including density and dielec-
tric permittivity, change less than in
the previous zones.
In the fourth zone (high-pressure
cylinder of turbine), the thermal ener-
gy of the superheated steam is con-
verted into mechanical work and its
pressure and temperature decrease.
Accordingly, the enthalpy and density
of the steam decrease, the dielectric
permittivity increases somewhat (due
to temperature reduction), and tho
109
9.5. Thermophyslcal Properties of W orking Fluid
other properties (heat conductivity, p
Pu
heat capacity' and dynamic. viscosity)
continue to decrease smoothly. I~
[n tho fifth zone (reheater), steam
temperature is raised again at an 2'::::,.·..... / / ~
almost constant pressure roughly
/
/--x-:o :r:~t
'
3.5 MPa, resulting in an appreciable
in crease in its enthalpy and slight
increase in viscosity and beat conduc- ~
/:// t'
.
tivity. The dielectric permittivity of
steam decreases by 67-80%, whereas
~
.....
the density and isobaric heat ca'pacity
diminish only slightly. ~
In the sixth zone (low-pressure cy- r\Pm
linder of turbine), the physical para- \ \
\
meters of steam are changed in a
manner similar to the fourth zone, the ~ r-.... ~ ._
only difference being that the pres- '\em
sure changes much more substantially \
'
t han in the fourth zone. For that :>..,
~
: ._..,. -
reason, the density of steam decreases I
roughly to 1/300 or 1/400 o[ its ini-
t ial value. Its enthalpy also decrea-
....
.I!
-~ f11rnaco ·~ ~ •
ses Sllbstantially, wh ile changes in ""
l::"
c::S"-
"'til~
wafer walls ~\,.
•"'
~~~
c.a";-
the other properties are rather s mooth.
The seventh zone includes the tur- Fig. 9.7. Variations of density p and die-
bine condenser. The condensing lectric permittivity e in evaporating zone
steam hero has constant parameters: 1- lcmperaturc or the working !luid at subcr!tical
pressure; B- d!tto, at sul?ercri tical pressure (for
pressure 0.003 MPa and a temperature compartson)
of around 30°C. Only the enthalpy and
steam content of the flow are dimini-
shed. As steam is condensed fully , sures the change from the proper ties of
water to those of steam suddenly
the density, heat conductivity, heat
capacity, viscosity and dielectric per- takes place at the saturation tempe-
mittivity increase sharply. rature. As seen in Fig . 9.7, as the
The specifics of subcritical pressure water to steam transition takes place,
units are most pronounced in the tho density of the water, Pw• abruptly
second zone of the water-steam path, changes to that of steam, p., which
which is within the boiler furnace results in an increase in the enthalpy
(Fig. 9.7). This zone is characterized of the working fluid. Similarly, the
by the conversion of water to steam dielectric permittivity of water chan-
(boiling); steam generation takes place ges abruptly to that of steam. In the
at a constant temperature t' with zone of constant temperature at the
two phases: water and steam, existing saturation line and constant pres-
simultaneousl y (curve 1). For com- sure, bot;h phases (water and steam)
parison, the figure shows temperature co-exist; in the whole range of steam
variations in the working flu id at contents of the two-phase flow, 0 <
supercritical pressure (curve 2). < x < 1. The dot-and-dash lines in
As may be seen from Figs. 9.6 and tho figure show variations in the den-
9 .7, the thermo physical characteri- sity· of the steam-water mixture, Pm,
stics of the working fluid in the zone of and in its dielectric permittiv ity em
high heat capacities at suporcritical along the flow.
pressures vary smoothly (though ra- The thermophysical properties of
pidly), whereas at subcritical pres- water and steam are determined by
i10
Ch. 10. Temperature Conditions on Heating Surfaces
,1/r J11alt?r r t?!IID/1
\ e~ , the parame~ers and properties of the
Pcr,tcr
Fig. 9.8. Effect of pressure on the density of
wn ter aod steam, p, and dielectric pcrmi Ui-
vity e at the saturation li ne
pressure. Figure 9.8 shows v ariations
in the density and dielectric permitti-
TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS ON HEATING SURFACES
10.1. Classification of Heating
and Cooling Modes
U A knowledge of temperature distri-
bution in the metal of heating surfa-
ces, which operate under complicated
and heavy conditions, is essential for
estimating the reliability of a steam
boiler.
In boilers operat ing on organic
fu el , there are three differen t regions
of heat transfer. The first region inclu-
des the heating surfaces (water walls)
arranged in the furnace; they receive
heat mainly by radiation. The most
important factor of heat transfer in
this region is the pattern of distribu-
tion of the heat flow along tho height
of the furnace (see Fig. 20.2) and over
the cross-sectional periphery of water-
wall tubes (see Sec. 10.4).
The second heat-transfer region com-
prises the semiradiant heaLing surfa-
ces which are arranged in the boiler
zone where radiation from gaseous vo-
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vity of water and steam; as may be
seen, these characteristics are sub-
stantially different in a wide range of
subcritical pressures, but come closer
and closer together in the critical
point.
The above relationships between
working £lu id determine the hydrody-
namic and heat- transFer processes on
heating surfaces and the carry-off by
steam of impurities present in water;
they also pl ay a v ital part in the
formation of deposits on boiler and
turbine elemen ls.
lumes is still subst,anLial and the gas
temperature is quite high (1 200-
8000C). This group of heating surfaces
includes primarily platens and water
walls in the horizontal duct of the
furnace.
The heating surfaces in the third
reg ion receive heat mostly by convec-
tion. T his r egion has a r elatively low
temperature of combustion products
(800-900°C at tho inlet, to the convec-
tive shalt and up to 100-150°C at i Ls •
outlet) and accommodates convective
heating surfaces: an economizer, air
heat er, and some superheater banks .
These heating surfaces have a small
Lube pitch, i .e. small spaces between
tubes for Lhe passage of hot gases.
Under such cond itions, the fraction
of radiant heat transfer from combu-
stion products onto t ubes is not high .
In the steam generators of nuclear
power st ations , Lwo r egions of heat
transfer are usually distinguished. The
first r egion includes the heating sur-
10.1. Claulflcatlon of Heating and Cooling .Modes
faces arranged in the reactor core.
The heat in the reactor is liberated
due to nuclear fission in ·a very rest-
ricted volume around the pl ace where
nuclear fission occurs. This makes
it. possible to ass ume that practically
all the heat released by tho core is
concentrated in tho volume of fuel
elements.
The maximum amount of heat relea-
sed, qmax• through the s1.1rface of
fuel elements is in mid-height and
the zero value (in the absence of
reflectors), a t the end faces. Reflec-
t ors can substantially equalize the
intensity of heat released.
In the second region, heat transfer
takes place by convection at a mode-
rate temperature of the heat-transfer
agent (water, liquid metal or gas) .
For instance, in a water-healed pri-
mary circuit, water Lem perature does
not exceed 330-350°C (at a pressure
of 13-15 MPa); in ci rcuits heated
by liquid metal or gas, this tempera-
ture may be higher, up to 700-800°C.
Under such conditions, ther e is no
immediate danger of tube burn-out
should the heat-Lransfer conditions
worsen, but the durability of the
heating surfaces' metal can be im-
paired and cause emergency situa-
tions.
Present-day engineering has made
possible the release of enormous quan-
tities of heat in the boiler furnace
or the core of a nuclear power reactor.
Irrespective of t,he type of power
plant, the beat released must be acti-
vely r emoved through heating surfa-
ces. This is ensured by the motion of
the working fluid at a definite velo-
city.
The motion of the steam-water mix-
ture, and therefore, cooling of the
evaporating tubes of steam boilers
and steam generators can be orga-
nized in a different manner (Fig. 10.1).
In free-·c irculation plants , the steam-
water mixture moves under the free-
circulation head that appears when
the tubes heat up. With an increase
in load, tho mass fl ow rate at the
inlet, to the evaporating tu bes first
1U
c c' D/Dr
Fig. 10.i. Effect or boiler load on mass.
velocity
J - gravlly clrculntlon; t-mulliple forced c ircu-
lati on: J-c lrculotlon In once-through boiler;
4-comblned circulation
increases sharply to a maximum value
and is then almost stabilized or oven
decreases somewhat , since the increas-
ing steam generation at. a high unit
volume of steam results in an increased
resistance of the Lubes (curve 1 in
Fig. 10.1).
In mul t iple forced circulat-ion
plants, the circulation of the water
and steam-water mixture in evaporat-
ing tubes is effected b y a circulation
pump , so that the mass flow rate of
the working fluid is almost constant
irrespective of boil er load (curve 2).
In once-through boiler plants, tl1e
mass flow rate is proporLional to t he
boiler load (curve 3). At a low load,
the mass fl ow rate may turn out t<>
be inadmissibly low and cause burn-
out of tubes. For this reason , load
shedding is restricted to no less than
30% of the rated load.
Curve 4 in Fig. 10.1 depicts the
characteristic of a boiler plant in
which tho motion of the working fluid
is based on the principle of mulLiple
forced circulation at low loads and
on the once-through principle at high
loads. When operating on the prin-
ciple of mult-iple forced circulation,
the mass flow rate is expressed by
the sum of the ordinates ab- the mass
flow rate corresponding to recircul a-
tion through the steam-generating sur-
faces, and be- the mass flow rate in
the economizer and superheater in
once-through operation. With a chan-
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112 Ch. 10. T empera ture Conditfons on Heating Surfaces 10.2. Heat-tran•fer Crl1ll In" Euapor4tlng Tabu 113

ge to the once-through operation, the cross section of a tube (noting vapour bubbles appear on tho tube and size diminish in the course of
the mass flow rate is the same in all that heat supply or heat r emov al may walls; they coal esce with .o ne another further vaporization. T hus, a con-
the heaLing surfaces of the water-steam b e uneven around the periphery of a and may eventually form a conti- tinuous steam layer forms at the
path, the ordinate a' c'. Thus, the tube}. nuous vapour film· which will separate wall, while the core of the flow con-
comb ined circulation system ensures the flowing liquid from the heated tains ii slightly superheated steam
adequate cooling of all the heaLing 10.2. Heat-transfer Crisis tube wall and thus sharply impair with wator droplets whose concentra-
surfaces irrespective of the load. Ac- in Evaporating T ubes the conditions of heat transfer. T he tion decreases gradually in the direc-
cordingly, fo rced-circul ation single- effect of a sharp worsening of heat tion of the flow. Under such condi-
pass motion of water and steam takes For a g iven heat release intens ity, transfer on a change fro m bubble t ions , water dro plets do not roach
place in the economizers and super- the temperature conditions on an boiling to film boiling is called tho the tube walls. Besides, on entering a
heaters. evaporating tube are m ainly determi- boiling crisis (burn-out conditton.~) and hotter zone of the tube they evapo-
The thermal conditions in the Lubes ned by the steam content, mass flow t he corresponding heating · ·t oad is rate. Since vaporization is more in-
of tho steam-water path of a steam rate and pressure of the flow . called the critical load qcr· tensive at the walls, the water drop-
boiler or steam generator are establi- Various inadequate temperature con- On occurrence of the boiling crisis lots are repulsed from tube walls back
shed depending on the ratio between ditions which may appear in evapo- (point 2), the layer of superheated into the steam flow. T:Jnder such con-
the quantity of heat s upplied by the rating tubes can resu lt in a substan- steam at the heated wall becomes ditions, heat transfer occurs through
heat-trans[er agent \.o the outside tial rise in tho temperature of the thicker, the heat-transfer coefficient a continuous steam layer, i.e. the
surface and tho quantity of heat metallic tube wall which carl some- drops down sh arply, resulting in a heat-transfer · c.oefficient decreases
removed by tho working fluid from times cause tube burn-out. One should sharp rise in the wall temperature sharply and the wall temperature
the inside surface. T he si multaneous differentiate between tho inad equate and often in burn-out of the t ube increases (poin t 2' in F ig. 10.2b},
processes of heat rel ease and heat temperature condition s in bubble El ow wall (point 3). These temperature resulti ng in a boiling crisis . In con-
removal ensure that any point of a and in disperse-annular flow . conditions can occur in bubble flow trasl. to , the previously mentioned
heating surface is in the necessa ry With bubble flow of a s team-water if the heating rate of one of the evapo- case of a boiling crisis at a mode1·ate
t herma l s tate and has a specific mixture having a moderate steam rating tubes is t oo high and a thick steam content during a cbange· from
t emperature. The temperatures in va- content, a thick layer of liquid coveL"S layer of steam accumulates oo the bubble to "film boiling, this type of
rious points of a heating surface form the tube wall (Fig. 10.2a) and the superheated tube wall. boiling crisis is caused by a · change
what is called the temperature field . temp erature of the tube is maintained In disperse-annular (wet-wall) flow, fro m disperse-annular to disperse flow
One can distinguish between a tem- at a substantially low level (section saturated steam with susp!:nded liquid with a complet e drying out of the
perature field along the motion of 1-2). Even with intensive heating, it droplets moves in the core of a tube liquid film at a high steam content
t he working fluid, i.e. along the length exceeds the saturat ion temperature and a water film flows along the tube of the £low. This type of boiling
of tu bes (assuming that t hey are hea- only by a few tens of degrees. walls (Fig. 10.2b). Without heating, crisis can even · take place at a · low
ted uniformly around their periphe- As th e working fluid moves and is the thickness of th e liquid film depends h eating load and rel atively high .heat-
ry) and a temperatu re field across heated in t he tube, more and more on the ratio between the flow rates transfer coefficien t as th e liquid phase
of water and steam, the quantity of evaporates almost completely. Since
J moisture t hat is separated from the the unit volume of steam is much
I flow core and wets the wall, and . the. higher than that of water, the linear
quantity of moisture r emoved from velocity of the flow increases sub-
-- the wall due to break-off and mecha-
nical carry-off by the steam flow.
stantially. In a boiling crisis when the
liquid fil m dries out, the temperature
f'
In heated tubes, the intensity of heat- of the tube wall rises less significantly
,
f 2 ing has a strong ,additional effect on (line 2' -3'), as in tho former case.
t - - - -- - t'- - - the thickness of•'"the water film. A Boiling cris is in the one-sided heat-
continuous water fil m can still ensure ing of evaporating tUbes. We have
proper heat removal from the heated discussed the mechanism of boiling
q, surface and the wall tempeL·ature can crisis in an ascending flow of working
be maintained at an allowable lovel fluid in vertical tubes heated u ni-
(line 1 ' -2' ). In further heating, the form ly all over their periphery.
q2rrrrrn""T"T"i-rrhrTTTTTT1rTTTTT"M water film becomes thinner owing l n modern powerful steam boilers,
gUll.LLLI.Lj.J.lll.UJJ u~~~~~~~~ to ev aporation and break-off, so that th~ main steam-generating surfaces
• • only a very thin fil m (micro-film) nrc formed by furnace water walls
.
. .......... . ... .. . .' . re mai_ns on the wall. Under a parti- which are unevenly h eated over their
. . : . .. ' Fig. 10.2_ General pattern of tempe-
. .'•
.
,.
.. . .
• • t I
ratures in a steam-generating lube at
cular heating load, t he microfilm periphery. The distribution pattern
(a) bubble Oow and (b) dispersed nn- is destroyed and separated into indi- of the heating load over the periphery
(a) (h) nular Oow of steam-water mixture vidual islets and streaks whose Iiumbor of a water-wall tube is shown in
8 -01524

114 Ch. 10. Temperature CondLttons on Heating Surfaces
Fig. 10.3. Heat distribution in a smooth
tube heated from one side
Fig. 10.3. The front side of the tube,
which faces the furnace, is heated
most intensively and the rear side,
least intensively. Uneven heating cau-
ses transverse circulation of the work- Where
ing fluid from the less heated to the
more heated portions of the tube N u -
periphery; some heat is also trans-
ferred by conduction in the metal
wall. These two circumstances en- flow temperature is taken as the deci-
hance the cooling effect of the working sive parameter. For straight channels,.
fluid, thus retarding the appearance c = 0.023 .
of a boiling crisis. For this reason,
burn-out conditions in tubes that ture gradient M = t 1 - t1 = qlrzz-
are unevenly heated across their pe-
riphery can appear at substantially
higher values of qcr than in those 1>:1
which are heated uniformly from all
sides. This means that one-sided heat-
ing surfaces can be designed for more
forced heating, q~~ > q~;· (see Fig. l>:t
10.3). The allowable heating load
to avoid a boiling crisis can also be
increased by artificial turbulization "==
of the flow with helical inserts, screw ....,
threading of the internal surface of
tubes, etc.
10.3. Temperature Conditions Along
the Length of a Channel
Straight channels. Curves of tempe-
ratures in the water-steam path of
subcritical-pressure drum-type and on-
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ce-through boilers are shown in
Fig. 10.4. In boilers of any type, the
temperature of feed water in the
economizer, t 1w, is raised to the
saturation point (in the limit), so
that the heat absorbed by evaporat-
ing tubes is almost fully spent on
vaporizatioi;I, and the temperature of
the steam-water mixture t' remains
almost constant. In the superheater.
the temperature of steam is further
r aised to the rated value t ••.
In the economizer section I, the
temperature of the flow t1 and that
of the tube wall, tt. are below the
saturation temperature: t 1 < t' and·
t 1 < t'. The thermo physical proper-
ties of water in the layer near the walL
vary only slightly with temperature.
Under such conditions, heat transfer
is mainly governed by the laws of
convection:
(10.1)
o:d Re - wp1d Pr - cptf.Lr
,_'J..!' ! - ~lf. 1-
The subscript 'f' implies that the·
Heat exchange occurs at a tempera-
/ /! 3
J :...
< 8,8'-.../ / ,-J -c >Sl
i
\ <?r
~~~
-c >-
z I f-.rcr '
2~
J
AI 'B.o' ·C
•
,_
f
// i 1
trw t' tss
(a) (b)
Fig. i0.4. Temperature variations in the
water-steam path of (a) drum-type and (b)·
once-through subcritical-pressure boilers
1- economizer: 2-evaporating tubes ; J-super-
beater· A-temperature or the working !luld ~
B-wall temperature or a drum-type boil er; B'-
wall t empe rature or a once-through boile r; C-ailo-
wa ble metal tempera ture
10.9: Temperature Conditions Along the Channel
In the economizer section, heat ex-
change between the wall and the water
takes place at a low heating intensity
(q ~ 5-10 kW/m2 ) and high values
o[ the heat-transfer coefficient [a. =
= 2-5 kW/(m 2 K)}, so that the wall
temperature is only a few degrees
higher than that of the water.
In section II, the temperature of
the flow t 1 is lower than t', while
the wall temperature is higner than
t'. This means that vaporizatfon (sur-
face boiling) has already started on
the wall. As steam bubbles are for-
med, they pass into the water flow
and are condensed. In this section,
the water flow is heated in the tem-
perature range up to t'. This section
too, belongs to the economizer, but
the heat transfer in it is more inten-
sive than in section I.
As heat is further supplied, stable
bubble boiling begins in the tube:
t1 = t' and t 1 > t'. In this boiling
zone (section I II), heat transfer takes
place irrespective o[ the flow velocity
,,, (at velocities typical for steam boi-
lers), but is determined by the heat-
ing intensity q and the thermophysical
properties of the liquid and steam at
the saturation line, which depend uni-
quely on pressure p. In the pressure
range 0.4-16 .MPa, the heat-transfer
coefficient in the zone of intensive
boiling can be approximated by the
. empirical formula
~ . - 0 · 31•po.4sqo.7
. '-"bo II - • (10.2)
Heat transfer in this section takes
1:>. place at a substantially high heat-
.
~ . transfer coefficient [rz 2 = 50-100
2
kW/(m K)J, and therefore, the tempe-
rature of the tube wall only slightly
"==
- exceeds the temperature of the flow
even with very intensive heating, as
.....
is possible in high-forced furnaces of
steam boilers without running the
risk of scale deposition (see Sec. 10.4).
Such conditions exist along the whole
length o[ evaporating tubes in drum-
type boilers (section III) where the
mass steam content x at the outlet
1s rather low (less than 20%) due
to the high circulation ratio. In once-
H5
through boil ers, the steam content
varies along the length of the evapo-
rating tubes in the range 0 < x < 1.
In tube portions where x is relatively
low due to extensive boiling, a 2 is
rather high and can be calculated by
formula (10.2). Under such conditions,
t 1 is close to t'. ··
Beginning hom a certain steam
content Xcr. which depends on pres-
sure and heating intensity 1 th_e tem-
perature of the wall rises st~;bstantial­
ly (boiling crisis associated with ' wa-
ter film drying, see Sec. 10.2),, which
is indicative of deterioration of the
heat exchange conditions (section. IV).
For this section, i.e , in the zone x >
> X cr. or upon occurr~nce of a. .boiling
crisis, it may be assumed with a good
approximation that the coefficient of
heat transfer from the wall to steam-
water mixture (rz1 ) varies . roughly
proportionally to the linear velocity
of the steam-water mixture to 'wm
the power of 0.8; a similar relation-
ship may be assumed fr9~ the. coef-
ficient of heat transfer t.o · dry satu-
rated steam a*. Therefore: • • t ••
(10.3)
'.
' '
'
Assuming that the steam-water mix-
ture in the zone of deterioration of
heat transfer moves as a homogeneous
medium, the coefficient of heat trans-
fer can be determined as for dry
saturated steam whose average veloci-
ty is equal to the velocity of the
mixture:
p•
Wm
-. = x
Ul
+-,..
p
(1-x) (10.4)
The formula for a 1 in the . zones of
deterioration of beat transfer has
been proposed by Z. L. Miropolsky
[61]. I t includes a correction factor y
to account for inhomogeneity of the
fluid in the zone at a steam content
that is slightly less than unity:
Nu1 = c (Re")o. spro · 8
t' '
X _x [ •
+f,- (1-x)
]0 8
·. y (10.5)
 ·H6
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Ch. 10. Temp erature Conditions on Heating Surfaces
~vh ere
Nu1 = i/ and Re" = (w:~ d
'The correction factor y, w hich de-
-pe•~ds on the steam content and p' /p •
rat1o, can be found ily the empirical
form ula:
r·"
y :: 1 -0.1 ( ~: - 1 (1 - x("
On atlaining a maximum, the te m-
·perat ure of the heated tubes decreases.
I 'T his is due to the fact that heat
"transfer is mor~ in tensive with an
:increase in l.he linear velocity of
• :steam in the zone where the liquid
pl1ase is evaporated completely (sec-
tion V). A t the boundary between
sections IIf. and IV for drum-typo
boilers or lf and VI for onco-tllrough.
boilers, tile• mass steam con tent be-
-comes equal to unity (x = 1) and the
•enthal py is i •, so that any further
:supply of hoat results i11 steam super~
.heatiug. '·
In all types of boilers, in tho super-
:hoater region (section VI), heat trans-
lfer to s uperheated s team again wor-
:sens and the temperature of the tube
metal increases. In this region, the
laws of convective heat exchange for
a s ingle-pllase medium become valid
.again - but for superheated steam we
.have:
N u ,, = cR e.0 · 6p rl0·8 (10.6)
·u nder impairment 'of heat transfer
conditions, the coefficient a. 2 is sub-
stantially lower than in intensive
boiling, but is still sufficiently high
I to ensure reliable operation of the m e-
tal of the heating surfaces at a pro-
perly selected mass lvelocity of the
ilow (see Sec. 10.2).
vVilh an increase in pressure, sur-
I face tension decreases , so that impair-
ment of heat transfer occurs at a lower
value of Xcr· T he same effect on Xcr
has an increase in tho heating load (due
to quicker ovaporaLion of moisture
in the tubes).
The boundary of the transition to
.deteriorated heat-transfer conditions
·can move along the length of an eva-
+-~ - ---
-...... t
Fig. 10.5. Wall and flow temperatures in
the water-steam path of a supercriti cal-
p ressure boiler
1- tl ow temperature; 2- wnll temperature al low
q; 3-Wnll temperature at high q
porating tube d epending on certa in
operating factors. T he metal at that
boundat·y is subjected to temperature
ch anges which may cause thermal fa-
tigue. The amplitude of tempet·ature
variations can be decreased by I imit-
ing the temperature g•:adient between
the in ternal wall Of a t ubo and the
flow in the transition region (6.t :s;;;;
,s;;;; 80°C}. This is attai ned by main-
taining a sufficientl y high flow velo-
city.
Curves of the temperature varia-
tio ns of the flow and tube wall in a
vertical once-through circuit o[ super-
critical pressure at various heating
intensities are shown in Fig. 10.5. The
entire region of steam generation cart
be divided into three h eat-transfer
regions: I or I' -water preheating;
II or [['-pseudo-boiling; and III-
steam Superheating. [n l'egiOil f , tho
temperature oE the fl ow and woll at a
given pressure is below the tempera-
ture of conditional phase transition,
tph· The thermophysical prope.·ties of
the working fluid in t he boundary
layer on the wall vary only slightly.
UndeL· such cond itions, h eal, Lransfer
is governed by convection and can
be calculated by formula (10.1). The
wall temperature in r egion I increases
slowly, following v adations in l,he
flow temperature.
10.3. ·r emperatarc Conditions Along .the Channel
kW/(m21()
20
oc
v I
15
10
~
.....-::
/,....
\
4
......
5
' 5
0 cul ation: Gr is the :G t·ashof number:
IJOO
Fig. 10.6. Effect of the working fluid enth-
alpy and of heat flux on the }teat-transfer
coefficient at supercritical pressure
P - 24 MPa, wp = 700 kg(m' s); q, k\V/m':
350; 2-520; 3-64 0; 4-7 50; S- 870
ln region II, the temperature of
the flow remains lower than tp 1.,
but the temperature of the wall is
higher th an tp 1, . For this reason, the
tbermophysical properties in the boun-
dary layer and in the main fl ow may
differ substantially (see Sec. 9.5)
resulting in the features s pecific to
the heat transfer in that region : heat
transfer is intensified at low values of
q (line 2 in Fig. 10.5) and, on the
con trary, is impaired at high values
of q (line 3). Figure 10.6 shows the
effect of q on a. 2 in the phase tran-
sition region. As may be seen , a. 2 has
a maximum at a low q and decreases
to a minimum at higher values of q.
With a decrease in the flow velocity
or an increase in the heating load, the
region of unit enthalpies typical of the
im paired beat tr ansfer becomes larger.
Ats'upercritical pressures, heat trans-
fer in this region is caused by two m ain
factors: tho effect of varying proper-
ties of the fl ow on the processes of
turbulent mass exchange and the
appearance of noticeable thcrmogrn-
v itational forces (free convection).
Th errnogravilutional forces can be
characterized by the ratio Gr/Re 2 .
At Gr/Re2 < 10 - 2 , the effect of free
convection ca n be neglected and boat
transfer in a vertical ascending flow
can be calcul ated by the formula
proposed by V.S. Protopopov:
Nu, =- Nu 0 (.2_)n
c ,t
1
(_E_I_
HT
where Nu 0 is the Nussel t nu mber un-
. der isothermal conditions:
!;
Rc,Prt 8
J
""""~
2
t'<
!'...
N u 0 = ------=~-=----
1.07 -l- 12.7 V{ (Pr2f'-1)
(10.8)
l
Other quan liLies needed fo1· the cal -
2000 JrJ/Irg
Cr - g
I
(Pt -r.~!l'!:. .
VJPt
~ is the coefficien t of hydraulic resi-
J-
stance, s
= (1.82 log Re - 1.64) - 2 ;
cp is the mean specific henl.:
-c It - it
- _..:.......__,_
p - It - It
cp 1 is the specific heat of the flow~.
and Pt and p 1 arc the How density at.
the flow temperature and wall tem-
perature, respectively. The exponents'
n and m can be foun d by empiricaL
formulae.
At Gr/Re 2 = 1 0 -~-0.4, the contri-
bution of gravitational forces is large·
and heat transfer deteriora tcs owing:
to a partial degeneration of the turbu--
lence in an ascending flo w. For such•
condi tions , the calculation should be·
corrected for the effect of free convec-
tion, i.e. for Lhe ratio Gr/ Re 2 •
The conditions described by curve 3.
(see Fig. 10.5) can ap pear at q > · qt,.
at a given value wp or at qlwp >-
> lq (wp)Jb 122).
In region III, the temperature of'
the flow exceeds t 1, 11 and heat trans-
fer is governed b y the laws for super-
heated steam [formula (10.6)].
Bent channels. T he tubing of a boiler·
or steam generator has straight tubu-
lar portions and numerous tube bends ,
such as bent tu bcs in cylindrical cyc-
lone primary furna ces , coi led tube-
banks in nucleat· steam generators,
bends in multi-p ass sections of water
wall, bent tubes around burner ports
m a nholes, etc. '
Tlto motiou of flui ds in bent chan-
nels can be characterized by the ap-
PJ .
)"' (10.7) penl'ance of centrifugrll forces directed
towards the outsid e of a beud. The·
Download From Boilersinfo.com
i20
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Ch. 10. Tempuatu.rc ·Conditions on Heating Surface.s
at that point should t)le heating . be
uniform with a heat flow qmnx· .
Non-uniformity of the temperature
field is most essential for horizontal
tubes of subcritical-pressure plants
and also for tubes of any orientation
of supercritical plants in zones where
the working fluid has a high heat ca-
pacity.
At supercritical pressures, the ther-
mophysical properties of the \\rorking
fluid may substantially change in a
rather narrow temperature range (Fig.
9.6). In vertical heated tubes, this
may result in a density gradient along
the radius and the formation of a
zone of lower density and lower con-
ductivity near the heating surface
whose temperature is naturally higher.
This can lower the intensity .of heat
transfer and worsen the temperature
conditions on the heating surface.
In horizontal tubes of a diameter
more than '15-20 rom,. even if h eated
uniformly over the periphery, in Lernal
heat transfer in the upper portion
is much worse than in the lower,
which is due to asymmetry of the
mixture flow under the effect of gra-
vitational forces. F or this reason,
the range of deteriorated heat trans-
fer is larger in horizontal tubes than
in vertical. In inclined tubes, even
when heated uniformly over the pe-
riphery, unsymmetrical two-phase flow
can also appear under certain condi-
tions, resulting. in poor beat transfer
in the top portion of a tube. Thus, the
region of deteriorated heat transfer is
l arger in inclined tubes than in ver-
tical, but smaller than in horizontal
tubes.
At subcritical pressures and sepa-
rated flow of the working fluid, heat
transfer is unsymmetrical and the
temperatures on the upper and lower
surfaces of tubes are different (Fig.
10.9). Heat transfer at the upper tube
surface, where the wall temperature
is close to the saturation point, is
worse than at the lower surface. This
is associated with particular condi-
tions of two-phase flow in horizontal
tubes where the flow can be separated
180"
I
2
3
o 9o tou 27fl Jofl"
An!lle from lower· line of tube
Fig. 10.9. Overheating of the upper surface
of a horizontal tube with a separated flow
inside, relative to its lower surface
J-p = 11 MPa; Z-p = 1 B MPa; 3-p = 22.4 MPa'
by gravitational forces (see Sec. 9.3).
Waves which form on flow separation
can periodically splash onto the over.,
heated wall. Repeated water splashes
cause a sharp cooling of the tube wall.
Temperature variations in Ute metal
can cause fat igue phenomena. For
this reason, in free-circulat ion boi-
lers, which are characterized by low
velocities of flow in evaporating tubes,
horizontal tubes are not heated. In
once-through boilers, flow velocities
are substantially higher, and therefo-.
re, flow separation does not occur wi-
thin a v,rider range of heating loads.
The superheating /:;.t of the upper
portion of a tube relative to i ts lower
portion (upon flow separation) can
be somewhat diminished by increasing,
the thickness of the tube wall and •
the heat conductivity of the tube me-
tal, which causes heat to spread
thr~>Ugh the tube metal.
At supercritical pressures, the wor-.
king fluid can separate in horizontal
tubes by density in the vertical direc-
tion. For th is reason, under identical
conditions, Lhe temperature of the
upper portion of a horizontal tube
turns out to be higher than the wall
temperature of a vertical tube. The
ratio a.h";,~/a ocr depends on the en-
thalpy of the flow and the parameter
q/wp (Fig. 10.10).
F inned tubes. As has been given
earlier, under id en tical conditions the
10.4. Temperature Conditions around Periphery of Channel
0.9 ~ ......... qfurl' =0.2!! /7
0.8 ~~ 0.42 ./ /I
0.7
0.6
,\
\ "--._0.53./ I
VI
"0.84 / v '(10.16)
0.5,2{10 1600 2fl01l t.lrJ/Ir!!
Fig. 10.10. Ratio a~~Javer at supercritical
pressUJ'e (p = constant)
heating load near the front wall on a
smooth and a finned tube is roughly
the same. This makes it possible to
calculate the wall temperature on the
front surface of finned tubes of water
walls (equal one-sided heating of pa-
rallel tubes) as for smooth tubes [see
formula (10 ..12)1.
To estimate the reliability of the
tube metal, it is essential to know
the temperature of metal at the tip
of fins . According to (14], with a
symmetrical temperature . field (the
same diameter of welded tubes and
the same temperatures of working
fluid and h eat -transfer coefficients a 2
in the tubes), the temperature at the
tips of the fins can he found from the
formula:
(10.13)
The coefficient lew considers the
effect of welded seams; this can be
taken from reference data. The tem-
perature gradient between the root
and tip of a fin can he found as:
(10.14)
where A is the coefficient of the fin
shape depending on the geometrical
characteristics hlbr and b11br of fins
(to be taken from reference data) .
The t emperature in the root of the
fin s of a furnace water wall can be
expressed by the formula:
tr = t}l + ~J.Lrqmax [ a 2
1.
+ Am (1~~)
fit
J is distributed evenly between the tu-
(10.15)
121
For a ,platen wall, the. t.emperatur&
of a fin root 'is found froui the for-
mula
(1! ~) J
When it is essential to obtain the·
mass velocity of the flow, use is often
made of multi-pass hydraulic systems
in t.he form of individual banks or
sections connected in series so that,
as the working fluid [lows through
them, its temperature· and . enthalpy
gradually increase. 011 the qther hand,.
these sections are arranged in parallel
relative to the heat-transfer· agent
(combustion products), so that each
of them absorbs roughly the sam&
quantity of heat. Under such con-
ditions, an unsymmetrical tern pera-
ture field can appear in the extreme
tubes of adjacent sections. If these
tubes are welded together, as is done
in gas-tight water walls, the tempe-
rature difference between connected
fins can give rise to appreciable tem-
perature stresses, sometimes causing
fracturing in the welded sections.
Temperature asymmetry in gas-tight
(membrane) walls creates the problem
of proper temperature distribution in
such walls. The problem is solved by
applying the superposition principle:
with a number of external actions.
it is assumed that their effects can
be added together. The quantity of
heat absorbed by a finned tube c,:on-
sists of two components: the heat
absorbed in the cylindrical portion
(from the front point to the fin root)
and the heat absorbed in the fin pro-
per. Each of these portions has a par-
ticular tempera Lure field which can
be added together to obtain the total
temperature field of a finned tube.
P roblems with temperature sym-
metry (Fig. 10.11a) are solved by as-
suming that the heat absorbed by the·
connecting piece between two tubes
bes, and that the maximum of tem-
perature is in the middle of the piece.
1.22
Ch. 10. Temperature Condition s on Heating Surfaces
Tubef • Tube2
0 t'
H /(m K) for ferric oxides. Since the
(a)
mH ( -m H
II
{h)
l~ig. 10.11. Temperature distribution in n
connecting piece
{<>) lbcrmnl symmetry , t< 1l - t< 2l; (b) nsymmclricnl
cond itions. t< 1 l > t< 1 >
With Lam perature asymmetry (Fig.
10.11b), Lhe temperature maximum
is shifted towards the tube with a
lower temperature level, so that the
distribution of heat between the tu-
bes will be uneven: it will be divided
in proportion to tho length of the
piece from the point of the highest
temperature to a particular tube, i.e.
mH for the tube at a higher tempe-
r ature and (1 - m) H for that at a
lower temperature, where m is the
coefficient of displacement of the tem-
perature maximum; its calculations
can be found in reference book~ [141.
Temperature conditions in a finned
tube arc determined by its thermal and
geometrical parameters . In Fig. 10.12,
typical temperature fields are shown
in terms of excessive temperatures,
i.e. tempet·ature differences between
t he metal and the working fluid, for
a developed half-tube. For all tho cur-
ves shown, it is typical that tho hi-
ghest temperature is in the front zone
<>f a tu ho a nd at the tip of fins. Bet-
w een these points, the tomperat1.1re
decreases monotonically from the front
point to tho fin root, then rises sub-
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i!t =t,.,-Lr
0 fluid is higher, and thus, .the wall will cross section of the core (especially
(a)
'L( l
s(IJ/tf 1
\ j· I s(2)/lf
}r.. Y .
h \
//Jjd
' -......:...,
-<~
" .
0 '/(
Fig. 10.12. Temperature distribution over
the outer surface of a finned tube of water
wall (a) at different values of internal hent-
t~ansfer coefficient a 2 (cd < ai < al); (b) at
different relative pitch s/d (s 1 > s~ > s3)
stantially c1t the fin tip and again de-
creases from the fin tip to the rear side
of the tube.
The effect of deposits on temperature
conditions on heating surfaces. We
h ave discllSSed temperature condi-
tions on clean (deposit free) heating
surfaces. S1.1ch conditions can be en- •
sured by proper organization of the
processes of steam generation. On the
other hand, in boiler operation there
is almost always a potential danger
that deposits will form from impuri-
ties whi ch are presen L, in a d isso I ved
or susp ended state, in water (see Chs.
14 and 15).
When deposits are present on the
inner surface of tubes, th e wall tem-
perature is found from the formula:
t~n=tfz +qin(...!...+
as
~'1 1
" ')
r!cp
With a larger thickness Odcp of the
deposited layer and with a lower hea t
conductivity 'J..dcP• the thermal re-
10.5. Heat Exchange In Steam Generators 123
sistance across the wall to the working which always takes place over the
have a higher temperature. The conduc- with intensive heating which is typi-
t ivity of deposits depends on the com- cal o£ nuclear reactors), the differences
position of impurities in the water in the flow rates of the working fl1.1id
and may vary within very wide li- in the cells and over the periphery
mits-from 0.1 to 0.5 W /(m K) for of rods may result in different unit
mineral deposits and u p to 3-5 WI heaL absorp tion dq/d (wp) (per unit
flow rate of the coolant) and the ap-
conductivity of deposits is substan- pearance of temperature gradients bet-
tially lower than that of the metal, ween the rods. Since there is no acti-
even slight deposits, in a · layer of ve turbulent mass exchange of the
fluid through the narrow spaces bet-
<>nly a few fractions of a millimetre,
in the tubes of water walls, which are ween the rods in t he cells, the velo-
heated quite intensively, can raise city field of the working fluid may
the wall temperature to a value that be distorted oven more by deforma-
is inadmissible for reliable operation tion (bonding) of the rods undel' the
action o[ temperature gradients.
<>f the t ube metal. Since d eposi t.s grow
gr adually during boiler operation, The critical heat flow at which de-
"'1
t h is circumst ance limits the conti- todorated conditions of heat transfer
can appear on heating surfaces de-
nuous operation of a plant. For this
reason, one of t he most essential prob- ponds on the following principal fac-
lems in boiler operation is to prevent tors : steam content x , mass velocity
or restrict the formation of deposits wp, and pressure p. For a system of
on the steam-water side of heating parall el channels in a boiling reactor,
surfaces (for more detail see Ch. 15). these parameters are average if each
of the channels receives the same quan-
tity of the working fluid, so that Lhe
10.5. Heat Exchange in Steam heat transfer crisis in rod bundles
Generators of Nuclear Power Stations is qualitatively the same as in evapo-
The unit heating load on the surface rating tubes, but the quantitative
<>f fuel elements is quite high (1 000 relationships turn out to be substan-
kW/m 2 or even more). This circum- tially different. Considering all the
st ance makes the appearance of poor geometry specifics of rod assemblies
cooling conditions in fuel elements and Lhe condi tions of their operation,
very probable. differences in unit heat release or heat
The steam-genet·ating channels of absorption can result in differences in
nuclear reactors have an intricate sha- the flow rate wp and steam content x.
pe. In reactor construction, wide uso Since qcr is a decreasing function of
is made of heating surfaces in the form x, a boiling crisis is more likely to
of bundles of heat-releasing rods bet- occur in the space between tubes at
ween which the heat-transfer agent a lower limiting steam content than
flows in a longitudinal direction. in tubes.
The geometry of chan nels formed Various types of flow whirlers are
b etween the rods may have a signi- mounted in tho outlet section of a reac-
ficant effect on the hydrodynamics of tor channel to increase its power ;
t he working flu id: the flow rates thro- they are often made integral with
ugh the cells of a rod bundle may turn spacers. Under the effect of whirlers,
out to be different or the velocity of water droplots are thrown from the
(10.17) the working fluid may vary over tho flo\v core onto the walls and reple-
cross section of a cell; this may result nish the moving liquid film on the
in the formation of diffori ng cooling walls . Thus, a boiling crisis caused by
conditions over the periphery of Lhe Liquid film drying is delayed and at
rods. With uneven heat absorption, the outlet the steam-generating reac-
 Download From Boilersinfo.com 11:1. Classification of Open Hydraulic Sydem1 125
I 124 Ch. 11. Hydrodynamics of Op en Hydrazlllc _S ystems

tor can operate at a Jaigh er s team con- Moreover, the wall in the zone of . ..
•
• ..• .
tent. liquid film drying is a lternately wa- Heating surfaces '
I n steam generators operating in com- shed with liquid and steam, causing-
bination with pressurized water-cooled temperatu re pulsations in the wall ra diant plalen-lgpe convective
reactors or sodium-cooled fast-neutron (which can be quite substantia l in.
reactors, during evapora tion the wor- liqu id-metal heating) a nd varying stres-
.
king fl uid passes through the same
stages as in organic-fuel steam boi-
ses in the m etal, which can resu lt ifr
tube cracking. .. v .
~ . '
B . \ \ \ .
lers . The only point of significance is All these phenomena arc probable- I
~
that deteriorated heat tra nsfer in the
steam generators of nuclear reactors
in steam generators where the working-
fluid mo ves in the narrow cells of a
•
I
I
v·
I/ \_i ._~ \_ j
••
'- - ~

does not involve failure of th e appa- channel or in chann els of a substAntial (a) '(b)
ratus, since the temperature of its
elem ents cannot exceed that of th e
length.
- On the other hand, boiling crisis in
I
I
•

F F
l " (g ) (h)
heat- tr~n s[er agent. However, . an in-
~~
the reactor core is extremely dange-
crease m the length of the boiling cri-
s is zone, where th e i nlcnsity of heat
rous. To prevent i ls occunencc iu wa-
t er-moderated water-cooled power reac-
I'
'I
• (i)
I

I (l)
.

--
transfer is low (sec Sec. 10.2), r e- tors, th e heal-transfer agent of th o- . (ti}
sults either in an increase in the steam primary circuit. has a tom pornl.u re a '
'
(C)
'
6 F F
generator size or in a loss o[ its capa- few tens of degrees below th o hoi ling n t
city . point (subcooling margin) . . '
•
(m}

{j) {k)
feJ (f)

HYDRODYNAMICS OF OPEN HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
11.1. Classification
of Open Hydraulic Systems
The principal cliagrams of open
hydraulic circu its in heating surfaces
are sh own in Fig. 11.1. In any circuit
the r eliabl e oporaliou of the steam~
generating channels depends substan-
tially on stability of mot ion, i. e. a
s table flow rate of the \vorld ug flu id
through parall el tubes anct channels .
Under parti cula r condi lions (pres-
sure, mass velocity, cuthalpy of the
wo rking flu id a t th e inl et heating
intensity) a nd depending o~ the de-
sign of th o s tcam-generati ug channels.
uns table motio n of the work ing fluid
(i.e. with a variable flow rate) can
appear in them. One must distinguish,
b etween static a nd dynamic instabi-
liLy. S ince instability, per so, is a
dynamic process, tho term 'static
inst ability' is rather cond i tiona!.
Under statica lly unstable conditi-
ons, the fl ow . rates through various
tubes (channels) are different and
may vary in limo with an appreci-
alJle hequ ancy. Th o flow rate in in-
dividual tubes may turn out to be-
insufficient to ensure proper heal-
transfer conditions. Varying condi-
tions of cooling of t he t.uLes aud va-
riations of the wall temperature may
cause ther mal fatigue of the metal.
Jn som e cases, especially in operntion
at, variable or off-design loads, dyna-
mic (or oscillating) insta bility of mo-
tion appears in lh e for m of excessive
flow pulsations which lead to vari-
able flow r ate of the worki ng fluid .
Fig. 11.1. Principal types of hydrau lic circuits with forced motion o[ the working fluid
( a) horizon tally wound water wall tubes; (b) vertica l nrrnnl!Cment of water wa ll tubes; (c) U-sbaped water
wa ll : (d) N-shaped water wall;(<) multl-pa'l.• water wnll witll vcrli cul tubes; (f) mulli-pa_ss wa ter wall with
hor izontal tubes; (g) L-shaped platen: (h) double L-sllaped platen: (i) horizontal platen: (J) U-sbaped platen;
( k ) multi-pass vertica l platen; (I) vertica l convection bank; (m) horizontal con'l'eclion bank
.
. .
d ecreased cri tical heating load, cyc- 11..1a), the length L of a single tube
lic temperatu..re variatio ns in the hea- may be as high as a few hundred me-
t ed walls a nd, as a fi nal result, to tres and tho tube has a large number
of bends and therefore, a high hydrau-
emergency situations.
Out of all the causes or hydraulic lic resistance D.p hr· The hyd rostatic
component D.p,. of the total pressure
i nstability, and therefore, of maldi-
s trib ution of heat , special attention gradient in such a circuit is not large
s hould be g iven to the effect o[ a n in view of the small heigh t of the
u nsteady hydrodynamic cltaractoris- circuit compared with the length
t ic, flow pulsat ions and hoadet'S on of the developed tube, i.e. H « L.
T ho resistance due to flow accelera-
; he distribution oE the flow between
[) arallel tubes. The pressure grad ient tion 11Pac is also not large, especially
at a high pressure. Therefore, t.he
n _heated tubes can be represented as
the sum D.p = 11Ptr D.p, 'D.P ac± + +'
total pressure gradient in a circuit
± D.ph (see Sec. 9.4). Combining t ho with horizontal or slightly inclined
h yd raulic resistances in a si nglo torrn, tubes is mainly determined by the
11p1, + 'D.p 1 = flp 1.,, we obtain: hydraulic resistance:
D.p = 11Phr -1- 11Pac ± flp,, (1.1.2)
. (11.1)
B oiler circuits w ith ver tical ascen-
In o nce-through boilers with hori- ding or ascending-descending motion
zontal or slightl y inclined lubes (Fig. of tho working fluid (Fig . 11 .tb to e)

126 Ch . 11. H ydrodynamics of Open Hydraulic Systems
.dp
t!p
0 2' I' 2 11
Fig. H .2. Hydraulic characteristics:
stable, (2) unstable
are charac terized by a s mall number
of passes, and therefore, by a relati-
vely short tubes and low number of
bends. Tho hydraulic resistance of
such circuits is low. The hydros ta tic
head in v ertical tubes, however, ma-
kes up a substantial portion of the
total pressure gradient, especially at
low loads when the contributio n of
th e hydraulic res is tance is subs tan-
tially lower. Thus,
!::,.p = !::,.p hr ± !::,.ph
The ratio between !::,.p ilr and !::,.ph
in the total pressure gradient may
have a vital effect on the hydraulic
stability of the flow in straight-flow
elements. The hydraulic s tability of
flow is described by the hydraulic
characteristic which gives -the total
pressure gradient !::,.p as a function of
the flow rate G of the working fluid:
!::,.p = f (G). If all tubes in an element
are of the same diameter , the hydrau-
lic characteristic is a fu nc tion of the
mass velocity: !::,.p = f (wp).
The hydraulic characteris tic is u nam-
biguous if a particular to tal pressure
gradient in the tube system has only
one corresponding flow rate of the
working flu id {curve 1 in Fig. 11 .2),
and ambigt1ous if the same total pres-
sure gradient can appear at two or
more differen t flow rates {curve 2.)
The hydraulic characteristic may
b ecome ambiguous on a change i n the
thermophysical properties of the wor-
king fluid, s ay, the unit volum e, which
may be caus ed by a change from one
flow ra te to anothe r (see S ec . 11.2)
or u nder the effect of hydrostatic
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head {see Sec. 11. 3). The s ituation is
complicated oven more by the fact
t hat the effect of hydrostatic h ead
in ascending and descending motion
of the working fl uid is different. All
this results in i ntri cate analytical
relationships which are represented
gra phically fo r each particular object:
hyd raulic circuit , geom e Lrical pa ra-
me ters of th e tube system , pressure,
(1) entha lpy of the working fluid at the
inle t , etc.
The hydra ulic operation of a ny
circuit is de~cribed by its hydraulic
ch aracteristic. H owever, becaus e of
Lhe above-m entioned s pecifics of hyd-
raulic s ystems with horizontal unc.l
ver tical t ubes, t heir hydra ulic cha-
racteris tics will b e anal yser! separa-
tely.
1 1.2. llydrodynamic Stabilit y
of Flow in Horizon tal
Evaporating Tubes
{11.3)
The decisive factor that determines
the hydraulic characteristic of eva-
porating tubes is the temperature of
the fluid at the tube inlet. It may
be equal or close to the saturation
temper a ture at the pressure at the
tube inlet, t 1n ~ t', or be substantially
lower than that temperature, t 1, < t'.
If a tube is s upplied with subcooled
water, st eam generation begins not
immediately at fts inlet, but a cer-
tain dis tance downstream. The whole'
length of the tube can then be divided
into two portions: tho economizer por-
tion and the evaporating portion
{Fig. 11.3), their lengths being deter-
mined by the ratio between the heat
rel"ase and flow rate of water.
UQ;i 0 v';i';:r=O x= :"
c
t in <l'
t t t t t t h
- (11.8)
lee ley
l of (wp), we obtain the cubic equation:
Fig. 11 .3. Vari ati ons of the working .fluid
param eters in a heated tube a t tin < t'
11.2. Hydrod ynamic Stability of Flow In Horizontal Tubes
For the same heat release rate, an
increase in the water flow rate in-
·creas es the length of the economizer
p ortion . while shortening that of the
evaporating portion, which is asso-
ciated with a lower quantity of s team
produced by the heated tube.
If a tube has an economizer portion
{Fig. 11.3), we have:
Tho unit volume of the working
fluid in the economizer and evapora-
ting portions is different. The lengths
of these portions are different too.
The unit volume of water varies only
slightly along the economizer portion,
and therefore, we have:
- v0 + v'
2 -
In the evaporating portion, the unit
volume of water changes sharply, and
it is reasonable to take its mean value
in calculations. For tubes that are
heated uniformly along their le ngth,
quite accurate results are obtained
by assuming a linear law of variation
of the steam content in the flow, and
therefore:
-Veo = V '+ z(v· - rl)
2 {11.6)
With uniform heating, the heating
load per m e tre of tube length, q 1 =
= Qll, is constant. The length of the
economizer portion will then be found
as
lee = (i' - io) QG l = lH,ub (wp) f
ql
and the length of the evapora ting
v;c;ix;:r" portion:
Subs tituting Vee • z•• , Veo • and z••
into equation {11.4) and arranging
the terms according to the powers
D. p = A (wp) 3 - B {wp)2
•
127
where
A= ~ (v" - v') t.t!ubf
4dqt r (11.10}
B = ifr[t.i~ub (v• - v')-v'] (11.11)
and
C= ~ (v• -v') l2ql
4jdr (11.12)
If there is no water subcooling at
the inle t of an evaporating tube,
{11.4) !::,.i,ub = i' - i 0 = 0 and the coeffi-
cient A turns to zero and B changes.
s ign. Equation (11.9) then takes the
f o m:
+
!::,.p = B {wp) 2 C {wp) {11.13)
i.e. it is a quadratic equation which
expresses unambiguously tho hydrau-
lic characteristic.
{11.5)
Equa tion (11.9) is the equation of
the hydraulic cha racteris tic of a n
evaporating tube at !::,.i•ub > 0, i.e.
in the presence of economizer portion.
In this case, the h yd ra ulic charac teri-
stic is described by a cubic equation
whose solution can have either one·
real and two imagin ary roots , or all
three real roots. I n the former case,
th e characteristic !::,.p = f (wp) has nei-
ther extrema nor common points with
a h or izontal tangent {curve 1 in
F ig. 11 .2) and is unambiguous, since
any value of pressure gradient !::,.p
has only one corresponding flow rate
of the working fluid, wp. In the latter
case, the characteris tic has an inflec-·
tion point a nd two extrema; it is
ambiguous, since any value of pres-
sure gradient !::,.p has three corres-
(11. 7) ponding different flow rates {curve 2).
Ambiguity of the hydraulic characte-
ristic will become clear from the follo-
wing r easoning. For the same h eat-
release rate, as the flow rate of water
s ubcooled ur1der the saturation point
increas es, the volume v elocity of the
mixture is not increased, but decrea-
sed . An increased flow rate of sub-
cooled water leads to an increase in
the le ngth of the economizer portion
+ C {wp) and in the quantity of heat spent for
{11.9) b eating the water to boiling . Accor-
 Download From Boilersinfo.com
128 Ch. 11. Hydrodynamics of Open Hydraulic Systems
4 0~------------~~
lt!Cf
l
Fig. 11.4 . Effect of the flow rate of sub-
GOo led water in a steam-generating tube on
flow velocity at tube outlet
1-11- wnter now rates
dingly, the re remains less h eat avai-
lable for evaporation, and therefore,
tho velocity at tho outlet decreases
s ubs tantia lly {Fig. 11.4). This con-
tinues until the evaporating portion
disappears in the tube. As soon as
steam generation is interrupted, a
further increase in the flow rate of
water causes a proportional rise of the
velocity along the whole length of
the tube, and therefore, a change in
the hydra ulic resis tance of the path.
As the w a ter flow ra te increases, t he
hydraulic resis tance of the economizer
portion, !:.Pee• increases while that
of the evaporating portion , t:.p •• ,
decreas es . Depending on t he ratio
between !:.Pee and t:.p •• , t ho to tal
hydraulic resistance of the path may
I
either increase or d ecreas e with an
inc rease of the load in a pa r t icular
ra nge of flow rates , resulting in t he
hydraulic characteris tic being either
unambiguous (steady-s tate) or ambi-
g uous (uns teady-state).
L et us consider the hydraulic c ha-
racteristic of a once- through element,
which bas three real roots by equation
(11.9), see Fig. 11.5. At v ery low
flow rates of water, (wp) < (wp), and
s uperheated s team will form at a
g iven heat release rate , since the path
JJp
0
Fig. H .5. Region of the hydraulic characte-
ristics of a tube producing steam-water
mixture
has neither an economizer nor evapo-
rating portion, bu t is essentially a
superheater along its whole length.
At very high flow rates of water,
(ri.lp) > (wp)w, the available heat is
insufficient to heat the water to the
s aturation point , there is no s team
generation , and t he whole pa th is
essentially an economize r which d eli-
vers w a ter. For those extre me cases,
the hydra ulic ch arac te ristic is des-
cribed by the p arabolic equation:
b.p = S (wp)2 l) (11 14)
2 economizer section. N o-boiling condi-
As follows fr om this equa tion, with
the same mass v elocity o'f the flow ,
the resistance to the motion of ·steam
is greater thari tha t to tho motion of
water, Since V 1 is greater than V w •
If a s team-water mixture forms in
the path [the range of flow rates
(wp). < (wp) < (wp)wl. the characte-
ristic may become uns table and the
flow rates ma y v ar y, so that a steam~
water mixture with widely different
s team contents will be delivered pe-
riodicall y . S ome of t hese steam con-
tents m ay turn out to be excessive for
the give n heat release rate, meaning
that the cooling of the tubes will
become unreliab le.
An unstable h ydr aulic charac teri-
stic can result in differe nt flow rates
through individual parallel tubes that
are connected to a com mo n heade r.
A m ore dangerous s i tua t i on , however,
r~sults when the flow r a te through a
tube c ha nges. For th e same heat re-
11.2. H11d rodynamlc Stability of Flow in 1/orlzontal 1'ubcs
4p
IU')'
Fig. 11 .(). Effect o[ pressure on tll'e sta bility
of hydra ulic charac teristic {P1 < P 2 < P 3 )
lease r a te, t his can cause t emperature
varia tions in the tube wall and the
a ppearance of critical fa tig ue s t resses
and , eventuall y, d amage of the evapo-
ra ti ng tubes .
Sin ce t he ambiguous hydraulic cha-
racte ris tic is mainly due to a l a rge
d ifroronce between the u nit volumes of
wntor a nd steam, a n incr·ease in pres-
suro can ma ke th e ch a rac teris ti c more
s ta ble and tho motion of the wo rking
fl uid more stead y-s late {F ig. 11. 6).
As noted earlier, i nstability of t he
hydL·a ulic characteris ti c is associated
with the presence of an economizer
po r·l ion in a tube. F or this reason ,
wi th a hig her degree of water s ubcoo-
ling a t t ile tube inle t , the ch aracteri-
s tic is less s ta ble (Fig. 11.7). On th e
o the r ha nd, if s t:ilicooling is decreased
by rais ing the in le t te mpe rature c lose
to . t', another proble m ma v result:
as tho s team-water mix t.m·e enters the
inle t header of a bank of evapora ting
t ubes, i t will be separated into steam
.tlp
~ig. 11 .7 . Elfcct of water 6ubcooling a t the
•!llct of a steam-generating tu be on the slabi-
lt ly or hydrauli c characteristic (p ~ con-
sla nt)
9- 0 1524
129
Fig. 11.8. Tra nsfo rma t ion of an unsta ble
hydraulic charac terist ic into stabl e by throt-
tling subcoolcd water fl ow
a nd wa ter in t he header , so that some
tubes will rece iv e more wa ter and
less steam than othe rs, i.e. the flow
r ates of water and s team in them will
be sharply different and uncontrol-
la ble; this can lead to overheating,
and even bur:n-throng h of tho ev ape-
ra ting tubes whic h a rc hea ted q uite
intensively i n t he boiler furnaces.
For the a bove reasons, once-through
boilers are made with a non- boiling
tio ns m ust be ensured no t onl y a t the
r a ted load, but also in ope ration under
nny load and with any kind of fu el for
which the boiler has been designed.
An unstable hyd raulic characteri-
stic can be stabilized by introducing
a n addition al res is ta nce in tho econo-
mizer portio n of the hydraulic s ystem,
which will va ry by a parabolic law
depend ing on the flow r ate of t he
wo rking fl uid . As s hown in F ig. 11.8 ,
tho initial a nd the addi.tion al charac-
t.e ri s ~i c a1·e added graphically so that
t he resul Ling characteristic is stable.
T he hydra\Jlic resistance of t he econo-
m izer portio n is us ually increased
by two me thods: by increas ing its re-
sistance locally (moun t ing a n orifice
plate) or at a n app reciable l en ~th
(providing a s tepped tube) . "'
Orifice pla tes. Orifi ce plates produce
a pressure g radien t proport ional to
the sq uaro of the flow r ate of t he
s ingle-phase fl uid tha t passes t hroug h
Download From Boilersinfo.com
 132
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Cll . 11. llydrodyllllmtcs of Open Hydraulic Systems
'-int obtain the hydrostatic head 'Ztlp 1, in
dp ItJp "' rtJPnr ' '£Lip11 a IT-sh aped section.
The total hydraulic characteristic
1 u 'f.dphr
\.
of a n-shaped section
-tJ i 4i
2 2 'Ztlp = 'l:, tlphr + Li:!.ph {1'1.19}
' In ioul
may be ambiguous in a wide range
of flow ruLes of the working flu id
0
(a) {Fig. 11.13a).
F ig ure 11.14. shows the total hyd-
- 4p LJpf" r aulic characteristic and its compo-
nents for a U-shaped section, which
has been constructed according to the
method discussed above. Tho hydrau-
lic resistances in tho ascending and
u descending branches arc positive aHd
(6)
are thus added together ('l:,tlph,)· T he
hydrostatic component in the des-
cending branch, 6p1.''", is negative
l in ---- - ,v;o and tho enthalpy of flu id at the inlet
to this hranch, i in, is assumed to be
Fig. 11.1 3. Hydraulic cliamctcri s ti c of a constant and independent of the flow
ll-sbaped heated tube rate . The beginning of th e ascendincr
~ i - J u• n t :.hsorrltio n hy the tul>P motion coincides with tho end of th~
descending motion. The hvdrostatic
elemcn~ in which enth alpy i 1n 1 va- componen t of tho asccndin.g moti on
r ies according to tho flow rate at a is positive, but the en thalpy at the
given heat release. With a smaller inlet to the ascending portion (in the
~low. rate of the '~orking fluid, itnt
point of transition from descending
1s h•gher (curve I m F ig. 11.13b), so to ascending flow), i 1n, is dependent
that the enthalpy of the working fluid on the flow rate. A t low flow rates
'
i ;n t is high and the density of th o
sharply increases in th e descending
element of the tube (curve II), espe- fluid is low, which l1 as a retarding
'I effect on the rise of the hydrostatic
I cially in the outlet portion. With a
decrease in the flow rate, this results head with the increasing flow rate,
in an essential decrease in the flow in t h at zone. Only in the zone of
density and, accordingly, in the hyd- large flow rates at which tho quantit y
rostatic component tlp~"' . ·, ·; of heat por unit flow rate of the wot·-
Adding together the h ydrostatic com- king fluid is not as substantial, i. 1111
ponents fo r the ascending an d des- becomes lower and the hydrosta ti c
eending element, tlp/!" and 6.1."' , we head tlp;:• becomes much larger. Tho
resulting curve of hydrost atic heads is
• 4p denoted as L.tlph in the fi gure. As
lin lout may be seen , the total hydraulic cha-
llmhi!J.UOUS
t reg1011 racteristic of a U-sh aped section is
ambig uous in a w ide t·auge of flow
r ates of the working fluid.
Hydrau li c characteris tics of N-sh a-
o~~~=====~wp ~
r.tJp, ped aod more complicated multi-pass
systems can be obtained in a similar
- 4p ------~Lipf" manner. As follows from tho above
analys is, the hydrostatic pressure gra-
l:i g . 11.11t . H ydrau lic chamclerislic of 11
di ent improves the hydraulic charac-
U-shaped heated tube teristic of nn ascending flow and ad-
11.3. Hydrodynam ic Stability of Flow in Ve rtical Tubes
.t.lp
3 tlp
4
I 1
wp
0 (a}
Fig. 11.15. Ambiguous hydraul ic cha rac tcri~ti cs
(a) o f·(l sing le lube: (b)
vorsoly affects that of a descending
fl o.w . _In this respect, a U -sltapoc.l cir-
cu •L IS better than a fl-sbapcd, since
t~o working . fluid in its outlet por-
t•on, where •t has a high steam con-
t ent, and therefore, lower density
moves upwards and the effect of th~
hy drostatic bond is positive. The
hyd raulic characteristic is improved
evcu more iu a u N -shaped system
wi Lh an inlet header arr anged at the
top and an outlot header at the bot-
tom . In additi ou , this system has two
ascending portions per one descen-
ding . I n general , tube sections w it h
a low number or passes have either
an ambiguous or insuHicien tl y stable
hydraulic characteristic .
With an increasing number of p as-
ses in a h yd rau I ic system , tho effect
of hydrostatic component on the total
pressur e gradient d iminishes, but the
role of hydraul ic resistance becomes
more s_ignificant. When tho number
of passes is greater than 8-10, the
h ydraulic characteristic o[ a multi-
pass s ystem approaches that of the
horizon tal evaporating tubes.
An unstable h ydraulic characteri-
stic of a single tube (channel) with
ascending or descending motion of
the working fluid under the action of
l1 ydrostatic head is realized in tho
w hole region of ambiguity (curve
2-3-4-5 in Fig. 11.15a), s ince the flow
rate is determined by external con-
ditions, i.e. by pump capacity. R eal
heating surfaces consist o[ a large
number of pnm ll ol tubes. I n multi-
/.t.J,be systems, the total flow rate of
the fluid is also determ ined by pump
133
6
J
- ..' ~ .
' 4
0 {D)
or~ lube S)"Slem
capacity, but t he flow rates through
individual tubes may tum out to be
different. As has bo~n established by
e~pcriment and confirmed by cxpe-
n encc, hydraulic characteristics in
such systems are r ealized only in as-
cend iug port ious (the leftmost curve
1-2-3 and tho righ trnost Clln·o tJ.-5-f}
in Fig . 11.15b) . A decrease in t.he flow
rate iu a tube uear a m iuimum of the
h~draulic chnractoristic (at point 4)
will cause a sudd en drop in the flow
rate and a chango in the co nditions
described by point 2 . A rise in !,he
fl ow nlLe at a max imum o[ the eha-
racteristic (near po int 3) can load
to a sudden increase in the fl ow rate
in som o tubes of tho circuit and a
ch ango in the conditions of point 5 .
The descending brunch of the charac-
teristic (portion 3-4) is no t realized,
except for cases where the system
docs not have many tubes (throe or
four). rn th is region of flow rates. unam-
biguous motion cannot be ensured
with the r esult that t he flow rotc
either jumps into the region of lower
values (left-hand branch) or inlo t hat
of !1igher values (rigbt-hand branclt),
while the to tal flow r ate of tbe working
fluid remains unchanged.
Operation on the left-hand branch
of .the characted stic usual! y cannot
malllLain tho required tompemturo
cond it ions of inten sively heated eYa-
porating tubes. Tho sole real region
of' operation of a once-throucrh circuit
is tho right-hand branch of the clwrac-
Leristic which inc] udes ambiguous and
unombiguous por·tions. In the •u•am-
biguous portion 5-{j of Lhal branch ..
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134 Ch. 11. /Jydrodynamics of Open Hydraulic Systems
Ap
2 .
0 .dp
Fig. 11.16. EHccl of maldistribution on the
workin~ fluid flow rate in pa rallel tubes with
slnblc hydraulic characteristi cs
1- hydrnulic chnnH;I,I•ristic or un C h;Jlll'll t~ 2 -
hyrlra ullr. t' llru·aclf'rl~l ir of a m tlltuncLionlu g: lube
the v elocity of the working fluid is so
high that iL often turns out to bo unfea-
s ible. Thus, one must opera te on the
ambiguous portion 4-5 for which lhe
bound:-.ries of reliability should be
determined. In circuits co mposed of
parallel tubes of the snme design and
heated identicall y, st abil ity in the
-region of an ambiguous hydraulic cha-
racterist ic can be ensw·ed for t he
-entire external (ascending) branch of
t he characteristic (portion 4-5 in Fig.
·1 1.15b).
In a system of parallel tubes, heat
-absorption is always different in view
-of j the structural and hydraulic noni-
·dentity of the tubes (see Soc. 11.4).
Therefore, somo tubes whose operating
condi tions deviate from the average
values for the syst em (malfunctio-
ning tnbes) have a different hydraulic
characteristic than is average for the
system. As seen from F ig. 11.16,
oven with an unambiguous ch aracte-
ristic of' the system, differ on t (but
s table) flow rates of the working fluid
may appear in a reference tube and
n malhmctioning tube.
Vlith parallel operation of a system
of tubes with different ambiguous
characteristics, three cases arc pos-
sible: lhe pressure grad ient between
the heAder of the system at the mini-
mum of the hydraulic characteristic
for a malfunctioning Lube can be
e ithe r (a) sma ller than the pressure
g radient in t.hc c.ircuil (Fig. 11 : 17a),
tlp
' 2'
0
(IU'J'Jwz
(a) ( 1/.J'f'Jmr
2 Stable opemtion in the region of
-~
~ ~
"" ""
u
(6)
Llp
(C)
Fig. 11.17. Hydraulic characteristi cs o f IT-
shaped circuits
1- element ; t-maltunclloning tube
(b) greater than that pressure gradient,
(Fig. 11.17b), or (c) equal to tho pres-
sure gradient in th e circuit. T hese
cases are analysed with a gradually
decreasing total fl.ow r ate of the wor-
king fluid, and therefore, a decrea-
sing pressure gradient between the
headers of tho hydraulic system.
In th e first case, when the pressure
gradient in the system exceeds the
pressure gradient at the minimum of
the characteristic of the worst mal-
functioning tube, !J.p.., > llPmtn, i.e.
of the malfunc tioning tube whose mi-
nimum of the characteristic is higher
than the minimum of the characteristic
of the main number of tubes , three
operating poin ts are p ossible on each
of tho curves (1', 1" and 1'" on the
genera l charnct.cristic of the ma iu
number of Lubes and 2', 2" and 2··
11.3. II ydrodynamic Stability of Flow in V ertical Tu bes
on tho characteristic of the malfunc-
tiGn ing tube). Points r and 2" on the
descending branches of the characte-
r istics cannot be realized (see Fig .
11.15b). Points 1' and 2' on the left-
hand ascend irlg branch of the charac-
teris tic are also not realizable as long
as the condition t:..pw > llPmtn is
fw;p)wr satisfied. This means that unfavou-
rabl e conditions in an element with
a low flow rate of the worl~j.ng fluid
can be prevented by providing a flow
rate at wh ich the pressure gradient
in the characteristic of the main num-
ber of tubes will be h igher than the
pressure gr adient at the minimum of
the hydraulic characteristic of a mal-
IUJ'
functioning tube, (wp)101 > (wp)mf ·
(tu,DJ,, With tlpw < LlPmtu• the1·e are no
working points on the descending and
right-band ascending branches of the
characteristic of a malfunctioning tube.
Under such conditions , tho only re-
maiuing points which correspond to
the two different flow rates of the
working fluid are 2' and r. At one
of them (point 1"'), a high flow rate
is establish ed, which ensures stable
operation of the m ajority of the tubes
in the circuit. At point 2', the flow
rato is too low for proper cooling of
the worst malfunctioning tube, with
the result that the tube system will
be unreliable.
With tlp,0 = tlpm 111 , t he flow rate
at the minimum of the characteristic
of a malfunctioning tube is unstable.
In this case , a pressure gradient in
the tube system has two different
corresponding flow rates. One of them,
in the malfunctioning tube, has a low
value , 2', which cannot ensure proper
cooling conditions. The other flow
r ate, 1"' on the characteristic of t he
majority of the tubes, ensures proper
cooling of these tubes. The flow rates
in points 1' and 1" for an average ele-
ment are unr eal for t he reasons given
earlier. The condition tlpw = tlPmrn
determines the boundary of stability
of a malfunctioning tube, i.e. the
extreme st ate up to which the ope-
ration of l,he wh ole circuit can be
stable.
135
As regards the stability conditions,
the lowest mass velocity allowed in
a system is expressed by the inequality
(wp)w ~ m (wp)m/ (11. 20)
where (wp)m/ i.s the mass velocity in
a system of tubes (channels) on an
external branch of its hydraulic cha-
racteristic in the point corresponding
to the minimum of the hydraulic cha-
racteristic of a malfunctioning Lube,
(wp)w is the m ass velocity in the
system, and m is Lhe reserve factor,
whicl1 is assumed to be equal to 1.5.
ambiguous hydraulic characteristics
can be ensured by throttling the flow
-
bv means of orifice plates or stepped
t ubes . Another method is to carefully
select the mass velocity wp of the
working fluid at the rated heating
load of a particular water-wall section
so as to ensure reliable cooling of the
tubes at a given mini mal heating
load in vi ew of their thet·mal and
str uctural non-identity, Lhal is, to
run the circuit on an external ascen-
ding branch of its hydraulic charac-
teristic, d (t:..p)/d (wp) > 0. Tho latter
method is preferabl e, since it does
not require tube throttling. In most
cases, orifice plates are employed
when it is necessary to equalize the
flo w rates of the fluid through paral-
lel hydraulic elements, such as sec-
tions of furn ace water walls. In some
cases, flow stability can be achieved
more efficiently by changing over to
another scheme of tube connection
which bas no downtake tubes.
The stabi liLy of the hydraulic charac-
teristic call be affected not only by
h eated (evaporating) tube sections,
but also by unheated steam-circula-
ting tubes. For instance, Fig. 11.18
shows an \lnlucky arrangement with
external unheated steam-circulating tu-
bes connected t o a lower header. The
hydrostatic head in the tubes is nega-
tive and the circuit is essentially a
IT-shaped system with an ambiguous
hydraulic charact eristic . With hydrau-
lic maldistribution and too low wor-
ki ng fluid veloci ties (due to a low
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136 Ch. 11. Jlydrody11amlcs of Ope11 Hydraulic Systems
I Fig. 11.18. n-shaped circuit wit h un -
I
dp
f 2 .i
31
\![
dp (a)
gradient /::,.p1 ), ambiguity of tho cha-
racteristic may result in section 2
malfunctioning and havi ng a low flow
rate on the lcfL-hand branch 2' of the
characteristic. Thus, under completely
favourable operating conditions in sec-
tions 1 and 3 (the corresponding fl ow
r ates arc denoted as 1' and 3'), sec-
ti on 2 will operate unreliab ly. Re-
liable opemtion in the circui I, can be
achieved by providing a pressu re gra-
dient /::,.p 2 at which the working points
will be on the extreme branches of the
characteristics of all the sections and
will have close velocit y values. It is
also possible lo elim inate ambigu i ty
of the hydraulic characteristics of the
sections by providing a mixing header
at the ir top.
The operation of complex circu its
with a number of once-through ele-
ments is analysed by using their r e-
sulting hydraulic characteristics. Tho-
se are obtained graphically by adding
the characteristics of individual ele-
ments together, taking account of the
scheme of th eir connection. If some
elements are connected in series, the
flow r ate of the working fluid is the
same in all of them. For this reason,
the resulting characteristic is const-
dp.
0 WJ'
(a)
Fig. 11.19. S ummutiou or hydrauli c chamclcristics for series co nnec tion of once-through
clements (a) and £o1· th eir parallel conn ection (b)
heated downtake Lubes (a) nnd its
hydraulic characler isl ics (b)
1-J-J'AI'IIIh•l heated wnlcr wn ll.• nnd lhciJ·
n!spcct i vc h)'di'Clulic c h aract~rit-~Hcs: 4 -
unhcn lcd downtak•.. lubes; S- Uf•llt.'J' mixing
h e aUt~r
ructed by ad ding together the chaL'ac-
teristics o[ t he elements at the same
flow rate of tho working fluid (Fig.
11.19a). Tho hydr aulic resistance of
such a system is higher than the
resistance of anyone of its clements.
In complex once-tluough circuits com-
posed of a number of elements corl-
nected in para llel, the hydraulic re-
sistances of the elements are constant.
The general char acteristic of the sys-
tem is obtained by addi.ng together the
characteristics of the elements taken
at the same pressure gradient in the
circuit (Fig. 11.19b) . In such oJ case,
the hydraulic resis t ance of tho ci rcui t
is smaller than that of anyone of its
cleme nts.
t 1.4. l\laldis tri bution of Heat
For reli able operation of a heating ,
surface (section), i t is extremel y im-
portant that all its parall el tubes
oper ate und er roted (average) con-
ditions. Jn practice, however, one
has to b ear i n mi nd that the tubes of
a section may have differen I. hydrau-
lic characteris tics (d ue to Yllrialions
in thei r diameter, length, surface
roughness, effect of headers, or effect
2 I
1+2
0
(!>)
11.4. M aldistrlbutioll of lleat
o( instability in opor·alion of evapo-
rating tubes) and differe nt thermal
cluwacteris tics (different heat absorp-
\.ion due to their dirforcnl. arrangement
rei aU ve to the flow or combustion pro-
duels, uneven slagging. fouling, etc.).
Differences in tho hyd r aulic and
thermal charactel'istics of tuhes are
especially evident in high-capacity
plants with developed heating s urfa-
ces where deviation of some ·..Plements
from the rated conditions are· more pro-
bable. Undor s uch condi t ions, the
working fluid m ay be distribu ted
unevenly between the tubes, and thoro-
fore its uni t enthalpy at the outlet
or s~me tubes mny differ s ubstan tially
from the average value. In some mal-
function ing tubes , d angcrous \.em pe-
rat ure conditions m ay a ppear.
T h e reliable operation of a once-
through element can bo characterized
by two groups of factors:
(a) paramcl ors of an element tba t
operates under average condi tions in
the system:
t~/' , !::,.i. 1, 0 . 11 q.z. z. 1, H e1
(b) parameters of a maHunctiouing
tube (or channel) :
t~~' /::,.iml• Gml• qml• Zmf• H m/
where G is the flow rate of the wor-
king fluid in an element, q is t~o
quantity of beat transferred to 1t ,
/::,.i is the beat absorbed by an ele-
me nt , H is the area of a heating s ur-
fa ce, z 1s the coeffi cient. of hydraulic
resistance, and t"" is the temperature
of the working fluid al. the outlet from
parallel tubes; the s ubscrip ts 'el' and
·mf' s tand respccti vel y for an elemen t
under average cond itions and a mal-
fun ctioning tube.
Let us i ntroduce some additiona l
des ignations:
p11 = Gm 11G. 1 (11.21)
is the coeffi cient of hydraulic maldi-
stri bution;
p 9 = /::,.im / f>iel (11.22)
is the coefficient of maldistribution of
h oa 1.;
(11. 23)
13T
is the coefficient of non-uniform heat
absor ption ;
(11 .24)
is the coeffi cient of hydraulic non-
un i rormity;
(11.25)
is the coefficient of structuroJl non-
identity. .
Taking the coefficient of maid is tri-
bution of h eat. as a basis, we ca n estab-
lish the relations hip between the coc[-
ficients indicated:
= tli,,J = qm!Hm/: qezffez (11 .26)
pq t!.ier Gmf Gel
or, on substilu Ling Ll1e corresponding
values from (11. 21), ~('11. 23) and (11 . 25):
pq =
I] II a 1]< t r
(11.27)
p,
The coefficient of structura l non-
ident i ty 'll•tr is not associnlcd with
tho processes wh ich occur in a I u be
system ; it is usually estimated as
l')•t r = 0.95-1. .
The coefficients oi thermal and
hydra ulic m aldistr ibut ion are in lor-
related as foll ows:
(11 .28)
Pq = 1l ha1Ph
Maldistribution of heat m ay be·
caused by different thermal characte-
ristics of parallel tubes, while llydrau-
1ic rnaldistributioo is due to differen-
ces in their hydraulic characteristics.
As follows from equation (11 . 28) ,
maldistribution of heat can be caused
either by different beat absorption,
by hydraulic maldistribution, or by
both. Maldislribution of beat depends
not only on the extent of thermal non-
uniformity and hydraulic maldistri-
bution, but al so on a particular com-
bination of these t.wo fact ors. Tubes
wbich are h ealed the most intensively
and, on the other hand, with Lhe
lowest flow rates tluough them , turn
out to be operating under the most
dangerous conditions. If the grealest
d ifferences of various kinds (in h eat
a bsorption, flow rnte, structura l d if-
ferences, etc.) arc found not in a s iugle·
 •138
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Ch. 11. Hydrodyn amics of Open Hydrau lic S y&te ms 11.4. Maldtstrlb ution of Heat 139

tube, but in various t ubes, t hey a ll nec ted in pa ra llel in the system , it ln non-boil i ng con vecti ve economi- rn
some cases, t h e hydraulic c ha-
s hould be checked separately .for mal- can be wl'itten that 6prn/ = 6 pel· ze rs with hori zo nta l t ube coils , tho racteristic is s t ab ilized by moun t ing
·dis tribul.ion of heat. Those with the Solving s imultaneous ly equations <:.oeffi c ion t of hyd rau I ic maid is tri bu- orifice plates ut the entry to tubes.
worst mal d is tribution of heat should (11.29) and (11.30), we obtain the lion us ually does not exceed 0.9 . In steam genera tion zones , the pres-
be checked additionally for l ong- expression for hydraulic mald istribu- If d o wntake mo tio n t ak es place in a s ure l osses 6Pa c a nd tlp,,cad are us u-
term streng th and scaling con di t io ns . tion: non-boiling econo m izor a nd the hydra u- ally negl ected . For s uch conditions,
H ydraulic maldistribution. In a sy- l ic characteristic m ay be ambiguous, and no ting t he assumptions made ear-
s te m of parallel t ubes conn ected t o _ (wP)mf
Ph - (WPJel t he hyd rostati c co mponent sh ould be li er, formul a (11.31.) takes t he for m :
head ers at the inlet and outl et and
t aken in t o acco un t; t his is a lso neccs- , - ~ el el
with forced motion of the work i ng ·1--=-tt• )- ~ ZefVcl + 'oorVor . ( 1 _ Mpt. )
V. -
- -=--+-2-(---:;- ~ a r y for all b oiling econom izers. _ \
= •ctVct Uf - uin
fluid, m easures s hould be take n to Ilydraulic m a ldis tribution-jn super- p,, -- / - .J. ~ '"'v"' ! t.p,,
· mt'lrnt + 2(V_;m/ - m/) Zm jU ru j 1 'bor or
-distribute tho fluid evenly between V;n
h eaters h eavily de pends on amorc nces
the tubes. Unde r practical cond iUons, t11. 35)
• in t h e total coeffi c ients of tube resi-
the distri bution of flow rates is al- (11.31) ~ "' ' , v" 1
X (1- s ta nce, and in the ir heat absorption , l 1ere e-'
v..r ';:)on ~or or' v"'
or cai·e tl1ecoeffi c icnts
wa ys m ore o r l ess uneven, i.e. h ydrau- a ud o n pressure changes along t he of resistance of t he o rifice plates a nd
lic m aldist ri bution occurs [s ec for- where ot..p,,cad = tlp'hfnd - tlp~1tad is 1tcade rs. Negl ecting I he pressure varia- un it vol umes of the flu i d flow ing
mul a (11.21) 1. Hyd ra ulic mald ist ri - the d ifference of pressure g rad i ents in l io n c aused by s tea m fl ow accel e ra- t h rough the orifice plates mounted in
bution m ay appear due t o h yd t·aulic the heade rs between t ho sections wi t h tio n , we got : a n el ement and malfunct ion ing tube.
non-i d enti ty of the parallel tub es, The difference in hydros tatic heads
which may be caused by differences in
a m a lfunctioning tube a nd an ol em en t, ,. -
their hydra ulic resis tance, due to th o
Mp 11 = t..p;:•t - tlp•J. is the d i He-
,fl /, -=- lI ·1
l] -
VcJ 1 ·-
(
66Pil earl + Ot!. p,, ) be tween a mnl fun c tioning tube a nd
renee of h ydros ta tic h eads in the mal- 11. ''mI
L\ Pil r an clement can be writte n in l,he foi-
h eader effect, o r through pressure va- func tio ning tube and el em ent, tlp 1" l owing for m:
riation a long the length of tho h eader ( 11.:-l4)
and tlp 0 0 nre ta ken for t ho c leme nt. Mph= t..p;~ 1 - D.pf.'
(see Sec. 11 .5). T his ki nd of mal dis tri- H ydraulic maldistribution in s uper- The head er e ffect s hould be consi-
bution appea rs mainl y i n the heating
·s urfaces of s uper heaLers a nd , to a
healers a nd non-boiling economi ze rs. d e red when ot..p,.eodi tlp ,, 0.05. >- = <t z u~'P>:1 - z (l~;;r:o:.,
T he form ul a for the coeffici ent of The hyd rostatic co mponent of t h e - I - tl
lesser extent, in economizers. total pressure g r ad ieut is s u bst an tia l - [ ~ (hp)~ . - Z (hp)fl-.1} g
hydra ulic maldistribu tion ac quires t he
T o d eri ve t ho equation for hydrau- simplest for m for non- bo iling eco- o1d y in s ing l e- pass s uperheaters a l 1
= {[l:" (hp)
- "' "' (I- 11-. l
~p )<I
lic m aldis tribution, l et us write the
·equation for total pressure g t·adient in
nomizers in w hich the working fluid ?Jtlp,,! flphr >-
0.05.
01 - "-'

an element: in a hori zonta l or ascending motion, llydraulic maldis tribution in the zo- - l ~ (hp)d:,~ - Z (hp)~}.. J} g (11.36 )
has a n ampl e reserve of subcooli ng. nes o[ sudden c hanges in the uni t
W ater walls of st.carn bo ilers in
In this cas e: ve
1 ~ ve 1 = cons tant;
vol ume of the work ing fluid. In mode r n
-once- thro ug h boi lers. stea m-ge ne rati ng high-capaci t y monobloc uni t;> are mad_e
Vel ~ vm/; t he difference of h ydrosta- in t he form of ver tical sections , hon -
~l em en ts are usually arranged i n t he
+ ll Pi/,ad + t..p~1 (H .29) tic hea ds between a malfunctioning zontally coiled sections, U- and_ N-
tube a nd cl em ent and the resistan ce l ower rad i a tion section which is heal ed
th e most iutcnsiv el y. sh a ped sections , multi-p ass sect 1 o~s
:and simil a rly for a malfun ctioning due to fl ow acceleration a re negli- with horizonta l tubes , etc . H y dra ullc
.I -tube g ible: Otlpll ~ 0, flPac ~ 0. With a
uniform wa ter s uppl y to and removal
The -combin a tion of a subs tantial
hy draulic mald is tribution and_ inten- rnaldistribution in s ome of these types
will b e discussed below.
' A (wp);nl - ·s ive hea ting can , uud er cert am con-
-U PmJ = Zmj - - 2- Vm t from the head ers, the coeffici ent of Horizontal circuit. In horizonta l tu-
hydra ulic mai d istributio n for these d il ions, resul t i n H s ha rp rise i n tem-
bes t here is no h y drosta tic head, an d
+ (wo) 2
• m 1 (v"'' -
1 v~"')
1n -r
' t.. prni
ltt ad + A
u
pmf
II
co nd itions is d etermined by tho ratio pe rature and unit vol ume of t he wor-
king flu id in a malfuncti oning tu~e , therefore, the for mul a of hydraulic
of the coefficients of hydrau l ic res i- mal distribution with throttling t a kes
(11.30) stance: reduct ion in the fl ow rate through 1L,
and o verheati ug of t he tube m etal the form:
_ ~ ( 'L1. 32)
When thoro is a large n um ber of u ut i l bum-o ut occurs 1351. Hydra ulic
p a rall el tubes, the effect of a ch a nge p,, = 1./
v Zet
Zmf
= --
,r,,,, mal d istri butio n in s uch tubes m uy (11.'37)
in heal. absorption in a malfun ctio- nppear on nn a pprecia ble change iu ~h e
ning tube on the total pressure g ra- With t he workin g fluid s u pplied to
and re mo ved fro m a head er t hro ugh uni t vo lume of tho hea ted wod(ln g
·dien t can be neg l ected , and t he re fore, fluid . It a ppears m a inly in tho h ea l,ing If there is no t hrottling, t he fo r mula
its end faces, the head er effect is s ub-

v
tlpct = cons tan t . S ince the prcss ut·e s urfaces of t he high-heat capac il y is s i mplified:
gmdien t between the inl et sec tio n of stantial and the formula for h ydra ulic
m aid is tri butio n t akes the form: 1.oncs of su porc ri 1leal- pressure boi I ers ,
~cl
the supply header and the outle t sec-
t ion of t he d is charge head er is t he
Ph = V _1_ ( 1 - {jf:o.pr,.ad )
iu 1 he e \'nporat ing surfaces of s ub-
-cri t ic a l- press ure boil ers, and in boi -
Ph -= II :dVe/
-
=mJUmf
= -
1
ll h Vmf
·same for a ll t ho tubes whic h are co n- ( 11 .:!3) ('11. 38)
l'JI, t!.f'ttr J ing econo mize rs.
 Download From Boilersinfo.com 141
140 l1 .5. Distribution of Worlclng Fluid Be t ween T ubes
Ch. JJ. ll ydrody na m ics o f Op e n /J ydrcwlic Syst ems

h ea t. capacit ies evcu a slight increase flu id by only 20-30°C. An a pprocinb le

V cr t ical ci rcuil. I n ver tical c ircuits
the hyd rostatic head h as a vital effect
•c tu J in the unit enthalpy. which can always maldis trihuLion o [ heat m ight be a l-
~ lowed here, but adverso temperature
on hyd r a ulic m a ldist ribut ion. In some
P.articu!ar cases, and t a ki ng into co.n-
700

500
lat
;- occur in s ome t ubes, can cause a
sh nr p i ncrease in the unit volu me of
flui d, v, a nd t. h c1·e foro, in h y dr a ulic
condi tio ns are l ikel y to occu r in eva-
porating tubes, es pecially at hig h
s JdcratiOn th o cHect of va ri ous fac- - - heating intensities. For this r eason,
~
tors [in form u la (11.36)1, the eq uation resis tnnce. T his i11 tu r n l eads to a l o-
500 J mu ld istribution of heat in evaporating

v
for hydraulic maldislribulion (11.35) wer flow rate through the tube, i. e.
If ' I 1uhes s hould be not more than 20-'tO%.
lakes tho form: i mn l dislribution in the tube is aggrn-
400 / I I vatccl furth e r , whil e the un i t h eal In su percri lical -prcssure boi lers,
s ing le-pass ascend ing section: t.he zo ne of high h eat. ca pacities is
absorpti on 6i. inc reases al ong with
300
I I the volu me of fl u id in il, IJ. The pro- m ost sens i tiv e t o va ri a tions in h eat
P'' -
- ..VI r-
1
_
_;C/
. . :;. :_ -cess c onti nues unti l a flow ···rate is absor ption. In t his zone, tho ther m o-

--
lh "mf f.O physic al proper ties of the wo rki ng
/'It )~ -established which has a correspond i ng
I flu id vary roost significantly w i th v a-
2gh (Pel - Pm/) 0.0 \ ~ r--...... I stat e of mal dislrihu tion of heal a t. a
- ., (1Ul0) gi v on h e aling l oad. l n some cases, ri a tions in enth alpy. T h er e for e, i t is
ZefVe / (u:p); l
\ T'0 es pecia ll y i rn por t a n l I o cons t r u c t t h e

! "'
I this m ay l ead t o emergen cy s ituations .
s ing le-pass descending sect i on:
0.8 I \ T he a ll owabl e heat ing lond is estab- charuclcl'is lic t<;;;, = I (1l tra) for this
r
\ I lished for the particular opornting con- zone.
0. 7
Ph - .. I_..!_ _-;,r/ T
v lJ/1 Umj
0.5
I i\ •I d itions of a heating s urface. For steam
s upe rh eat ers in whic h the outlet por- 11.5. E ffect of H eade rs
I t i ons o f tubes o per a te u n der almos t o n t he Distribut ion ol' Wo rking fluid
2gh (Pel- Pm f) ( 11.40)
,3 1\J 'It>< -ext re m e temperatu re condiUons, th e
0.5 B elween T ubes
=et~e/ (wp); l f.O l2 t4 1.5 t.8 zo a ll owabl e h ealing load sh ould not
-exceed '15% of the to t a l hcnl abso r p- There arc three main types of h ea-
t ,,·o- pass U-s h oped sect ion :
Fig. 11.:1.0. Ma ldisl.ri bu tiou characteristics ti on h y the s u perh eat er. F'or bett er re- ders (Fig. '11.21): (a) sttpply, or dist-

Pll -11 _1_

'lh
~~cl
llm.f
/ 1-
-----~2g-,~.~
, (~-p7l,,,--=
p'~'~)--~
(-~"~'/,-~fl
p -~.",'.~'>-J
X \ '"'·' - ~· -
ZeWe / (wp)~l
As fol.l~ws from formu la (11.38),
t he coefftcJen t o f hyd r a uli c maldistri-
bu t ion .in h oriz onta l t ubes d e pends on
th o r a t1 o be tween the the rm a l a nd t ho
hydrau lic ch aracteristics i n a n cl e-
mcnt and. a m a lfu ncti on ing t u be.
I n vert1cal t ubes, h yd r aulic mal d i-
sLdbuLion. also d e pends h eavily on the
h yd rost.at1c com ponent and i ts con tr i-
bu I ion to t h e total pressure gradient
betwee~ the dischnrgc and su pply hea-
ders, I.e. the r atio bot ween t.p
and b Pirr· ''
O n t.he o ther h and, the rel atio n be t-
ween the increments of enth al pies in
a malfunctioning lube and an ave-
r age. e~ement is charactet·ized by the
coefftc tent of mnl d is tr ib ution of hea t
p , [see f ormuln (1 1.22)1. Assu m ing a
nu mber of va lues , of Pq = 6i m 1t U"i e /r
one ~a n d et~rm ~ ne the coefficient of hyd -
r au h c mal distnbution P~t=(wp)m tf(wp)c~
of a o ncc-tlu·oug h elemen t a t p = 24 J\1 Pa·
. and iin = I 200 kJ / kg
ll.ae/• kJ/ kg : J-4 00; !!- GOO; J - 1
~.•·• and, f m m ?xpression p, = 1) 110 /p , th~
corres pondw g coe ff ici ents· of q non-
(11.41) uniform heat . a bsorp t io n 1l t.u· With
the k ~1own values D.irnf and i 111 • we
can futd the un it enthalpy of the
~vork ing fl ui d at the exit from a mal -
Iun ctioning tube, a nd the r efore, i ts
tem per ature t~':J. Using these d a t a,
we can construct maldistribution cha-
racteristics which show varialio ns in
the coeffi c ien t of hydraulic mald is tri-
~ u ~ion a nd lem~ er a ture of the w orking
n .Uld at t he e xt t from a m a lfu nctio-
lllng tube de pend ing on t h e coeffi cient
of non- uniform h eat. absorption, i.e.
Pt! = I (11110) and 1,:;1 = f (1lh 0 ), see
F 1g. 11 .20.
The mHI d istrib u ti o n ch a r acteristic:;
o f mo re heavily heated Lubes (TJtra > 1)
for Ph aro ~ailing a.nd for tex arc ris ing.
In a part1cu l:u· porti011, curves of Ph
fall off steeply t o a c l'i lical sLate wh en
a slig ht i ncr ease o f 1'11," c an lead to a
s h arp drop in the fl ow rate and an
iucr e asl! in t ex· This is ass ociated with
the fac t l h nt in the 1·egion of high
oou
l i ability, tl1 e tube system of steam
s u pcrh en ters is sect ion llli 7.od i n l.hc
ributin g, headers, l , whi ch d istrib utc
1he wo rking fJ u id between pa r allel
tubes connected to thoro; (b) disc/wrge
steam path.
Eco u omizers arc mounted in r e- headers, 2, which rec eive fl uid from a
g ions o[ m od er a t o h e at ing r ates, a nd number o £ paralle l t u bes; a n d (c)
intermediate, or m ixing , hea.der.~, 3 ,
wa t e r in them h as a r ei ali voly low
w hich are used t o equ a li ze n on - id entity
t emperature. For econ omizers, thor-
i n tube oper ation.
mal m aldistri bu t ion of 50% or more
Mixing headers arc m ost effic ient
is allowabl e. F or this r eason, it is not
when th o flow is single- phase (either
n ecessary to sect io nalizc t h o econ o-
steam or water). They nre ofte n em ploy-
m izers in tho wa t er path .
ed to equa lize non- id entic al operation
I n ev!l porating t ubes, temper at ure
is rel ativel y low (boiling point). rr of tube coils in su perbeaters.
Suppl y a nd d ischarge h eaders have
there are no fl ow distu rbances, and
d i£fercnt effects on the oper ation of
th er efore, h eal is r emoved pro perly,
h eat i ng s urfaces . 1 n s t eam s u perhea-
the tem per ature of the l.u bc wa l Is
ters, the ir effect d e pe nds h eav il y on
usu a ll y exceeds t h at of t he worki ng
I I"'
l sl
section 3....._
J
'\-
1 I I I X
'
.
Fig. '1 1.21. H eaders and the ir con- Zntl
section
nect ion wit.h th e tube s ystem of
h e.a Ling surfaces
2 2
(u) lin~ar connection ; (b) Clow t mns-
t cr 1hrough mix in~ head~•..: (c) Cl ow (a) (h) (C) •
transrcr :.hrou~ h t"rosso\'er t•a\}(·~
 142
Ch. 11. Hydrodynamics oj Open Hydraulic Systems
Fig. I 1.22. Hydraulic cbaructoristics of a
Z-shnped superheater circuit
(a) distribution or velocity nnd velocity head:
(II) prORSUI'C dls trlbUtiOil
how sl,earn is su ppliod to, or t·emoved
from, a header. ln some plants, hea-
ders were used in which steam was
admiLLed and discharged as a con-
centrated jet through the end faces.
For instance, in a Z-shapod super-
h eater circuit (Fig. 11. 22), as steam
is distributed between the coils, its
axial velocity in the supply header,
w 1n, decreases, and accordingly, the
pressure head wr.p/2 decr eases and
changes to static pressure t.p;l' (Fig.
11. 22a). In con I rast to this, the static
pressure at the outlet from the dis-
charge header, t.p~~, decreases. As
foll ows from Fig . 11.22/J, the leftmost
coils of the superheater operate at a
pressure grad ient 6P coii +
t.p!~'
+ t.p~, which is higher than the pres-
sure gradient 6P co il in the rightmost
coils. The difference between the pres-
sure heads in the coils is equal to the
sum of static heads in the supply and
discharge header, i.e. 6p!~1 t.p~~.+
The difference in pressure gradients
appears not on ly between the extreme
coils, but also between any two sections
along tho l1oader length and is deter-
mined as t ho sum of the respective
values of 6p $1 '1~ and t.pex
~ , , for these
sections.
In other circui ts with concentrated
supply and removal of steam through
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.tfp[n ~ Steam
inlef
I~-..,
%
...
·-"'~
":; 11Pcotl
...
•
I ~
~
-
~
Steam
outlet
0 0
~ , I
llp f,r
Fig. H. 23. Pressure di s tribution in a n-
shapod hydraulic circuit containing a single-
phose fluid
the header end faces, more favourable
conditions can form, though the ope-
ration of parallel tubes in the sysLem
may be substantia] ly non-identical.
For instance, with concentrnted sup-
ply and removal of steam through the
header end faces in a IT-shaped circuit
(Fig. 11.23), the conditions of steam
admission are similar to those of a
Z-shaped circuit, so that the pattern
of static pressure distribution a long
the supply h eader remains essentially
the same, i.e. pressure increases along
the motion of fluid. ln the discharge
header, static pressure decreases to-
wards its outlet.
As follows from Fig . 11 .23, the left-
most coils are at a pressure gradient
6p~~ + 6P coil and the rightmost ones
+ at 6Pcoil + t.p~~ . Tbe difference in
the pressure gradients b etween them
is determined by the difference in the
static heads in the supply and dis-
charge beadm·, t.p!? - t.p~"f.
Since the unit volume of th e fluid
in the coils is higher upon heating
than before heating, the effect of the
discharge headers on fluid distribution
between parall el coils in any hydrau -
lic system is more substantial than
the effect o£ supply headers.
The header effect can be d ecreased
either by increasing 6Pcoll or by
decreasing t.p. 1 in the headers . Both
measures are ineffi cient, however , sin-
11.6. Flow Pulsations
IIJtn Win
illiilnMrnl Ill Uit n
I
I i!l l l l lll
I I
11111111111
I I ~
111111111 11
I
we, I i lli'l l ll 111 11111111I IITu 1111111111 1
~·
~
I I I I
0
I
0 0 0
Ill
••
,,,
'I
••
• (a) (6} (C) {d)
Fig. 11.24. Static pressure di stributi on along the leng th of a header depending on the method',
of supply and di scharge o£ a single-phase flow
ce the former requires a higher pres- multiple forced circulation boilers,
sure in the boilet· and a higher auxi- tho resistance of evaporaLing tube
liary flow rate, while the latter re- coils is high, so that the effect of pres-
quires larger headers, and l,herefore, sure variations along the length of
more metal. headers may be neglected.
The effect of velocity head can be
diminished if steam is introduced and 11.6. Flow Pulsations
removed nol, through the end faces of
a header (as in Fig . 11.24a and b), Tho steady-state operating condi-
but from its middle (Fig. 11.24c). tions of a boiler may be disturbed by
In this case the axial veloci ty of steam various factors, l eading to pulsations.
decreases by 50% and the velocity in the working fluid flow. The distur-
head by 75%. Still better r esults can bing factors are variations in the hea-
be obtained by distributed steam ad - ting intensity pressure, now rate and I
mission to a supply header and dis t- temperature of feed water. There are-
t•ibuted removal from a discharge hea- two main t ypes of flow pulsations:
der. With two supply or discharge tu- boiler pulsations and intercoil pulsa-
bes provided in a header (Fig. '11. 24d), tions .
the a.xial velocity and velocity head Boiler pulsations are oscillations in
can be diminished respectively to 1/4 tho £low rate of the working fluid in
and 1/16 of th eir values in a header individual elements, circuits or the
with a single tube. In modern boiler whole plant. They may be caused by
plants, fresh steam sup01·hoaters are sharp variations in the indicated para-
connected to a number of supply and motet'S. In similar sections of parallel
discharge tubes, so that headers have tubes, flow parameters vary synch-
only a slight effect on steam d is tribu- ronously. Boiler pulsations are aLLe-
tion. In reheaters, where the t·esi- nuating (Fig. 11.25a); they disappeat·
stance o£ tube coils is relatively Jow as soon as the disturbance is elimi-
and the resistance of h eaders is high nated.
(because of high steam velocities), the Flow rate pulsations can attain a·
effect of headers can b e substantial. level characteristic for the gi von con-
In economizers, where the unit volume ditions, after which they do not. dis-
of water is naturally low and tho axial appear s pontaneously (Fig . 11.25b).
velocity in headers inossen tiul, the This means that the flow rate of
effect of velocity head presents no water (wp)w through some l.ubes firs!.
problem. fn once-through bo il ers and increases to a maximum, then decrca-
 jft4
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Ch. 11. llydrod!lnamics of Open Hydraulic Systems 12.1. Laws of Free Clrculatton

upper surface of the tubes and forming
fatigue cr acks.
Intercoil pulsations can be charac-
terized by the pulsation period -r and
amplitude (see Fig. 11 .25).
As has been established, intercoi I
(11)
pulsations obey the follow ing regu-
larities:
(ruj')w.fu;pJs. r1 (a) the~' can appear in some tubes
of an evapontliug section even under
lt steady-state l1eating and hydraulic
~ conditions in a boiler;
I :-_
I (b) pulsations of the flow rate of
the fluid in pat·allel Lubes of a section
are shifted in phase so that the total
flow ra te and other· parameters of the
fluid at the outlet from the heating
sect ion remain cons tant;
(c) the amplitude of flow rate pul-
'Fi g . 11.25. Pattern of attenuating oscilla- sations at the inlet of a tube is much
tions (n) and sclf-s ustu ined osci llul.ions (b) higher than the amplitude at: its out-
·in 11 s ingle tube of a once-th rough element let, while tlto pu lsation period is the
same;
(d) the hig hest flow rate of water
ses, passes llu-ough the average value. at the inlet corresponds to the lowest
drops to a minimum (sometimes nega- steam fl ow rate at the outlet , i.e.
tive), and then increases again. This the phases are d isplaced by 180°;
process may be repeated more than (e) in intercoil pulsation, the pres-
once. In this case, tho flow rate of sure in evapot·ating tubes oscillates
i water in other evaporating tubes also with a period equal to the period of
pulsates, but the process is shifted in pulsation of the fluid flow rate.
phase. Therefore, the flow rate of Since intercoil pulsations are caused
wat or through some t.u bes i ncreascs primarily by variations in the phy-
periodically while at tho same time s ical properLios of t;he working fluid
docreasi ng in other tubes , wi Lh the in t.he zone where eva porat ion begins,
' total pressure gradient between the the probability of their appearance
where (wp} 0 is the boundary mass velo- Ascending-Jl1Scending and slightly
city at a pressure 10 MP.a which can inclined tube elements in which fl.ph
be found on curves plotted for the gi- does not exceed 10% are calculated as
ven conditions of inlet throttling and are horizontal tubes, with (wph increa-
subcooling, and kp is a correction fac- sed by 20% . With a higher contribu-
tot· for the given pressure. t ion from tho hydrostatic component,
In vertical tubes (coils), the hydro- the calculation is done as for vertical
static componon t of the pressure gra- channels . Tho actual mass velocity
dient, 6.p 1., decreases the probabil ity should always be greater than tho
of the appearance o[ pulsations, and boundary value: {wp)w > {wp)b.
therefore, decreases (wp) 1,: If this condition is not satisfied,
(wp)g = c (wp)~ · {11.43) the hydraulic resistance of the econo-
mizer porlion of tubes can be increased
where (wp)~ is the boundary mass ve- by mounling orifice plates. These are
locity for a similar horizontal tube, arranged at the inlet of tho tubes. For
Isee formula ('l1.'12) I and c is the once-through boilers, throttling con-
coe£ficient for vertical tubes which
ditions to avoid pulsations should
can be found on curves:
be calcul ated for the lowest value of
(wp)g . mass velocity wp. The degree of thrott-
C= I = f(l:!.tltlt p)
(wp)b ling required to prevent intercoil pul-
sations also elim inates instability in
where 6.iin i.s the degree of subcooling
of the working fluid a t. tho inlet and p the hydraulic characteristic of the
coils.
is pressure.
HYDRODYNAMICS OF CLOSED HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

I headers of these tubes remaining the decreases inversely with pressure. At

same. This phenomenon, called in- supercrilical pressures, pulsations are
tercoil pulsation, can occur ovoo at a less common and have a lower ampli-
·constant total flow rate through the tude, but the pattern of flow rate
12.1. Laws of F ree Circulation

Free-circulation boilers usually have

appears from heating the vertical up-
take lubes !see formula (1.1)1.
Let us write Bernoulli's equation fot
parallel tubes of a section. pulsations at su bcritical and supercri- a circulation circuit of evaporating each section of the circulation circuit.
The pulsation period in once-tluough tical pressure is essentially the same. tubes arranged in the boiler furnace. I t is assumed (Fig. 12.1) that a steam-
boilers may sometim es be as long as Flow rate pu lsaLious diminish with Continuous motion of water and steam- water mixture of density Pa moves in
fra<:l ious of a minute or a few minu- an increase in the muss velocity, owing water mixture {circulation) is orga- section 3-4, and, at the pressure in
t.es . With a high amplitude of flow to the resulting i ncroase in hydraulic nized in the circuit, which ensures con- the drum, wal.er of density p' moves
rate pulsations, this may be harmful resistance in the econom izer porlion tinuous and ef£i.cient removal of heat in the remaining path, i.e. in sections
to evaporating tubes, since heat trans- of the tubes. The boundary mass velo- from the heating surfaces. Tl1is makes 4-1-2-3. The reference pl ane is taken
fer is impaired during tl1o periods of ci Ly in horizontal l.ubes at which pul- it possible to maintain the tempera- at the header level (2-3).
low flow rate, resulting in tempera- sations can occur depends on pressure ture of the tube metal at a tolerable For section 1-2 (downtake tubes) we
ture variations in t.he tube walls p, heating load q, length of the heated l evel and thus ensure the reliable and have:
(curve t,) and fatigu e stresses in the portion l, and inner diameter of lu-
metal. In horizontal tubes, phase se- bes d:
long operation of the circul ation cir-
cuit.
(H - h) p'g + p, + U~j• p'
paration of t he flow may take pl ace . Free circulation is produced by
-<·n·a t iug the risk of ovcd1oaLing the (11.42) (12.1)
the driving circulating head S dr which
10 - 0 1524
 146
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Ch. 12. Hydrodynamtcs of Closed Hydraulic Systems
r''"~: . The ~ ifference b &tween the driving
crrculatmg head and the resistance of
" -7
f ascending tubes is called the useful
circulating head:
Su, = Sdr - b.p 0 8 (12.7}
Comparing formul ae (12.6) and
H (12. 7), we fi pd the principal equation of
,.---'-----., circulation:
Su 8 = 6-pdtu (12.8)
i.e. the useful circulating head is s pent
2 J to overcome the resistance of the des-
cending sections .
Fig. 12.1 . To derivation of the principal The driving circulating head, and
equation of circulation therefore, the useful circulating head
depend heavily on tho relative velocity
of steam (w,) in the ascending tubes .
Similarly, for sections 2-3 (lower
hendor), 3-4 (uptak e tubes), and 4-1 With the same mass flow rate of the
fluid, as the relative velocity of steam
(water space of the drum) it can be
written: increases, the fraction of the tube cross
section occupied by steam, <p, de-
creases while th at occupied by water
(1 - q>), increases; thus , the densit~
of the steam-water mi x ture in the
W:i• , ascend ing tu bes increases . In turn,
Pl + TP =Hpag + p, the relative velocity of st eam, and
' A IDe • (12.3)
therefore, <p, Pm• and Su depend on
•TPo + uPJ-4 circulat ion v elocity w 0 , resolved velo-
tr 1 w•
city of steam w;, pressure p, and tube
•
l.:.p g+ P4 +-f Pa = (H - h) pig + p1 diameter d:
Pm = f (wo, w~, p, d)
(12.4)
s...
= f (w 0 , w~, p, d)
Adding together the pressure gra- These relationships aro rather com-
dients in the sections of the circula- plicated and hove not yet been solved
tion circui t and noting formula (1.1), anal ytically. Their graphical solution
we obtain: is also impossible in view of the large
number of the parameters involved.
H (pi - p~) g = 'Lb.Phr = Sd,
For this reason , S,. , is usually repre-
(12.5) sented graphically as a function of w 0
at various values of w~ and constant
With steady-state motion, tho pres-
v~ues of the other parameters (p, d).
sure difference between the water co-
lumns in the downtake t ubes and the Figure 12.2 sl'IOWS w 0 -Su. curves
obtained at various values of resolved
columns of the steam-water m ixture
in the uptake tubes is counterbalanced steam velocity w~. For the same
calculation velocity w 0 , as the heating
by the sum of hydraulic resistances
to the motion of the working fluid in rate. is increased I (w~) 2 > (w;)1 l, the
denstty o[ the steam-water mixture
the circuit. Having related all resi-
stances to the down take and up take in ascending tubes decreases and Su, in-
creases .
tubes , we get :
Under identical condi t ions, the use-
(12 .6) ful circul ati ng head depends on th e
12.1. Laws of Free Circulation
Sus
O L---------~-------~
~0~
Fig. 12.2. Effect of circula tion v<!locity on
the useful head at w;; - constant; (ro;h <
< (roOlt
pressur~ m the circuit (Fig. 12.3).
At a h1gher pressure, the density of
the steam-water mixture in ascending
tubes is higher, and therefore, s~~. . is
lower. As pressure approach es the cri-
tical value, s,.. decreases to a r ela-
tively low value, so that free circu-
l ation becomes ineffective. The ul ti-
mate pressure at which reliable free
circul ation is still possible in boilers
is equal to 18-19 MPa . On the other
h and, even at supercritical pressures,
but at low fri ction losses in the cir-
cuit of once-through boilers , free cir-
culation turns out to be sufficient to
fire the boiler at a water How rate that
is reduced by 50% and wi th the recir-
culation pump switched off.
The effect of relative steam v elocity
depends on pressure in the circuit.
At a low pressure, large formations
of steam are possible in a tube (slug
flow), and the relative s team velocity
f With a non-boiling economizer, tho
p
I mil;led by tho cir culation ratio K, so
O.lJicr Per
Fig. 12.3. Effect of pressure on the useful
circulating head
1-w, neglected; 1- w, considered
to•
147
is rather high. As the pressure and
saturation tempernture increase sur-
~ace te~sion decreases and 'slugs' break
mto fm ~r bubbles , thus decreasing
th e rela ttve steam velocity. At piPer>
> 0.7 (see Fig. 12.3), the effect of
relative steam velocity can be neglec-
t ed.
Let us recall that the actual den-
s ity of \.he s team-water mixture p4
depends on \.he actual volume steam
con te~t q> [see formula (9.40)1. Using
equat ton (12.5), we obtain a conve-
nient formula for th e driving ctrcu-
laLing head:
Sdr = H (p 1
- Pa )g
= H <p (pI - p *) g (12. 9)
Formula (12.9) h as been derived under
the assumption that the ascending
tubes of a circulation circuit con lain a
steam-water mixture al ong their whole
h eight. Actually, developed boiling
b egins in the ascending tubes at a
certain distance above the inlet and
accordingly, the whole length of th~
tubes should be divided into an eco-
nomizer portion H e c and evaporating
portion H . 0 •
Tho section in which developed
boil.ing begin ~ . is called the boiling
sectwn (or bo£lmg point). The height
of the evaporating portion in ascen-
ding tubes can be found by the for-
mula
He o = H - flee (12.1 0)
a nd subst!luted into formula (12.9)
to determ1ne the driv ing circulating
head.
water enthalpy at its outlet, i:C, is
1
less than i and therefore, tho tem-
,
perature of water in the boiler drum
i~ b elow tl.1~ boiliog point. The quan-
ttly of hodlfJg water that enters the
rlrum is greater th an the quantity
of feed water by the magnitude deter-
that the degree of water subcooling
in the drum can be found as
(12.11)
148
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Ch. 12. Hydrodynamics of Closed Hydraulic S ystems
12.2. Calculation of Circ ulation Circuits 149
Therefore, in the general case, water where Qc is the hea L absorption o f
at tho inlet to the d escend ing tubes the c irc uit, kJ/h , and H e is lhe Fig. i 2.5. Circulation diagrams of
heated h eight or the c ircu i t, m. simple circui ts
i s s ubcooled*. The degr ee of su b- ·(a) with stcam-f:Cncrntlng tubes connec-
cooling increases as water moves in The height o[ the economizct· por- ted direc tly to the drum; (b) with stcnm-
clrcul nl.l ng lube•; A- working point;
th o descend ing tubes, which i s du o tion can be found [rom t h e IJal ance 1o~r-nctuu t circul ation \'el oci ty (wntt.:l'
to an increase in its hyd rostatic o£ heat fo r tha t portion, i.e. the quan- rlow rnle)
pressu re, and nllains a m aximum in tity of heat that s hou ld be transferred
the lower h eader of the circulation t o w ater per unit time to preheat i t
circuit: to boiliug in the economizer portion
[formula (1.2.1 5)1 a ud the quautity of
heat a bsorb ed for the same Lime by
the ccouom izer portion from the fur-
+
lii'
flp P'g (H _ flPde•)
d~·
p'g
(12. 12) nace [formula (12.16)1. H ence we have:
(0)
(b)
t:.i' , ( t:.Pde• )
where -t:.!' p' g is the change of wate r flid+ L\1) P g fides- P'll
flp
enthalpy p er unit height, k J /(kg m) , H ec = Oc 6 i' '
11 cG I flp p g may h ave commo n elements, such as construct the -circula lion diagram
and !J.Pdes is the h ydraulic resistance descending tubes whi ch supply the (Fig. 12.5a), i.e. the curves S"• =
of Lhe descending tubes, Pa. (12:l 7) working fl uid to the ascending ele- = f (w0 ) a nd !J.Pdu = f (wo). Then
Tbis is the degree of subcooling m e n ts of all sections w hi ch form the act u a l circulati o n velocity W:: is
th a t. water h as at the entry to the 12.2. Cnlculat ion a complex circulation circuit [22 1. found for the working point o[ the
ascending tubes. As it moves there of Cir cula tion Circu its S imple circulation c ircuits . The prin- diagram; toge ther wil,h the qu a ntity
to the boiling secti on, the hydrostatic cipa l circulation equation (12.8) is of steam formed in the cir cu it, G,, it
pressure decreases and subcoo ling di- Free-circulation circu i ts may be solved g raphoanalytically. Both s ides makes it possible to det ermine t he
minish es by the magnitud e: either s imple or compl ex. In a simple of t h o eq uatio n depend on the water circu latio u r atio K.
circuit (Fig. 12.4a a nd b), all ascendi ng flow rate (circulation velocity), i.e . In moder n steam boilers , primarily
A • H • 61' (12.13) tubes h ave the same geometrical cha-
Ll ~ce = ecP g flp S 11 , = I (w 0 ) a nd IJ.fJdes = I (w 0 ). With simple ci rc u lation c irc uits are em p-
racteristics (diameter, l ength and sha- an incr ease in w 0 , the useful circula- loyed in the form of water-wall sec-
Therefore, the degree of water sub- pe) and arc heated under identical ting h ead decreases (see Fig. 12.2), t io ns connected to s t eam-circulating
cooling per uni t flow rate (1 kg) up conditio ns. Simple circuits have no while the hydrau lic resista nce of tho tubes (Fig. 12.4b). In s uch c ircui ts,
to t he boiling section is common olements with other cir cuits. descend ing elements of the circu it the d riving head a ppears both i n
An example of such a circuit is the
A .
Ll~c/
+ 6i'
t:.p P IJ1
'
des -
(H t:.Prles \
p' g J water walls of boiler furnaces. Com-
increases i n proportion to the square
of the flow r ate. Intersection of the
heated water-wall tubes and unhea t ed
steam-cir culati ng tubes, since t hese
plex circuits (F ig. 12.4c) may have curves Su s a nd !J.pde• determines the are also filled with the steam-water
H , flt' (12.14) different geometrica l characteris tics
- ccP g t:.p worki ng point A of the circul a tion mixture (Fig. 12.5b) . ·
and different heating cond i tions . They diagram (Fig. 12.5a) whose coordin a- The corresponding usefu l heads are:
or for the total flow rate of c irculating tes satisfy the circulatio n equation S;:'~ in h eated water-wall tubes and
1 1 1• 5
water, G, kg/ h: (12.8 ). s~~ in unheated steam-circulating tu-
. +
[ 6 ~d
l!.i'
Pg
, (H des _ flPc te.• ) Three different values of circula- bes. The total usefu l h ead of the
. . s sww + sse .
flp p' g . 5 tion v elocit y w0 1, w 02 , and w 03 are ClrCUlt, c =
... U& u•' IS s pen t

-H,.p ' g tJ.t'

flp
JG (12.15) 4 -2 2/ tJ
/
given for cons tructing tho circul ation
diagram . Tho ca lculation d etermines
to overcom e the hydraulic res is tance
of th e d escending tubes !J.Pdc•· The
4 successively: the hydrau I i c resistance coord inatos of point A at th o inter-
Assumi ng tha t heat absorption a long of tho descending tubes in which sectio n of the curves det er mine the
tho height of the cir cuit considered is t 2t t water flows ls ee formulae (9.43) and actual water flow r a te in the cir cuit,
constant, t h e h eat abs 01:bed for tho
sam e time in the economizer portion
is:
- -
{/ 0 (9.50)1; the r es pect ive he ights of the
econ o mizer portion (12.17) and th e
evaporating portion (12.10); t he r ela-
G~, and us eful h ead S~•. T h e actual
useful h eads of the water-wall and
steam-circulating tu bes are de termi-
_ HecOc (12.1G) tive cross-secti on al a r ea occupied by ned by the ordinates of corresponding
Qee - Hc J J J steam (9.34); the driving circulating points on the curves a t G~ . T he total
(a) (h) (C)
h ead (12.9); the resistance of th e cross-sectional aroa of steam-circula-
• When all feed water is fed to a bubble- Fig. 12A. Diagrams or (a, b) sirnrle and ascending portion in whi ch the s t eam - ting tulles is s rn a ll.er than that of
ca p steam washer (see Sec. 15A), subcooli ng (c) corn pl ex cir·cula Lion ci rcui ls
is climina led by Lhe partial condensa li on of water mixture moves (9.49); and t he watcr- wnll tubes, and therefore, at
J- drum; ! - up take tub<•• (water wall•); J- hender; high fl ow rates (G > Gcr), their resis-
bubbling steam. 4-downtnkc tubes; s -stcam~i rculating lubes useful c irc ulation head, (12.7).
The r es ults obtained arc used t o tance m;1y lurn 011t to be higher than
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150 Ch. 12. Hydrodynamics of Closed Hydraulic Systems
lJ
Fig. 12.6. Circulation diagram of a complex
circuit
the useful head produced in them,
that is, the useful head of water-wall
tubes S::';" will be partially spent to
overcome their resistance.
Complex circulation circuits. For a
complex circulation circuit with a com-
mon downtake system (Fig. 12.4c),
the curves of useful head are construc-
ted in the recommended seq ueace I or
each ascending section: Su.r =
= (S";.~+S~~)r. Su.u = (S::'!" +
s.:~)n,
+
Su,m = (S::'!" S~)m (see Fig.12.6).
Since all the sections of a complex
circuit operate in parallel at the same
pressure gradient, their circulation
characteristics are summed up by
adding together the water flow rates
at the same values of useful heads
(by the abscissae) to obtain the total
characteristic DB. Additionally, a cur-
ve of resistance of the downtake
(water-feeding) section of the circuit,
which is common for all ascending
sections, is constructed (curve OC) .
T he intersection of curves DB and OC
gives the working point A of t he
circulation diagram, by which one
can find the total water flow rate
in the complex circuit, l:.G, nod the
useful head Sua·
Water flow rates in the sections
are found by drawing the horizontal
through the working point up to the
intersection with the curves of useful
circulating head for each section.
When the water flow rate and quantity
of steam produced in each section
are known, one can determine the
actual values of w0 and K and calculate
w4 .,. and the total circulation ratio
for tho complex circuit.
Nowadays, circulation circuits are
calculated by means of electronic
computers. This makes it possible,
without spending much time, to cal-
culate various variants for various
designs and operating parameters of
a boiler plant.
Steam generators employed at nuc-
lear power stations with water-cooled
water-modern ted reactors may be either
vertical or horizontal in design (sec
Sec. 24.2). In both types, the evapo-
rating heating surfaces are formed
by tube banks immersed into a large
volume of boiling water. The mecha 4
nism and hydrodynamics of such
systems differ from those of the cir-
culation systems of conventional steam
boil ers (where boiling water moves in
tubes) and have not been yet studied
properly. There are no reliable data
for the circulation of the driving and
useful circulating head nor reliable
models of tho mechanism of water
circulation through tube banks. Fur-
thermore, ascending and descending
elements of water flow cannot be
distinguished clearly.
On the other hand, water circula-
tion in intertubular spaces is employed
widely in the horizontal and vertical
steam generators of nuclear power
stations in the USSR and other count-
ries. In vertical steam generators,
a tube bank is surrounded by a shell,
so that it is possible, with certain
assumptions, to single out the ascend-
ing and descending portion of the
circulation circuit. Calculating the
circulation circuit is not very diffi-
cult and can be made by the standard
method of calculating circulation in
steam boilers discussed earlier.
In horizontal steam generators, the
ascending and descending portions of
the circulation circuit are not sepa-
rated structurally. Circulution takes
place in a large volume with a tube
bank immersed into H. For this rea-
son, the patlern of water motion
through freely immersed tube banks
should be analysed before selecting
the configuration of the circuit for
c-alculation.
12.3. General Hydraulic Charact eristic of Evaporating
12.3. General Hydraulic Characteristic
(){ Evaporating Tubes and Its Role
in Eslimating the Reliability
11£ Circulation
The general hydraulic characteristic
<>f an evaporating tuhe relates the
useful circulating head to flow rate
and includes the ascending or des-
cending motion of the working fluid.
Before constructing the characteris-
tics, let us consider the ··laws of
distribution of density of a steam-
water mixture in an evaporating tube
as a function of circulation velocity
at a constant heating intensity.
As seen in Fig. 12.7, if we neglect
the relative velocity of steam Wr (q> = ~)
and frict ion in tubes 6p1,, the curve
p, will be symmetrical and have
a peak in a point corresponding to
the zero circulation velocity w 0 = 0
and boundary density p •. In other
words, with a zero flow rate of water,
the tube will be filled only with
steam. An increase in the water flow
r ate at a given heat release results
in a denser steam-water mixture which
at high values of w 0 is asymptotic to
its extreme value p'.
The general hydraulic characteris-
tic of an evaporating tube in a circu-
lation circuit for Lhe given conditions
(w, = 0 and 6p1, = 0) is a mirror
image of the curve Pm (curve 1 in
Fig. 12.8). For these conditions, q> = ~-
As t~e circulation velocity w 0 decrea-
ses, the useful circulating head increa-
ses symmetrically and in the limit-
approaches its maximum:
s~;x = II (p' - p") g (12 .18)
,o'
,o"
·wo------ - - - - -- ·%
0 enter the tube from the bottom as
Fig. 12.7. Variations of density p111 o[ steam·
"'" ler mixture as a function of w0 in ascend·
ing and descending motion
151
t
0
.
Fig. 1.2.8. Ef£cct o[ the steam slippage nnd
friction on the total hydraulic characteristic
of a steam-generating tube
J-lbcoretlcn l clrculallnc bead (neglecting steam
slippage and friction) ; .!!-steam slippage conside·
red: 3-,•~am s llppogc and friction consldert>d
The useful circulating head depends
substantially on the relative velocity
of steam, this effect being different
depending on the direction of motion.
In ascending motion, w, decreases <p
and increases p,, resulting in a dec-
rease of Sua· In contrast to this, with
descending motion, wr increases q> and
decreases p"" and therefore, Sua is
increased (curve 2) . As, however, the
circulation velocity approaches zero,
the highest useful circulating head
will be lower than that found by
formula (12.18).
Friction forces are always directed
opposite to the motion of fluid, and
therefore, decrease Sua in ascending
tubes and in.crease it in descending
ones (curve 3).
The concept of zero circulation
velocity is conditional, since an as-
cending tube is heated and thus gene-
rates steam in an amount correspon-
ding to tho absorbed heat. To generate
steam, the tube must be fed with
water. When there is no circulation
through an evaporating tube, water
should be supplied at such a rate as
to compensate for the quantity of
steam generated in the tube; this is
called the make-up velocity Wmu. The
term implies, firstly, that the quan-
tity o[ water supplied to a tube is
low and, secondly, that water can
well as from the top, i.e. either ascen-
ding or descending motion is possible
in the tube. The region of very low

152 Cit. 12. llydrodynamics of Closed Jlydraulic Systems
SuJ
"- B,!~
....
..• , 0'
\c
['..A
".. OJ "'-, , c
"' 0
"...... If"- £
_, A
!:"
"'
0 lllmu . 0
(a) (D)
positive and negalive circu lation velo-
cities (hatched area in Fig. 12 .8) is
usually excluded from analysis.
The right-ha nd branch of the gene-
ral hydraulic characteristic corres-
ponds to tho ascending motion of
fluid, and the left-hand one to the
descending (reverse) motion. Th e rela-
tive position of the branches depends
on the pressure in the circuit. At a low
pressure, the effect of relative steam
velocity is high , and therefore, the
left-hand branch passes higher than
any point on tho right-hand branch
(Fig. 12.9a). In contrast to this, at
a high pressure, the steam velocity
and hydraulic resistance are low, and
therefore, an appreciable portion of
the left-hand branch lies lower than
the portion of the right-hand branch
'
III in the region of low circulation veloci-
ties (Fig. 12.9b). In the right-hand
branch , we can find point C which
determines tho flow rate of water at
l the make-up velocity, (wp)mu· The
ordinate of that point gives us the
useful head of stagnation S~'., i.e. the
head at which the working fluid
I virtually ceases to move, resulting
in the phenomenon of circulation stag-
nation. With circulation stagnation,
water in a heated tube moves very
slowly upwards or downwards, while
steam moves only upwards a nd bubb-
les through the column of water in
I the tube. Circulation stagnation may
Fig. iZ.iO. Connections of evaporating
lubes to the drum
Co) Into tbc water space; (b) Into the steam
spncc
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Fig. '1 2.9. Effect o[ pressure on the
s," total hydraulic charact eri sti c or a
-~ A E'
steam-genera ling tu be
(a) lower pressure; (II) bl gbcr pressure
ll
"> :'--.... A
f' E
fVmlt
appear in circui ts with 0\' aporaling
tubes connected to the water space of
the drum, i.e. below the water level
in the drum (Fig. 12.10a). With tubes
connected to the steam s pace of the
drum (Fig. 12.10b} , the useful head
of water, which moves very slowly,
is insufficient to overcome tho resis-
tance of the down take tu bos and to
raise the working fluid to th o topmost
level in t.he uptake tubes or the
circuit. Thus, a free water level can
form under such co nditions. The leH-
hand branch of ·the characteristic,
which describes steady-state descend-
ing motion , has a minimum io point 8
(see Fig. 12.9). The transiti on from
ascending to descending motion passes
through the zero velocity and is
called circulation reversal. Tho ordi-
nate of point B gives us the useful
head of reversal, sr::: ' i.e. a head
at which a chango from ascending to
descending motion occurs in an eva-
porating tube.
The distance between the horizon-
tal line DE (Fig. 12 .9) and the axis
of abscissae is the pressur e gradient
in downtake tubes llPdeo = which,
according to equation (12 .8}, deter-
s:,
mines the working point A in the
circulation diagram. As this pressure
gradient increases (line D'E' in
Fig. 12.9), the water now rate decrea-
ses, but at low pressures the head of
stagnation is achieved earlier, a nd
tIH+--'
12.3. General llydraul!c Cltaractcrlsllc of Evaporating
Fig. 12.11. Non-uniform hea t ab-
sorption by parallel tubes in the
wa ter walls of boiler furnaces
(a) acros.' the furnace width; (b) nlon~
the height where some tubes arc shaded
to form a burner port
::-
T I
.....
••
therefore, circulation stagnation is mo-
re probable (Fig. 12.9a); at a high
pressure, the head of r eversal is
ach ieved earlier and circulation rever-
sal is more likely to occur (Fig. 12.9b).
Circulation circuits are systems of
tubes connected in parallel which may
be heated differently under actual
conditions in a boiler. Non-uniform
heating of some tubes may b e caused
by structural factors in the system
or by operating conditions. Fot· in-
stance, tubes in the middle of a fur-
nace wall usual1y obtain a quantity
of heat roughly twice that absorbed
by corner tubes (Fig. 12.1.1a). Tubes
around burner ports and at a certain
height above the port turn out to be
shaded, i.e. they are not dir ectly
exposed to the r ad iant h eat of flame
(Fig. 12 .1.1b). In the operation of
solid fuel-fired boilers, especially when
the combustion conditions are dis-
turbed, some water wall tubes may
be clinker ed by slag across their
·width or.along the height (Fig. 12.12a).
Since slag has a low h eat conductivi-
(a)
Fig. 12.12. Non-uniform heat absorption by
lu bes of water walls (a) due lo cli nkering;
(b) du e to misalignment of so me lubes
153
.
.
- .
~ ~\
I ··~~ ~
. ).
/,
:;
'
(a)
ty, its layer will transmit substa n-
tially less heat. In som e cases, say,
if tube fastenings arc loosened , some
tubes may protrude from a tube
row (off-rank tubes) , Fig. ~ 2.12~, a nd
will obtain more heat, whlle adJacent
tubes will be shaded by them a nd
r eceive Jess heat.
Figure t 2.13a shows a system o[
parallel ascending lubes in a circula-
tion circuit which have identical goo-
metrical and structural char acteris-
tics. Sl!ppose that some of them are
eli nJ<ered. Unclinkered {clean) tubes
(say, tube 1) will operate und er the
rated conditions, i.e. they receive the
specified quantity of heat and deliver
the specified quantity of steam D.
L et tube 2 be clinker ed in the top
half only so that no steam forms in
that portion; the lower half will then
absorb half the specified heat, so that
the whole tube will produce D/2 of
steam. Let tube 3 generate steam in
a quantity D/2, but in contrast to
tube 2, be clinkered in its lower half
only. Let tube 4 be clinkered uniform-
ly along its whole length to such an
extent that it delivers steam in the
same quantity D/2 . Finally, tube 5
is supposed to be clinkered along tho
whole h eight to such a degree that
it docs not r eceive heat at all, and
therefore, produces no steam (D = 0).
Assuming that all the tubes are hea ted
u niformly along their height, it may
bo taken that the quantity of steam
in Lhem increases linearly (Fig.12.13b}.
As may bo seen from the figure,
differently heated tubes prodliCe dif-
ferent quantities of steam, and there-
foro, develop different driving circu-
.•
Download From Boilersinfo.com 155
154 Ch. 12. Hydrodynamics. of Closed Hydraulic System• 12.4. Hydrodynamic• of Derc• nJing Tubes

0 0/2 D/2 0/2 0 • 0 0=0 D/2 .D Fig. 12.13. Effect of clinkering of culation reversal involves a chango 0 o'
stez.m-genera ti ng tubes on the quan- from ascending to descending motion, /Pd-....., I'd tif
a

"6
tity of generated steam a'
i.e. the passage of velocities through
zero . All these regimes can disturb ~i~7 ~ c c' ~h'
f ~d
heat removal from the internal surface i:'.t' ~ d'
t:
of evaporating tubes and lead to "' I

.....
.- I
i)verheating an d even burn-out of tho
tubes.
I
I
I
=
~
=
..., Circuits operating at pressures p 1\
above 11 MPa or with local heat r X m J )rn m' n'

(a) 1 2 J 4 5
laling heads ; clean tubes deliver the
specified quantity of steam and deve-
lop the highest driving head: sdr =
= If 8 QJ (p' - p ") g. On the other hand,
the cliukered t.ul>es which obtain the
sa me qu antity of heat and thus deliver
the sarno quantity of steam JJ/2, are
slnggod d ifforontly and will develop
differcut drivi ng heads (always lower
than that in tho clean tubes), since,
at the given hent absorption and th e
corresponding p0 , s team fill s them to
a different height: in tube 3, steam
form s only in the top half, H/2; in
tube 4, i l I ills the whole tube height;
in tube 2 , it also fills the whole tube
height, but has a lower density.
Figure 12.14 shows curves of useful
circulating h eads for a system with
non-uniformly healed tubes . As has
been demonstrated, tho driving cir -
culating heads in the tubes are dif-
ferent. I n such a system, all the
ascending tubes are connected to com-
1 the criterion of circulation reversal is
l'
Fig. 12.14. Effect of non-uniform h ea ting
of parallel evaporating tubes in a circula-
tion ci rcuit on the direction and velocity of
circu Ia tion
J-s". or strongly hcnlcd tubes (most lubes in
Lhc c lrcuiL) ; 2- S u• or poorly heaLed tubes (some
tubes In the circuit); 3-S u• of the worst hea t ed
tubes (a few Lubes In the c ircuit)
moo headers and operate under the
same forced pressure gradient D.p which
is equal to Su, [see formula (12.8)1.
Hence, the useful circulating h ead
should be the same for all the tubes
in the circuit. Owing to non-uniform
heating, however, this useful h ead,
which is common for all tho tubes ,
corresponds to diHerent flow rates of
the water that circulates in th em.
With generally favourable tempera-
ture conditions for the main number
of tubes, uneven heating may result
in that little water will pass through
some of the tubes. Thus, circu lation
disturbances, such as stagnation or
even circulation reversal, are likely
to occur in these Lubes .
Circul ation circuits are checked for
circulation reliability, i.e. for the
absence of circulation disturbances,
by using the reliability criteria given
below. The checking is done for the
least heated tubes (with 10 % reserve).
The crit~rion of stagnation is:
(12.19)
srcv;sc > 1.1 (12.20)
U3 U8
and the criterion of free water leve l is
(S ~,'.- 6Pwt)IS~, > 1.1 (1.2.2 1)
whore D.pwt is tho pr c~sure loss fo r
raising the mixture a·bovo tho water
level in the dru m, hwt (sco F ig. 12.10).
The phenomena discussed arc extre-
mely dangerous, since circulation stag-
nation or the appearance of free water
level can interrupt the motion of walor
in the cirCillalion circuit, while cir-
absorp t ion r ates q above 400 kW/ m 2
are additionally checked for ·'tho pro-
bability of heat transfer impairment
(burn-out conditions), soc Sec. 10.3.
12.4. Hydrodynamics of Descending
Tubes and I ts Effect on the Reliability
of Circulation
Heliable operation of ascending tu-
bes in circulation circuits is ensured
by a continuous supply of the required
amount of water. A decrease in the
water supply through descending tu-
bes to intensively heated ascending
tubes can lead to insufficient cooling
and, furthermore, to overheating of
the tubes. The situation is dangerous
and most often results in burn-out
of the heated evaporating tubes. If
water supply is fully stopped, the
temperature of the walls of h eated
tubes may rise at a rate of u p to
20-25° C/s, meaning that 10-15 seconds
are sufficient to got t he plant out of
order.
Descending tubes of a circuit may
turn out to have a water flow rate
too low to ensure proper temperature
conditions in evaporating tubes if
they have an excessive hydraulic
resistance or if steam is entra ined
from the drum into them.
H ydraulic r esistance of descending
tubes. Vlhen analysing the operation
of descendi ng tubes, we should distin-
guish between two cases: ~a) w~ ter
supplied from the econom1zor 1n to
the boiler drum at the saturation tem-
perature (boiling economizer, t;. =
= t') and (b) water fed at a tempera-
ture below the saturat ion p oint (non-
boiling economizer. t;. < t').
~
.. I
I
"' I
I
I
I
' I
( ) pf k e p' k'
{If) [b) (c)
Fig. i 2.15. Distribution of pressures and the
corresponding entbalpics of water a t the
saturation line along the height of down take
tubes
With a boiling economizer, water
temperature at the inlet to the des-
cendin!; tubes is tin= t' {Fig. 12. 15a) .
As water moves through the drum to
the inlet of the descending tubes, its
velocity is negligible, so t hat the
velocity head due to the non-parallel
drum walls can be neglected. Pressure
changes can only occur due to a rise
in the hydrostatic pressure by a li-
near Jaw (line ab in Fig. 12.15b).
The pressure at the inlet to the
descending tubes is higher than that
at the water level in the drum by the
magnitude (section be):
D.p~ = h;,p' g (12.22)
Upon entry into descending tubes,
water velocity increases substantially,
since t he hydrostatic pressure decrea-
ses because of the appearance of velo-
city h ead and inevitable energy losses
on local resistances. Thus, tho pres-
sui·o at the inlet to the descending
t ubes decreases (section bd) by:
(12.23)
 156
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Ch. 12. Hydrodynamics of Closed 1/ydrau/ic Systems
With furth er motion of wnLor in
~he descending tubes, press ure ngui n
mcroases, due to an increase in Lhe
hydrostatic pressure of tho water
column a long line de by tho leng t h
of section ef:
(12.24)
or, i[ we additionally consider the
pressure Joss by fri ction and on loca l
resistances
flPa e• = [Ila e• - w;i-.
2g
X ( ': + l:£ )] p'g (12.25)
where
Re[el'l'ing to Fig. 12.15, as water
moves in the descending tubes, iLs
pressure increases continuously, ex-
cept for the t ube in let prop or , where
it docrouses somewhat. If, however,
assume that flp~ > tlp 1n, i.e.
w2
h In >(i + 'oln
t ) dt~
g (12.26)
2 rance of s team in descending tubes*
it will follow from Fig. 12.15b that
t he water pressure in any point of
the descending system exceeds its
pressure at the water level in the
drum Pa· The enthalpy of boiling
water is distributed according to
the increasing pressure (a'b'd'k' in
Fig. 12.15c) . The actual enthalpy of
water i.n any section of the descending
tubes IS equal to id; it corresponds
to tho pressure at the water level in
the drum Pd and is constant if there
is no heating of tho descending tubes
(line a' p'). The horizontal sections
between these lines determine the
degree of wa tor s uucooling in the
respective s~cti o n s of the descending
tubes; .for 1nsLance, the subcooling
ill SeCtiOn X- X is determined by tho
section m'-n'. Therefore if condi-
tio n (1 2.26) is observed, 'boiling and
steam generation in unheated descend-
ing tubes is impossible.
If the pressure drop at the inlet * Steam can also form in descending
tubes on a sudden pressure drop in tb c
to the descending tubes tlp 1n is equal boiler.
:1.
to or. greater than tlp~, the pressure
of water at the in let to the descenrl i ng
tubes will drop to s uch a level that
the water will turn out to be su per-
heated at the drum pressure or will
boil in the zone of reduced pressure.
Stearn bubulcs thus formed will be
entrained uy circulating water into
the desce nding Lubes where th e pros-
sure is higher; Lhus, water wil l turn
out to bo subcooled there and s tea m
bubbles will condense. Complete con-
densation of steam requires a certa i o
ti me. As a result, steam bubbles wi'll
be curried by the water flow an ap-
preciable distance in tl te descendin<r
Luhcs, i.e. these will be filled wiLh
a steam-water mixture, rather than
wiLh water, al a suuslantial length,
which will noticeab ly increase th e
resistance of t.he descending tubes and
somewhat diminish the driYing cir-
culating head. The presence of a s light
quanti~y of steam in the descending
tubes IS, howeYer, not dangerous .
Appearance of steam in descending
tubes. The main causes for the appea-
are as follows:
(1) formation of steam cones at the
entry to the descending tubes, i.e. the
direct entrainment o.f steam through
the tubes from tho steam space of Lhe
drum, and
(2) entrainment of steam bubbles
from tho water space o[ the drum by
circu I a ti ng water.
Formation of steam cones. The ope-
ration of evaporating tubes becomes
less reliable if steam forms in the
zone of reduced pressure at the entry
to the descending tubes, i.e. when
condition (12.26) is not observed. Jo
~uch a case, steam cones may form
I': the water surface in the drum (see
Ftg. 12.15a), so that hrrge quantiti es
of steam will pass from the steam
space into the system oi descending
tubes and thus disturb water circula-
tion in the circuit. The formation of
steam cones is pos.c;ible in boilers with
13.1. Laws of Bubbling
Fig. 12.16. Determination of tbe minimal
wa tcr level above the inlet to down take
tubes
both free and forced circulation. Their
formation can be prevented by ma in-
taining the wate r level in the drum
at a safe height above the inl ets to
the desce nding tubes. The probabi lity
<>f formnlion of steam cones increases
with au increase in the diameter of
the descending tubes. As recommended
by the standard method of hydraulic
calculation of steam boilers 122 1, the
ratio of the minimal water level h
to the diameter of descending tubes
dde. should be chosen by tho curves
given in Fig. 12.16.
With a non-boiling economizer, the
temperature of feed water supplied to
the drum is below the saturation
point. This water is mixed with boiler
water . and forms a mixture whose
temperature is below the 'saturation
point under pressure at tho water
level in· the drum, tin < t'. Water
at this temperature enters the des-
HYDRODYNAMICS OF BUBBLING SYSTEMS
13. I. Laws of Bubbling
In free-circulation boilers, Lh e wor-
king fluid moves as it is hcnted in
ascending tubes; in once-th roug h and
157
cend i ng tubes. This degree of s ub-
cooling is equivalent to the degree of
subcooling provided by forming a pro-
per water level in the drum.
Water subcooling in the drum is
no t a useful means of ensuring the
stahlo operation of descending tubes
in view of the comp lexity and incon-
venience of this method. As with
a boiling economizer (t 1n = t'), t ho
stable operation of descending tuLles
in a circuit with non-boiling economi-
zer (t 1n < t') is achieved by preve n-
ting the formation of steam cones
above the entry to the descending
tubes. Subcooling of water at the i.nlet
to descending tubes at tin < t' me re ly
e ns ures a certain reserve of reliability.
Entrainment of s team from the water
space of drum. The normal supply of
water to the descending tubes can be
disturbed if steam uubbles in the
water space of the drum are entraine d
by water and carried into tho des-
cending tubes. When velocity of water
flows in the drum is substantial,
steam bubbles below the water s urface
have no time to separate and are thus
entrained by the water into the d es-
cendi ng tubes. Such conditions may
appear, for instance, when the ends of
the evaporating tubes in the drum are
arranged too close to the inlets of
Lhe descending tubes. The entrain-
ment of steam into the descending
tubes is prevented by properly orga-
nizing the water flows, for instance, by
arranging partitions or by separating
the steam-water mixture in cyclones.
mt)ltiple forced circulation boilers ,
its motion is caused by the pressure
head developed by the feed pump.
In ei Lhet• case, the fluid in evaporating
tubes is two-phase and its motion is
 158
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Ch. 13. Hydrodynamics of Bubbltng Syst ems 13.1. Laws of Bu bbli_n_,g'---- - - -- -- -- -1...:..;.
59

separating surface between the phases
(which is usually called the disenga-
gement surface). The disengagement
. surface is not smooth but seething, or
5 r 1 f- • .
-<::
~ turbulent, with high splashes being
(erent in various points of the cross
section. A uniform distribution of
steam can be attained by mounting
a perforated steam-distribution plate
in the water space. The hydraulic

-,--1-
."\.
5
-- - - -- - ------:
-- - "" - -1- formed continuously by steam bubbles resistance of the pluto is much higher
-:.......--- 1f -- - - 1- which rise to the surface. In the course than that of the free cross section of
~~
'// 12 of bubbling, steam bubbles entrain t he column and is thus a decisive
/ wa ter which then moves downwar d at factor in steam distribution. The plate
2 Steam
the walls and in the spaces between is perforated evenly, and there(ore,
(a) (!J) . (C) bubble chains and is thus forced into steam is distributed uniformly ovet·
8 9 circulation. As a result, a zoro··average the cross section. A gap is left. bot-
flow rate of water (i'Vw = 0) and ween the plate and column walls to
Fig. 13.1. Devices !or steam bubbling through water layO!r
(a) In boUer drum; (b) In separating drum or c hannel-type; boiling reac~or; (c) In s t::am washer; 1- downtal<e a positive flow rate of steam (w, > 0) perm it return flow of the water. The
tubes; Z-dlstrlbutlon plate; J-drum; 4-stenm-clrculating tubes; ~-steam-generating tubes; 6- GCparat- are established in bubbling. edges of the plate are bent downward
lng drum; 7- steam·wnter mixture from process channels; a-steam box; 9-feed water he ader; 10- dlstri-
butlng perlorated tubes; 1 J-feed water (wash water); Jt- wasb water drainage Bubbling is eUected in a bubbling to prevent a sudden outburst of steam
apparatus, such as a vertical column at the walls and to form a steam
essentially the combined motion of heavier phase (water). Bubbling oc- (Fig. 13.2). The water level indicated cushion beneath the plate.
the two components, water and steam, curs in the drums of boilers ami steam by the water-level gauge glass at the A steam cushion is essential for
which may have different velocities. generators when the steam-water mix- column is lower th an that in the normal operation o[ the steam-dislr:i-
Three principal cases are then pos- ture is introduced below the water colu mn proper, since water in the bution plate in which steam bubbles
sible: level, in the separating drums of apparatus is at the boiling point and, flow continuously tluough its holes.
channel-type boiling reactors, in s team besides, is saturated with steam bubb- At the moment of formation of a steam
w. > 0, ww > 0-ascending motion; washers, etc. (Fig. 13.1). It ca n also les and forms a steam-water mixture cushion, steam bas a definite (mini-
w. > 0, W w < 0-flow reversal, and occur in evaporating tubes on certain of a density Pbu b · Water in the gauge mal) velocity wm"1n in the perforations
w. < 0, ww < 0-descending motion. hydrodynamic disturbances of flow, glass is subcooled below the satura- of the plate. For the stable existence
such as the formation of a free water tion temperature at the pressure of of the steam cushion, the actual
In contrast to these cases, in which level or circulation stagnation (see ·bubbling and its density is Pe· Since velocity of steam flow through the
both phases are in motion, there may Sec. 12.3). The layer of the s team- the pressure at the bottom of two perforations must be higher than the
be a special case when only the water mixture in which steam bubbling communicating vessels (point A) minimal value, i.e. w" > w m"in· This
lighter phase (steam) is moving, while takes place is called the dynamic should be the same, we have: is easily accomplished if perforations
the heavier phase (water) is stagnant, (movable) two-phase layer. have a diameter d 1 = 2-3 mm, i.e.
i.e. it has a zero average velocity: Bubbling is usually effected by hphf>bubg = (hr.oetPg + D.hp.) g {13.1) smaller than the break-off diameter
w. > 0, Wr.o = 0. This is known as feeding steam under a perforated of steam bubbles.
Noting that the density of steam p. In the steam boilers of thermal
the process of steam bubbling through distribution plate (Fig. 13.2). As is much lower than that of water in
liquid. Steam bubbling is a specific steam moves through holes in the power stations and the steam genera-
the gauge glass, Pe• we obtain: tors of nuclear power stations, sub-
kind of motion of a two-phase mixture plate, its jets break into separate
in which bubbles of the lighter phase bubbles which rise through tho bulk merged distribution plates have larger
hplrf>bu b = hweiPg (13.2)
(steam) rise through the bulk of the of water above the plate to the holes of a diameter of 8-12 mm or
Since Pbub is smaller than Pe• the even more. Under such conditions,
physical level hph es tablished in the a steam cushion can form if steam
I rrf v·t J ... ..... .. .•... .... column is higher than the weight passes through the boles in con tinuous
.
llil I ~ · A f.lr.JI
f •o I •
f.)!.
o
level h r.o ei observed in the gauge glass jets. Steam jels can entrain a slight
_; i~~ -..- if.•~ ~"-' by the magnitude D.h. The physical quantity of water droplets from the
-·
-- - --
- 'f'' I
I
I
~
~ -.-
-. . . .. _.._._,...., ~,- level in the apparatus is essentially water space of the apparatus, hut this
- ~ - 0 0 0 0 o-
6:16
I 'I•''
'"'
-
·-~ '"":' ' ,-. .
~ - • ..- ••- • ., - • - , r
-·
I
~
~

A/
(j

0
-o-.
--
0
0
0
0
0

.---
0
0 :o-
'o • o -
0 0 , n l
I
I "'
....
'fap
i
I
"'
, 'f....
• • ...- •
.-·-· -· ·- _.
' 0 ' .- '.-' '~ L.
,- --- ]
_, '· -··-··~ v 1
tho level of tho working fluid at
a steam content q> close to unity.
Tho difference D.h is called the water
has no substantial effect on the hydro-
dynamics of the d istribution plate.
The hydrostatic head needed to
- -·
.--.
- ....
~~.L., /,'.::.71

- - -- i . .. - 0
- z(a)
I 'f 0
{6)
A

.-
-
.
~ ,-.·.-::
.!. •--~41
... .
• ._
Lo
'
- · -•'-= 2
swell.
The supplied steam is distributed
form a stable steam cushion is deter-
mitred by the difference in the masses
- - - over t he column cross section accord- of water and s team columns of a heigh ~
Fig. 13.2 Analysis o[ the bubbling process and steam content distribution along the heigh t ing to the hydraulic resistance of the equal to the thickness of cushion o:
of apparatus . wat er layer; with a concentrated steam
(a) at low
0; (b) nl 111gb to0; I-IIJ-zoncs
to or dynamic two-phase layer; 1-ateam cushion; .e- nonle s upply, this resistance may be dif- D.p = 0 (p' - p") g (1:-1. 3)
!
1I
160
Ch . 19. llydrodynamlcs of Bubbling S yst em s
- - - •a -n - o- - o
- 7/: - ~- ~/
~--·
----
-- --- - --
.
- - -
This head is spent to overcome the
hydraulic resistance of perforations
and to form an excessive pressure
r equired to break through the water
film at tho exit of steam into the
water space a bove the plate (Fig. 13.3).
A wa ter [ilm can be broken through
by a force 2nR 1a which develops
a pressure 2nH 1a/nRi = 2a!R,. Then
we have:
A t:
l..l P = '<>peri
(w") • •
2 P
+ 2o
R,
T he combined solution or equations
(1 3.3) and (1 3.4) gives the minim al
thickness o[ n stable stouro cushion:
_ 2a
0 mi n - R,(p' - p") g
p" (w")l
+S perl 2g (p' -p")
where a is the surface tension, Sperl
is the coefficient of resis tance of the
s team-distri bution plat.e which is de-
t ermined by the free cross-sectional
area of its perforations; R 1 = d 1/2.
A steam-distribution p late vvith per-
foration holes can operate efficiently,
with a stable cushion, only in a nar-
row range of heating loads near t he
rated boiler load. With an increase
in the steam-generating load, the
h eight of the steam cushion increases
in proportion to the square of the
ratio of loads (D:r!D,)Z, and may
rosu lt in tho hreak-th:rough of steam
at the plato edges. At lower loads,
steam is distributed unevenly over
the cross section.
A new ty-pe of steam-dis tribution
plate has been developed at tho
Krzhizhanovs ky power engineering in-
stitute: it has numerous pipes per[o-
r ated along their whole length a nd
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Fig. 13.3. Analysis of operation o£ a
submerged di stribution pi n le
['60 - -
- almost unity in the steam cushion
""'"" d 1• 2R1
---
I
closed nt Lhe bottom ends, which nrc
mounted in the holes of n distribution
plate (Fig. 13.4). The number a nd
arrangement of pipes and the number
of perforaLions in them are determined
by the desired range of varialion of
the steam-generating load.
Steam accumul ates in the water
spnce under the plate and forms
a steam cushion of 11 height up to tho
(13.4)
length of the perforated pipes . [ t
flows through their perforations into
the water layer above the distribu-
tion pl ate. At a chaugo in tho steam-
generating load, tho number o[ 'acti-
ve' perforations is self-regulated by
a change in the height of tho steam
cushion. This ensures uniform bubb-
ling and uniform load on the disenga-
(13.5) gement surface in a wide range of
steam-generating loads.
As in [orced motion, the principal
characteris tic of bubbling is the rela-
tive cross-sectional area occupied by
steam, CPtmb· The distribution of steam
and water along the height of a bubb-
l ing apparatus is different, and there-
fore, CJ>bu b can vary within u wide
Steam
ou/let t rately by tho generalized formula
UnilA
t I
- l.tJ "IT
--
- -- -1-::-- • ....
- - - -- ---- - - -
·-
Fig. 1.3.4. Steam distributor
1- perlorn lcd steam-dis tribution plate; ll-perfo-
rated lubes; J- stcam cus bion; 4- slcnm-llcncra t-
ing healing surface
18.1. Laws of Bubbling
interval: from the value corresponding
to the s team flow rate immediately
above the distribution plate up to
and in the steam space. Tho distribu-
tion of CJ>bub along the height depends
mainly on the steam flow rate or,
what is the same, on tho resolved
steam velocity w~.
For a particular value of one
can distinguish between three zones
in the dynamic two-phase layer' above
the distribution plate (Fig. 13.2).
With an ample steam supply, this
layer is filled with steam, and there-
fore, CJ>oub = 1. The first zone o.f the
two-phase dynamic layer is immedia-
tely above the plate. In this zone, the
steam flow is sta bilized: the larger
bubbles break down into finer bubbles,
while fine bubbles combine to form
larger bubbles , i.e. all bubbles are
essen t ially transformed i nto the same
stable size. The s team content CJ>bub
changes from the value corresponding
to the relative free cross-sectional
area of the plate q>p 1 to a certain
constant value !J>bub whlch is determi-
ned by the particular conditions of
bubbling: steam flow rate and pres-
sure. The initial zone of the dynamic
layer has a limited height, usually of
a few centimetres.
The second zone is characterized by
a constant value q>~~b = constant
which has been attained due to sta-
bilization at the exit from the first
zone. The bubbling process in the
stabilized zone is described most accu-
proposed by M.A. St yrikovich and
S. S. Kutateladze [31]:
q> ~~b ::::::
p• )O. H (w•o V4t !:.,_
.
0 ·4 ( p•
.
-- - -·-
·-::~
Tho formula is applicable at steam
content q>~1ub::;:;;; 0.7.
In the third zone (transient zone},
CJ>bub increases continuously from the
stabilized value q>&~b t o q> = 1, w hich
exists above the two-phase dynamic
layer. The height of the third zone
11 - 0 15 2i
1.61.
. •
h h;s
h2
h, I
p
/f f
I
/'
w;, ~ c::; ~~ ~~ I
~ ~ ~ I
I
lf
0 ~dp .i
Fig. 13.5. Effect of resolved steam velocity
on the distribution of q> along the height of
apparatus
w01 < w02 < w03; h,, h,, h,- rcspcclivc heig hts
oI steam sf)ncc
depends on w~ . At a low w~, indivi-
dual r ising bubbles are distributed in
a relatively large water volume and
therefore cannot influence one another.
Rising bubbles only slightly deform
the disengagement surface, so that
there is a distinct boundary between
the second an d third zones and the
lat ter has a low height (curve w;,
in Fig. 13.5). W ith an increase of
w~. the quantity of bubbling steam
increases, bubble chains move in the
water and combine into steam jets,
and a return circulat ion of water
appears in the apparatus. The number
of steam jets then incr eases and impe-
des the return circul ation of water ,
i.e. water entrained by the rising
steam cannot flow back as easily and
is retained for a longer time in' the ·
upper portions of the dynamic layer,
p'-p")0. 7 thus leading to water swell. The phase-
g c..
a"'" separating surface becomes less dis-
(13.6) tinct, the transition zone of the dyna-
mic l ayer increases in heigbt, and
the height h of the steam space in the
apparatus diminishes accordingly (cur-
ve .w;1 in Fig. 13.5). The hydrodyna·
mics of bubbling depends substantial-
ly on pressure. With ao increase in
pressure, steam density increases, so
that steam bubbles rise in water more

162 Ch. 13. Hydrodynamics of Bubbling Systems
slowly and are retained in the water
space for a longer time. This increases
IJ>bub' and therefore, causes water
swell and an increase in the height
of the stabilized and transient zones.
Thus, an increase in pressure is qua-
litatively equivalent to an increase
in w~. For a given weight level, the
height of the transient zone, h 1r,
depends on the fraction of the cross-
sectional area occupied by steam. The
height of the transient zone has a di-
rect effect on tho moisture content of
tho steam supplied from the apparatus
into a steam separator. With a higher
h 1 n the height of the steam space
is lower (see Fig. 13.5) and the mois-
ture content of the steam is higher.
13.2. Dynamic Layer in Steam Washers
The washing of steam by pure water
is a widely employed method for
improving steam quality (see Sec. 15.4).
It is commonly effected by passing
the steam through a water layer that
is retained on a perforated plate.
Water overflows the peripheral enclo-
sure of the plate, whose height is
chosen so as to obtain the desired
water level (Fig. 13.1c), but cannot
flow through the holes, since the
water column above a hole is acted
upon by a force F 6.p which appears
due to the difference of steam pres-
sure below the plate and above the
water level. This force is equal to the
hydraulic resistance for the passage
of steam through the perforated holes
and through the water layer above
them:
1_1: (w") 2 1 • FI rnt2
-, _..., 2· p d
J
Up to the moment the steam breaks
through a hole, this force is counter-
balanced by the gravity force of the
mass of the water column:
Fl!.=
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and by the force due to surface ten-
sion:
F 0 = :rt da (13.9)
that is
Ft.p=Fc+Fa (13.10)
Substituting from formulae (13.7)
to (13.9) into (13.10), we obtain the
formula for steam velocity w" in the
boles of a perforated plate, that
enables the water layer to be 1·etained
on the plate:
, , I 2gp'
w = . v ~.
..P
(13.11)
in which ~ is the r esolved coefficient
of resistance of the bubbling device:
s=spert+swf (13.12)
In formulae (13.7) to (13.11), d is
the diameter of holes in a perforated
plate, hw is the level of water above
the plate, H is the actual height of
the bubbling layer, and ~JJcr/ and ~w
are the coefficients of resistance to
the steam flow in a bole and in the
wash water layer.
The height of the steam-washing
layer of water is usually not high
(50-70 rom) and its resistance is low
compared with that . of perforated
holes, i.e. Sw <~per/· Therefore, it
may be assumed in formula (13.11)
that £ = Sperl·
Formula (13.11) gives a certain
reserve of the velocity of steam flow
through perforated holes since the
actual velocity of steam is higher and
is certainly sufficient to ensure the
hydrodynamic stability of steam wash-
ing by bubbling.
13.3. Effect of Non-uniform Heat
(13. 7) Release and Impurities on the Dynamic
4 the zone where q> is almost stabilized
Two-phase Layer
Boiler water may contain surface-
active substances which are concent-
rated mainly at the boundaries bet-
ween phases. This increases the
strength of water films which envelop
(13.8)
and diminish steam bubbles. Finer
13.3. Effect of Non-untform Heat Release and Impurities
h due to a non-uniform heating inten-
c,
~ !----_J__ __ l __ __;Cfl~
0 1 1 1
·' height
Fig. 13.6. Distribution of q> along' the
of apparatus at different concentrations
(c1 < c 2 < c3 ) and constant weight level
bubbles rise more slowly in water.
Stronger water films are broken with
a certain time delay, so that the
process of passage of steam bubbles
into the steam space is retarded.
Under such conditions, the dynamic
two-phase layer is satmated with
a greater amount of steam, thus
leading to water swell and an increase
in the height of the layer.
The general distribution pattern of
steam content along the height of the
dynamic two-phase layer at a con-
stant steam flow r ate and various
concentrations of impurities in water
is shown in Fig. 13.6. As may be
seen, the steam content q> at a given
concentration of impurities increases
along the layer height. At a low con-
centration of impurities the steam
content at the exit from a steam-
distribution plate is not high. It re-
mains almost constant to an appre-
ciable heigllt (q> increases slowly),
increases rapidly in the transient zone,
which has a low l1eight, and attains
a value q> ~ 1 above the physical
water level. With an increase in the
concentration of impurities in water,
the steam content at the exit from
the plate increases and the length of
becomes smaller (or even completely
disappears at a high concentration).
In contrast to this, the height of the
transient zone in creases substantially.
In steam-generating plants, the ge-
neration of steam may be substantial-
ly non-uniform across the cross-sec-
I 1*
163
tion of an apparatus. This is mainly
sity which, for instance, in the high-
capacity horizontal-type steam gene-
rators of nuclear power stations may
vary along the length of evaporating
elements by a factor of two or three
(Fig. 13 .7).
The heating intensity can be equa-
lized either naturally, under the effect
of a water layer for steam bubbling,
or by means of various devices, such
as a submerged steam-distribution
plate.
Figure 13.8 shows the curves of
steam content q> at various levels
along the height of a bubbling layer
with a symmetrical (steam is supplied
at the centre of the cross section) or
asymmetrical initial non-uniformity
in a vertical column without a perfo-
rated plate, where steam content is
equalized naturally. As may be seen,
the steam content at the entry to the
two-phase layer is distinctly non-
uniform, but is equalized along the
height dlle to bubbling in a free
volume of water.
A non-uniform steam content leads
to the appearance of transverse gra-
dients of density in the steam-water
mixture that fills in the apparatus.
In turn, these gradients lead to orien-
ted convective currents which equa-
lize the steam content and density.
Figure 13 .8 shows curves of q> for
four sections at various heights in the
bubbling layer. As may be seen, non-
uniformity decreases along the height
due to steam redistribution, tlwugh
complete equalization is not achieved
Fig . 13.7. Zone of different steam-generat-
ing intensity in the steam generator of a
water-cooled water-moderated power reactor
(horizontal section)
J- housl ng; 2- cooln nt in: 3- coolan t out; 4-
zonc or lnl en•h·c steam gener ation: s- zone or
modcrule stcnm ceneralton
·I Download From Boilersinfo.com
I 164 Ch. 13. Hydrodynamics of Babbling Systems
I h
3
Fig. 13.9. Effect of resolved steam velocity
w;; on the height at which cp is equalized
-..
..J.The effoctRof w;on tho height at
which flow equalization is achieved
0 is shown clearly in Fig. 13.9. The
0 R left-hand portion of the curve relates
(a) tSteam to the low values of w~, and conse-
quently, low density gradients, so
h ~--+-- that flow equalization' occurs at a grea-
t er height. At a higher steam-genera-
ting intensity, flow equalization oc-
curs more quickly, notwithstanding
the higher initial non-uniformity.
Therefore, the height of s tabilization
is lower. It might be expected that
t h is trend would continue with a fur-
ther increase in w~ which leads to an
increase in the density gradient.
Actually, however, at very high flow
1 rates of steam, the axial compon ent of
the velocity of the steam-wat er mix-
ture increases sharply and the process
tstea~ ~ is extended along a greater height in
{D) the layer. I n a certain range of high
• values of w;, t he effect of velocity is
Fig. 13.8. Curves of steam content at va- predominant and the height of the
rious [cve!s (1, 2, 3, 4) ~ong the height of
a layer wtth {a) symmetncal and (b) asym- equalization layer continues to in-
. metrical initial non-uniformity crease. Finally, at very high flow
rates of steam (w~), it begins to
{ carry off much moisture from the
~j.p.ce
the water entrained by bubbling layer . Extrapolation of the curve to ·
steam flows down mainly along the its intersection with the axis of
walls. In columns of a large diameter, abscissae will give a poio t at which
the effect of walls is smaller, so that water will be completely carried off
ascending and descending currents, from the apparatus, i.e. the process
a,nd therefore, thelsteam content, are of steam bubbling will change to the
distributed more ·· evenly over the forced motion of the steam-water
cross section. mixture.
' .•
• •
·I~~~
14.1. lmpzlrttles In Peed Water 165
•
•
PHYSI CO-CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES OF BE~VIOUR
OF IMPURITIES I N WORKING FLUID
14.1. Impurities in Feed Water
and Their Efrect on Equipment
heat carrier of thermal power stations
are given in Table 14.1.
Impurities may be present in boiler
water in either a dissolved or a suspen-
During tho operation of any lype
of boiler-turbine installation the W<Jrk- ded state. Under particular conditions,
ing fluid becomes contaminated with they can precipitate from water and
impurities. The quantity and compo- form deposits on the heating surfaces,
thus impairing h eat transfer and rai-
sition of impurities depend on th e t ype
of plant, composition of str11 ctural sing the t emperature of tube walls.
materials, and operating conditions. Deposits are especially dangerous in
The principal sources and composi- intensive l1eating zones (water walls
tions of impurities in lhe aqueous in boiler furnaces and fuel elements
Table 14.1. Principal Sources and Compos itions of I mpu rities in an Aqueous Hea t
Carrier
.
Sources Principal lmpu rllies
• In leakages: Salts (chlorides, sulphates and bicarbonates of
in condensers calcium, magnesium and sodium), colloidal im-
purities (organic matter, silicic acid), suspen·
dcd matter and gases (02. COt, N2)
in feed water and tap water hoa- Salls (calcium, magnesium and sodium chlorides,
tors su lphatos and bicarbonates), silicic acid, and gases
.
Make-up water (demi nera 1izcd, cl i- Sodium compounds, pro- Gases: 0 1 (in dcminern-
stilled) ducts or metal corrosion lized water); COz (in
distillate)
Softened water Sodium com pounds, silicic acid, gases (tho com-
posi lion or gaseous impurities depends on tho
water treatment method)
Products of corrosion of structura l Oxides of Fo, Cu, Cr, Ni , Zn, Co, Al, etc.
materials •
Products of radio lysis nncl othcz· Hod ioactivo products o[ corrosion of metals: Fe,
iJroccsscs und er the effect of neutron Mn, Qo, AI, Zr, etc.; gase~: N2, 02, Xe, Kr, etc.
luxes
Water additives Phosphoric salts, ammonia, hydrazine, chclntos
 Download From Boilersinfo.com U.2 . Solubtllty ofl mpurltles in Heat-transfer Agent
167
166 Ch. U. Behaviour of lmpurltlel In Working Fluid

in nuclear reactors). At nuclear power (steam and water), the thermodynamic

stations, radioactive deposits can cha- solubility of low-volatile inorganic mg/kg
r acterize the radiation situation of 120
substances as a function of the proper-
the equipment. ties of the solvent is determined by
Impurities can partially pass from two parameters: density and tempera- 100
water to steam and form deposits in ture. Solubility can be described by
superheaters and in tho steam path the equation proposed by Prof.
of turbines. Deposits in superheaters 0. I. Martynova: ' 80
are intolerable since the outlet por-
tJ.H tJ.S~ C aS04
tions of their coils even at rated l n C = rn ln p - RT +n (14.1)
heating loads operate at the upper 60 0

admissible temperature limit of the

tube metal. Even a slight layer of
deposits can then raise the metal tem-
where C is the solubility of a substan-
ce in an aqueous heat-transfer agent,
p is the density of H 2 0 at the given 0
\
perature to an inadmissible level and parameters of the process, I::I.H is the cacoA
promote creep phenomena and scale thermal effect of dissolution, R is 20
formation. the universal gas constant, T is the .._ ~
-....; ::- t
Deposits in the steam path of tur- temperature, t.S is the entropy of Mg ( OH) 2
l ~5L0~~20L.0~~25~0~-J~O~O~~
I
• 0

bine are also extremely undesirable. dissolution of the substance, and m 0 •c

150 250 350
They increase the roughness of the is the coordination number (hydration . 1' 2 E· ffcc t of tcmpPrature on the so-
characteristic). F tg ... · T tcr at
blades and friction losses and thorofot·e Fig. ilo.L Solubility of prin cipal scale-form- lubllity o[ m ag neti t l! in bot t ng wu
diminish turbine efficiency. Heavy Calculations of the solubility of ers in water va rious va l ues o[ p Ho
__ - oxi di zing
deposits in the steam path of turbine substances in an aqueous heat-trans- - - - reducing m••dlll ul.
JJlt~ d IU Ill
can cause additional axial pressure, fer agent by formu la (14.1) are pos-
requiring a decrease in the turbine sible if tl1ere are reliable data on tho
power. The effect of deposits is espe- threo parameters which characterize pg/kif
cially perceptible in high-pressure tur- the dissolution process : t.EI, !::IS, and c
bines where the unit volume of steam m. T hese data are only available for
is lower and the high-pressure section certain impurities and for a limited 6,
is accordingly smaller in size. range of parameters. For this r eason,
10~
laws of dissolution of various impuri-
/
Methods have been developed to
minimize the passage of impurities ties in water and steam are mainly
into water with inleakages in conden- studied experimentally. Tho general oj. I
sers and with make-up water. It is laws of dissolution will be discussed
J
i--2 ) 90 ~Na.OH
much more difficult to prevent water below. l/
tO J /
17 80 v
I
'
contamination with tho products of
corrosion of structural materials, espe-
cially in plants operating at nearly
Dissolution of impurities in water
and laws of format ion of deposits. All
substances present in boiler water can I
1/ 70
critical or supercr itical pressures. I n
operation, feed water is allowed to
be divided into two groups: slightly
soluble and readily soluble. Tho former to 2 ~ / 60
ll
have a certain composition and con- group includes calcium and magnesium I ~ l\ 50 -
V\_Nopo4
1'\. 3 f
centration of impurities depending on
tho type of plant and iLs water balan-
ce: hundredths of a milligram per
salts and hydroxides and oxides of
structura l materia ls with which the
aqueous heat-transfer agent may have
10
{
'1\ ~ t.....
......... "
40
j0
JO.zS04
\
kilogram for once-through boilers and contact. Solubility curves of selected ~ !-... :.-
4 20
a few tens of milligrams per kilogram slightly soluble impurities in hot s~
i\
for drum-type boilers. water are shown in Figs. 14.1 through 10
14.3. The group of readily soluble P.Ho \~ {
14.2. Solubility of Impurities impurities which are found in t he 00
4 8 8 10 0 100 200 300 400 °C
in an Aqueous Heat-transfer Agent water of steam- turbine plants includes
and Formation of Deposits sodium salts and sodium hydroxide. Fig. V..4.. Solubility o[ readily soluble com-
Fig. 14 .3 . Solubility of m e ta l oxides in pounds in water
I n a sufficiently wide range of high Their solubility curves are shown in boiling water (p = 7 MPa)
and supercritical parameters of a ho- Fig. 14.4. As seen from the figures, (o"ldldng med ium); 2 - Fe (reduc ing me-
1 - Pe dlum);
mogeneous aqueous heat-transfer agent the solubility of some substances 3- cu; 4-Zn; s - N I; 6- AI
 i68
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C". 14. Be,.avtour of lmpurltlu In Working Fluid 14.2. Solubllltv of Impurities In Heat-transfer Agent 169

increases with temperature while that of them can crys tallize on heating ducts does not exceed a few hundredths 1
of others decreases. '· · of a gram per kilogram* (Fig. 14.3).
surfaces and form scale; these are
Sli'ghtly soluble impuri'ti.es. Calcium ~alled scale formers. Others crystallize The highest quantity of corrosion
and magnesium compounds and metal m the hulk of the solution and form products enters the steam-water path
o~i des which be.long to the group of sludge and are thus called sludge in the form of oxides of iron which is
shghtly soluble Impurities, come into formers. Rough elements (protrusions the main structural material of boiler
• the steam-water path of steam-tu rbine plants of any pressure. Iron combines
and rocesses) on solid heating surfaces
I plants from different sources and can sorv,e as centres of scale forma- with oxygen into a number of oxides,
!
what is most important, behave dif~ t~on, and disperse and colloidal par- two of them, hematite Fe 2 0 3 and
ferentl y in an aqueous heat-transfer ticles and gas bubbles susp ended in magnetite F e30 ,, being the most im-
a?ent. For this r eason, they will he
discussed separately.
In normal operation of boilers the
water can serve as centres of sludge
formation.
portant in steam-generating plants.
Of h ighest interest are tho. properties, t t t t t tr
The conditions required to avoid solubility in particular, of magnetite Fig. 14.5. Diagram of circulation in a depo-
concentrations of slightly solubl ~ im- scale formation from Ca and Mg as it is the main oxide of iron that sited iron oxide layer
purities in feed· water, mainly of cal- cations and so;- anions present in can form a t temperatures below 550- J - wa tcr Claw; 2-lhlckness or deposited Ioyer;
J - cupllla rles; 4-stenm ou tlet from n 's t.cam
cium and magnesium salts, are low. water can be written in the following 5700C, i.e. at the operating tempera- pipe• at pressure p 8 ; 1' w Is the pressure or wat.cr
They may inc!ease on certai n distur- form: tures in high-pressure and supercriti-
bances in the system of condensate cal-pressure plants. firmly to the metal ; it forms through
cleaning and water treatment or due aca2+ . asoi- < SP } The solubility of magnetite in high- corrosion on the metal sur face . Tho
to excessive inleakages in condensers. (14 .3) temperature water depends substan- external layer is loose and porous a.nd
aMs2+ . a,so:-< SP
In any electrolytic solution, a dis- ti ally on the pH index of the medium. only weakly bon ded to the surface.
solved substance partly dissociates In order to de term ino the allowable The solubility curves of magnetite in The internal layer is not dangerous-
into ions (cations Mcm+ and anions concontraLions of Ca (or 1\Ig) and boiling water depending on tempera- to operation of the metal and is even
Ac"-) and partly remains in the form scalo-f_?rm ing anions in water, it is ture and at various values of pH (in desirable, since the dense fi rm oxide
o.f mo~ecules . The degree of dissocia- essent1al to know the solubilities in oxidizing and reducing media) are film pr otects the metal from further
tiOn, 1.e. the fraction of dissocia ted water of all the substances which illustrated in Fig. 14.2. As may he corrosion. On the contrary, tho loose
molecules, depends on the properties may form under particular conditions seen , in a wide r ange of high t empera- porous external layer (which forms
of the solute and t emperature. and their dependence on temperature. tures 250-350°C (4-18 MPa) and pH= 6- mainly from colloidal and disperse-
For a saturated solution at a given Such data for the principal scale for- 9, the solubility of magnetite in re- particles) has a low conductivity and
t emperature, the product of active mers are given in Fig. 14.1. As may ducing media does not exceed 40- thus impairs heat removal from the-
concentrations of ions a~rem + · aAcn- be seen, they have n egative tempera- 50 J.l.g/kg, in oxidizing media it does metal surface.
:Vhich is calle.d the solubility product, ture coefficients of solubility, so their not exceed 20-30 1.1glkg. The actual In addition to the above, bubble-
Is constant, I.e. solubility in water at high temperatu- concentrations of this subst ance in boiling can l ead to the 'wick effect'
r~s is only a few mg/kg, i.e. three- water are much higher, which means in porous iron-oxide deposits: water·
-
Sp -aM m+ ·a n-
n m is sucked in through numerous capil-
e AC (14.2) five orders of magnitude lower than that water contains colloidal and
that of easily soluble salts. When the disperse particles of iron oxide, as lary pores in a layer to the h eating-
where n and m are stoichiometric solubility of a p articular impurity, well as dissolved iron oxides. Suspen- surface where it. evaporates. Stonm is-
coeUicients. say, of CaS0 4 , at a given temperature ded (colloidal and disperse) iron-oxide then ejected back through a wide-
For substances with a positive tem- is known, one can determine the particles, irrespective of their size, channel, or 'steam pipe' (Fig. 14.5).
perature coefficient of solubility, active concentrations of respective can form deposits on heating surfaces. With such local circulation and eva-
d (SP)Idt > 0 and for those having ions Ca2 + and so;- and then calcula te The heav iest deposits (a few hundred poration of water, impurities (includ-
a negativ~ coefficient , d (SP)Idt < 0. the solubility product from formu- grams per m 2 in a year of oper ation) ing corrosion-active impurities, such
Dependwg on the composition of la (14.2). can form on the elements of the steam- as alkalies, chlorides, etc.) are con-
feed water, boiler water may contain
. c a2+ and Mg2+ and anions materials Products of corrosion of structural water path which are heated most centrated at the metal surface and can
ca t Ions . Feed water can bring into intensively. 70-90% of these deposits enhance corrosion.
SO'- Sio~-
a , P0 3
-
• , C0 2-
an d Cl- . the steam-water p ath of boilers the In porous deposits, an appreciable-
4 , 3 , are iron oxides .
As evaporation proceeds the con- corrosion products of a number of Deposits of corrosion products of portion of h eat is removed due to th&.
centrations of all ions u;_crease and structural materials, such as ir on , iron usually have two layers possessing ev aporating effect. This determines.
approach the solubili ty limits of the copper, zinc, cobalt, aluminium, etc. different physico-chemical properties. a high ' effective beat conductivity'
substances involved. Their compounds can form deposits The interval layer is dense and bonded of deposits, which includes heat con-
Dissolved substances can crystallize on boiler surfaces which are determi- ductivity as a physical costant and
from water. Those which have the ned by their solubility in the aqueous h eat transfer from the wall to the·
lowest sol~b_ility product under parti- medium under the process conditions. • At typi cal pH values of boiler water at working fluid. For this reason, the·
thermal a nd nuclear power stations (sec
cular conditiOns crystallize first. Some The solubility of most corrosion pro- Ch. 15). temperature of the metal in 'wick

Ia
I
170
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Ch. 14. Behaviour of Impurities In W ork ing Fluid
I boiling' increases by not more than
10-20 dog C even under substa ntially
thick deposited layers (afew hundredths
()r even tenths of a millimetre). Heat
transfer may be sharply impaired if
~apillary pores are clogged due to
d eposition of other impurities present
in water.
Since porous deposits h ave a rough
surface and an appreciable thickness,
they can d imin ish the free cross-
sectional area of tubes and increase
their hydraulic res istance, which lowers
the working pressure.
We can divide the formation of the
. ~xternal layer of iron-oxide deposits
into three stages: t h e transport of
suspended particles from the flow core
into the I ayer at the wall ; the motion
{)f particles in that layer; and their
.attachment to tho surface. At the first
-stage, tho lal'gest contribution is ft·om
hydrodyn amic forces. At tho second
and third stages, depending on parti-
~ular condi tions of the process, forces
{)f electrochemical nature may be
.active in addi tion to hydrodynamic
.and intermolecular forces. E lectroche-
mical forces cause motion of the
~barged particles of corrosion products
in the electromagne tic f ield which
appears in the heated layer of the
.heat-transfer agent just at the wall
under the ac tion of a thermo-e.m.f.
The t hermo-e.m.f. appears in the
drcuit consisting of the heating sur-
face (first-order conductor) and aq u-
-eous heat agent (second- order conduc-
-tor) at a temperature difference exis-
ting between its portions. Due to
-these processes, the corrosion products
suspended in water are de posited on
the heating surfaces; at the same time
they may be partially washed off
from these s urfaces by t he working
iluid.
The rate of formation of deposits is
:an important characteris tic which de-
t ermines the possibility of long unin-
terrup ted operation of steam-genera-
t ing plants. As applied to iron-oxide
.dep osits, tho rate of their formation
.depends on a large number of process
:parame ters: mass velocity, h.eating
' ()peration of circuits in nuclear power
oL---------~~------~~
I plfg
appro~. 7 of radioactivity transfer along a c ir-
Fig. 14.6. EHccL of pH 0 on the rate of
deposition of iron oxides
load, boiling condi t ions, pH of aque-
ous heat agent, particle size and
dispers ity, etc. In v iew of the comple-
xi ty of t he process of iron-oxide
de pos ition and its dependence on many
factors , there is still no physical
model which embraces t he effects of
all the parameters indicated. The ef-
fect of the pH index of heat agent
on the r ate of deposition of the iron-
oxide external layer at subcritical
pressures and 0 2 concen tra Lion at
a level of 0.4 mg/kg is s hown in
Fig. 14.6. As may be seen, tho lowest
rate of depos ition is at the pH value
corresponding to the isoelectric point
of corrosion products.
As n oted earlier, as suspended cor-
ros ion products are deposi ted on hea-
ting surfaces, t hey are partially washed
off by the working fluid. At the
beginning of the process, when the
surface is free from deposits , the
direct process prevails and th.e rate of
depos ition is at a maximum (Fig. 14.7).
As a layer is accumulated on the
surface, it is washed off more inten-
sively. I n the course of time, and
o~--------------~
Fig. 14.7. VnriaLion of the rate of form a-
tion of iron-oxide deposits
14.2. Solubility of I mpuritles In Heat-transfer A ge nt
d epending on tho particular condi-
tions, a balance is establish ed between
d eposition and wash. ing-·off, and there-
fore, a particular rate of deposition.
Products wash ed off from some por-
tions of th& surface can be deposited
()n other port ions. Th.is property of
deposits has an adverse effect on the
stations since it is o ne of the causes
<mit. ,'.>
Easily soluble substances. Figure 14.4
shows the solubility characteristics of
easily soluble impurities. The tem-
perature coefficients of solubility i n
t he region of intorost for steam boilers
and steam generators (above 200°C)
are positive for some of them (NaOH)
and negative for others (Na 2 SO,,
Na 3 P04) .
When hydrodyn amic and heat-trans-
fer processes occur properly and ensure
r eliable temperature conditions on the
h eating surfaces, the concentration of
each of the substances in the water of
b oiler drums is only a small fraction
(){ the allowable value. For ins t ance,
at a water t emperature of 343°C (p =
= 15 .5 MPa}, tho solubility of N a 2 SO ,
• is roughly 10 g/kg water, i.e. five
t imes the concentration allowed i n
b oiler water to produce clean steam
(2 g/ kg). This example shows that t he
precipitation of a solid phase from
a solution is only possible at a very
high degree of vaporization of t~e
s olution in a boundary layer of bot-
ling liquid , which is never achiev ed
under normal hydrodynamic condi-
t ions in drum-type boilers. Therefore,
under such conditions, easily soluble
salts in water present no danger of
de pos it formation on the heating sur-
faces.
Sol ubility of i mpuri ties in working
fluid a t s upercritical pressures and
fo rmation of deposits. The temperature
of a process has an essential effect
()n the solubility of substances in H20
at supercritical pressures, especially
i n the region of high heat capacities.
Data obtained at a pressure of 25
MPa are illus trated in Fig. 14.8.
171
pg/kg
'{:(Mf
v J1
1\ J
siOr
.
1-.
If\
coPY
/
/0 ' c-Fe3(4 ' I\
oP
./~
Q
,
I
10
10
f
CISI4 '- ../
l,h
0
250 350 HO 550 C
Fig. 14.8. Iso bars of tbc solubility of select-
ed substances in Il 2 0 at supercriticul pressu-
re (25 MPa)
By comparing the solubility curves
with some thermophysical parameters
of aqueous boat agent, say, density p
or dielectric permittivity e at super-
critical pressures (see Fig. 9.6), it can
he seen thai they have essentially the
same pattern. Like density or dielect-
ric permittivity, the solubility of
mos t impurities decreases inversely
with the temperature in t he whole
temperature range of interest.
These r egularities suggest t hat most
of the impurities present in the work-
ing- fluid of s team boilers at super-
critical pressures can precipit ate only
in a rather narrow range of varia tions
of thermophysical parameters, name-
ly, in tho r egion of high heat capaci-
ties (see Sec. 9.5) . An excep tio n
to this r ule is the solubility of t he
corrosion products of iron, mainly of
magnetite Fe 3 0 ,, whir.h varies only
slightly with temperature (Fig. 14.8).
Besides, it is only s lightly dependent
on the density of the heat agent, and
therefore, on the state of the working
fluid . For this reason, iron corrosion
products tend to 'spread' along the
whole steam-water path of the boiler
and turbine. On t he other hand, the
thickness of iron- oxide de pos its de-

172 Ch. U.. Behaviour of /mpurltle1 In Working Fluid
mgjkg
50
r.,"V
40
\ p=fBMPa
JO
i'-.
20 " .
["'- p:f4MPa
10
0
'
p =JMPa
I
I
~
MO 450 500
Fig. 14 .9. Solubility of NaCI in superheated
st.eam at subcri tical pressures
pends substan tially on th e intensity
of b eating, so that the surfaces heated
more intensively (such as the lower
radiation sections of once-through boi-
lers) are fo\1l ed with iron-oxide depo-
sits much more substantially than
tl10se operating at lower b eating rates.
Solubility of impurities in superheat-
ed steam of subcritical pressures and
the formation of deposits. The solu-
bility of substances in superheated
steam of subcritical pressures is deter-
mined by the properties of the sol-
• ven t (superheated steam) and the
properties of the solid impurity with
which steam is in contact, with both
I• being dependent on the process para-
meters, i.e. pressure and tempera-
tu.re.
The strength of the bonds between
ions, molecules or atoms of a solid
impurity depends substantially on tem-
perature. With an increase in t em-
perature, these bonds are weakened
and the solid phase can pass over in to
steam. Pressure variations in th e
r ange of operating pressures in steam
boilers have little effect on the beha-
viour of the solid phase.
Temperature and pressure which
determine the density of superheated
steam, have a strong effect on its
ability to dissolve solid impurities.
At a constant pressure as the tempera-
ture of superheat incr eases, the steam
d ensity decreases, resulting in a dec-
!II
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rease in the dielectric permittiv ity of
H 2 0 and a lower polarity of water
molecules . As a r esult, the dissolving
power of superheated steam first dec-
reases with increasing temperature due
to a decrease in its density. With
-
a further increase in t emperature at
a constant pressure, however, although
the steam density continues to decrea-
se, the crystalline bonds in the solid
v are weakened and th e solubility of
t he substance respectively increases.
Figure 14.9 shows isobaric (constant-
•c pressure) curves o( the solubility of
N aCl depending on temperature. As.
may be seen, the effect of both factors
(pressure and temperature) at the
minimum of solubility is roughly the
same . In the left-hand branches of
the curves, the effect of t emperature
variations in density is predominant,
while the pattern of the right-hand
branches is determined by bond forces
in the cryst alline lattice.
The pressure of superheated steam
also has a strong effect on its dissol-
ving power. At higher pressures, steam
has a higher density, and therefore,
a higher dissolving power, but the
effect of pressure lessens with an
increase in the temperature of super-
heating. The isobaric solubility curves
of other compounds, say, Na 2 SO, or
CaSO, , have essentially the same
pattern, but the quantitative relation-
ships are different.
Tho practical significance of the
solubilit y of subst ances in superhea-
ted steam consist s in the following: ·
if the concentration of an impurity
in steam is lower than its isobaric
solubility, it will be dissolved and
carried off by steam and will usually
form deposits in the turbine. rr' howe-
ver, its concentration is higher than
the isobaric solubility, the excess
will be deposited in the superheater
path and the r emainder in the turbine.
14.3. P assage of Impurities from
Water to Saturated Steam
There are two kn own ways for im-
purities to pass from wat er to steam:
they can be carried off as droplets of
14.3. Passage of lmpurutes from W ater to Steam
boiling water or by dissolution in
steam.
The concentration of impurities in
saturated steam can be charact erized
by the total curry-off coefficient
I
k C.Ot 01.
70•
k~o =ro+kd= g: (14.4)
where (J) is the water content of
steam, %, which characterizes the
concentration of impurities which can
p ass int o saturated steam with water
droplets, kd is the distribution coef-
ficient, %, which characterizes the
concentration of impurities due to the
dissolving power of steam.
Tho relative role of the components
in the carry-off coefficient depends on
a number of factors , primaril y on pres-
sure. For instance, at low pressures,
the dissolving power of steam for most
non-volatile impurities present in
water is n egligible (kd ~ w) , and
therefore, kc~ ~ ro. With an increase
in pressure, t he dissolving power of
steam increases, r esulting in a h igher
contribution by the distribution coef-
ficient, so t hat it may turn out a t
a sufficiently high pressure that led ~
~ ro and kc~ ~ led.
The mechanism and laws of water
carry-off by steam. Tho mechanism
of the formation of water droplets
in the steam space of a boiler drum
may be different depending on the
scheme of steam supply. If steam-
water jets are ejected below the water
level into the drum, steam bubbles
riso to the disengagement surface and
form a two-phase dyn amic layer
(Fig. 14.10a and b). A steam bubble
is acted upon by two forces: the force
of internal pressure which tends to
rupture the wat er film that envelops
the bubble and the force of surface
t ension of that film which resists the
rupturing force . In pure water, water
flows down from the upper spherical
surface of the film which consequently
becomes thinner (Fig. 14.10c). A hole
forms in the top of the sphere, which
is widened by the forces of surface
t ension. The fil m is retracted into
173
~----0
--- - -- -__n,_
:-_0- - --
----- -
---
-
_-.: -~o -·--·-
"'--- -------
--
---
-- - -- - - - - - --·
- - -- - -(h)- -- -(c) -
(a)
(d) (e)
Fig. 1.4.1.0. Formation o( condensed moistu-
re in the steam space of a drum with evapo-
rating tubes ent.ering the water space
(a) ris ing stcnm bubble: (b) bubble at the discnga·
<cmcnl surrncc: (c) belorc brealt-tbrough or water
7ilm·
·
(d) and (e) brcak·tbrougb or water tilm nod
rormnlion or moi sture droplets
the bulk of the water, and the steam
bubble is freed and enters the steam
space. As an annular \vave forms in
the process, water droplets break off
from its edge and are ejected into the
steam space (Fig. 14. 10d). Water tends
to fill iu the newly formed crater and
water currents collide with one another
in the centre and rise forming a verti-
cal column from which water droplets
can also break off (Fig. 14.10e). In
steam bubbling through a layer of
low-mineralized water, water films
whicb envelop steam bubbles may
have different thickness, and there-
fore, form water droplets of various
sizes .
When steam enters the drum above
the disengagement surface, water drop-
lets can appear in the steam space due
to disintegration of the moisture that
is carried by the steam supplied from
evaporating tubes (Fig . 14.11). The
degree of water atomization depends
on tho kinetic energy of s~.~am-water
jets. At high heating loads, and there-
fore, a high velocity of exit of the
steam-water jets into the drum, they
possess a high kinetic energy and can
atomize water into finer droplets,
resulting in a more intensive water
carry-off. A dynamic equilibrium is
established in the steam space bet-
ween the water droplets which enter
the steam space and those which
 174
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Ch. U. Behaviour of Impurities In Working Fluid
Fig. 14.11. Formation of condensed moistu-
re in a drum with steam-water mixture
entering the steam space
settle in the water. Tho concentration
of water droplets is the highest just
at the disengagement surface and
decreases the farther it moves from
that surface. The largest droplets can
be ejected to a height of 600-700 mm.
If the rising velocity of steam is
low, it can entrain only the finest
water droplets. With an increase in
the flow rate of st eam, the larger
droplets can be entrained. For this
reason, the water content of produced
steam turns out to be higher at
higher beating loads (see Fig. 14.12).
The water content c.> of steam is
determined by t he beating load D:
c.> = ADn (14.5)
where A and n depend on the design
I of the drum, pressure, and the con-
I con tration and ionic composition of
impurities in the water. The exponent
n changes substantially with the heat-
ing load. The dependence of the water
content of steam on the beating load
is approximated in logarithmic coor-
i I
J I ,/
• cannot r each the steam-circulating-
' I
n=flo2 log O{log w;}
Fig. 11,.12. Effect of the heating intensity
on the water content of steam
•
1
11
w .
h.m
0.8
Fig. 14.13. Effect of th e height of steam
space on the water content of steam
dinates by broken straight lines expres-
sed as power functions (14.5). Ther&
are three such straight sections.
(Fig. 14.12). For loads characterized
by a very low water content of steam
((I.) < 0.01 %), n = 1-2; for loads at.
which c.> = 0.01-0.1%, n = 3-4; and
for higher loads witl• w>0.2%,
n. ;;:;;:: 10. For drum-type boilers of
thermal power stations, operation at.
the beginning of the second section is
typical, for which n. = 3-4. Steam
velocity is proportional to its flow
rate D. The average flow rate of
steam related per m 2 of the disenga-
gement surface is called the rate of
evaporation per m2 of water surface:
RF = DIF (14.6)
The average velocity of steam rela-
ted to m 3 of tl10 steam space is called
the rate of eL·a.poration per m3 of steam.
space:
Rv = DIV (14.7)
The height of the steam space has
a vital effect on the water content of
produced steam. At RF = constant,
with a smaller height of the steam
space, larger droplets can reach tho
region of high steam velocities at the
inlet to steam-circulating tubes, and
therefore, steam will contain more
moisture. In the steam space of
a larger height, the largo droplets
tubes as easily and the water content
of produced stoam will be lower
(Fig. 14.13). Beginning from a cer-
tain height (roughly 0.8 m) which is
14.3. Pauage of-Impurities from Water to Steam
unattainable even for the most far-
reaching large droplets with the hig-
hest kinetic energy, any further in-
crease in the height of steam space
cannot significantly decrease the water
content of steam. Under such condi-
tions, steam carries off only fine
droplets whose souring velocity W 80
is smaller than the rising velocity of
steam w;', at RF = constant. Fine
droplets are transported by the steam
flow irrespective of the height of
steam space. The soaring velocity of
water droplets is understood as the
relative velocity of a droplet at which
its mass is counterbalanced by the
force of resistance in steam flow.
For these conditions, it may be
written :
2 ••
nd~r n durP w;o
(p' -p") g = ~
6 8
whereby
W 10 = 1.155 V dt ( ~: - 1) g
(14. 8)
where ddr is the diameter of droplet
and 6 is the coefficient of resistance.
With an increase in pressure, the
density of steam increases and offers
a greater resistance to rising droplets.
On the other hand, as the difference
in the densities of water and steam
decreases, the transporting ability of
steam is. enhanced. This is also due
to the fact that an increase in pr es-
sure decreases surface tension , so that
the size of the water droplets decr ea-
ses and they can be more easily
carried off by steam. S ince, however,
pressure has a stronger effect on the
transporting ability of steam tl•an on
its resistance, an increase in pressure
results in a higher water content of
steam.
We have discussed tho Jaws which
govern the carry-off of droplets of
pure or low-mineralized water. These
laws hold true for a rather wide range
of concentrations. All other conditions
being identical, the water content of
steam in this range is constant. Begin-
175
w
Cs
Fig. 14.H. Effect of salt content of water
on water content of steam
ning from a certain concentr ation ty-
pical of a particular substance, the
size of steam bubbles in water dimi-
nishes, and therefore, the velocity of
their rise decreases and cpbub increa-
ses. This results in the water swell
in tho drum and the ejection into the
steam space of a large number of
water droplets witl1 a high concentra-
tion oi the impurity, which critically
impa irs the steam quality (Fig. 14.14).
The concentration of substances in
water at which tho water level sud-
denly swells up and increases the
carry-off of moisture by steam is
called the critical concentration.
P hysico-cbcmical principles of U1e
distrihution of impurities between water
and saturated steam in equilibrium.
A two-phase single-component system
may be, depending on the relative
concentration of the phases, in the>
form of boiling water containing steam
bubbles, or wot steam containing-
water droplets, or boiling water in
contact with saturated steam. I rres-
pective of the structure of the two-
phase system, water and steam are
essentially two solvents of the same-
chemical nature but different density
and dielectric properties (see Soc. 9.5)
which determine their ability to dis-
solve inorganic substances.
If the two-phase system is in ther-
modynamic equilibr ium, the non-vola-
tile impurities present in it are distri-
buted between the phases according-
to 'the law of distribution of solutes in
immiscible solvents. This equilibrium
can be characterized quantitatively
by the distribution coefficient kd which
is expressed in terms of the activity
 176
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Ch. U. Bchaulour oflmpurtuu In Working Fluid
of the solute in steam, a., and in
(14.9)
For dilute solutions (which are ty-
-pical for the conditions of steam gene-
ration at thermal and atomic power
stations), the activities cart be repla-
ced by the concentrations of l:he solu-
t e, i.e.
(14.10)
The distribution coefficient depends
on the form in which substances are
present in an aqueous solution. Sub-
stances present in water in a molecu-
lar form have the highest capacity
for passage from water to steam. Those
which are present in an ionic form,
will dissolve in steam much loss rea-
dily. The law of distri!Ju Lion holds
true for substances which arc pre-
sent in both solvents (steam and wa-
ter) in one and the same form, either
molecular or ionic. The distribution
l
•
coefficients k::' and k~ corresponding
to this condition are thermodynami-
cally true and written as:
t.
and k d.tr
c! (14.11)
I = ct
I w
I value, i.e. as p"/p' tends to unity,
At a constant temperature, the true
distribution coefficient of a s ubstan-
ce is constant and independent of the
initial concentration of the substan-
ce in one of the phases. Determining
the tr ue distribution coefficients in-
volves appreciable difficulties, since
it is practically impossible to find se-
parately the concentrations of sub-
stances in the molecular and ionic
form. For this reason, tho distributi-
on coefficient is usually determined
• for which n < 1; (2) those with n =
.I
I through the total concentrations of a
substance without taking acco unt of
II the forms of its existence in sol vents,
I
i.e. the appa.rent distribution coeffi-
I cient is determined.
The correlation between the appa-
rent molecular coefficient of distri-
bution k;F.ap and the true distribution
coefficient kdn . 1 , is as follows:
,_m k"' P.
l<d. ap = d .trP
Similarly, for the ionic form:
k~.ap = !cL, (1 - ~}
where~ is•the fraction of the molecular
form in the total concentration of a
substance in the solution (~ depends on
pH and temperature) and (1 - ~) is
the fraction o[ the ionic form.
The total apparent distribution coef-
ficient is the sum of the molecular
and ionic apparent distribution coef-
ficients.
According to the law of distribu-
tion between two immiscible solvents,
the passage of substances from water
to steam takes place under adiabatic
conditions at a constant saturation
temperature and particular pressure
{density). On the other hand, as follows
from Fig. 9.8, the density lines of
water and steam at any temperature
(pressure) have no real regions of gra-
dual passage of substances from water
to steam. This passage from water to
saturated steam at equilibrium takes
place not gradually, but suddenly,
as follows from the distribution law.
As pressure approaches the critical
this "jump" declines and only at
p =Per can the substances dissolved
in water p ass over smoothly into satu-
rated steam in equilibrium with water.
At low concentrations of substan-
ces in aqueous solut ion, the e£fect of
process parameters on the coefficient
of distribuiton between water and dry
saturated steam in contact with it
(w = 0) can be described by the equa-
tion proposed by Acad. M.A. Sty-
rikovich:
p• )n
led = ( p'
which holds true for conditions when
the solute is present in water and in
steam in equilibrium with water in
the same form (either molecular or io-
nic).
14.3. Passage of I n ~rities from Water to Stea m 177
------------~~~~~
in water, for which reason their !:On-
centration in steam is usually not
high. or s pecial interest is silicic acid
(14.12) H 2Si0 3 , a weak electrolyte which be-
longs lo the second group. It may be
present in water in significant con-
centutions and possesses a high so-
(14.13)
lubility in steam. Substances from the
third grou p have the least solubility
in steam; these mainly include salts
NaCl and Na 2 S0 4 and hydroxide
NaOH, which are contained in water
mostly in the ionic form and are ospc-
ci<ill y sensitive to variations in the
density or solvents (water and steam).
The ap parent coefficient of dis tri-
fig. 14:15. Effect of th e p' /p" mtio of t~c bution of weak electrolytes depends
aqueous heat t.ran~fcr. agcut on . the coeffi- not only on the temperature (pressu-
cient of d1stnbul10n of substances
re) of the process, but also on lite pH
index or the aqueous solution which
In equation (14.1'~). n is Lhe coordi- characterizes the degree of deviation
nation number which reflects the phy- from the predominantly molecular or
sico-chemical properti es of the solute predominantly ionic form of the s ub-
and ex presses the degree of ils hydra- stance. Tho form in which strong elo-
lion. It. remains cons tant in a wide ctrol ytos exist, e.g. the salts of strong
range of parameters. At a higher deg- bases or acids in aqueous solutions ,
ree of hydration, tho ionic form con- and their apparent coefficients of dis-
tributes more to the lotal concentrati- tribution vary with their concentra-
on or the substance in solution. Such tions. .
substances are retained more firmly If water contains both dissolved
• by polar water molecules and pass less and undissolved, i.e. suspended, im-
easily inlo the steam phase. purities which can pass into steam
The effect of the densily ralio of with water droplets, the total conta-
steam and water on lhe distribution miriution of steam is determined from
coefficients according to formula the equation:
(14..14) can be represented in loga-
rithmic coordinates in tho form o[ a C ,l -- (C:JI• w +C'"')
1U 0> +
c!iis "'d.op (14 · 11)
w "'I •
pencil. diagram (Fig. 14.15). Pen.cils
of all substances start from the ong1n wherefrom tbe total coefficient of car-
of coordinates which corresponds to ry-over /c~ which characterizes the
the critical pressure (for water, P er = ratio of total concentrations of an im-
purity in water and steam is found
= 22.85 MPa) and distribution coef-
from the formula:
ficient kd = 1.
All substances present in water can
be divided into lhr:ee groups according (14.1G)
to their solubility in steam: (1) those
(14.14)
= 1-3; and (3) those with n > 4 . As follows from equation (14.16),
Substances in the first group possess the quality of steam depends on its
the highest solubility in steam . They water content w and distribution coe-
include weak elect•·olytes - mostly fficient kJ .aP· The water content of
the producls of corrosion of structural steam can be diminished by separati -
materials: Fe 3 0 4 , Alz0 3 , etc. that on (see Sec. 15.4). Even the compl elo
may, however , have a low solubility separation or moisture, however, can-
12-0 1524
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178 Ch. 15. Water Conditions
not make steam free from impurities.
The distribution coefficient is a phy-
sico-chemical constant and, if water
contains impurities, steam will have
an equivalent quuntity of these im-
purities in accordance with tl1e condi-
WATER CONDITIONS
!5. t. RemoyaJ or I mpurities
from t he Circuit
The reliable operation of steam-
turbine plants is ensured by maintai-
ning the proper level of cleanliness of
the working fluid, i.e. by removing
impurHies from the circuit in accor-
dance with the rate of their passage to
the water (see Sec. 14.1). Methods for
removing impurities may vary depen-
ding on the type of boiler. Drum-type
boilers operate under the principle of
multiple forced or gravity circulation.
The steam content of the fl uid flow
in the uptake tubes of circulation cir-
cuits is limited and does not normally
exceed 10-25%. Boiler water docs not
evaporate deeply, and therefore, the
impurities dissolved in it do not reach
their extreme concentrations (to sa-
turation) and thus cannot precipitate
as a solid phase in the water bulk or
on the tube walls. In order to retain
the concentrations of impurities in
water below the level at which they
would precipitate in the solid state,
part of the water is continuously r e-
moved from the boiler drum (blow-
down water). Blowing-down as a means
of removing impurities from power
plants is especially efficient with those
impurities which have a low coef-
ficient of d is lri lm lion between steam
Lions of the process. In order to clean-
the steam from impurities which have·
passed into it from water due to the·
distribution law, it should be washed
by cleaner water than thuL from which.
it has formed (see Sec. '15 .4).
and water and for this reason are not.
properly carried off by steam (sodium
salts and sodium hydroxide). Blowing-
down is ineffi c ient with impurities
which have a high coefficient of di-
stribution and are carried off in a I ar-
ge quantity by steam (silicic acid and'
metal oxides).
In once-through boilers, the evapo-
ration process takes place with all
the water being vaporized continuous-
ly. Blowing down once-through boi-
lers is impossible, so impurities settle
on the heating surfaces as deposits ac-
cording to their soluhil i ty in water
and steam. Eas ily soluble deposits
which accumulate in particular zones
of once-through boilers are partially
washed off at tbe boil er starting-up
and shutting-down. Slightly soluble
deposits are removed periodically by
chemical washing which is done after
shutting down the boiler. The wa-
shing process is labour-consuming and
requires much Lime and a large qu-
antity of reagents. The continuous re-
moval of impurities from the steam-
water path of once-through boilers can
be effected in a demineralizing plant
arranged in the circuit downs tream
of the turbine condensers .
Feed water at the entt·y to the boi-
ler conluins a noticeable quaolity of
oxygen and carbon dioxide. Free oxy-
15.1. R e moval of Impurities from Circ"lt
Tab l e ! a. l. A llowable Contaminatio n ol I nte rnal Surlaces ol Tubes
. Conccn\ra l.ion Of impuriti es, g { m2, ut beating lOads,
Stnl•• o r surface
up l O 100
Clean
Requires cleaning
gen and carbon dioxide can cause in-
tensive corrosion of the metal·'o[ boi-
ler equipment. To prevent this , t.hese
elements arc removed by thermal de-
aeration.
The water conditions at nuclear
power s tations are l argerl y d etermi-
ned by their operation specifics, i.e.
by neutron irradiation of the heat-
Lransfet· agent as it passes through the
react or core . Further, the corrosion
products of structural materials are
continu ously accumulating in t.lt e cir-
cuit. I£ they are not removed in due
Lime from the heat agent, th ey can
form deposits on the surfaces of the
circuit. These impurities are subjected
to neutron irradiation in the 1·eactor
and become ndioactive, thus crea-
ting a radiation hazard in the zone
around the reactor equipment..
Since used water at nuclear power
stations is radioactive, it cannot be
blown down and discharged to escape
channels, as is clone at thermal power
stations. As at thermal power s l;ati-
ons, it is cleaned from impurities in
ion-exchange resin water purifiers.
This treatment prevents the fonnation
of deposits on the working s urfaces
of the circuit.
The onjectives of minimizing the
corrosion of structural materials and
the formation of deposits and of pro-
ducing steam of a high purity (and,
at nuclear power stations, minimizing
the radioactivity of the heat-transfer
agent) are achieved by properly or -
ganizing tbc physico-chemical pro-
cesses in the steam-water path, i.e.
by providing appropriate chemical wa-
ter conditions*. I t is virtually impo-
• In further discussion, we will rclcr Lo
Lbis as wn ler co nditions.
i 79
kWJrn2
100-300 300 -~ 50
I above 450
25-50 up to 25 up Lo 25 up to 20
200 -300 150-200 100-200 1.00-150
ssible to completely control corrosion,
the activity of the working fluid and
dep ositions on the work ing surfaces
and produce absolutely clean steam
(free from impurities). The optimal
water conditions o[ a power unit
should ensure the relialJle un interrupted
operation of the equipment for a long
time before chemical washing is re-
quired. The pl'incipal tasks are: to
restrict, the fo1·mati on of internal
deposit s which might cause the tempera-
ture of heating surfaces to increase
intol.erably; to restrict the [ormation
of deposits "·hich might d iminish the
power of the unit in tho flow path of
the turbine; to suppress the corrosion
of structural materials in the steam-
water path and l.o minimize erosion.
wear.
Deposits on the surface of metal are-
removed by chemical cleaning o£ the·
equipment. This procedure is carried
out in a new boiler before starting
up and then periodically during ope-
ration. A washing circuit is assembled:
for this purpose, which includes wa-
shing pumps, tanks for preparation.
of the reagents , connecting pipelines,.
and reservoirs for the collection and
neutralization of wash water. The·
length of periods between chemical
washing procedures depends on the-
operating conditions of the boiler
plant, mainly on how carefully the
specified water conditions are obser-
ved. The time for a chemical washing
procedure is determined by the amo-
unt o£ deposits on heated tubes and
by 'the intensity of their heating. A
rough estimation of the allowable con-
tamination levels of the internal sur-
faces of tubes is g iven in Table.
15.1.
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180 Ch. 15. Water Conditions 15.2. !Vater Conditions of Once-through Boilers 1St

15.2. Water Conditions
of Once-through Boilers
An important factor in the organi-
zation of water conditions in once-
through boilers is that water b lowing-
down is inapplicable. For this rea-
son, all impurities which are IJrought
in with feed water and those which
pass into the working £luid due to cor-
rosion of the boiler proper and in the
feed water path behind the condensate
cleaners are partly deposited on the
heating surfaces and partly carried
off into the turbine. H should be bor-
ne in mind that only very slight de-
p osits are allowed in the turbine. The
amount of deposits allowed in the boi-
ler is many times that allowed in the
turbine, i.e. a subcritical-prcssure boi-
l er should be regarded as a 'trap'
for impurities which prevents their
passage to the turbine. Under such
condit.ions, the concentration of im-
purities in feed wat.er can b e some-
what higher than in superheated steam,
in accordance with the allowable
l evel of deposits in the boiler. The al-
lowable deposits depend on their di-
stribution along the steam-water path,
"the heating load and conductivity in
places of deposit formation, and on
tl1o reliability reserve of heating sur-
faces, i.e. how far the temperature of
the metal may rise above the working
temperature wi thout causing cree-
ping and scaling. Under identical con-
ditions, the allowable amount of de-
posits depends heavily on the heating
l oad, which should be taken into ac-
count when selecting the zone of de-
position in the gas path. The zone of
deposition is usually the final sect.ion
of the evaporating path and it should
not be arranged in tho region of inten-
sive heating. The length of the zone of
deposition also depends on pressure.
At higher pressures, the deposition
zone is longer and begins · at a lower
steam content of the fluid flow .
In high-capacity boilers for super-
criLical pressures, furnace water walls
operate at substant.ially higher hca-
ting rates and are therefore much mo-
re sensitive to deposits. Since dep o-
sits are unwanted in both the turbine
and boiler, once-through boilers must
be fed wit.h water that is as free as po-
ssible of impurities. In practice, this
means that all tho condensate from tho
turbine must be cleaned in a dem inera-
lizing plant. This treatment almost
totally prevents l.be deposition of
salts and silicic acid in t.he boiler and
turbine, while the problem of preven-
ting tho deposition of corrosion pro-
ducts, especially iron oxides, beco-
mes more important.
A common met.hod for increasing t.he
corrosion resistance of equ ipment is
to select the appropriate materials.
The main structural material for ma-
king t.he heating surfaces of boilers is
pearlitic steel. Pearl itic steels have
many advantages (low cost, good wor-
kability, serviceability), but they po-
ssess a serious drawback: they arc
sub) ect to intensive corrosion in the
steam-water path of boilers.
Corrosion damage is reduced by t.he
application of protective coatings to
the internal surfaces or tubes in the
low-temperature sections of power
plants. These include: the internal
surfaces of atmospheric-type deaera-
ting tanks, exhaust hoods of turbines,
housings of condensers and low-pres-
sure vacuum heaters , condensate tanks
and their pipelines, and water-treat-
ment equipment. In the high-tempe-
r ature sections of power plants, cor-
rosion is limited by appropriat.e or-
ganization of water conditions.
Hydrazine-ammonia water treat-
ment. Thermal deaeration cannot re-
move oxygen and carbon dioxide com-
pletely from the turbine condensate.
The concentration of residual oxygen
may be as high as 10 J.Lg/kg. Residu-
al carbon dioxide is also present in the
condensate. For this reason, thermal
deaeration is supplemented with the
chemical treatment of feed water.
Residual oxygen in feed water af-
ter thermal deaeration is bound by
hydrazine N tll 4 • If water contains no
other impurities, t.he reaction is as
follows:
N2H , +O:-+ N1 +2llt0 (15.1)
Feed water always contains impu-
rities: iron and copper oxides. In their
presence, oxygen is bound by hydra-
zinc more quickly [381.
In order to ensure tho complete re-
moval of oxygen, hyd razino is fed
at the intake to feed pumps in an amo-
unt exceeding the stoicbiom.fltric ra-
tio from formula (15.1), i.e. an excess
of hydraziDe is formed in an amount
of 0.02-0.03 mg/kg.
Carbon dioxide may be presen t in
water in the form of either molecules
C0 2 (dissolved gas) or H 2C0 3 (solu-
tion of carbonic acid):
C0 2 + H 2 0 = If:C0: 1 (15.2}
Carbonic acid can be found by a
measured quantity of ammonia added
Lo feed water. Ammonia is introduced
in an amount sufficient for the comple-
te neutralization of co~ to form
ammonium carbonates and to allow a
slight excess of ammonium hydroxide
to raise the pH index of water. Thus,
hydrazine hydrate combines the re-
- sidual oxygen in deaerated water,
while ammonia maintains the pH in-
dex at the required level pH = 9.1 ±
± 0.1.
I-lydrazine-ammonia water treat-
ment, i.e. the chemical treatment of
feed water by hydrazine hydrate and
ammonia, is a conventional method
and until recently was employed at al-
most all supercrit.ical-pressure mono-
hi oc units.
The temperature of the working flu-
id at the outlet of the lower radiation
sections of boiler plants is usually
380-390°C. The temperature of the out.-
side surface of lubes in this section is
roughly 100 deg rees higher, i.e. atta-
ins /l90-500°C. As established by ex-
perience, with the application of hy-
drazine-ammonia water treatment,
the temperature of tubes in the lower
radiation section of fuel oil-fired boilers
increases by 10-12 deg C every month.
For this reason, chemical washing
should be carried out period ically in
4-6 mont.hs in order to retain the tem-
pera t.ure of tube walls below the allo-
wable level.
Neutral water conditions. All mono-
bloc units of power stalions are provi-
ded with demineralizing plants to
produce clean feed water. Upon clea-
ning in a demineralizing plant, tur-
bine condensate approaches the theo-.
retically pure neutral water with the
electric conductivity 0.04-0.06 fLS/cm
and pH index around 7. This water is
practically pure and almost free of
ion ogenic impurities, so that all ele-
c.trocbemical processes in it are retar-
ded.
Oxygen in neulrnl water may produ-
ce different ef£ects on metals depen-
ding on its concentration. At low con-
centrations, iL can enhance metal cor-
rosion. At elevated concentrations of
oxygen, a conti nuous film of magne-
tite Fe 3 0 4 or hematite Fe 2 0 3 forms on
the metal surface. For this reason , it
has been proposed to prevent further
corrosion of met.al by int.roducing oxy-
gen into waLer in an amount (around
200 J.Lg/kg) sufficient to form a passi-
vating continuous film of iron oxi-
des. Under such conditions, the cor-
rosion rate of pearlitic steel is almost
as l ow as that of austenitic steel.
The ability of oxygen (in elevated
concentrations) to form firm protecti-
ve oxide films has been utilized as the
basis for tho organization of oxygen-
neutral water conditions in once-through
boilers . For this purpose, gaseous
oxygen 0 1 is added in a measured qua-
ntity to feed water. In some ca~es,
hydrogen peroxide H 2 0 2 is used instead
of 0 2 . To form neutral water con-
ditions, feed water should be very pure
and contain no CO~; its electric con-
ductivity shou ld not exceed 0.2 J.lS/cm.
Neutral water conditions are ad-
vanLageous in the following respecls:
it can bo dispensed with expensive
correction treatment of feed water uy
hydrazine hydrale and ammonia; in
that connection, filters of the dem i ne-
ralizing plant can operate for a longer
time between regenerations; the rate
of form ation or iron-oxide deposils in
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182 Ch. 15. Water Conditions
intensively heated surfaces of tho lower
radiation section is lower; and pcarli-
tic steels can be oruployed in heaLing
surfaces. In operation with nou tral
water conditions, care shou ld be ta-
ken to keep the electric co nductivity
of feed water as low as possible. For
this reason, the feed-water path should
contain no elements made of cop-
per or copper alloys. Neutral water
conditions have been employed at a
number of supercritical-pressure mo-
nobloc units for several years.
Chelate treatment of water. When
iron-oxide deposits form on heating
surfaces, the tern perature of tho metal
is determined by the heating intensity
and the properties of the deposits,
mainly by their thermal conductivity,
which is l ower in porous deposil.s.
Temperature cond i lions on healing
-surfaces can be improved by two me-
thods: by increasing the thermal con-
ductivity of deposits or by causing
the deposits to for·m primarily in the
tess heated elements (say. in the eco-
nomizer) , rather than in the lower ra-
.(liation section.
The properties of iron-oxide depo-
sits and the regularities of their for-
mation in the steam-water path can
b e changed by employing the chelate
treatment of water. The method of
-chelate water treatment has been pro-
-posed and developed by T. Kh. Margu-
i ova et al. and consists essentially in
the following. Feed water is treated
with ammonia and hydrazine hydrate
added in the same quantities as in the
<.onventional hydrazine-ammonia me-
thod. In addition, chelates are intro-
duced into the doaerated feed water
in a quantity equh·alent to the con-
centration o[ iron and copper in it.
I Chelates aro su bstances capable of for-
ming water-soluble compounds with
! various cations (Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu).
Ethylene d iaminc tetraacetic acid
{EDTA, dry product) is usually em-
p loyed for the purpose.
An aqueous solution of t.he acid at
a temperature of 80-90°C is prepared
and mixed with an aqueous solution of
ammonia: NH 3+ H 2 0 = NH,.OH.
I
'
••
The ll'isubstituted ammonium salt of
ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid
which forms nn mixing can react with
tho products or iron corrosion at tem-
peratures of 100-200°C, with iron hy-
droxide F e (0li) 2 to form iron chela-
tes. These ave readily soluble in water
and dissociate at a high temperature,
with a dense 1ayer of magnetite boi ng
deposited on the inl.ernal su rfaces of
tubes, protecting the metal against
corrosion.
The most intensive dissociation of
iron chelates occurs at temperatures
of 250-300°C which are typical for
the last stages or the high-pressure wa-
ter heater and economizer, so that
complete thermal dissociation (ther-
mol ysis) would be expected to take
place exactly in these el ements of the
steam -water path. The working fluid,
however, moves in this section or the
path (high-pressure water hea ter and
economizer) at a noticeable velocity,
3-5 m/s and 1-2 m /s , respectively.
Moreover, in su percritical-pressure
boilers, the temperature of the working
fluid increases quite rapidly as it mo-
ves along the path (at a rate of rough-
ly 100°C/min). For these two rea-
sons, the thermolysis of chelates can-
not como to its end in the economizer
and partially continues in the next
element of the path, the lower radia-
tion section. Therefor·e, iron-oxide de-
posits in su percrilical-pressure boi-
I ers are distributed in the following
manner: around 80% settle in the eco-
nomizer and 20% in the lower radia-
tion section. On addition of the chela-
tes, the deposits in the lower radiati-
on section become denser and have a
higher thermal conductivity, which
lowers the rate at which the tempera-
ture of the wall rises in timo and ma-
kes it possib le to prolong the period
between washings up to 18 months.
It is advisable to automatically add
the chelates according to the heating
load of a monobloc unit. Ammonium
sal l. of ethylene diamine totraacetic
ncid and ammonia are addud to the
feed water after the deaerator, and
hydrazine after the demineralizing
15.3. Non-scaliflg Water Condilio11s of Drum-typ e Boilers
plant. The concent rat ions of additives
[ n feed water in chelate .;,·ator trea t-
men!. are as follows: EOTA =
= 80 ~tg/k g, l\'H:1 = 700-800 11g/kg,
l\ 2H 4 = 20 ~tglkg; pH= 9.1.
Gaseous products formed on the
thermal dissocia l io11 of tho chol ates
pass together with sleam through the
turbine and are removed from the
-cycle as exhaust from the condenser.
Chelate water treatment offers cer-
tain advantages typical for 'neutral'
water con ditions (increased time bet-
ween washings), but also possesses the
·drawbacks of the hydrazinc-ammonia
treatment (an increased load on the
demineralizing plant, since a large
~uanlity of ammonia should be remo-
ved from th e circuil, and a high use
<>f rcuge~ts for filter regeneration).
15.3. Non-scaling Water Conditions
of Drum-type Boilers
Drum-type boilers arc often fed
·wi I h softened water, i.e. water that
-contains easily soluble substances, ma-
inly sodium salts.
Owing to inleakage of the cooling
>vater in condensers, calcium and mag-
nesium salts can also get into the feed
water. These salts have a very low so-
l ubility (milligrams and tens of milli-
grams per kg water), which further de-
<.reases with increasing temperature.
During · steam generation at a high
press ure, the concentrations of those
~a ll s readily rise to a value at which
they can form scale. Not all calcium
and magnesium compounds form sca-
l e; some of them form sludge. Some
kinds of sludge !such as Mg 3 (P04) 2 1
can stick Lo heating surfaces, which is
also undesir·able. Calciu m and magne-
swm can form non-sticking sludge
[for instance, 3Ca 3 (P0 .1 )~·Ca(OH) 2
or 3Mg0·2S i 0~ · 2 1L.!Ol which remains
in th e boiler water ira a suspended sta-
te and can mostly be removed by
continuous blowing-down. A small amo-
unt o[ heavier sl udge accumulate<; in
the lower headers aud can ue removed
by periodic blowing-down.
183
Ln order to correct water conditions
and transfer the hardness sa lts into
non-sticking sludge, it is essential lo
introduce correction additives t.o water,
for instance, phosphates (such as sodi-
um phosphate Na 3 P0 4 ) to fixed cal-
cium . Water conditions based on tho
addition of phosphates are called pho-
sphate water conditions. For easier
formation of non-slicking movable
sludge, phosphates should be added to
an alkaline medium. For this reason,
sod ium phosphate is introduced uot
into the feed water· which has a low
alkalinity, but into the boiler drum
where the alkalinity of the water is
sufficiently high due to multiple eva-
poration. Thus, plwsphate-alkaline wa-
ter conditions are formed. The reacti-
on of sludge formation can be written
in the rollowi ng form:
10Caso. + GNa 3 P0 4 + 2Na01l
= 3Cu 3 tP0 4 )2Ca(OHh + ·101\n~S0 4 (15.3)
'---v--'
non-sUcking movable easi ly soluble
sludge sodium sulphal o
The reaction products are removed
by blowing-down. For the complete
removal of calcium salts, a certai n
excess o[ phosphates is maintained in
t.he boiler water. The excess of PO~­
for boilers witbout s tepped evapora-
tion is 5-15 mg/kg; for those with
stepped evaporation, the excess of
POt- is 2-6 rog/ kg [or t.hc clean se-
ction and not more than 30-50 mg/kg
for the salt section.
Due to the hydrolysis o[ phosphate
ions that takes place in phosphate
treatment, hydroxy ions form which
furth er increase the water alkalinity:
PQ~- + H~O = HPOi- + OH- } (15 .4)
HPOi- + H,O = H~PO;+OH-
Upon phosphate-alkaline treatment,
the hydrate alkalinity of water may
son1etimes turn out I o be subs tan I ial
(pH > 11) and cause metal corrosion.
[n boilers supplied with turbine
condensate wi l.h an addition of che-
mically puril'ied water, alkalinity is
held at a moderate level b~r adding
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184 Ch. 15. Water Condition$
not pure Na 2 P0 4 , but a mixture with
1'111 acid phosphate, such as Na 2HP0 4 •
At power s talions fed with turbine
1·ondensate and low-mineral ized ma-
ke-up water (chemical! y desalted wa-
tct· or distillate from evaporators ).
water alkalinit y is controlled only by
the hydrolysis of phosphates [see for-
mulae (1 5.4)1 , i.e. by forming water
conditions of pu.rely phosphate alkali-
nity. Phosphates a re continuously in-
t roduced into the boiler drum by me-
tering pumps.
In recent times, the quality of feed
wat,er at powor stations has improved
appreciably clue to lowe r· inleakage in-
to c ondensers, t hus resuting in a hig-
her quality turbine cond ensate. This
makes it possib le to employ water con-
dit.ions with a lower degree of phos-
phate treatment. o r eYen to dispense w il h
phosphate trc:1t ment a nd change to
no-phos phat o non-se aling wa ter condi-
1 ions . 1\'o-phos phate wa ter conditions
make t he boiler operat.ion l ess expen -
s iv e (since c.onectivc additives arc
no t used), d ecrease tho salt content
in boiler water, improve the quality
of s team, and lower the cost of boiler
equ ipment.
15.4. Methods for Generating Clean
Steam
The purity of s team should satisfy
extremel y high requiremen ts. For in-
stance, the total concentration of i m-
purities in s uperheated steam of su-
percrit.ical pressure must not exceed
40-50 !lg/kg. Methods for producing
clean steam vary depending on tho
type of plant.
In once- through boilers, the wor-
kin g fluid (water), is continuously va-
porized, so that its impurities are par-
i! tly deposited on heating s urfaces and
I partly carried off with steam. With an
increase in pressure, the concentrat i on
r of impurities in steam increases and
' the quality of steam app roaches that
.l o f feed water (Fig. 15.1). Blowing-
i
I
down is inapplicable in once-throug h
bo ilers. The sole way t o make cl ean
steam is to impt·ove the quality of feed
Crw
Fig. 15.1. Effect o£ pressure on the steam
quality in a once-through boiler (Per >
> P1 > P2 > P l)
water. Thus, the q ua lity of s team pro-
du ced in once-t.hroug h boilers is con-
troll ed by specifying the q u11lity of
feed water.
In drum-type boi lers, the purity of
saturated steam, and therefore, of
superh e ated steam is d etermin ed by
the qu a lity of the wa ter from which it
is prod ucod. \\' i I h a I ower concen tra-
tion of impuri t ies in boiling water
(under id entical conditions). c leaner
steam can be obl.nincd. mowing-down
of drum- type boilers can improve the
quality of circulating water, though
e xcessive blowing-down can diminish
the e fficiency of the steam- turbine
plant owing to heat loss with b low-
down water.
Separation of moisture drop lets from
steam. T o produce clean steam, it is
essential, first of a ll , to dry it as com-
plete ly as possible, i.e. to separate wa-
ter droplets from the steam flow.
Steam-separating s ys tems should sat isfy
the following main requirements: low
water content in the produced steam,
high unit steam-generating load, a nd
low hydraulic res is tance.
The s eparation of mois ture from
steam is based on th e densit y diffe-
rence between water and steam. A
wa ter droplet in the s team s puce of a
boiler drum is ac ted upon by two op-
pos ito fo rces: t he li fting force a nd the
force due to grav ity. The relntions hip
between these forces and the tim e of
their action d etermine wheth er o d ro-
plet will be c arri ed oH by s team or set-
tle on t he water s urface. It is cl ear
that a higher sepa rating effect can be
15.4. Jlfethods for Generating Clean Steam i 85
mjs
5vi J
-4
~-
J
1\ -
5
2
\
'\.._
r--..... r...2 ~-
L _ _
'
-f
5
7
·~ '
I
I
......... f
r-.....
p
Fig. 15.3. Internal cyclone steam separa tor
J- hous ing; 2-l rtl<~t J)irw connt!ction: J- covcr·
0 4 8 12 MPa J- collur; j-stt>am-wn1N' mixturr in : 6- cross:
pi..ce; 7- llotlom
Fig. 15.2. Effect of pressure on the steam
velocity in the holes of a submerged distri-
bution plate moistening. Th is is performed iu s tea m
J- mlnimal ,.c, Jnclt ~·: 2-rccomrnf·ndcd velocity separating devi ces .
The principal s tMm-sepa rating de-
achi e ved at a lower ris ing velocity of vice in high-capac it y s te om boil ers is
steam in the dru m. a cyclone separator which is nrranged
Among t.hc s imples t and most effi - ins ide th e boiler drum . An internal
ci ent devices for steam separa tion are cyclone separator (Fig . 15. 3) is essen-
perforated plates made of s teel, with tially a cylindrical ver tical housing
the perforations 5-12 mm in diameter. 300-400 rnm in di a meter into which
A perforated plate is mounted 100- steam-water m ixture is introduced
150 mm below the average water l e- tangentially at a s peed of 6-8 m /s .
vel in the drum; it is called a submer- Upon entering tho cyclone, the s t eam
ged plate (as in steam generators of flow kinetic energy produces a centri-
nuc lear power s tations). A nother pla- fugal effect, and the flow is whirled
te is arranged in the steam s pace at at t.bo cyclone s urface. Water is pres-
th e top of the drum (perforated baffle). sed aga ins t the walls and flows down-
Both plates serve to equalize the di- ward, whi le steam flows from tho cy-
stribution of steam over the drum cross clone uniformly nt a velocity around
section ..For uniform bubbling of steam 1 m/s from beneath the cyclone cover
th rough the s ubmerged plate, a into the s tea·m space of the drum (Fig .
continuous steam layer (s team cushi- 15.4). A cross-piece in the cyclone bot-
on) should be fo rm ed beneath the pla- tom stratifies the water flow which
te. The condition of steam cushion sta- moves smoothly into the wa ter space
bility (see Sec. 13.1) is determined by of the drum. The number of cyclones
s team velocity in the perforated plate in a drum is determined by the capa-
ho les . This veloci ty depends on pres- city of the cyclone which in turn de-
s ure , i.e. it is lower at higher pressu- pends on its dimens ions and pressu re;
res (Fig. 15.2). the capacity of a cyclone 300 rom in
Tn high-capacity boilers , each eva- diameter at a pressure of 4 MPa,
pora ting tu be d elivers into the drum 10 MPa and 15.5 MPa is res pec tively
up to 1 000 kg/ h of steam-water mix- 4 tfh, 6 t /h and 10 t /h.
ture o n the average, some tubes d eli- internal cyclone separation is ra-
ver up to 1 500 kg/h . These powerful t her effective, but increases the hydrau-
fl o ws ejected in to the dru m possess a lic resis tance of t he circuit, which
h ig h k ineti c e nergy which s hould be shoul d be considere d in circulation
d a m pened in order to minimiz e steam calcula tions.
 186
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 15. Water Conditions
Fig. 15.4 . Typica l drum. internals
/ - drum; z-cvaporatln~: tubes; J- box:
8 9 4- cyclone; 5- dr:unage box; ·&-cover;
7- stenm-wnshlng perforated plate: 8 -
r•erforatcd steam batfle; 9- fco!d wnt•!•" dis t-
ribution box: JO- steam..(!lrculating tubes:
1/- feed water In: J2-ho lc In a partition;
I J-downtakP tube•: H - Pmcrg<>ncy water
drainage
2 8
\,;.,_
•
I _1,
I]
External cyclones have a lso found nal cyclone separato r (Fig. 15.5) is
wide application for steam separation m ade in the form of a \'ertical cylin-
in drum-type boilers ; they arc moun- der 350-450 mm in diameter. The steam-
t ed outsid e the boil er drum. An exter-
water mixture is int1·oduced t au-
genti a ll y and the separation process
5. is essentia lly the same as in an inter-
nal cyclone separator. The height
-;-? ~ of an external cyclone is determined by
the sum of the requ ired heigh ts of the
4/ steam space (1.5-2.5 m) and water
' sp ace (2-2.5 m) to ensure efficient se-
paration and stabilize the operation
3, of the downtake l.u bes in the circu la-
zt:1=~='- tion circuit which are connected to
l he external cyclone.
In once-through boilers , the steam-
' ~ water path is provided \l'ith a stat·-
ting-up unit mounted b etween the fur-
nace water walls and the s ubsequent
425m.'111 tfitr. J5 heating surfaces. One of its principal
elements is a built-in separator (for
' more detail see Sec. 23.4). l t has a ver-
t-
~ tical cylindrical housing with a s ingle
stage of s team-separating ,·anes inside;
to- 1- the stea m-water mixture is introduced
_t~ '- a t th e top (Fig. '15.6). Wa ter droplets
L.
I are thrown to the wa lls by centri fu-
'ljf
gal forces, water flows through an au-
nulat· drainage chamber and is rem o-
Fig. 15.5. Typical ex ternal cyclone sepa ra-
ved through a side drainage tube. D ri -
tor ed steam passes from th e separato r
! - header: t-steam·wntcr mixture In; 3-wbirle r: through the bottom chamber. This
4-pe rforatcd plat.e; s-stenm-outlct pipe· 6-alr design of separator has been unified,
vent; 7-blow·down: 8 - dOII"ntake tubes · 9-water
from drum; W- cross·piccc ' h as standard d iJnensions and is om-
15.4. Method$ for Generating Clean Stearn
425 mm tlia•50
f ..._
--
7
fig. 15 .6. Unifi ed built-in (s tart-up} s Lca m
separa tor
J- header; z - whlrl er insert; 3- whlrlcr: 4 -
<ll strlbullng cone: 5-steam-water mixture in;
o-stcam out; 7- drainage ot separated wnter
ployed in su percritica l-pressure mo-
nobloc unils for 500,800 and 1 200MW.
[[ wet steam moves in a tube at a
moderate velocity, it.s moisture pre-
dpi ta tes and fl ows along the walls as
a n annula r film. This process is called
film separation. For effective separa-
tion of the fl ow into steam and water,
the flow velocity should uot be exces-
sively high , othenvi.se water droplets
will break off from the fi Im and be car-
cied off ·by stenm. Th o highest allowa-
ble velocity depends on the pressure
and steam content of the flow (Fig.
15. 7).
At present, turbines of nuclear po-
·wer stations operate mostl y on satura-
ted steam. T herefore, to attain high-
er efficiency, the moisture content of
steam musl be as low as possi blo,
which is achieved by careful primary
separation with a slight superheat be-
fore tho low-pressure cylinder of the
tu rbine. The process dingram of sepa-
raliO il is dete rmined by the type of
t:eactor.
I n channe l type graphi le-wator rea-
ctors, saturalod steam is separated in
hori1.onta l dl' l l lllS outsid e tho 1·eactor.
187
m/s
20
Ul
'
ffj
12
\
\
4
t'-..
1'--
p
0 2 4 5 8 10MPo
Fig. 15.7, E ffect of pressure on the s team
,·eloci ty at which wate r d rople ts ca n be
broken off from the li quid film surface
1\ powerfu l reactor mn y have a ntun-
ber of separating drums con nected in
parallel. For instance, the reactor unit
type RBMK-'1000 (t 000 MW) has
four separating drums. The drums are
mnde of carbon steel Grade 22K
(0.22 C boi ler}, with the entire inter-
na 1 surface being plated by stainless
s teel. The drum is 31 m long and has a
di ameter of 2.3 m. The connection di ·
agram for the separating drums of
an RBMK-1000 reactor is illustrated
in Fig. 24.13. Tho number a nd dimen-
s ions of separating drums are not re-
lated to tho dimensions of the reactor
and are chosen so as to attain tho high-
est degree of steam drying. Separa-
ting dmms of the desig n described can
produce steam with a water co ntent of
not moro than 0.1 %.
In water-moder ated water-cooled
tank-type reactors, st eam separation
is carried out in the reactor housing
(see Fig. 24. 12} . Preci pi tating separa-
tion in a small volume is insuf£icien-
tl y effective. The steam-water mixture
fonll ed in the fu el assemblies of
the reactor core is fed inlo a colle-
cting box and then through parallel
vettica I tubes into axial cyclo nos.
Upon separation, water is retur ned
int o the water space, while steam rises
through tho central portion of the cy-
c louos into n steam drier and thon is
 188
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Ch. 15. Water Conditions 15.4. Methods for Generatin g Clean Steam 189

324 mm tiin main steam flow into a preliminary Fig. 15.9. Saturated Steam outLet

r ~, drier and then into the main drim:.

A steam dri er usually bas a set of
vertically-arranged corrugated stain-
1 and
steam drier
J - cons tant·vclaclty
chnnncls; 2 and 6-perfora -
ted llln t.cs; .Y-Iloritontal c hu - 1
~

7
te: 4- dralnagc pipes; 7- cor- ..... r- v 7 A-A
less-steel plates (Fig. 15.9). Each r ugnted ,,tates; 8-moisturc-
lrtiJll'ing pocket :,...-
• .
bend of plates has a welded-on corner
l_ ~

-.
--
•
plate which forms n vertica l pocket for ~

A .
-
A
tra pping and removing moisture .
S team washi ng . Re-writing equa- 2 - . ·- (j
-• .

tion (14.4) in the form: C. =

= C,Aw + kd), it may be soon that steam
quality can be improved by either im-
-- 5 . - ~
~

I
proving the quality of feed water J 7 8
, _,___ 2 (which involves extra expenditures on
,... water treatment), or decreas ing the- 4 --- Steam intet
water content of steam (achieved by
f 8 enLarged
separation of mois ture from steam
flow), or by decreasing the distribu- 7
tion coeffici ent. The distribution coe-
fficient is I. he constant of eq u ilibri-
um betweou boiling water a nd satu-
rated steam and depends on pressure
and on the physico-chemical properti-
t es of s ubstances dissolved in water.
For a particular dissolved s ubstance. an equilibrium will be established ac- As the new equilibrium is est ab-
Fig. t5.8. Primary centrifugal separator of given pressure and given conce ntra~ cording to the dissolving power of lished, the dissolved impurity in
ax ial type tion of the impurity, the distribution tho steam with respect to a given sub- steam will partly pass over into water,
J - wbirlcr; B- CJc:ione; 3- c hanncl tor primal)'
removal or separated mol.•turc· 4- ltow-straightc- coefficient. is constant. I n t urn, kd = stance, which depends only on the since C , 2 /C1w > lc 2 , and therefore, its
nlng vanes; 4-ch!'nnrl lot the' secondary removal
or separated motsture: 6-scparatiJlg vanes In
= C~"/C':,:•, and therefore, cleaner process parameters. The equilibri- concentration in the steam will de-
the path or secondary moisture; 7- prcdrier s team can be produced at kd = constant um state is characterized by tho di- crease and that in tho wash water, in-
by decreasing the concentration of im- stribution coefficient k 1 = C 01 /Cbw· crease. With a good, sufficiently long
purities in water, which again invol- As steam passes further through a la- contact between the two phases,
delivered through sloam pipelines to ves extra expenditures on water treat- yer of feed water w ith a low salt con- C s•iCfw > lc2.
Lho turbine. · ment. centration C1w. a now equ ilibrium s tate Si nce both processes (steam geucru-
A feasi b lo version of a primary cen- Noti ng, however, LhaL tho purity of is established and tho steam will tion and washi ng) occur at the same
trifugal separator for tank- type rea- delivered s team is determined not by have another salt concentration cor- pressure, k 1 = k 2 • Furthermore, sin-
ctors is shown in F ig. f 5.8. Under the the wat~r from which it is generated, responding to the distribution coeffi- ce Cbw is m uch greater than C Jw•
~ction ~f centrifugal forces developed hut mamly by the water with which cient k 2 ..:... C. 2 1Ctw· it t ur ns out that C, 2 is much lowe r
t n a wlurler, the steam-water mixture it contacts on eutry into the s team space than C 11 • A strong washing effect can
is separated i nto the p eripheral water of the drum, it is possib le, with feed be achieved by passing s team in [i ne
layer which moves along the inter- water of a given quality, to s ubstanti- jets through a water bed, for i nstance,
nal cylindrical wall of the cyclone, and ally reduce the concentration of im- Crw
through a perforated plate. Upou wa-
the steam flow which moves through purities in s team by washing, i.e. =----- -~- - -
--- ~---- ~- - 1- -
--
.
the cyclone core. The main mass by passing it at the las t stage o( the -- - - - - - -- - shing, saturated steam is subjectt:d to
secondary separation to reduce its
of water is removed from the cyclone process through a layer of pure water , moisture content roughly tu its pre-
via tho primary drainage channel which say, condensate or pure feed water. washing level. The sim plest steam-wa-
is provid ed with straightening va- This is accomplis hed in bubble-cap shing device is a perforated plate onto
nes to stop rotation o( tho water flow. steam washers. which wash water is poured '{Fig.
The remaining water is removed Steam was hing by bubbling consists
----- ""·
- - - - - ,-- --
- r-- - - - - · -- 15.11). For efficient operation, wa-
through a secondary drainage channel essentially in the following (Fig. ---- -- -- - ter sJ10uld not bo allowed to p as, tlno-
in which vanes are mounted to separate 15.10). Suppose that dry s team of a ugh the perforations, especially at
the steam which enters this channel salt concentration C is gen erated low loads. This is attained by main-
together with water. The separated fro~ boiler water wit.h31 a high concon- Fig. 15.10. Principnl.diagram of steam wash- taining u definite s t oum velocity (see
steam is directed together with tho tratlOn of salts C~w · In this process, Sec. 13.2).
'"tt
 190
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Ch. 15. Water Conditions
--
--
....__
--
_- -
lii)-
- :- --
- --
- - - - --
- -
- - lJL!. -- -- -- - - ·_K -- --
- -
- s team-generating capac ity o[ the firs t
Fig. 15.11. S team washer
S team washing is carried ou t in tho
s~cn m of a boiler drum (sec Fig. 15 .4).
'I he edges of tho perforated plate are
be n t. up to retain the r equired la yer o[
wal~r. The dimens ions of t he washing
d e v1ce are s uch that the internal dw-
me t er of the dru m mus t not be less
t ha n 1 600-1800 mm. Feed water is
used for s t eam was hing. The flow rate
of wash water is determined by the
s t eam-ge nera ting capaci ty. Tn mo-
d ern s l eam boil ers, all feed wa t er is
fed into a dis t.ri])ut.ing box and Lhe ex-
cess of water flows throuo-h a s lit in
th e box direct ly into the ~~·aler s pace
of ~h e hoi !er drum, i.e . it do cs not. par-
tiCi pa te 111 s tea m wash ing.
S tepped evaporation. The ba lance
of s nits for the simp lest ve rs ion of the
wa ter conditions of a drum-ty pe boi-
l er with blow-down (Fig . 15 .1 2) is
as follows :
+
nc. n bdcbd = (D n bd>c,ID+
Div iding both parts of equation 0.5-3% of chemically purified water is
(1 5.5) by D and deno t ing DbdlD =
= p , we obtain:
C.+ pCbd = (1 + p) C1w
wh erefrom
_ (1 + p) Cjw - Cs
Cbd-
p total quantity of steam are generated
Neglecting the sail content of s loam circu its not interconnected b y t he wa-
(C . :=:-:: 0) and assuming, for ins tan- ter path. Tho water s paces in th e two
D Cs
/ ....,
• - - - - ---
D•Du }-_- - - ,_-
- --
c,,., I
' can flow throu gh the partition l1o le
FiR. 15.12. Simplilicd diag ram of orga niza-
ti on of water conditions in a boiler drum
c fw• cbw • cbrl' c.- couccn tra llons or substnnces
rcsprctlwly in reed waler . bofl r r walcr. blow-
down water, an d strnrn
'
~------L-------~~~
' will he r es pectively as fo !lows:
Fig. 15. 13. Diagram of two-stage C\' <1 para-
li on
D_~signntlons the Stune a~ In 1;-ig. t 5. 12; adUi Uona J-
1). ni nnd "n-steam-gc·ncrating capncitics or the
first an d second C\'aporatlon stages, percent o r th,.
stc am-gerwratlng capac ity or tlrn pl ant
ce, t hat t he blow-down ralio p = 1%.
we h a ve:
(1+0J11) Cj w
Cb•l = cb!D = -- 101c fw
V.tl l
(1 5.8)
_ As fo llo ws from th is equ a~ ion, stea m
ts ge ner a t ed u nder t he o-i ven cond i-
tions from boiler wa ter ~-it.h th e s a lt
conte nt. _exceedin g t ha t o f feed wa t er
b y ~ 0'1 Lt mes. T he q uality of steam can
be tmproved by more i nte ns ive blo-
~ving:d.own, IJu l this is economi cally
tnefftct ent. Fo r co n t inuous blowin"-
down, the blow-down ratio is tak;n
within 0.5-1.0% if the water Joss is
r e plenished by dis tillate from evapo-
(15.5) ra tors or by d emineralized water, and
added.
A more effi cient method is that of
stepped evaporation proposed by
(15.6)
E. f. Romm. The boiler drum is divi-
ded b y a pa r t i t ion into t wo compar t-
ments (Fig. 15:13). Each of them is
(15. 7) Coilllecl od to a group of c ircul a tio n
compa rtments communicate only
t!u:ough a small hole provided i n the pa r-
lttwn. F eed wa t er is fed into t he firs t
(larger~ compa rtment and blowing-
OJ
down IS effected thro ug h t he second
(smaller) compartment. Boiler wa t er
from the firs t int o t he s econd compar-
t ment, but the wal or l evel in t he lntter
a.lways remains below that in the for-
mer. Steam is removed from t he d ru m
only t h rough the fi rs t compa r tment.
15.4. .Me thods for Generating Clea n Steam
Thus , the device shown in Fig.
15 .13 has two e vap ora tion 13t ages. As-
s uming, for inst ance, t he relative
s t age n 1 = 80 % and tha t of tho se-
cond s t age, n 1 t = 20% , t he concen-
trations of im purities in boiler water
in the 1s t evapor atio n stage:
1 (rtt + (nll -1- fl)J Cjw
Cbto =- _;__::_.:....;._:_:__:_..:...:_:_:..=__
nu -1-P -·
(80 -1-20 + 1) Ctw = SC
4
20 + 1 • · fw
(15. 9)
and in the 2 nd s tage:
ll (1111 +P) C~ 111
ebto= p pacity o f l be sa It com pn rt me nt, which
(20 - 1- 1) 4.8Ctw
= 10 1C/w
1
(15.10)
As ma y b e seen, i 11 two-stage ev a-
pora tion, c~to is much lower tha n
Cl~, and for this re aso n the firs t com-
partment, where th o s alt content of
water is not hig h , is called the pure
compartment and th e second, whore
water has a h igh salt conlont , is cal-
l ed the salt compartment. The ratio
C,J~Iq 10 is ca lled the concentrat ion ra-
tio. I n the above example, 8 0% of the
total quantity of s te am are generated
from wa ter h a ving a low salt concen-
tration, and therefore, the mai n m ass
of steam _produced has a hig her qua li-
t y than i n th o scheme with one eva-
poration stage, and o nly 20% of tho
from water o f t he same quality as in
the s ing le-st age method. Therefore ,
the qua lity or s team in two-stage eva-
pora tion is su bstan t ially be tler than
in s ing le-st age ev a porat ion.
The overflow of wa ter from the pu-
re to th o saiL compa rtment is essentia l-
ly intern a l bl owing-down of the for-
mer. J 11 contras t. to external blowing-
down, interna l b lo wing-down invol-
ves no l osses of heal, no r of t he wor-
king f luid , so t h a t tho blow-down ratio
can b e chose n sol el y from considera-
ti ons on how lo obtai n t he best q uali ty
i9i
11r 111T
-~
I
Cs(Cr,.-
too;;.
nFf1 0
Fig . 15.14. Determination of the optimal
capacity of salt compartment
Blow-dowu ratio: p , < p, < p,
of s team. In turn, the bl.ow-down ratio
d e t ermines the s team-geuerating ca-
ca n be ob tained from the a ppropri a t e
calc ula ti o n. Assuming ,·arious values
of t he steam-genoraling capa ci ty
o f the salt compa rlm en l , n 11 , one
~
c a n d ete rm ine the qu n lily of s atura-
ted s team pr odu ced at a sel ected va lue
of p of extern a l blowing-down. It is
cl our tha t at n 11 = 0 a nd nn = 100% )
there will be no s tepped eva po ratio n
I
and the quality of stea m in t hose ex-
treme cases will be the same a nd cor-
r espond to the highest contamination _
I n the w hol e r egio n of s l epped ev apo-
ration 0 < nn < 100 % , the quality
of s team will be higher (it will have a,
lower content of impurities) than in a
s imple s ingle-stag e sch eme (Fig.15.'14).
One can calcul ate the optima l steam-
genera ti ng capacity nu a t which
steam will have the lowes t concentra-
tion of impurities. Each particular
val ue o f p in extern a l blowing-do w n
h as a co rres pond ing optimal val ue nu.
With internal stepped evaporatio n
in boiler drums, the difference in the·
water levels in the compa rtmen ts is
not large in vi ew of the limited height
of the wa ter a nd steam space · of the
dmm. T h is roa y cause a revers e ov er-
fl ow of wn l er. If this d ifferonce is in-
CJ'onsed by ra is ing the water level in
the p u re compa r t me nt, tho heig h t of t ho
s t ea m s pace will diminish, a nd there-
fo re, th o carry-off of wa ter droplets
will i ncrease. A d ecrease in t he water
1.92
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Ch . 16. Pro cesses on Fireside of Heating Surfaces 16.1. JII ccha ntsm of Scaling 193

f 4
10
--
---
3 The effectiveness of s t opped cvnporn-
Clean compartment
5 ratio n stage can be arra ngcd ei thor
Fig. 15.15. Two-sLnge evaporation circuit
with an external cyclone
I-drllm; 2- c vaporatlng tubes or pure COmpart-
ment; J- feed wat er In; 4-snlt compartment
(external t.)•Cionc); .s- downlnke tube; 6- evuporaL-
tng tu!Jcs of sn it compnrl.mcnt; 7- blow-ctown:
8- rcect line or snlt compartment; !1-cross-ovcr
s team tube; I O- stcam-drcu la Ling tube
level in the salt compartment may di-
sturb tho circu lalion.
With tho 11sc of extemal steam-
separn ti ng cyclo nos, th e d ifference in
f 2
11
\
I
.... the water levels in the compartments
9 ~ will be high enough to avoid a rever-
~.. se overflow of water. For this reason,
......"'~
~
schemes with external cyclones are
preferred, especially at a low capacity
~
of the salt compartme nt.
8 .. ---- tion increases, though not in proporti-
--- on , with the number of stages. Two-
7
an d three-stage sche mes ha ve fou nd
6 wider application. The scconrl evapo-
inside the boiler drum as in Fig. 15.13,
or outside, i.e. in externa l cyclones
{Fig. 15.15). In a three-stage schem e,
the first and second stages are usually
arranged in tho boiler dl'Um and th o
third in an external cyclone {Fig.
15.1.6) -
I n external cyclones , the steam a nd
water space may be of any height.
This ensu res thoroug h drying of the
steam (due to a high st.cu rn s pace)
and reliable operatiou of th o circ ulo-
tion circuits (due to a high water s pa-
J ce}, and prevents water curry-o vm·
from the salt to the pure com purtmcnt.
Stepped evaporation makes it pos-
sible to improve the purity of steam
ticles of ash are carried orr [rom the
furn ace by combustion products. The
behaviour o[ . ash particles in th e fur-
nace and flue duels of boi \er depends
on their composition and phys ica l
properti es (mel ting point , viscosity,
thermal cond uctivity, et c.).
The composition of ash includes a
s mall quantity of low-fusible compo-
unds, mainly chlorides and sulphates
of alkali metals INaCI , Na 2S0 4 , CaCI 2 ,
MgCI 2 , Al 2 (S0 4 ) 3 l with a ·melting
point of about 700-850°C. They arc
vaporized in t.ho high-l,emperaturo zone
of the flame core and then condcuse
on lhe s urface of the tubes, s ince
th o temperature of walls of clean l,ubes
is always less than 700°C.
M'edium-fusible components of ash,
wilh a melting point of 900-1 100°C
(PeS, Na~Si0 3 , K 2S0 4 , etc.) , ca n fot·m
the primary sticky layer on water-
wall and plate n tubes if the high-tem-
perature zone is too close to the tubes
owing to im proper organization of
combustion (the flame touches the tu-
bes).
High-melting compounds of ash arc,
as a rule, pure oxides (Si0 2 , Al 2 0 3 ,
whi ch fall on it; these form an exter-
nal loose layer of deposits. Thus, depo-
s il s on the tube surface in this regi-
on of gas temperatures most often ha-
\'0 two layers: a dense internal layer
and a loose, or friable external layer .
Ash rwrticlcs can quickly form grow-
ing doposi ts on furna ce tubes in the
zones wh ere high- temperature gases
co ntac t wat.or walls. Firs t, ash a nd
s lag particles in a semi-liquid or sof-
tened s t a te are thrown onto tho sur-
face of tho tubes; upon cooling, they
adhere firm ly to the surface. The pro-
cess is ca lled sla.gging. Slag aggregati-
ons may be qui t.e large in size and have
a mass of up t.o a few tons. The pre-
sence of relatively easily fus ible par-
ticles in the combustion zo ne is deter-
mined by tho format ion of eutectics
between moLa l ox.ides MeO (such as
CnO, lVlgO, PeO or Fe 2 0 3 ) a nd s ilica
S iO. or nl nmina minerals based on
A l 2 0 3 • Tho ash o[ most solid fuels
contains 5 to ''lO% of metal oxides
MeO. A higher concentration of MeO
lowers the soften ing temperature of
ash and creates the risk of slagging.
However , if ash contains more than

...____:::...._::...._

fst
___ ____, ..____,
2nd
at a given quality of feed water and
given blow-down ratio. Furthermore,
steam that is adequately pure can be
CaO, MgO, Fe 2 0 3 , etc.). Their molting
point (1 600-2 800°C} exceeds the high-
est temperature -in tho flame core, so
+
·ao% of Al 2 0 3 Si0 2 , its melting
point rises substantially; it becomes
high-molting.
evaporation evaporation obtained from water of a lower qua- that they pass through the combustion With an unfavourable mineral com-
stage singe 7 lity, which makes the water- treat- pos ition of fuel (if the content of cal-
8 6 zone without being cha nged, i.e. they
ment system simpler and less expen- remain solid . Si nco their particles cium oxide CaO is mor e t han 40%),
Fig. 15.16. Threc-sLnge eva poration circuit sive. Additionally, stepped evapora- are small. these components are main- s intoring (sulphation) may start in a
with an external" third stage tion can increase the efficiency of a ly carri e~\ off by the gas flow and con- dopos i tod friable layer formed on the
1- drum; :. J, and 5- Is t, 2nd and 3rd evaporation
stoges· 4- rced water In; 6- thlrd-stagc downtake steam-turbine plant, since the blow- stitute what is called fly ash. heating surfaces if S0 2 is present in
t\lbc; '7- tbl rd-stagc evaporating lubes; a-blow- down ratio can be reduced without a In the zone where the temperature the flu e gases. The process results in the
down; 9 and 10-cross-ovcr lube.~ ror water and
steam; II-stcam~lrculallng tube significant loss in steam quality. of gases is stiU high (above 700- growth of dense, firmly bonded slag
8000C}, low-fusible compounds are deposits on the tube surface (Fig.
first condensed from the gus flow on 16.1). Slaggiog may occur on the tu-
the surface of clean tubes and form the bes of water walls, platens, and secti-
primary sticky layer on them. At tho ons of the convective superheater in
same time, solid (high-melting) ash the region 'of gas temperature up to
particles adhere to this layer. They 600-700°C. Caked deposits may over-
solidify and form the primary de nse lap intertubular spacings of a width
PROCESSES ON THE FIRESIDE OF HEATING SURFACES layer of slag which is firmly bonded to of up to 400 mm. Horizontal and slight-
tho tube surface. Tho temperature on ly inclined tnbes are slagged more
16.1. Mechanis m or Scaling are transformed in the hig lt-t ern pera- t he outside surface of the layer i nero- intf:)ns ivoly than a re vertical tubes.
ture zone: part of them are mol t.od uses and further condensation from In zones of relatively low gas flow
Va1·ious m ineral impurities which and combined into larger parti cles gases is thus stopped. Tho rough out- temperatures (less than 600-700°C)
p ass into boiler furna ces together which fall onto the furnace bottom as side surface of that layer retains [i uo which aro typical of heating surfaces
with the organic mass o[ solid fuels slag, while the main mass of fin e par- so lid particles of high-molting ash in the convective shaft, friable depo-
I :1- 0 I ~24
 194
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Ch. 16. Process es on Fireside of Heating Sur/a ces 16.1. Mechanism of S caling
•

19;)

fOTmZJ(jJ 10 '"e Hj) c,

I
ur - 18m/.~ tv • 5mjs
4.0
c
,, 14.0

iJ.O
2.0
I 7'
/- 7
-2
10.5
ZU
J.[j
"'
~ J(
" '::::- "' ~
.......... 4
f.O ·.;;: ~
....... w
f/ f'
u
0 2468h 4 6 8 10 tZ 14 16 mjs
t t (a)

Fig. 16.3. Fouling coefficient for tubes depending on Lhe concentration and particle size of
(h)

asb in gas Oow· (Lubes: d = 38 mm, s1/d = s 1 /d = 2)

(o) depending on the lime or operation: (b) dependln~ on flow vcloclt)·: J-asb concentration 21 1:/m': 2 -
i glm' : J-flnc ash (mes h r~.slduc n,. = 24.5~.>: 4-coarst' ash (mesh residue n.. = 52, 5 %)

(Fig . 16.3a). On the other hand, t he th e load of a boiler can drop in opera-
Fig. 1G.i. Ca ked deposits on the surface o[ size composition of ash has a strong tion by as much as 50% of the t·ated
a tube
effect on the formation of deposits. capacity, the nomina l gas velocity at

sits are more likely to form. Th ere is

no dense underlayer on tlto surface of
tubes, since the condensation of a lka-
li metal vapours h as already been fi -
nished before that region.
Loose deposits chi efly fo•·m on tho
back side of lubes rela l.ive to the direc-
tion of gas l'low, i.e. in the turbulent
zone that form s behind the tube (Fig.
1.6.2) . On tho front side of t he tubes,
loose deposits can only form at low
velocities of the flow (less than 5-
6 m/s) or when the flow carries very
fin e fly ash .
In analysing the form ation of (ria-
hi e deposits, ash particles are divid ed
into three groups according to their
i'
i size [17]. Th o fit·st group includes the
fin est fractions (called inertialess
particles) which are so sma ll that they
' move along the flow lines of gases.
Therefore, tho probability of tbeir
settling onto the Lube surface is low.
This group includ es particles of a
size of up to 10 ~m.
Coarse fra ctions, more than 30 ~m
in s ize, are placed in the second group.
Those pat·ticles possess a sufficiently
high kinetic energy to destroy loose
deposits on contact.
The third group includes ash fra c-
tions of a s ize between 10 IJ.m and
II 30 run. When gases flow around tubes,
these particles seLtle ch iefly on tube
Fig. 16.2. Formation of loose deposits on
tubes al various directions and velocities of
gas motion
In the final resu It, the thickness of
Loose deposits is determined by the
dynamic equili brium bet,Yeen Lhe pro-
cesses of continuous settling of medi-
um fractions and those of destruc tion
of the settled layer by coarser partic-
les.
Loose deposits o n tube s urface im-
pair heaL transfer, which is estimated
by the fouli n g coefficient:
(16.1}
where 6, 1 and 'A., 1 are the average
thickness and conductivity of the slag
layer over the lube perimeter.
The foul ing coefficient E , (m~ KH)/W
characterizes th e thermal t·esisLance
of slag layers. The fouling of Lubes
with fly ash rleposits depends only
slightly on the concentration of ash
in the gas flow. A d if[erence in the
rate of deposition m oy be obser ved only
a few hours after s Larting-u p uu til a
Finer frac tions of ash cause more in-
tensive fouling of tubes with a thick-
the rated load should be not less than
5-6 m/s .
I
er layer of deposits being form ed In boiler:; fired on high-s ulphur fue l
(Fig. 16.3b). oil, both sticky deposits a ud dense glas-
The degree of tube foul ing depends sy deposits can form on the heating
substttntially on the gas flow velocity. s urfaces in the zones where the gas
The amount o[ medium-size particles temperature is be low 600°C. Sti cky
th at settle on tubes increases rougbly deposits on the heating s urfaces of co n-
in proportion to flow velocity. The vecLi ve s uperheaters and economizers·
destructive effect of coarse particles, primaril y contain vanad ium compo-
on the other hand, increases in pro- unds (mainly V 20 5 ) and sulphates.
portion to tho third power of velocity, Dense deposits consist mainly of iron
the t.otal result being that the thick- s ulphates and calcium and sodium
ness of the deposits on tho tubes de- oxides. Deposits that form during fu-
creases with an i ncrease in gas v eloci- el oil burning have a tendency to grow
ty. As demonstrated by experiments up quickly, which may greatly impa-
(Fig. 16.2), the intensity of tube fou- ir heat transfer, increase resistance of
ling in a cross flow does not depend the gas path, and shorten the cam-
on tho di rection of flow. Under com- paign of the steam boiler pla nt.
parable · conditions, vertical tube
coils are less s ubject to fouling. 1 2
The degree of tube fouling heavily
depends on tho type of tube bund les
10 m HjJ
9
c
\
(staggered or in-line) and the longitu- 8
dinal pitch s 2 of tubes in staggered 7 ~2jd=JO :¥....,
' J. . i . ~.. . •
bundles. Under com parable conditi- 6
ons (the same gas velocity and tube ~ (/'~ l~d. .
diameter), the fouli ng coefficient for
5
4
l->.K ~d'<rk,..~ ~~-?...,
staggered bundles turns out to be 1.7- ~.?""'-., !--... r--.:: t'!.' oq~'- I '
3.5 times Lhat for in-line bundles
(Fig. 16.4).
Tube fouling increases significant-
3
z
I
' r..,."'- t-..
.......
r-.....
["-... t-.. ........ 1::-
......
........ !-...... - I",
1'-
IV
ly i[ the gas velocity is less than 3- -
4 m/s. For this reason, the operation
o[ healing surfaces of boilers at s uch
0 5 6

Fig. 16.4. Comparison of fouling coeffi-

7 8 9 10 11 12 IJ 1~ m/S'

II. s urfaces and form a layer of depos its . dynam ic equili bri um is eslnblis hec:L low velocities is unadvisable. Since
I J*
cients for various tube bundles

l.
 1 !J(J Cit. 16. Processes
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011
Since fu e l-oil ash deposits contaiu a
noticeable quantity of vanadium a nd
sulphur, they arc esse ntially acid. The
addition of certa in substances wit.h al-
kaline properties to fu e l oil makes ash
depos its more friable. The same e£fecl
is obtained by a particular co mbusti-
on process, for instance, al an excess
air ratio c lose to unity 117].
Some methods of cleaning heating
surfaces from deposits are based on
•
the dynamic effect of jots of steam,
water or air. The effectiveness of such
jets is determined by their runge, i.e.
by the distance at which a jet still
has a s ufficient dynamic head to d e-
struct deposits . Water jots have the
greatest •·ange and the highest ther-
mal effect on dense deposits. Devices
based on this effect are used for clea-
ning furnace walOL' walls. Water blow-
ing should , h owever, be calculated
carefully so 11 S to avoid s harp cooli ng
of the tub e m etn l upon remova l of
tho depos its.
!11 ulti-jet retractable blowers have
found wide app lication for cleaning
radiation heating surfaces and convec-
tive superheaters. They operate on
saturated or superheated steam sup-
plied at a pressure of around 4 MPa.
Platens and in-line tube banks are
cleaned by vibration cleaning: high-
frequency vibrations transferred to
heating tubes disturb t he bond between
the tube molal and deposits. Vibration
jl ' cleaning is carried out by means of vi-
r'
' brators aLLached to water-cooled rods .
! Tho mos t efficient method for clea-
ning convective heating surfaces in
the down take sbuft of boiler furnaces is
shot-blasting, which utilizes the kine-
tic energy of flying 3-5 rnm cast-iron
s hots. Shot is carded upwards in the
air flow and dis tributed over the whole
I: I
cross section of the shaft. The use
of shot is detonnined from th e opti-
mal intensity of sh ot-blasting, usual-
ly 150-200 kg/m 2 of a convective shaft
cross section. The shot-bl asting pro-
I
cedure usually takes up 20-60 s.
I Shnt-blnsti ng is effective if it is
~I
' regulal'ly carri ed out soon after boiler
! F .g. 16.6. Abrasion wear of a tuhc in cross
start-up when the heating surfaces
I
I
Ftrestde of Heating Surfaces
are still re lalivcly clean. Heco utly,
the heat-wave cleaning method has fo-
und use. Jt is based on th e applicn-
t i on of acoustic lo\1·- frequency \1'1\\'es
generated in a s pecial explosive-com-
bustion i mpulse chnmber.
R egenerath·e air heaters arranged
outside th e boiler are cleaned by blo\\·-
ing their packing with superheated
steam (at a temperature '170-200 dcgC
above the satmation point). Loss fre-
quently, water washing (water r emo-
ves sticky deposits, but increases co t·-
rosion) or shock- wave cleaning and
thermal cleaning arc employed. Ther-
mal cleaning is based on pol'ioclically
raising tho t.ernporaturo of tho regene-
rator packing up to 250-300°C by
interrupting the air s upply to the ap-
paratus. In this way, s ti cky depos its
are dri ed up and s ulphul'i c ncid is va-
porized.
16.2. Abras ion Wear
of Convect ive Heating Surfaces
The steam boiler designer shou ld
pay serious attention to measu res pro·
venting abrasion wear of the tubes of
heating surfaces by particles of as h
and unburned fu el. An improper selec-
tion of gas velocities in tho flue d ucL
of the convective shaft can lead to
intensive wear of Lubo metal in cer-
tain places, thinning of tho walls, and
even break-through of tho tubes.
The mechanism of abrasion wear is
essentially as fo ll ows. Coarse parti-
cles of ash, which may be quile hard
and have sharp edges, impinge on the
walls of a tube and continuously cut
off microscopic layers of m etal. Thus,
in critical places the wall is gradually
thinned. Particles of unburned fu el
(in particula r , of hard er grades, such
as anthracite or sernianthrucite) can
also cause ab ras ion wear of the surfa-
ces.
Thus, wear of tho boi lor tubes is
determined first of a ll by tho abrasi-
veness of ash particles, which, in turn,
depends on the content of SiO. in
ash and increases noticeably \\;hen
Si0 2 >60% . Wear intens ity a lso de-
16.2. !I brasio11 Wear of Convective H eating Su rfu as
1-----=:::;!_2
J
I
4
f
(a) (6)
fig. 16 .5. Distribution of coarse fractions
of fly ash behind a turning chamber and
zones o[ dangerous abras ion wear of metal
of the heating surfaces
(o) coils pa1all~l to theboiler lronl; (b) coils per·
p~ndicu l ar to the boilerlront; 1- coils; t - turnlng
chamber· s- distribution of coarse nsh rrncllons~
·<~ -zone o r abrasion wear of tul:P~
p ends on the total ash co ntent of cl,
A w.
The intensity of nbrasion \\'Oar o f
h eatina su rfaces may he uno,·cn over
t:> •
the cross section of n g11s duct in which
the heating surface is loc.atod or Mo-
und the tuho perimeter. lt i ncrcases
significantly in places where th e gas
flow turns through 90°, sny, on enlry
into the conveclive shaft (Fig. 1.6.5).
Coarser ash particles aro thrown against
the rear wall of lhe s haft, which
l eads to greater wear of the tubes ar-
ranged on that wall. l n the cross flow
or staggered tube huntlles, the grea-
test abrasion wear occurs on tho front
portions of tubes alan anglo of inci-
dence of gas flow of 30-50° (Fig. 16.6).
I n in-line tube bundles, the iu lcnsily
Comoustion
protfucfs
'T 150" Jl
·~ 90m210·
180"
0 go 180 210 J5o•
flow
197
..
~
~ ~
..~
... 1\.""-.:: .
\
2
""~-~""' ~
"".....~ I\1
.~
~
Fig. IG.i. Abrasion wear of a tu be . in
ru lon g i lud inal fl ow in an air heater
J - tub••; 2 - up~rr lube plate
of wear is s nl>s tantially lower, si nce
s omo tubes are in an ae rodynam ic s ha-
do\\' lwhind lhose in front of them.
With Lhe longitudinal flow of gases in
tub es (as in air heaters), abrasion wear
occu rs in the inlet portion of a I nbc nL
a le ngt h of 150-200 mm due to impin-
gement of coarse particle on th e wall
just after constrictio n of the gas jet
(Fig. 16.7). Farther in the tube, the
flow is stabilized and coar se particles
move p arallel to the tube walls.
Convective tube hanks should have
no longitudinal gas channels in which
gas velocity might increase substanti-
ally. Wear on the outer bends of a
tube is especially dangerous, since the
tub e wall in such places is thinner.
The intensity of wear is determined
by tho following factors:
(1) the kinetic. energy of ash or fuel
particles, which is proportional to
the square of gas velocity wJ;
(2) lhe number of particles (concc u-
tration f.t 081 ,) passing along the su r-
face per unit time, which depends on
t h e ash content oi fuel and is an in-
crensi ng function of w11 ;
·(3) non- uniformity of ash cont.:enlra-
t ions ill tho gas flow' "'""' and or gas
ve lociti es in the cross scctiou. /,·w;
(It) l he density of tubes in n bn nd le,
i .e. th e rc lath·o tnhc pitch s 1 "rl.
 19:>
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Ch. 16. Proceucs on Fireside of Heating Surfaces
In the [inal resu lt, the intens ity of
wear, mm/year , d e pe nds on the t.hird
power of gas vel ocity:
I we = am.k ~tf.l.ash ( I•ww,) 3 ( sl$1
-d ) t.s 't
(16.2)
where Ct is the coeffic ie nt of ash a bra-
s ivencss, mm s3 /(g h) , m is the index
of wear resistance of tubes, which d e-
pends on the steel composition, and 't
is th o time of operation of a surface, h.
• For Llto normal operation of u tube
for a t least tO years (-r = fiO 000-
100 000 h), the a llowabl e wear of its
>val l is I we = 0 .2 mm /year.
For staggered carbon-steel tube bun-
-dles wi t h s1 /d = 2.5.~ the a llowable gas
velo citi es determined by the normal
wea r by the ash of va l'ious fu els tHe
as fo llows:
Fue!l • . . . . . . . . . . . .w g'
lll /S
Eki bastuz coal . 7.0
Moscow distri ct coal 9.0
Chelyabinsk coal 10.0
Ki zc l coal . . . .
10.5
I
Anth racite grade ASh
Donetsk coal grade T
..' 11.5
• 12.0
i direct,l y s wept by flame. Under unfa-
I To sel ec t the proper gas velocity
l and spacing olements of tubes whose
in the gas duct of a s team bo iler, the
most economi cally favourable gas ve-
loi cty Wee (see Sec. 20.6) s hould be
compared with the a llowable velocity
W wc determined by lhe conditions of
wear. lf i t turns out that lOwe >
> w 00 , the la tter can be used in cal -
cu lations. Otherwise , t he velocity of
gases s hould be limited by the condi-
tions o[ wear, which necessitates a u
increase in t.h e dime nsions of heali ug
surfaces and fl uo duc ts.
In a ny case, th e ris k of abrasion
wea r s hou ld be minimized by Laking
proper measures to prevent wear of Lu-
b es. These include placing steel cu[[s
o n the tube in th e p laces where inc rea-
sed wenr is most probable, such as tu-
be bends a nd mounting cut-in inserts
in the in let portions of air heater lu -
bes, etc. These devices are detachable
and Cfl n be easily replaced when the
bo i ler is shut. do1m for repairs nncl in-
·s pccLio n of hea ling s ul'faces.
16.3. Corrosion of H eating S urfaces
· t ed evenly between the burners so
Hig h -temperature corrosion. Tho
term 'high-temperature corros ion' im-
plies corrosion damage of the metal of
tubes which are in contact with hig h-
tempo•·ature combus tion products
(f1·g > 700°C). It includes two kinds
of corrosion which occur in various
zones of the boiler and ar e of different
chemical nature. One of them is tho
corrosion of wat~=:r walls in the hoi lor
furna ce in tho zone of the flam e Col'O,
which is fos tered by Lite contact of tu-
be meta l with s ulphuro us gases. Ano-
ther kind is the corros ion of superhea-
ter tubes and their f astening el emen ts
in the presence of va na dium oxi des
in the gas flow.
Corrosion on the fireside of water u•alls
occurs in boilers fired by pulverized
coals with a l ow y ie ld of volatil es
(anthracites , semianthracites, l ean co-
als) a nd h ig h-sulphur fue l oil. T his
kind of corrosion d evelops intens ive-
ly on Lubes at the level of furnace bur-
ners or s lig h t ly above it in the zones
vourable conditions, the rate of cor-
rosion wear on the front portions of
tubes may be ~:~s high as 3-4 mm /year,
i. e . water wall tubes in this zone get
out of o L·d er in less than one y ea r
(with the wall thic kness 5-6 mm).
As established experimentally, the
main corrosi on-active component in
furnace gases is hydrogen sulphide
H 2 S . Even with a s light volu me con-
centrati on of H 2 S at a ·s ud ace (0.04-
0.07%), the r ate of metal corrosion
increases roughly tenfold. At tempera-
tures of 1 400-1 600°C, hydrogen su 1-
phide burns in the presence of oxygen
a lmost instantly. Therefore, it can be
present in the zone near the water wa 11
onl y iu a r educing medium where oxy-
gen is locall y deficie nt.
The primary product of t he reaction
of H 2 S with tube metal is ferrous su l-
phide FeS which is th en changed to
ferrous su lphate and fl a kes off fro m
the tubes urface, thus exposing the tu-
be m ot nl l o furth er conosio n.
16.3. Corrosion of Healing Surfaces
T o avoid corros ion damage Lo water
wa lls fu el and a ir s hould b e d istribu-
' .
thaL the excess ai r ratio in eac h bur-
ncr· is g reater than unity. It is advi-
sa bl e to keep the flame from s triking
tile water walls ; th is is achi eved by
a rranging the extreme (corner) bur-
ners farther from the side walls or by
t mning them towa rds t he furn ace cen-
t re.
Corrosion of the tubes of .convective
s uperheaters h as been detected on the
combustio n of fuel oils whe n tho tem-
pera Lure of the tube walls excQeded
610-620°C. This kind of corros ion, cal-
led vanadium corrosion, is caused by
the vapours of vanadium pentoxide
V .0, formed in furnace gases. If fu-
et"oil contains sodium oxid e, tho com-
bus tio n products will contain sod-
i u rn vanadates (5V 2 0 5 · Na 2 0·V 2 0<t)
which have a low melting point
(tm,. :::::; 600°C) . If the _temperature of
the s uperhea t er Lubes IS above 6 ~0 ~·
0
sodium vanadates can forrn a lLqutd
film which is corrosive Ior various
steels (carbon, low-alloyed a nd ~u­
steai tic s teels). U ncooled fastenmg
t emperature is close to that of the_ga-
ses are a lso subject to heavy vanadmm
corrosion.
Corrosion is enhanced i n tho presen-
ce of sulphur oxides in the gas flow.
Sodium pyrosulphates Na 2S 2 0 7 are
m ost dangerous for t he metal; in com-
bination with V 2 0 5 , they make the
me dium h ighl y corrosive even at tem-
peratures near 600°C. The highest
ra te of corrosion is observe d at 700-
750oC and is typical for tube-fasten -
ing elements.
The rate of vanadium corrosion can
be d iminished by giving various a lka-
li additives to fuel oil, such as an aqu-
eous solution of MgCl 2 in a coucentra-
lion of 0.6-0.8 kg per t fuel o il. The
most e ffi ci ent method, h owever, is to
keep the temperatu re of su perheater
tubes below 600oC.
Low-temperature corros ion . This
kind of corros ion occurs on the h ea-
tinrr s urfaces of a ir heaters which ope-
"'
199
rate a L relatively low temperatures of
the gases a nd working fluid (a ir).
The d ecisive facto r in intensive low-
temperature corros ion is the presence
of sulphuric acid vapours in the flue
gas flow . As the su lphur of the fuel
burns in the fla m e core, it forms s ul-
plmrous anhydrid e S0 2 • With a cer-
tain surplus of aiL·, S0 2 is furth er oxi-
dized to S0 3 by atomic oxygcu 0"
that forms in the high-temperature
zone of the flam e due to chain reacti-
ons of combustion a nd therm al disso-
ciation. Sulphuri c anhydride can djs-
sociate only at rather high temperatu-
res . The res ulting reaction of forma ti-
on and dissociat ion of S0 3 in the fl a-
me zone can be written as follows:
Itt h2
80 2 +0' ~ SOa --+ S02+ 1 /202 (16.3)
where /c 1 a nd k 2 a re the r eactio u ra te
constants of the direct and reverse reac-
tion, with k 1 being greater than k 2 •
As a result, SO 3 ap pears in a noticea ble
concentration aL the boundary o[ the
flam o core , but dissociates on compl e-
tion of combus tion. Its concentra tion
then gradually decreases .
As the temperature of gases in t he
gas path gradually decreases, t he pro-
cess of S0 3 dissoci a tion is retarded and
is prac tically s topped at -Qo g = 1 200-
1 250°C. Thus , w i th q11icker cooling
of the gases in the gas path, t he resi-
dual concentration of S0 3 will he
higher.
As the gases pass furth er through
convective heating surfaces, the con-
centration of S0 3 may even rise. De-
pos itions on h eating surfaces, s uch as
soot particles, may serve as catalysts
for t he aftero xidatio n of so! to so3.
As a result, the concent ration of S0 3
in the gases constitutes 1-5% of the
initial content of S0 2 , or 0.002-
0.010% of the total gas volume.
I n the zones where the gas tempera-
Lure drops down below 500°C, S0 3
begins to react with water va pours a nd
forms sulphuric acid vapours which
are carried by the gas flow. Tho pro-
cess is complet ed a t a tempoL·a ture
ncar 250°C.
 200
Ch. 16. Processes on Fireside of Beating Surfaces
Corrosion on heating surfaces may
start if the tem pera tur e of the wall
and the boundary layer at tho wall
turns out to be bel ow the condensati-
on_ point of water vapours or su lphuric
?Cld vapours at their pa rtial pi"essures
tn . the g?ses. TI1e t emperature at
wluch motstul"e is condensed on a so-
lid surface is ca1led tl1 e thermodynamic
dew temperature (dew point) td. 1,. For
pure wate~ vapours at their partial
pressw·e 1n combus tion products
PH,o = 0.01-0.015 MPa, td.JJ -
= 45-54°C. If sulphuric acid vapours
are present in the gas flow, tho tem-
pe~ature of condensation (sulphuric
actd dew point til.p) is Sllbs tantially
higher (up to '140-160°C).
For fuel oil combustion, the dew corrosion rate i~ pncl~ i og sheets of regenera-
point can be roug hly determined from
the formula:
t.~.p. = td.p. + 250 lf sro2 (16.4)
wh e1·e sr = sw/Qi is lh e resol vcd
sulphur content of fuel, % kg/1\U
21 (a - 1) .
and 0 2 = a 1s the concentrati-
on of s urplus oxygen in the gas flow I
%0 •
With a higher sulphur content of
fuel and higher excess air ratio a.
mor? S0 3 form s in gases, resulLing i~
a l11gher dew point.
Figure 16.8 presents the diagram of
ph ase equilibrium betwee n li.qui d and
vapour in the two-componen t system
H20-H 2S04 at various partial pressu-
res of water vapours. The lower curves
at p = constant describe t he boi ling
20 40 50 80 tOO%
Fig. 16.8. Pbase equilibrium o£ H 0 -H SO
sys ·...:m
- .
at var•ous t
pressures 2 •
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J K
1.4 ..:_
1.2 b
' propor tional to the condensation rate
: The inte nsification o[ corrosion at
1.0 I _I
' mined by the effect. of the so lution of
0.8
~I
t
0.5 - l
0.4 l the liquid film su rf ace.
\ ~2 \ rature range of 80-120°C decreases sub-
0.2
I\..__, I' t •.
I a ir ratio (curve 2 in F ig. 1G.9), which
60 80 100 120 1~ 0 •c
Fig. 16.9. Effect of temperature ou tbe
tive a 1r heu ter
1- higll excess ai r rntlo In rurnuce (a ~ I . I J:
:!-lowest nllowub lc excess nlr
1.03)
ratio
temperature of a n 11q11cous solutio n of
sulphuric acid as n Junc tion of acid
' co!lcentration, and the upper ones des-
cn_be condensation te mperatu re (dew
powt) of vapours. As may be seen,
even a slight concentration of H 2 S0 4
vapours in flu e gases (the do tted line
on the left) s ha rply i ncrcases the con-
d_ensation t.empcralure, and th e liquid
hlm formed on the wall has a high
concentra tion of s ulphuric acid.
Figure 16.9 s hows two typical cur-
ves of corros ion rate at different tem-
peratures on low- temperature heating
surf~ces in contact with the flue gases
obtamed on com bns tio n of high-sul-
phur fu el oil. As may be seen, the rate
of corros ion varies non-m onotonical-
ly wi th the wall temperat ure (Fig .
16.9, curve 1). As l w decreases h·om
t h e dew point (a round 145"C), corro-
sion first increases s harply to a maxi-
mum at tw = 105-110°C, then falls
off steeply, and fin a lly, at temperatu-
res
•
of the wall be low 85- 90°C I there
I S a second rise in tho rate of metal
corrosion.
Corrosion of m e tal occurs in the pre-
sence of a condensed liquid film con-
taining H~S0 4 on tho metal s urface.
Tt can cont,in uc fur t her if new portions
11:..1. Corrosion of II ~ating Surfaces
of Il 2SO 4 are supplied from the gas
flow. Thus, the rate of co,rrosion is
of H 2 S0 4 vapours.
temperatures below 85-90°C is deter-
s ulphurous a cid H 2S0:1 on the metal,
which forms at low temperatures by
t.he combination o[ H 2 0 a nd S0 2 on
The rate of corrosion in the tempe-
s tantially at a decrease in t he excess
is associated "'ith a less intens ive for-
mation of S0 3 and H 2S0 4 vapou rs in
t he flue gases in that temperature
range. The same effect o u th e corrosion
rate is obtained wi1.11 a decrease i n the
(a 1 = 1.0 2-
I
su lphur content S'" in fu el. In this
cnse, the maximum of corros io n rate as
n function of wall temperature lw
retains i ts original pos ition. The in-
creas ed rate of corros ion nt f w below
80°C docs not significantly depend on
air conditions, since it is determined
by the e£Iect of sul phurous , rather
than sulphuric, acid on the metal.
The flow of gases produced by the
combustion of solid fu e l carries a large
amo unt of fly ash, tho basic proper-
ties of which are due to th e presence of
co mpounds of calc ium and other alka-
li metals. As fly ash reacts with
su lphuric acid vapours, the concentra-
tion of sulph uric acid in the gases
decreases, ·r esulting in a lower corro-
sion rate.
To avoid low-temperature corrosi-
201:
on, it is ess ential that lw = t/ p. +
+(10-15tC, i.e. the wall temperature·
should be 10-15 deg C higher than the·
sulphuric dew point. This is economi-
cally feasibl e on ly in the combust io n
of low-sulphur fu el oils and sulphurous.
solid fuels , fo r which the s ulphuric clew
point t/,. docs not exceed 100-1'10°C.
In other cases , th e te mperature of flue
gases, which is determined by t w, will
be too llig h.
T he lowes t a llowab le temperature
on the surfaces of a tubu lar air healer
can be found from the formula:
(16.5)
where cx.g and a. 0 are the coefficients
of heat tra ns fet· at the gas and air
sides of: the heating s urface, W /(m 2 K),
-o c and t,; a re tho temperatu res of the
gases at the ox it a nd the ai r at the in-
1ol, °C.
The coeffi cie nts 0.8 and 0 .95 con-
sider respccti vely the effect of tube
fouling on the gas side a nd non-uni-
formity of the temperat ure fi eld of ga-
ses over the cross s ection of the gas·
due b.
Under comparable conditions, the
minimal wall t emperature of regenera-
tive air h eaters is 10-15 deg C higl1er·
than that for tubular air beaters, sin-
ce for the fo 1·m er cx.g is roughly equal
to CX. 0 , while for the latter, CX.a ~
~ 1.8 ex./[.
Methods fo r increasing the wall tem-
perature l w of air heaters and reducing:
the rate of met al corros ion will be dis-·
cussed in Ch . 19.
 :202
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Ch. 17. Evaporating Heating Surface~ 17.2. R eliable Designs of Water Walls 203

EVAPORATING HEATING SURFACES (a) I (C)

Fig. 17 .2. Types of refractory-faced water walls

17 .1. Heat Absorption by Evaporating In hig h-pressure drum-type boilers (a) s mo o th-tulle YCrllc al water wall; (b) membranl!·lypc Yerll cn l water wall; (c) platen .w all ; 1-sl uds ; 2 -
tub•·; .1- boller cnclosur~i 4-chromll c ;Jns tc; 5- cn rborundum; c - c•·oss-p•ccc
:S urfaces and T heir Layout (14 MPa or more), the fraction of heat
used for evaporation is considerably
Evaporating (s team-generating) s ur- lower (see Table 17.1), so that the por·ating su rfaces or convective banks. circu Ia lio n boilers, wa t er walls are
·[aces of va1·ious boilers may diffe r in beat tra nsferred in the furnace is suffi- I 11 once-throug h boilers, convec tive almos t exclusively arra nged vertical-
·desig n, but are al ways arranged, for cient to produce the required quanti- e\'H pora ting s urfaces form a transition ly o;· , someti m es , at a s tee p angle.
th e mos t par t , in the furnace s haH t y of s team and the economi zer can be zoue in the COlwcctive gas duc t, which In once-throug h a nd multiple forced
and a bsorb radia nt heat. The wa ter of t he no n-boiling t ype. Once-through rcsem b les a t ube-coil economi zer; i L circ ul ation boile rs , whore the mo tio n
•walls of a bo iler receive 35-4.0 % of boilers are a]so provided with no n-boil- is a rra nged be t ween t he su perheater of t ho s team- water mixture can be ef-
the total heat released in the furnace. ing econom izers (see Sec. 11.2) from and economizer. [ n the tra ns ition zone, fect ed at velocities preve nting the
This, i n tur n, has a strong effect on the which water passes to the evaporating eva poration e nds and tho steam is disturba nce of hydra u lic conditions,
·dis t ributio n of heat be twee n v ario us tubes through a dis tribution Ireader. slight.ly superheated (by 10-20 deg C). the evaporati ng h eating surfaces can
henting su rfaces (T nble 17 .1). For i n- If the header were fed wi th a steam- I n all boile r sys te ms, evaporati ng be o r·ie nled at any a ngle, i. e. th e wa-
wa t er mixture rather tha n wil h wa te r, s urfaces for pressures abo ve 14 MPa ter " ·alls may be vertical, ho rizontal
Table 17.1. lleat and Tcmperatunl this wo uld cause an extrem ely uneven a re almost oxelus ivel y arra nged in or ascendi ng- desce nd ing .
Dis tributi on ll etween Roilcr Heati ng distribution of tho mixture hot ween t.he Ure furnace s haft in the fonu of water Because of the di[[erences in uatural
Surfaces
parallel tubes. walls wbicl1 a bsorb radian t heat. circnl alion and forced circu lntion, the
E
Heal d lslrlbu\lon In medium- pressure drum- type boi- \Vater walls may be either bare-tube r elia ble designs of wa ter wa lls for
-.. "''
E be tween healing
«: 0. lers, additional evaporating s urfaces in design , with small spacings (4.- gravi t y-circ ulatio n boilers and o nce-
- _,
en ::
• -·
~:;
"'
.,
. -""'
.. ..
s urraces, %

.. are formed by a boiling economizer 6 mm) left between pa rallel tubes thro ugh boilers w i II be discussed se-
-""'"'_.... "... ..... .,.... -·-..... -"'"' -"'"'
-g ~ -o <-
...
C: (;
~
.=
...
u c
·- c

c
and, sometimes, by convective eva- (Fig. 17 .1a) , or gas-tight, made from
prossed or rolled finned tubes , smooth
parately.
Methods for increas ing circulation
., .,
0:: "
0. ~
tc.
c.e .."' -
-,!::
0
c. .....
.c ~

0
tubes with recta ngLllar fins welded to reliability. In pro per! y des igned and
= ...
<llC. " '-
Vl- ~
~
...
<'!
>
C) .."
c:. c:
~ the m o r from smooth tubes with i nter-
tubula r spacings filled wi th building-
manufac tured circulation circ uits ope-
rating under no rm al conditions, t here
up me tal (Fig . 17.1b-d). Water walls are us ually no difficulties as regards
440 62
"
1.0
14
540
570
145
215
230
49
39
19
30
36
19
21
25
(a) in which tubes are welded together
a nd fo1'm an all-welded gas-tight s truc-
the reliability of circ ulation. L et us
recall, however , th a t the drivi.ng cir-
14 570/570 230 32 46 22 t ure are al terna tely called mem- culati ng head decreases wi th i ncrea-
25 .5 565/570 260 - 58 '·2 brane walls. or membranes. sing press ure (s ee Soc. 12.1). An i ncrease
In boiler [urnaces which burn low- in tl1e unit stea m-generating capa-
volat.ile fuel s, th e zone of s table igni- city of a boiler is associated with in-
I :stance, at a n average pressur e o[ t ion and inte ns ive combus tion of the creas ing the width of tbe w a ter walls
i
4 MPa, t he hea t absor bed by radiant fue l is formed at the burner belt level of circulation circ uits, w.hich m ay i n-
h eating sm faces is ins ufficient to co- by ma king water walls from studded volve lar ge non-u niformities in the
v er the total heat demand for stea m tubes and coa ting them with a refra- beating of parallel tubes and adversely
·generation (62%), so that part of the ct.ory material (refractory-faced water affec t t he circul ation. With an increas-
heat spent o n water evapora tion is umlls, Fig . 17 .2). ing s team~genera ting capacity, the
·transferred to the economizer. Fo r hea t ing intens i ty of evapora ti ng t u bes
th is reason, t he economize r of m edium-
17.2. Reliable Des ig ns o£ Water Walls ..
i. ncrenses s ubs t anlin llv
pressure drum-type boilers is us ually As power engineering de velo ps and
·of the boiling type, i. e. water is not Fig. 17.1. Types of water walls /Jm ·e-tube water walls are employed employs increas ingly mot·e powerf ul
(<,>) with smooth (bare) tubes; (b) g ns·tlg lll with
·only heated i11: it to the satura tio n tmncd t ubes; (c) gas-ti g ht with wclilcd· on rectan- in all bo il er s ys te ms with vacuum (ba- boiler units for hi g h s team p a ra meters ,
.li ne, b ut a Iso par tially vapori zed . gu lar ti ns ; (d) gas-Ug ht wi th me tal buil ding-up th e roli a bilit.y req uireme nts of hoi-
belween tubes lanced dr a £t) furnaces. In n atu rnl-
 204
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Ch. 17. Evaporating Heating Surfaces 17.2. Reliable Deslg~ of Water W alls 2(15
lers, especially of their circulation cit·-
cuits , become more a nd more rigo- -of h yd raul ic resista nce o[ these Lu- n ish th o hydraulic resistance of the
rous. hcs, 6.Pdcs 1 , passes quite steep ly a nd steam-circulating tubes, which can
Disturbances in circulation condi- .illtcrsecls the cu rve of usefu l heads in be achieved by increasi ng their cross
tions mainly occur due to u neven hea- t.hc circuit S ua at point A 1 (tho wor- section or decreasing their length.
Ling across the width of a circuit. \fo u- .king point of the ci rculation diagram). The total cross-sectioual area of sleam-
uui [orm heating alo ng t.h o heig h L At that po in t, Lh c hydraulic l'Csist- circu laling tubes is usually 30-
o[ the tubes in a circuit is of a nco is too high , 1111d th erefore, the cir- 60% that of tho steam-generating Lu-
m inor irn portance, s i nee in t ha L case /
cu ln t ion velocity a nd flow rate of bes.
a II parallel or vertical tubes recei-
f 2 water a re li m ited. Under such condi- Water wall scctionalizing. Since une-
ve roughly the same quantity of hea t tions . the stagnation margin of cir- ven healing of evaporating tu bcs is
· and are cooled similarly by the pas- -cltlation diminishes s harply, whi le the the principal cause or dangerous situ-
sing water. Uneven heating across t.he (a) (!J) limited flow rate of water mny fail ations, water walls arc :;ectionnli zcd,
width of a circuit may be caused by Fig. 17.3. Diagrams or natural -circul aLion. to ens ure r eliable heat remov11l from i. e. n group of tubes which are healed
an improperly desig ned circu Ia lion circuiLs the evaporating tubes. s imilarl y are combined into a section
circuit (see Fig.12.11) ot· by i nadequaLe (a) wi.th dirccl. delivery of a s t••run· w••l cr mixture- By increasing tho cross section or which is .fed separately with wn ter.
to bot ler drum; (b) with n s trnm· wnl cr lll ixturc
operating conditions (see Fig. 12.1 2). pn;smg th rough a header; 1- wnter-h-edin l! (down· t he downtake tubes , their hydrnu li c Pigurc 17.5 shows the disl.ri bulio n
T he former problem can us ulllly be ta ke) tubf"s : 2-rvapora lin~ (UJJLHk t·) tui>rs· J - res istance is decreased (t:.Pde•~), thus of \'Ciocities in a wa ter wall heat ed
s lcnm-ctrcu laling tu hPs ; 4- lwa der ' unevenly across ils width. The cor-
rem edied to some extent at the desig n decreas ing the circulat ion head (wor-
st.ag-e. Distu rbances duo to inadequate king point A 2 ) and iucreasi ng the rna r- ner Lubes receive s ubsta ntially less
Increasing the circul ation ratio. In -gin to stagnation. Ln this way, th o total heat t.han those in th e middl e or the
opera ting cond itions arc less detenni- circula l ion circuits, eva porating tu-
nate. Th e mai n cause or non- uniform bes can be connected either directly fl ow rate of w ater inc reases through wall and therefore cannot develop the
hea ting is_slagging of lubes. Sl agging is lo the boi ler drum or through headet·s both the uptake tubes a nd , more same useful head Su• = t:.Pde s as in
ne,·cr uulform all O\'er the stu·facc a nd s lcam-Cil'Culating tubes . important, through the poorl y heated the properly healed lubes in the mid-
of a wa ter \\'all and depends on many tubes, i m proving their operating con- dle of the wall, so that circul ation
For a g iven stc:~ru -ge n craling c.apa- ditions . stagnation, free wat er level or cil'-
fac tors, in particular, on the a ir co n- city of a circuit, th e requi red circLIIa-
diti ons in the [urrw ce , th e d istribu- tion ratio is ensured if tho flow rate The cross secti on req uired for down- culation revers11 l are likely to ap-
Liou or fu el by burnet'S in the fnru nce, of water is suffici ent for the reliable ta ke tubes is determ ined by calcula- pear in them. By providing partiti-
etc. Heavi ly slaggcd , and therefore, cooling of the healed tubes. This is ting the circulation; at high pressures, ons in the upper and lower hoarier,
poorly hcntrd tubes acquire on the achieved by properly selecting the i t may be taken equal to 0.4-0 .5 of corner tubes can be separated into an
"·hole substantially• lc.ss heat than do cross sect ion of water-supply and steam - t he c1·oss section of up take tubes for individual circulation circuit (sec-
clean lu bl's a nd for that reason develop circ ula ting lubes in t he circula- water walls on furnace sides and 0.7- tion), so that the circulaLion veloci-
a lower dri ving circulating heAd , tion c ircui t (Fig. 17.3). 0.9 of their cross section for platen ties in the two circuits can be roughly
meaning thnt less cooli ng (circulating) walls. equalized. The useful head in the se-
As shown in Fig. 17A , for a c ir- In the circulation circuit with steam- parated section will then decrease
water pMses through Lhcm. Such t u- cui t w ith s team-generating tubes co n-
bes are cooled poorly; in exposed por- nected d irectly to lito boiler drum circulating tubes shown in Fig. somewhat, but the margin to stag na-
tio ns free from slag they may become (Fig . 17.3a) and with 11 small cross 17.3b, it is essential , for more reliab- tion and circulation reversal wi ll in-
overh ea led. le circnl_ation , to additionally di mi- crease for the same non-uniformity
section of t he down tal e tubes, the curve-
With an increase in pressure, espe- .
ciall y at p > Hi MPa, the usefu l cir- -+.......--:::
·-f- .
cu lating head noticeably decreases (sec
Fig . 12.3). This involves a decrease in r fflf
·x ._
2
I "
the circulation ratio which has a rath- oJus
Sus•
er st rong effect on the temperature 11pdtJr---- . .
conditions in the metal of the heated I-
Fig. f7. 5. Circulation characteristi cs of
tubes. For this reason , it is essential
a furnace wn tcr wall wo ~ ---
to ensure t he required circulation rn-
tio at the desig n stage of circulatio n
(a) dis tribution o r userul head and c lt·culatlon
ve loc ity ac ross the width or a sectiona l! zed wn- J,
f\
t.cr wall : J-dtum; 2- u t>per header; J - mtd-
circuits . - - (b) - -
The reliability of circulation can G
dlc wa ter wall Lubes; 4- corner wate.r wall
tubes; ~-lowr r header : 6-tubes connl-ete d
into a sepa rate circuit; - - - unsecllonnltzed
'---..........
. ,...,t
i'-
1
be increased by increasing the ci rcu- o G,"' wnlcr wall: - sec lionalized wotrc woll; 1'-
(b) c irculation diac rnrn : 1- S«s or a w!•ak ly
lation ratio or by dividing wide water hcntcd circu it; 2-S «~ or an intcns lv!•l)'
wa lls iuto narrower sections (water fig . 17 .1,_ Ertect of the res is Lnn cc of water-- 5
feed ing t,11 bcs 0 11 th e flow rate throug h e vn- hen tell ci rcuit: ll.prlcs - pressure gra dient holore .
wa ll ~ccl. i ona lizin g) . pora Ling tu bcs scctlonallzlng; IJ.i'<l c•• n11d IJ.p dc s - po·cssu r<•
~

6
aradte nls in the circuits alter scctionn lh lnj( (0)
 2{)6
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Ch. 17. Evaporating Heating Surfaces 17.2. Re!table Design of Water Walls 207"

of heating across tile wall width, and
the circulation velocity will be in-
creased (working point A' in Fig.
17.5b). In the section with intensive-
ly heated tubes, the useful head will
increase and the circulation velocity
will decrease somewhat, but the mar-
gin to stagnation a nd circulation re-
versal in that section still remains
sufficiently largo (working point A"
i.n Fig. 17.5b).
In gravity-circulation hoi lors , fur-
nace water walls are usually made
from bare tubes covering all the sides
of the furnace. In high- and superhigh-
pressure boilers, tubes with an inside
diameter of 40-50 mm are used . Down-
take tubes have a diameter of 60-
160 mm or more. Large-diameter tu-
bes (600-800 mm) are sometimes em-
ff
5
t Fig. 17.7. Section of a curtain wall (platen)
----1+·- +1
1 at the top of the front wall or along
10
Fig. 17 .6. Arrangeruent of water walls in the furnace of a high-pressure boiler
1-tront water wall; 2-downtake tubes; 3-roor wa ter wall; 4- stcam-clrculatlng tubes• 5-slaJ screen·
r.-rear watcri_wall; 7- sld.e water wall; 8-tube arrangement around burner ports; 9- dry hot tomWbopper:
JO-b01Icr structure; JJ-slag •creon hnader; 12- re intorc•men l bPlt
ployed in the downtake system of
high-capacity boilers.
Figure 17.6 shows a typical lay-out
of furnace water walls and their ele-
ments in a high-pressure boiler. Wa-
ter walls 1, 6, and 7 represent a system
o~ parallel vertical tubes. Some por-
tLOns of the t.ubes may be steeply in-
cl ined to match the shape of the fur-
nace (tubes forming the dry-bottom
hopper 9, tubes around burner ports
8, etc.). In high-pressure boiler plants
where the available radiant heat re-
leased in l,he furn;~r,e is greater than
that required for stearu generation,
evaporating heating surfaces do not
cover the entire surface of the fur-
nace. Therefore, other types of l1 ea-
ting surfaces can be arranged in it.
Should this be the case, evaporating
llnit I
6 are arranged either vertically or ho-
11111Il llllllllllllr='
1
J- Iower header; 2- tubes; 3-upper header;
windows; 5- points or tube welding
surfaces are arranged on the vertical
walls of the furnace and superheater
surface 3, on the furnace roof. Radia-
tion superheaters can also be arranged
the entire height of the furnace front;
in some cases, superheater and evapo-
rating sections are arranged alterna-
tely.
All upper headers are mounted rough-
ly on the same height and suspen-
ded from the boiler structure. Furnace
water walls are provided with ri-
gidity belts 12 of steel sections, which,
on heating, can move freely together
with tubes. Furnace waLer walls of-
to n carry a boiler setting which is co-
vered on Lhe outside by a casing, or
shell (see Sec. 21. 1). Thus, the boi-
ler structure carries the suspended wa-
ter wall system together with the boi-
ler setting and casing. A connection
unit of the ascending or descending tu-·
bes to the movable rigidity belts is-
shown separaLely in Fig. 17.6 (unit
/). The entire water wall tube system-
and boiler setting attached Lo it can
expand freely downwards.
In high-capacity boilers , curtain
walls, or platens, are often used which
separate the furnace into a number of
vertical shafts (see Sec. 7.1). Platens-
are suspended in the same manner as
side water walls. Some LulJes in a pla-
ten are bent to form windows in the ·
top portion or along the whole height
of it; these are provided to equalize
the pressure on both sides of a platen
and prevent bending of tubes should
a 'puff' occur in the furnace (Fig.
17 .7).
Methods for enhancing the reliability:
of water walls in once-through boilers•.
\Vater walls in once-through boilers
rizontally (see Fig. 11.1). Depending
on the orionl.aLion of the tubes, t hey
may receive different quantities of
heat along the furnace height and
depth and across the width.
4-
In ]Joilers with horizontal or slight-
ly inclined tubes, evaporating tubes-
are mult iply wound around the peri-
phery of the furnace (Fig. 17.8). If
one of the furnace sides is heated more·
intensively than others, this non-
uniformity across the w i.dth or depth .
of the furnace (or, what is the same,
along the path of the working fluid) ·
will have no effect, since all tubes pass-
around all the sides of furnace and
non-uniform heating will be of the·
same degree in all parallel tubes.
In order to minimize the mass of the
tube system, Lhc furnace water walls
of high-capacity high-pressure boi-
lers are made from tubes of a small
inside diameter (25-40 mm) . In this
case, Lhe number o[ par::tllel tubes.
must be increased to maintain the
same mass flow rate. These two cir-
cumstances, i.e. an increased boiler·
capacity and smaller tube diameter,
require that the width of the tube-
band in the furnace be increased ..
With a wider tube hand, non- unifor--
 :208
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Ch. 17. Euaporallng Heating Surfaces 17.2. Reliable Design. of Water Walls 209

.Left side
wall
Rear
wall
Ri'IM side
'waLt
Front Fig. 17.8. Development of furnace water
walls of a Ramzin once-through !Joilcr -- --
wall
1- supply head••rs: t-dischnrgc hMdcl"!' II-..... I . II
'J
I I
•
2 2

.
II
-+-
2 ' II
'

I
t
• . -- .......
--
.....
'
' ' '
•
' ' Fig. 17 .10. Diagram o[ fastening of water
I
walls with horizon tally coiled tubes
1-rWJ\'Hl>l<' fnsten in~s; 2- n xNI (aslt:ntng-6
Fig. 17.12. Series connection o£ sections of
a furnace wa ler wall
'\ ly in the middle and in ILlOvable ~u p­ / - i nlet or the working fluid Into the Waler _wnll:
1\. u- wHte r wn ll sections: J- downtakc tulles . 4-
/ ports to all ow [or therm al oxp ~ns 10n, to next section
/ /
I
at the ends (Fig . 17.10). Honzontal
~· winding of the Lubes sim plifi~s the
I I with essential! y long horizol\lal par-
"""
:mily of heatiug aloug lhe height of ry horizontal tubes (Fig. 17.8) . I n
connection of water wa lls 011 ad Jacent
furna ce sides, remedies the problem Lions and short verl.ical bends (Fig .
·lJlC furn ace in Lhc parallel lubes of a other versions , a band rises on the rear of shadowing the CO I'll Or tu be portio us, 17.11). This system is less sensitive
band becomes rnore su bslantinl. Be- s id e only or else on all four walls . The and improves the ~0 ~1cli t i o ns of u~i­ Lo uneven heating, especially when the
cause of this, lhe working fl uid fl ow angle of incline of a band depends on form heati 11g of i ncl l\'ldual tubes, s tn- cross-sectional dimensions oE t.he fur-
·in high-capacity boilers is divided ils width (the number and diameter of ce tube bands extend around the whole naces a rc large, and is employed '~hore
into a number o[ parall el f lows, i.e. tubes) and on the width of the furnace perimeter o[ the fu ruace. With l~ or ~ ­ the water walls are nol made gas-ttght.
a number o[ parallel t.ubc bands are walls and is usua ll y equal to 12-15°. wntal t ube winding, however, 1t LS Tube fa stening iu lite mea nder sys-
arranged in lhc furna ce. Thus, the The number of tubes in a band is de- more difficult to make water walls in tem is, however , more intricate.
width of a band and non-uniformity termined by the boiler capacity and the form of blocks and the tube system Vertical water walls in once-through
·of heating in it can be decreased in the mass velocity of fluid in the tubes, has more welded joints. A version of boilers resemble t.hose in gravity cir-
proportion to the number of flows which for tho zone of intensive hea- horizo ntal wi nding is the meander sys- culation boilers and occupy t he whole
·(Fig . 17.9). Bands are wound conti- ting is take n equal lo roughly tem, i.e. a system co nsisting of a nu~­ surface of furnace walls . For more uni-
nuously i 11 a helical palJ.crn onto all 1000 kg/(m 2 s) at p ~ 10 MPa and ber o£ vet·ti cally arranged lube cotls form hoatinrr water walls are sectio-
'four sides of the furna ce, thus provi- 1 500-2 000 kgf(m 2 s) at higher pres- nalized aero~~ the furnace width , the
ding for nn ascending motion of th o sures. An excessively high mass velo- sections being connected in seri ~s ,
·flow. Vario us systems of tubo win- city rnay involve a high hydrauli c re- thus forming a m ulti-pass system (F1g.
·ding in the furn ace are in use. Usual- sistance. 17.12). Indiv idual sections arc con-
ly, the inclined tubes of a band arc Th e bend ing of s traight portions nected by downtake tubes, which eli-
arranged on two side walls, while the of horizontal tubes is prevented by minate the maldistribution of heat
:front and rear walls of the furn ace car- fastening them in three points: fixed- due to flow intermixing, but make the
design and operation o f water walls
more cornpli cn ted.

t J t J
3
,n h 2~-
~t ' t '
I
I
L -
I
2ntl
turn or
a pass I
nil pass,
Zndt11rn

2 urn
;::ss,
2. pass,
,)
1 !'-....

;/
,/
<., J~ I'--
'
t "t -<
I
I I• q
1st
/urn or
a pass
f

IS
l vrn
pass,
Is/ turn
l l n
IFig. 17.9. EHect of the horizontal Fig. 17 .1 3. Series connection of para lie I·
-coOing band width on heating non- connected sec tions
uniformity (a) (h) Fig. 17.11. Section o£ a wale•· Willi with 1 - inl ~l. Of t h1• WOrking llu l rl : 2- Ht:Ctlons: ,l -
· (al s rncle·pa •s coiling! (b) two-pass coiling horizon tal ascending coils mlxcr: 4 - downtn~u· tullcA: 5-to next section
 210
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Ch. 17. Evaporating Beating Surfaces
1 f
~- ,- -..,
I
2 61ln and exit 6tout (b) •
2 1 and 2- water wall sections;
' 4- inlet and oullel o r the working tluld
5 l l _j
I
..,.. ..,... , .... Fig. 17 .15. Diagram of octahedral furnaw
(plan view)
dry- boLlom bend to the structure.
5 Both sections can expand towards the
parting joint, which has a width of
2 --
t 200-300 mm in the cold s t ate so that,
bei ng heated, they come close together
J to the minimum gap oh. As h deposits
in the joint are periodically removed
by air blowing.
I n order to d iminish non- uniform
heating across t.ho width of vertical
water walls, the corners of the furnace
(a) (6} are sometimes 'cut o[[' to g ive an
octahedral shape in plan (Fig. 17.1 5).
This furnace shape is not very co nve-
Fig. 17.1.4. Diagrams of vertical water walls nient in design, but is advantageous in
(a) without pnrllng Jolnl; (b) with pnrtlng Joint; J -
suspenslon; z - wnl cr wall; J-movnblc rasLenlng; the respect that a vertical whirl of
4-support tnstrnln~; 5- pnrtlng Joint seal; 6 - flame can be easily formed in it if cor-
nlr blowlnc
ner burners are arranged tangentia lly.
The hydraulic system of boilers is
Water walls of a narrow width are oflen made in the form of U-, n-,
heated essentially uniformly. I n high- or l'i-shaped multi-pass sections with
capacity boilers, na rrow vertical wa- vertical up take and down take Lu bos
ter walls are combined into parallel (see Sec. 11.3). Since all pnrallel tubes
blocks which are connected with one in the system pass through the same
another in series (Fig. 1.7.1 3) . unevenly heated 1:0nes along tho fur-
Vertical water walls can be conve- nace height, they receh·e essenti ally
niently made in the form of blocks, the same quantity of hea l.
i.e. systems of vertical tubes connected
to headers at the ends. Fastenings of 17.3. Gas- tight W ater Walls
wal ls and means for their thermal ex-
and :Meth ods fo r Enhancing Their
pansion may be various (Fig. 17.14). Reliability
Tl1e tube system of a \\·ater wa ll is
usua lly s uspended by il1' upper header W ater walls in gas-tight hoi Iors are
and can expand downwards freel y made i n the form o[ verti cal sections.
(Fig. 17.14tt). In high-capacity boilers, To ensure proper strength . tho tempe-
water walls are us ually sectionalized rature difference between 1he joined
vertically, i.e. th ey have a parting Lubes s hould not exceed 50-100 deg C.
joint. amid their height (see Figs. Th is requ irement can be easily satis-
22.4 and 22. 5). In such a system (Fig. fied in single-pass verl'.ical motion
17.14b), the 11pper section Lubes of a (short tubes) where the t emperature·
water wall are suspended by th o upper difference of the working fluid in ad-
•
header from the boiler structur e. The jacent tubes docs not exceed t.he allo-
lower section tubes are fastened at the wable limit and no s pecin l mens ures.
l
Fig. 17.16. Diagram of an all-
welded two-pass water wnll (a) and
curve of t..emperature gradienLs in
connect..ed sections at the inlet
and
are needed. In a two-pass scheme, ver-
tical water wall sections are arranged
side by side, with the working fluid
flowing successively from one section
to another (Fig. 17.16a). A large tem-
perature differ ence between adjacent
sections (M > 50-100 deg C) may lead
to excessive temperature stresses and
even break-through of tubes.
F urnace wa tor walls, ospeci ally in
supercri tical-pressure boilers, opera-
te under heavy condi t ions: high tem-
perature and pressure of l.ho world ng
fluid, high temperature of tho flam e ,
i ntensive heating, and corrosive flue
gases. In this respect, it is extremely
important to increase the reliability
of the water walls. With proper or-
ganization of the processes at both
sides of the heat-transfer surface of
water walls in gas-tight boilers, this
is achieved by decreasing the tempe-
rature difference /:it as much as pos-
sible. The mai n methods for decrea-
sing the t emperature difference bot-
ween welded sections are as follows:
recirculating the combustion products
and the working fluid, intermixing
the working fluid along its path (along
the length of water walls), and bypas-
si og a portion of tho cold flow.
Cold flow bypassing. I n this scheme
4
t;' t;
I
I
t;/
f
/"'- I ,,
I
2
I nll~welded two-pass water wall (a)
I and curve of temperature gradients
J ' +t' I t'2
(a)
17.9. Ga.-tlght Water Walls 211
l,
If •
4
t;
r
t"t
. I
I
J ' I
f
1I "'-
2
•
I
I
J t'r t'z•.t"
t
(a) ·. (6}
(Fig."l7.17a), a portion of the working
fluid is bypassed around the first sec-
tion of the heated water walls, which
increases the heat absorption per unit
flow rate and increases the fluid tem-
perature at the outlet from that sec-
t ion. The temperature difference lltout
between the welded sections is thus
reduced and can be retained at the
allowable value even in the most cri-
tical zone at the outlet from the sec-
tions (Fig. 17.17b). The redist.ributi-
on of t he flow rate between a section
and a bypass line has almost no effect
on !ltln·
rn tho a bovc scheme, the mass velo-
city along the path increases: it is the
lowest in tho first pass of the lower
radiation section and the highest i 11
the second pass, which makes it pos-
sible to raise the temperature of tho
fluid at the inlet to and exit from the
fi rs t pass so that it approaches the re-
spective values in the second pass
(Fig. 17.17b). The quantity of by-pas-
sed fluid is det ermined by the ratio
of mass velocities of the fluid and the
heat release rate in the furnace. It
is roughly equal to 20% of D" which
ensures satisfactory temperature con-
ditions and reliabl e operation of the
water walls .
t
Fig. i 7 .1.7. D iagrarn of a bypassed
of connected sections at the inlet
61fn and exit 6tout (b)
(b)
Designations t he same as In Fig. 17.16
 :212
4 Fig. i7 .18. Diagram of an all-wel-
t: t;
I 2
t 2"
5 t'I t'-l"
6 2 I
(u)
R ecirculation of the working fluid.
1n this method, tho fl ow rate thro ugh
henvily heaLed water walls is inCJ·oa-
sed by supplying a portion of tho fl ow
which has passed through the lower
r ad iation section (Fig. '17.18a) . f or
the snme heating intensity, this meth-
od decreases l.ho gain in enthalpy
of Lite working flu id. T he temperatu re
of tho rluid a t the inle t to the heating
surface increases, while the temperatu-
re at its outlet remains the same as
without recirculation (Fig. 17 .'L8b).
Accordingly, the temperature d iffe-
ut
r ence between welded water walls
d ecreases to a safe value.
Provision of an add iiional flow of
the working fluid ai low loads, say at
start-up , ensures reli ab le cooli ng of
the water walls, which is especially im-
portant in the combusl.io n of fu el oil,
i.e. at a bigh heaL release rate in the
furnace. Th is method roakes it pos-
I sible to reduce the start- up load down
to 15% of D,.
L1t
I I
j 5
Fig. i 7. Hl. Effect or the workiog fluid recir-
cula ti on on tem perature gradient in eonncct-
ed sections of an all -welded l.wo-pass wn ter
wall
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 17. E uaporating Beating Surfaces
ded two-pass WilLer wall with re-
t circulating pump
D<•s lgnutions as In Pig. t i. t G: addltlo-
rHI Il y: S-mixer: 6- reclrculaling pump
t;
/
/
t /
l-
The temperature conditions of adja-
cent water walls depend on the circu-
lation rati o r which is und erstood AS
the r atio of the working fluid flow
rate, with recirculation G, to the
straight fl ow rate G (without recircula-
tion):
As tho recircu lation ratio r increa-
ses, the Lcm peralme d ifference bet-
ween adjacent welded sections decrea-
ses (Fig. 17.19}. Partial ejection of the
hot flow (Fig. 17.20) is a version of t.l1 e
recirculation method. Partial ejecti-
on decreases the heat absorption in
adjacent water wa ll sectio ns and ac-
cordingly decreases the temperature
difference 6t along their whole h eight.
Since the £low rate of the working fln -
id increases and tho heat absorption
per unit flow rate decreases, maldist.ri-
btttion of hea t in water wall tubes be-
4 t"
2
t;'
I and r ecycled into the zone of the high-
I se in th e tu be length. Ma ldisl.ri-
1 "'- I
t 2" If',
I
~
t! t£ . t;'
t nected with one another by mixing
3 6
Fig. i 7 .20. Diagram of an all-welded two-
pass water wall with ejector (see tbe curve oi
tern pera Lu re gra dients in conn ected sec tions
in Fig. i7.1 8b)
De.slgnal.lonA ns tn Fig . 17.1 6; nddttlonally :
cJ~..:tor: 6 - throt ti c
17.3. Gas-tight W ater Walls
Fig. i7 .21. Diagram of water wall s
of a gas-tigbt boiler with t~vo ho-
rizontal partin~ joints (see unit I
in Ftg. 17 .22)
••
~ I
' I
"'
~ ~
1
_'fl.£
comes less proba b lo. The method has,
however, certain disadvantages : the
elevated hydrau Li e resistance of the
working fluid path and the limited
capacity of tho ejector.
Intermixing of the working fluid.
In intensively heated tubes of furnace
water walls, a ny substantial maldi-
stribution of heat may be dangerous .
Tho risk increases with increasing heat
absorption of tubes, i.e. with an increa-
2 bution of heat should be minimized
where possible, especially in gas-t ight
boilers. For this reason, water walls
of high-capacity boilers (both gas-tight
and untight) are divided vertically
into s tages by parting joints and con-
headers (Fig. 17 .21). For better relia-
bility and gas-tightness, the number of
parting joints should be as Low as pos-
sib.le; for instance, a single joint may
be provided between the lowor and me-
s-
clium radiation section or bot.ween the
med ium a nd upper radi ation section.
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Separation i nto s tages decreases t he-
heat absorption t.i of the fluid in each
stage. and therefore, decreases the-
highest temperature of the tube walls.
The recirculation of combustion pro-
ducts is an effective method for increas-
iug the reliability of water walls.
(see also Sec. 18.4.). Combus t ion pro-
ducts are taken off at a temperature
near 350"C behind the economizer
est heat release in the furn ace. T hus.
recirculated gases dilute the ox id ant
in the zone and prolong the process of
combustion, which leads to a lower
temperature in the furnace nnd a lo-
wer h eat release rate. This is of s pe-
cial importance in (uol oil-fired boilers
where the water wa lls are hea ted quite
intensively.
. Cas-tight all-welded water \'"-1IIS
nrc a kind of beating surface for in-
tens ified heating. Their mass per unit
area of radiant h ea t-absorbing sur£oce
is 10-15% lowet· lhau that of bare-
tube water walls. Th e tube pil clt ca n
 214
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Ch. 17. Evaporating Heating Surfaces
be i ncrensed by decreasing the number
of tubes and selecting their total cross-
se.c tional area so as to ensure the requi-
red mass flow r ate of the working flu-
id . All-welded water walls operate
under more favourable conditions th an
bare- tube walls, since part of the heat.
a bsorbed by tube fins is spread through
the metal to the rear sides of tu-
bes and these portions become acti-
ve heating s urfaces. Further, tubes of
gas-tight all-welded water walls are
held perfectly in-1i no and thus can-
not shadow one a nother. Gas- tight
all-welded water walls may have only
a thin layer of heat ins ulation instead
of heavy boiler setti ng and can be wa-
shed by water without the risk of moi-
stening the heat-ins ulating layer and
causing corrosion in inaccessible ph-
cos.
Fora g ive n tube pitclt , thereliability
of gas-tig ht all-weld ed water walls de-
pends on the heating intensity. The
allo\\'ablo intensity of h eating is de-
termined by t.hermnl calculation of a
wate r wall which determines the bes t
relati onship between the geometrical
characteristics (rel ative pitch, thick-
ness of fins) of a water w all at a gi-
ven tube diameter and given heating
intensi ty to ensure reliable heat trans-
fer from the fins through the tube to
the working fluid (see Sec. 10.4).
For gas- tight all-welded water walls,
the uniform heating of their tubes is
more essential. This requ irement is
satisfi ed better in gas-Light boilers
with all- welded vertical water walls
and ascending motion of the working
fluid. The number of p arallel tubes
in a wall must be li mited to ensure the
required mass flow ra te of th e wor-
ki ng fluid. [n high-capacity bo!lers
whe re th e furnace shaft h as a subs tnn-
tial perimeter, this necessitates an
increase in the number of separate
flows or of the number of p asses con-
n ected in series. The former measu re
is inefficient s ince it s harply increa-
ses th e number of tube fittings, com-
plicates automatic co ntrol, and i rn-
pairs reliability of operation. This, in
t urn, increases the temperature d if-
1
2 J
I roof. These passages are sea l e~, s ~y,
Fig. i7.22. ParLing unit of l.he 'glove' type
J- Cumace water walls; .e- beader; J - box
ference between joined Lubes and de-
creases their reliability, and further,
increases the number and mass of un-
heated tubes and thus the hydraulic re-
sistance of the circuit .
In order to decrease the furnace pe-
ri meter, gas-tight boilers are designed
for an elevated steam-generating ca-
pacity of the fur nace front (80-120
t/(h m). T l1e de pth of the furnace is
incr eased so mewhat to make th e fur-
nace al most squar e in plan, i.e. to
obtain the minimal length of its pe-
rim eter at a given heat release rate
per unit area , qp.
Figu1·e 17.21 schematically shows
the gas-tight all-welded ve rtical water
wall sections of a gas-fuel oil-fired
boiler type TGMP-204. They have
two parti ng joints along the h eight.
The 'glove'-type parting joint is
shown in Fig . 1 7.22. J t is tightened by
a shaped p late a nd arranged inside a
17.9. Gas-ttght Water Wall$ 215
s teel box passing around the whole
perimeter of the furnace s haft. 1- I
The roof wall is assembled of gas-
tight section units. I ts tubes a_re bent
i n certain places to form holes for the
passage of tho tubes of platens and
convective tube banks through the
by means of bellows as shown 1n Ftg.
17 .23.
0£' special importance is the tight-
ness ~f s upercharged boilers \~here the
surplus pressure of co~bu s ~10n pro-
ducts in the furnace IS qtuLe h_•gh.
Ens urina that the roof in s uch boilers
is tight ., presents certain difficulties,
. -<
)
•
( [l
Fig. 17.25. Tube arrangement in nu_ta ll-
) {
weldcd water wall
~
4 )
1- watcr wall tu bes; 2-wcldr d-to st.,cl !tame
{
{ } since a large num ber of heating sur-
J
) (
face tubes pass through t~ e roo£._ To
correc t this, a second roof tS prov~ded
) (
I
above the main one, so th a t a _hot
~ box' is formed between t hem. Su;tce
the hot box and the adjacent ~tde
{ walls expand differently _on heatmg,
it is sealed alo ng its penpher~. T_he
·design of the sealing is shown m Ftg.
'
17. 24.. f b 'l
The outsid e enclosure o · a _o~ er
1-
- h as 450 mm manholes for servtcmg
the g as path. The tubes arou nd a man-
Fig. 17 ..23 . Sealing unit for the passage of hole are bent aside and welded to a
tubes through furnace roof steel fr ame (Fig. 17. 25). In water walls
z- tube; z - tixed support; 8-movnblc support;
d- bell ows
8
7 2
J
10
t
Fig. 17.26. Viewhole of a gas-tight boiler
Fig . 17 .24. Peripheral sealing o[ a •bot b~x· rcssure nut· 2- glass holder; 3-port glass;
J- vertlcaJ wall or 'bot box'1 f, a, 4-expn~!Yr ~=r.ln cd flap; s-chec k nut ;, 6- nut to control th~
compensators; s - tubcs or gas-light water tori '!Ill o·"7- annulnr sill lot a tr; 8- cona en d-p iece,
4- trc th; 7-hender; 1- water wnl 1 suspens g • 9- Cramc; 10- pressurized air In
 I'
II
II
Download From Boilersinfo.com
I =-21:..:6:....__ _ __ _ _ _ _C:::.:.:.h:· ...1:.:7...:.. ..::E:.:v:.::a po rating He attng Surfaces
made from finned tubes, the bent por-
tions around the manholes are repla-
ced by smooth tubes of the same dia-
meter.
The boiler enclosure also has
100 mm v iewholes for observing the
combustion process and inspecting the
state of the heating surfaces. The view-
holes are protected by refractory glass.
In gas-tight boilers, compressed air
is supplied into the viewholes to pro-
tect the operator when replacing the
glass or introducing measuring instru-
ments into the gas path (Fig. 17.26) .
17.4. Refracto ry-faced Wate r W alls
Refractory-faced side water walls
(Fig. 17.2a and b) and platens (Fig.
17 .2c) are mounted in the zones of
intensive combustion, such as slagging-
bottom furn aces, cyclone furnaces,
and the igniting belts o£ f urnaces for
low-volatile fuels.
For making a refractory-faced water
wall, studs (pins) 10-12 rom in diame-
ter, and 15-20 rom high are welded by
resistance welding to the surface of
the tubes. The studs form the frame
for carbide-silica refractory paste and
remove heat from it to th e cooled tu-
bes. The refractory facing decreases
! in steam superheaters. The superhea-
Ii the heat absorption of t he tubes to a
small fraction . On the other hand, its
conductivity should be sufficiently
high to transfer the absorbed heat.
Heat absorption is also associated
with the density of the stud arrange-
ment, which is understood as the sum
of the cross-sectional area of studs per
unit area (1m 2 ) of water wall tubes.
At a higher studding density, the re-
fractory facing is hel~ in place more
firmly. The limit is determined by the
technological possibilities of stud wel-
ding. For high-capacity boilers, the
density of studs is usually 0 .15-
0 .25. The facing is compacted by a
pneumati c hammer to ensure its good
contact with the surface of studs and
tubes. To illustrate this, Fig. 17.27
shows temperature distribution across
a refractory-faced smooth-tube water
wall (p = 10 MPa).
1000 f-
16"0 240
Linin!! IIJicknuss, mm
Fig . 17.27. Temperature distribution in a
refractory-fac-ed water wall
J - chromlte; 2-studs; .Y- water wa ll tube; 4 -
tnsulatlOn pnste; 5, 8-wire net; 6- ra stening pin-
7-zolonltt~ p lates; 9-tightening plaster; JO-gas:
tight coating; A - temperature. o r rac ing; 13-
tcrn pcrature or pm 6
Studded water walls operate under
heavy tempera ture conditions, often
resulting i.n burn-off of the facing and
studs proper. The service life of re-
fractory-faced water walls depends on
a number of factors: furnace tempera-
ture, the geometry and material of the
studs, the contact resistance between
the metal and refractory facing, their
conductivities, and the properties of
slag. Under comparable co nditions,
the reliability of r efractor y-faced wa-
ter walls can be noticeably increased
by shortening the length of the studs
to 10-15 mm and increasing tho coef-
ficient of thermal concluctivil;y 'A.
above 6 V•l /(m K).
The height of the stu ds and the
thickness of .facing are 'self-control-
led ' , as iL were, in the course of opera-
tion accord ing to the thermal condi-
18.1. Classification of Supe rheaters
tions in the boiler. If the heat trans-
fer through the water :wall tubes is
too low, the surface faci ng the furna-
ce is fused together with exposed
studs, dissolves in molten slag, and is
filled by the slag. As a resu l.t, the
th ickness of the facing and the height
of the studs di minish to the best value
corresponding to the heat balance of
the wall . The carbide-silica [acing is
sometimes covered on the £ireside by
a layer of corundum pas te·,vhich has
a higher slag resistance. Double-layer
STEAM SUPERHEATERS AND SUPERHEAT CONTROL-
18.1. Classification of S uperheaters
Saturated steam produced in evapo-
r ating heating surfaces is further su-
p el'il eated to a specified temperature
ter is one of the most critical elements
of a boiler plant, since it is arranged in
the high-temperature zone and the ste-
am temperature in it acquires the
highest. value.
Depending on the method of heat
absorption, s uperhea ters ar e divided
into convective superheaters , which
are located in the convective gas duct
and al)sorb heat m ainly by convec-
tion, and radiant superheaters which
are arranged on the fur nace walls and
absorb Lhe radiant beat of the flame.
In addition, there is a group of semi-
radiant platen superh eaters that are
mounted at the top of the boiler [ur-
nace and, partially, in the horizontal
gas dueL between the radianL and con-
vective heating surfaces.
One m us I, distinguish between pri-
mary superheaters which superho~t the
saturated steam just produced tn the
217'
facing improves the temperature con-
ditions of studs. Refractory-faced stud- ·
ded tubes cause more trouble in main-
tenance tha n do smooth tubes when
burned-through portions of water
walls must be replaced.
In some cases, tubes are used in wa-
ter walls, on which outer ribs are fot-
med by knurling. Knurled tubes are·
extremely durable, firmly retai u the·
refractory facing, and are more con-
venient in repairs .
boiler and intermediate (or reheat)•
superh~aters, or simply relzeaters, in
which the worked-off steam returned
from the turbine is superhea ted once
more.
Convective superheaters are made
from steel tubes of an internal diame-
ter of 20-30 m m . In 1·eheaters, the dia-
meter of the tubes may be larger, up
to 50 mm.
Superheaters are usually made from
smooth tubes, as these are less ex.pen-
sive and simpler to manufacture than
finned ones. Smooth tubes are less
prone to fouling by ash and can he
cleaned more easily . A drawback of
the smooth-tube heating s urfaces is
that they have a limited heat absorp-
tion at moderate velocities of gas I low .
Heat transfer through tubular sur-
faces is restricted by the h eat passing
through the external surface o [ a tube,
and therefore, can be increased by ex-
tending that surface . Thus, it has
been proposed to make s uperheaters
from externally finned tubes, which
may h ave either longitudinal fins ([in-
ned tubes proper, Fig. 18 .'1a) or·
 :218
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Ch . 18. Steam Superheater• and Superheat Control
r.,t;l ,,•., ,1
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- mod orate li e;:~ ti ng; this, however, will
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(a)
(C)
Fig. 18.1. Superheater Lube banks
'(a) from tinned lubes; (b) from cross-nnned (gil·
led) tubes; (e) cross section o r a rifled tube
transverse fins (cross-finned, or gil-
led tubes , Fig. 18.1b).
In high-capacity monobloc units,
·steam ' reheating is employed widely.
.Since the pressure of reheated steam
is not high (3-4 MPa), the hydraulic
resistance of a reheater should also
not be high (the pressure loss not more
·than 0.2-0.3 MPa). This restricts the
mass flow rate of steam and requires
the use of Lubes of a substantially lar-
·ger dia meter, resulting in a lower heat-
· transfer coefficient on the internal
wall. Low values of tho hea t tra nsfer
·Coefficient a. 2 aL an intensive heating
-of the external surfaces of a rehea ter
can sometimes lead to an inadmissible
rise of t~unperature, especially at the
reheater outlet , which may turn out
to be too high for tho pearlitic steel
of which Lhe rolteator is made and ne-
cessitate a change to a more expensive
austenitic steel. Th e Lemperat.uro of
the rllheater w:-t lls can be diminis hed
by arranging t.e reheater in a zone of
require a s ignificant increase in its
surface and r~~ny be econom ically un-
favourable. Tho internal heat trans-
fer in the outlet ('hot') section of are-
heator can IH:: intensified by using in-
tern a lly fi nned , or rifled , tubes (Fig.
1.8.1c). This measure develops the in-
ternal surface! a nd substantially de-
creases Llw wall temperature.
SuperltcnLe r tubes are bent into
coils witlt a bendi ng radius of not
less tha n 1. 9d 0 ,. . Th iJ coil ends arc
we] dcd to rou nd-:>ecLio 11 hend ers . Tu-
be co ils may have one or more passes
(F'ig . 18.2a-d) . .MulLi··pass coils are
employed in high-capacity boilers.
With multi-pass coils, there may be
not enough place on a header for wel-
ding the tube ends. Furthermore, the
header walls may he weakened. This is
avoid ed in a 'glove'-type connection
of tubes to headers (Fig. 18.2e).
'
~3
(a) (h) (c)
I .
.
- -
(e)
Fig. 18.2. Types of superhea ter coils
(<r) s ing le-pass ; (b) two-paso; (c) thn•c·tlnss;
rour· r nss: ( r) ~l o ve-type multt - 1,nss
18.1. Classification of Supe rheaters 219
Fig. 18.3. Motion. of steam .and com-
bustio n products m convect1ve super- ',
heaters
'//.
( O) coun ter-tlow; (b) parallel tlc>w; (c ) and ,
(d) ml x cd flow ---l-4+1-l4- -1-H-1+1-- - +l-IH++H++- -+11+1-M-'l-+11++-
,..,.,::;.,..;,;.,.,,;d"'
" Jln / N h h h -7l7.N7Jh/m, ,, /;;, ,,-7/7 //7»?777
(h) (c) (d)
(a)
of burn-through of the last coils in the
Depending on the direction ~f flows
of steam and combustion pro-ducts, steam path, since both the steam and
the combustion products have the
superh eaters may be of parallel-flow,
highest temperature here and , the Lube
counter-flow or mixed type (Fig.
metal is under heavy temperature con-
18 .3).
A counter-flow superheater (Fig. ditions . In a parallel-flow superheater
(Fig. 18 .3b}, the tem l)erature gradient
18 .3a) develops the highest t emperatu-
re rrradient between combustion pro- is much lower and the tube m etal ope-
du;ts and steam, which makes it pos- rates under more favourable tempera-
ture conditions, since the tube coils
sible to diminish the heating s urface
area and the use of metal. A drawback in which tho steam has the high est
or this scheme is the elevated hazard tempera ture are in contact with Lhe
A-A
s,
8
(h)
I
I
I
T g (a)
I
Fi • 18.4. Tube fastenings o! (n) vertical and (b) horizontal superheaters
g 11· •I a ctor}· packing · 4- scallng box· s - c lam p; 6- suspen-
(d) J- superheatcr tubes; 2- roof wa tr.r wn .~~~~~:a tcr wall 011 the' bottom otllorlzontnl duc t ; /0-st onds;
.slon: 7 :md ~J~u,.'i',~,1;0 ~t~w~;~~ ~~j~gerr:~'i~~~c "nwsh: / 3- J"einloi'Cing bars; 14- hcat Insulation
 220
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Ch. 18. Steam Superheaters and Superheat Cont rol
, Fig. 18.7. A verti cal platen superhea-
't"_.f
2
V\
I ous methods depending on their ar-
\ the t op loops arc held by clamps. The·
. headers and clamps are suspended from
I 4_
- 5
"
I I-
I (~
• lr
Fig. 18.5. ALtachment of a horizontal con-
vecth•e superheater to water wall tubes
and 4-headers of suspended tubes; B-suspended
1
tubes; 3-superbeater bank; s-supply header
or superhea ter
combustion prod uc ls which have a1-
ready been p artially cooled in the inlet
section of the superheater. T he mixed-
flow scheme (Fig. 18 .3c and d) offers
t he bes L solution as regards the cosl
and r eliabi lity of convective superhea-
ters .
T he tube coils of superhea ters are
ananged eiLher vertically or horizon-
tally. Vertical superheaters have a
simpler design, can be fastened more
r eliably, and are less subject to slug-
ging, but are undrainablc, i.e. the
condensate cannot be drained off from
them completely . This can cause inter-
nal corrosiou and in volve certain dif-
fi culties in boiler firing. Horizontal
Fig. 18.6. Attachment of tubes of a hori-
zontal superheater bank to susp ended tubes
1-suspended tubes; 2-spncing tubes; J-super-
heatc•· tubes; 4-supporting strips
superheaters have a more intricate de-
sign as regards their fastening, but
enable complete drainage of the co n-·
densa te .
T ube coils cnn be fastened by va ri-
ra ngcrnent. In vertical su perlteate1·s,
t he boiler structure (Fig. 18.4a). Hori-
zontal su perheaters opernting at the·
teropemture oi combusLio n products
up to 700°C arc fastened to s tands ma.
de from heat-res isting steel sheets (Fig .
18 .46). At higher temperatures, the·
stands may bo subject to intensiv e·
high- te mperature gas corrosion , espe-
cially in gas and fuel oil fired boilers.
In this case, horizontal battks arc su-
spend ed from tho tubes of the ston m-
wator path of the boil er (Fig. 18 .5).
The s upporting Lubes a re of the same-
diameter as other tubes in the hea ting
surface, but have supporting strips
welded to them (Fig. 18 .6).
Radianl superheaters. I£ the heat ing
surface of a rad iant superheater in
drum-type boilers is no t large, it can
be locat ed on the furnace roof (Fig.
17.6, item 3). Otherwise, it can occu-
PY part of the vertical walls of t he fur-
nace. l n once-through boilers, t.he ra-
cliant superheater usuall y occupie;; the-
furnace t•oof, thc upper a nd med ium
radiation sections, and the walls of
tl1e horizont al flue duct.
Th e tubes of vertica l and horizon-
tal radiant sJperheat ers are fastened
in the sa me way as in evaporating hea-
ting su rfaces. They should be allowed
to expand freel y on heating .
Rad iant superheaters have cert.ain
advantages, in pa •·ticular , a low hydra-
ulic resistance (fra ctions of a mega-
pascal) and a low resistance on t.l1e gas
side, s i uce they do not block up the
gas duct.
Platen superheaters . A p laten super-
heater is usually a system of tubes as-
sembled into a fl at gas-tig h t band w ith
inlet and ou tl et headers . Platens are
arranged vertica lly or horizontally
with spacings of 600-1 000 mm bot-
ween th em . Vert.ica l platens are fa ste-
18.1. Classification of Superheaters
ter
J- pla1f'nl3: 2-platc n supp_Jy tu•ader: J -
4c
>lntt·n di sc llnrgr header; 4-tn lel hox or pi a·
~ en SUIJ<'rhcat cr; 5- o utl ct box <Jf p lal"n
.!'upcrhcatcr
ned by the upper header (Fig. 18 .7).
The principal advantage of plate11s is
that. they absorb both rad iant and con-
vecti ve heat, which ens ures their h igh
thermal efficiency with a low resistance
in the gas path. Platen su perh eaters
can abso rb up to 50% of tho tota I heat
of superhea ting. SofLe11 ed as h parti-
cles continuously s tick lo lhe su rface
A -A
I I
I by using tubes of a larger diamete r
Fig. 18.8. H or-i zontal platen superhea ter
mounted on cooled s uspended tuhcs
l -borlzon t al platens; B-su•pended cooled ~ub<•s;
3-beaders: 4-coll eetlng boxes; 4-spacer>, 6 -
£Upport strip of platen bank
221
A A-A
4 M J 5
. Jc' . 5
I
. ' . _.,. ' -- --- '
f
v~
600·
f-.- ·
1000
·-
.::JI
~
of platens and solidify on their tubes.
Those, however , are self-cleaned due
to vibration, so that ash deposits can-
not grow to a n appreciable thi~knes~ .
Dense deposits can only form 111 boi-
lers fired on highly-slagging fu el gra-
des. A drawback of vertical pl atens
with a top header posiLion is that they
cannot be drained off. Horizontal
platens are fastened by cer~a in ,tubes
f rom th o platen bank (Ftg. 18.8).
Tubes in n p l <~ L en may wid el y dif-
fer in l cn~rlh and shape. Parallel tubes
may nbs~rb different quantities of
heat. Front tubes are heated much
more strong ly than other tubes in a
pl aten. As a resu lt, the external tubes
of a platen may turn out to o per~ te
un der critica l conditions. The relta-
bility of platens is enhanced by ma-
king one or more tubes that operate
under the heaviest condi tions from a
more heat-resisting grade of st eel or
(Fig. 18.9a.); by making the external
tubes of a shorter length (Fig. 18 .9b);
or by shadowing the external tuhes.by
a frame of Lubes of :111other hea twg
l
{a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 18.9. Methods of pro LecLion of extreme
tubes in platen superheaLe rs
 222
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Ch. 18. Steam Superheater• and Super/teat Control
surface operating at a lower tempera-
ture (Fig. 18.9c).
Platens are usually made from
smooth tubes. At some power sta l.ions,
membrane-typo platens w it h finned
tubes have been Lested. They are slag-
ged less heavily and can be clea ned
more easi I y; their Lubes are held more
firmly in line . Horizontal membranes
can be s upported only at the ends,
i.e. without intermediate supports or
suspensions, since they have a suffi-
ciently "rigid struct ure.
18.2. Operation and Reliability
or Superheaters
As regards conditions for creep and
scaling, the metal of superheaters ope-
rates practica lly at the upper safe li-
m iL. The margin of temperature rise
of the superhe11tor meta l is raLher li-
mited, and therefore, Lhe allowable
maldislribuLion of heat (see Sec. 11.4)
and the allowabl e temperature rise
above the average (rated) v alue are
very low.
Ort the other hand, in high-ca pacity
boilers with a high steam superheat,
a nd t herefore, high heat absorptio n of
t he superhouLer. an actual maldistri-
bu tion o£ boa L can easily exceed the
allowable lirniL , which will lead to a
loss in reli ability of the superheater
operation. Up Lo recent times, there-
liability of heaLing surfaces , in parti-
cular of superheaters, was calculated
for the service life of tube metal of
j 100 000 hours (or roughly 15 years).
I
T esting and operation of monobloc
units have proven that the service
life of metal can be increased almost
twofold. On the other hand, an incre-
ase in the temperature of the superhea-
ter by 15-20 dog C above the rated
value can shorten Lhe service life by
roughly 50%.
I n high-capacity boilers which have
a large cross section of gas ducts,
Lhe superheaters are heated extrem ely
unevenly over the width and height of
horizontal dueLs and over tho width
.and depth of vertical ducts. For ver-
tical supor·hcaters with tube coils ar-
"3; , , ~
.J .--4
. 1\ >J
.\
6
v 18.3. Positioni ng of Superheaters
'2
Fig. 18.10. Steam transfer by means of
cross-over tubes
l-supply bender; 2- beating surface; J - dlscharge
header; 4-slcam~ollecting box; 5- lnlcrmedlate
hendc r; G- cross-over tubes
ra nged in t ho plane of motion of com-
bustion products, and where steam re-
peatedly changes the direction of mo-
t ion from ascending to descending
and vice vorsa , non-uniformity of he-
ating over t ho height of the gas duct
is inessential since all pa rallel coils
are under tho same heating conditions
(provided that heating is un iform over
th e duct width). In horizontal s uperhe-
aters with tube coils lying in th e plane
of motion of combustion products a nd
with s tea m changing r epeat ed ly the
direction of moLion along th e dueL and
in the opposite direction , i.e. with the
coils arra nged perpendicul ar to the
front of gases, non-unifo rm heating
along the length of the duct is also in-
essential. On the other hand, heating
in both Lypes of sup erheater may be
substantially non-uniform, es pecially
in boilers wiLh a wide furnace front.
The effecL of non-uniform h eating
across the widLh of a gas duct can be
diminished by sectionalizing the su-
perheater across its wicl th and along
the length of the duct . I n such a case,
it is essential to transfer the steam
flow in a cross-over manner, i.e.
from one section to the opposite end
of a nexL soc Lion. Steam t ransfer bet-
ween sections ca n be effected b y means
of tubes (Fig . 18.10) or headers (Fig.
18.11).
In high-capacity boilers wiLh a wi-
de furnace front, steam transfer bet-
ween superheater sections pres en Ls a
much more serious problem and invol-
ves an increase in the hYdrau lic re-
-
sistance of Lhe s uperheater. I n s uch
cases iL is advisable to organize combu-
stion in t.he furnace so that non-uni-
18.3. Pos itioning of Superhea ters
1
Fig. 18.11. Steam transfer by means or
headers
Dcslcnatlons as ln Fig. 18.10
form heating of the gas ducts over
their width is minimized. · ·
T he major portion of the s uperhea-
ter in a boiler is usually arranged in
tho horizontal gas duct and immedia
tel y above it, i.e. at the entry to the
convective furnace shaft. In high-capa-
city boilers, the depLh of the shafL
and the height of tho horizontal dueL
are roughly of the same substantial
size, which at high velocities of com-
bustion products results in a high ly
non-uniform velocity and concentra-
tion fields, especially of coarse ash
particles at turns and aL Lhe entry to
the convective shaft (see Fig. 16.5).
When tube coils of the superheater
aro arranged perpendicular to the gas
front, all coils aro sub jected to wear
by ash , which increases the scope of
superheater repairs. In the superhea-
ters with tube coils parallel to the gas
front, intensive wear is concentrated
on a small group of tu bes at the rear
wall of the gas duct.
The cooling conditions for the tubes
of superheat ers and reheaters are dif-
ferent. Superheaters are cooled by
steam from the very moment the boi-
ler is fired and can be arranged direct-
ly in tho furnace, as well as in the con-
vective duct. R eheaters begin to re-
ceive steam only when the turbine is
started up, i.e. they are not cooled at
all for an appr eciably long time during
boiler start-up . The same is true in an
emergency shut-down of the boiler.
In order to avoid metal superheating,
reheaters are preferably of the conve-
ctive type and, less frequently, of the
platen type, and are arranged io the
zones of moderate heaLing where Lhe
temperature of combustion products
is not higher than 850°C. In a number
of circuits, reheaLers are cooled at
start-up and shut-down by fresh steam•
supplied th rough an attemperator.
The temperature of tube metal in a·
superheater is substantially higher-
than that of the steam that flows in
i L. If there is no maldistribution or
heat between the p arallel tubes of a
sup erheater, the relationship between.
these t wo temperatures is given by for-
mula (10.12). Under com parable con-
ditions (i.e. with the same values of-
t,, a 2 , 6w, and A.w), a radiant s uper-
heater is heded much more intensively
(q ~ 500-60L• kW/m 2) than a convec-
tive superheatur which operates in a
zone of moderato LemperaLures of com-
bustion products and has a h eating ·
ioLensity which is an order of magni-
tude lower than the radiant superhea-
ter. In view of the maldistribution of
heat, the wall temperature of the worst
malfunctioning Lubes of a radiant su-
perheater may exceed the temperature
of the steam in i L by 100-150 deg C.
Positioning of the superheater in
tho combustion product flow depends ·
on steam parameters (see T able 17.1)
and the arrangement of evaporating
heating surfaces . For instance, in me-
dium-pressur e boilers (p = 4 MPa,
t., = 440°C) where tho heat absorp-
tion by the superheater does not ex-
ceed 20% of the tot a I abso rption of the-
boiler and the evaporati ng s urfaces-
occupy the entire surface of tho fur-
nace, the superheater is of t he conve-
ct ive type and positioned immediate-
ly behind a membrane wall (Fig.
18.12a). Tubes in the front rows of Lhe
superheater coils are spaced widely
ap art to avoid slagging. The superhea-
ter is m ade by tho combined scheme ·
in order t o protect the m etal in the·
last coils from the effect of excessively
high temperatures. It has vertical Lu-
bes. and is undrainable.
In boilers for a pressure of 10 MPa
aod t,. = 540°C (Fig. 18.12b), Lhe·
s uperheater cons is ts of a convective·
section and a radiant platen section.
•
I
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Cit. 18. Steam Superheaters and Superl1eat Control
:224
fY"'.
""· ) "0'
~
I@
_,
. radia Lion sections of the boiler, steam
b
:;;..-
' ?(7
I ;;;--
(a)
J
2--..
l "
7 1
.'i---
(I>)
Fig . 18.12. Schemes of superheater arrangement
• (a) P = 4 JII Pa, ' • • - 44 o•c: (b) p = 10 MPa , '•• = 54 0"C; (c) p = 14 Ml'a , 1,. - 54~"/54r••c: (d) p -
_ 25. 5 JI!Pa, 1,. _ 545"/545"C; 1-<:onvedlve superheater; 2-p laten Sllperhentcr; J - roor superheat.er:
4- eonvretl\·e n:heater; S-htmace water walls: 6-slag screen: 7-suspcnd~d lubes
The platen sectiott is located in the
upper portion o[ the furnace in front
. of the suspended lubes of the rear wa-
ter wa ll and the convective section is
in the horizontal portion of the con-
vective gas du ct. The platens are the
first to meet the combustion products
. and thus protect the convective secti-
on from slagging by ash. Tho two se-
ctions of the su r)erheator are connected
i n series and tho hot bank is arranged
in the co nvective gas duct. Steam is
fed from the boiler drum first into
·tho smaJl rndi ant section and further
i nto the roof water wall , the pia ten
section a nd the convective section.
In boilers for pt·essuros of 14 MPa
. and t,. = 545/545°C, there arc usual-
ly a main su perheater and an inter-
media te (rehcal) superheater (rehca-
t er), as shown iu Pig . 18.12c. The a:-
' rangemcnt Of the main superheater LS
18.4. S1~perheat
. are also rather sensitive to disturban-
cylinifer ces in the furnace, especially those ar-
.
ranged directly in Lhe furnace. A ty-
r products passing through it increases
ro metlium- pical scheme for connection of super-
J 11ressure heater elements in supercritical-pros-
'
cylintler sure boilers is shown in Fig . 18 .12d.
Upon passing the medium and upper
2"'"
~ ~
rom II
i'ressv is directed into a roof water wall
and then into the platens and the con-
\· ~
cylimier
vective bank of the superhc.a ter. The
. ~ . rebeater is made in the fo'fm of two
convective banks. Both the superhea~
(C)
ter and the r eheater are drainable.
2 stances are responsible for the fact
Q /
J;J 18.4. Superheat Temperature Control
J steam increases more quickly than do-
The control characteristic, i.e. the
l relationship between the boiler load
J To high· and the temperature of superheated
. . / ~~ steam, is different for various super-
cy tntt're
•f'rt,~SI
I cr h eaters. A typical feature of r adiant
Tb 11Jetlium-
E-= J / ·pressure superheaters is that the temperature
. ·= J ..; (.':
cy/intler of superheated steam decreases with
. '"'-
From h
i;h· an increase in the boiler load (curve
. -- .pressure 1 in Fig. 18.13). The quantity of beat
{d) c,vlimler absorbed by radiant heating surfaces
depends mainly on the ' theoretical
temperature of fuel combustion, the
flame emissivity, and the thermal ef-
ficiency of the water walls (see Sec.
20.3). These parameters, however, de-
essentially tho same as in boi lors for pend only very slightly on the quanti-
p = 10 MPa and l 31 = 540°C. The ty of burned fuel, i.e. on the boiler
reheater is positioned in the convec- load. For this reason , the heat absorp-
tive furnace shaft in the zone o[ mode- t ion in a radiant superheater i ncreasos
rate temperatures of combustion pro- less quickly than the flow rate of steam
ducts (below 850°C}. through it, and therefore, the unit
With a further increase in st.eam pa- heat absorption (per unit of steam flow
rameters, the fraction of heat to be s pent
on superheating considerably i nc•·ea-
ses, so that the superheater must be
partially positioned in the boile•· fur-
nace. 1n this case, it may consist of
radiant., platen and co nvective sec-
tions.
The scheme for connectiou of the ole ·
ments of a superheater should take in-
to consideration tha t tb c radiant se-
ction operates under l•eavier co ndi- o·
tions than the convective secLion. For
this reason, tho radiant sectio n is com-
monly connected to be I,be fi rsl i u the Fig. 18.13. Control characteristi cs of super-
heaters
steam path. Plateu-type su pcrhea lcrs l-radlant; 2-eonveclive; J- COmblncd
15-01524
Temperature -Control 225
rate) decreases. In a convective super-
heater, the quantity of combustion
almost in proportion to the boiler
load, with the r esult that the heat
transfer by conduction increases in
proportion to the power of 0.6-0.65
of gas velocity. Thus, as the direct
heat absorption in the furnace decrea-
sos and the temperatu_re-of the combu-
stion products at the furnace exit in-
creases, the temperature gradient in
the zone of convective superheater
becomes higher. Those two circum-
that the temperature of superheated
es the boiler load (curve 2 in Fig.
18.13).
With properly selected dimensions
of t.ho radiant and convective super-
heater sections, it would be possible
to obtain a constant temperature of
superheated steam (curve 3 in Fig.
18.13). Under practical conditions,
however, the temperature of superhea-
ted steam will vary due to certain ope-
rating factors, which include the tem-
perature of feed water, the excoss air
ratio in the furnace, slagging of the
furnace water walls, especially of the
superheater, and the moisture content
of the fuel.
In drum-type boilers where the su-
perheater area is fixed, the steam-ge-
nerating capacity decreases as the
temperature of feed water decreases.
With a constant fuel consumption,
this means that the quantity of heat
of the gases absorbed in the superhea-
ter zone per unit flow rate of steam
increases, resulting in a higher tem-
perature of superheated steam. In
once-through boilers, on the other
hand, a lower feed water temperature
leads to a respective drop in the tem-
perature of superheated steam, since
the unit heat absorption remains con-
stant. An increase in the excoss air
ratio in the furnace is associated with
an increased quantity of combustion
products passing through the convecti-
ve superheater, resulting in more in-
tensive heat exchange in this section
 Download From Boilersinfo.com
226 Ch. 18. Steam. Superheaters and Superheat Control 18.4. Superheat Te mperature Control 227
j
I and a higher temperature of superhea- 100% of t he r ated value and th at of This method of steam temperature
t ed steam. An increased moisture con- reheated steam, from 60% lo 100%.
Lent of fu el leads to a higher tempera- Methods of superheated steam tem- ~ (a) ~ •.
t control shortens the steam path be-
hind th e controller and the time fo r
Lure of superheated steam, since the perature control. There are two main ~
f
J. I - varying the quantity of heat accumu-
quantity of combustion products pas- methods for contro ll ing tho tempera- v T
v lated in the metal o[ the sup erheater
sing through the superheater increa- ture of superheated s team: s team con- (b) section behind the con troller. The de-
ses and the combu stion producLs con- t rol and gas control. 1 layed effect o f the attemperator on
tain more triatomic gases; therefore, Stearn control is based on reducing
th ey have a higher emissivity and in- the enthalpy of steam by transferring
~ ~ (C)
~ • the temperature or superheated steam
is determined by the heat abs01·ption
crease the heat-transfer coefficient on part of il,s heat to feed water or b y t 2 of the path behind the attemperato r.
the firesid e. Slagging of the evapo- injecting demineralized water into ste- With a lower heat absorption of that
r ating water walls resu 1ts in a higher am. These methods are usually emp lo- lss path, th e desi red temperature is a t-
temperature of combustion produ cts yed for controlling the t emperature tained more quickly arid control is
at the outlet from the furnace and in of live sten m. St on m control is also more flexible. The drawback of this
a respective increase in steam tempe- used for controlling the t emperature arrangement (Fig. 18. 14c) is that it
rature. By contrast, slagging of tho of reheated steam, but in this caso it t" lengthens the Lime of responso.
superheater proper impairs heat ex- is based on the r edistri bution of heat c
A surface-type atlemperator is es-
L
change in it and decreases the tempe- between the fresh and t·eheated sentially a tubuJ ar heat exchanger
ra ture of th e su perheated s team. steam. with cooling water (usually feed wa-
In once-through boilers where t he Gas control is based on vary ing the Fig. 18.14. Effect of the position of attern- ter) flowing in the tubes and the flow
perator on superheated steam temperatu re
zone of phase transition is indefinite, heat absorption on the firesid e of h e- in the superheater path of steam to be cooled (or condensed,
tho actual surface area of the superhea- ating surfaces to a value ensuring the (o) positioned downstream or the superhe ater ; if the attem per a Lor is moun ted at tho
t er section varies with variations in desired Level of superheated steam (b) Inserted betwe~n superheater 6<:Ctions ; ( c) superheater inlet), around the tubes
ups tream or tbc s upo.rbcatcr; 1-n ttemperator;
operating factors owing to displace- t emp erature. These methods iuclude 2- allowablc s team lcmpcrnlu rc (Fig. 18. 15). The tube system con·
ment of the end of evaporation zo.no. recirculation of combustion products, sists o[ U-shaped coils mounted in a
In this case, the temperature of super- bypassing part of the combustion pro- tor, between th e superhea tor sect ions, cylindrical housing.
heated steam can be maintained con- ducts around the superh eater, a nd va- or in the sa turated-steam line. With A surface-type attemperator is con-
st ant by controlling the ratio between riation of the position of t he fl ame in the a t temperator arranged at the out- n ected in series with the boiler eco-
the water flow rate and fuel consump- the furnace. Gas control is employed let of the superheater (Fig. 18.14a), nomizer (Fig. 18.16). At any load of
tion. On the other band, once-through mainly for con trolling the temperatu- th e latter remains unprotected against the boiler, all feed water passes thro-
boilers have a low accumulating ca- re of rehea ted steam or, if there is no excessive rises in the steam t empera- ugh the economizer, thus ensuring its
I pacity (i.e. a low bul k of water and rehea ting of the temperature of live
met al), and are thus rather sensitive steam.
t ure; for this reason, the method is
not used fo r con trolling the tempe-
reliable cooling. Surface-type attem-
perators are employed in low-Gapaci-
to variations in the water flow r ate Steam control. Steam control has rature of main superheated steam. ty boilers.
and fuel consumption , which result found wide application and is effe- In other v ersions of the attempera- Water injection is the simplest melh·
in variations in the temperature of cted in h eat exchangers: surface-type tor arrangements, the turbine and su- od of steam control. A spray-typo a t.
su perheated steam. and spray-type attemperators, or de- perheater are properly protected. Tho temperator (Fig.18.17) is essentially a
I n operation, the temperature of superheaters. In this case, the surface scheme with the attempera tor inser- portion of a header in which conden·
superheated steam is allowed to vary area of the superheater has a cer- t ed between the su perhea tor sections sate is injected into the flow of super-
from + 5 t o- 10 deg C of the r ated tain reserve, and the excessive super- has however a lower i nertia , especial- heated steam . It is introduced through
value. Even combined radiant-co n- heat is removed in the attemrJcrator. ly at h igh pressur es (Fig. 18.14b). an atomizing nozzle with a number of
vective superheaters cannot ensure a Surface- and spray-typ e attempcrators
constant steam temp erature in opera- are used to control th e temperature
tion within these limits, becat1sc of of main, or live, steam. The temperatu-
which st eam boilers arc provided with re of r eheated steam is controlled in
means for superheated steam tempera- live-steam reheaters. Injection of con-
ture control. Si nee the load of a power densate into the ilow ofrebeatedsteam
st ation may vary considerably, the is economically unfavourable, s ince tl:o
I control means should maintain the additional quant ity of superheated
rated superheat temperature within steam thus formed enters together with
wide limits of steam-generating capa- the main steam into t h e t urbin e bypas-
•
J Boiler axis
cities. The temperature of superheated s ing the high-pressure cylinder.
steam should be kept at the rated Y a- The attcmperator (desupcrhcater) Fig. 18.1 5. Surface-type att.empcrator
Jue in the load range from 30 % to can be mounted behind th e supcrhea- 1 11nd r - supply nnd disch nrgr hcnd~rs; J-covcr; 4-coils; 5- bo:r:
 228
Ch. 18. Steam Superheater& and Superheat Control
2 attemperators
4 f
3 a drum-type boiler is min ora! ized,
Feed woter
Fig. 18.16. Connection of a surface attem-
perator into the circuit
1-drum; 2-auemperalor; J-wa ter drainage from
nltempcra tor; 4 -eeonom izcr
Condensate
~O:J0- 5000 mm
Fig. 18.i7. Spray-type attemperator
1- atomlzlng nou lc; t - pipe connection; 3- hea der;
4-protecllve Jacket
holes 3-6 mm in diameter. The nozzle
is covered by a j acket (with a 6-10 mm
gap between them) to avoid contact
between the rolalivcly cold condensa-
te jets and the header walls which are
at the same temperature as the superhea-
ted steam. The length of the jacket
(4-5 m) ensures complete evapora-
tion ofthe water droplets inside the ja-
cket.
Spray-typo attemperators are sen-
sitive to tho quality of s pray water.
Once-through boilers and many drum-
rz
~-
\:
•
f J, }if / 4
' r.
Feed walur "'-=::>
IL
l
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type boiler::> arc fed with tho tmb in e
condensate and arc often provided
with spray-typo attemperators for con-
densate spraying. Ir the feed water for
condensate for spraying is obtained
directly from the boiler (Fig. 18.18)
by condensing saturated steam.
It should be noted that if the spray-
type attempcrator is arranged too clo-
se to t he superheater outlot, the steam
temperature before tho spray nozzle
may be too high and will impair tho
operating conditions of the header
metal in that place. fn some circuits,
two or even three injection points are
provided in the steam path (Fig
18.19a and b) in order lo control the
temperature of steam a nd prevent ex-
cessive temperatures behind the su-
perheater secti ons. The las I, injection
point in a circuit is arranged before
t he last stage of the superheater at
t.i = 160-300 kJ/kg.
Live-steam rebeater. Jf the main
superheater is of the radiant typo and
the rehealer, convective, a drop in
the boiler load will increase the tem-
perature of main (live) steam and
decrease that of reheated steam (see
Fig. 18.13). To equalize the tempera-
ture in both, it is reasonable to lake
some of the heat from the live steam
and transfer it to the reheated steam.
This may be don e in a live-steam rehe-
ater, which is used essentially for re-
distributing the heat absorbed by ra-
diation and convection.
A section of a live-steam roheater
contains 10-20 ttLbes that are 25-35 rom
in diameter, mounted in a 300-
400 mm header (Fig. 18.20). The ap-
paratus is U-shaped for better com-
pensation of thermal expansion of the
/f ti
7
Super-
healer!
Fig. 1.8.18. Superheat co ntrol by
Tsieam
l condensate spraying
1 -L'COnomlzcr; 2- cond cnsm·: 3- drum;
_ _ _ _ _ _ .Jl 4-condensntc tonk: ~ and 7-supP.r-
beate_r; ..6-spruy-typc ntlcmperalor
18.4. Superheat Tcmp~rature Control 229
Fig. 18.19. Superheat control by
(a) two and (b) three spruy-type
1- condenser; .t-drum; 3-·radlant
superheater on furnace wall; 4 and 1G -
radiant root superheater; 5 , 1, 17 and
19-platens; 6, 9, 15, 18 and u -
spray-type allemperators; 8, 10, t l and
u-convectlve superheater sections;
11 -eeonomh.er: It- lower radiation
section ; JJ-mcdium radlnllon aeetlon;
u-upper radiation section; .tO-live-
steam rebeater (see Fig. 18.20); I, II
Supply
and HI- spray lines
lwe (h)
behind all elements having radiation
tube system and more compactness.
Live (superheated) steam moves in characteristics (see Fig. 18.13, cur-
the tubes and reheated steam in the ve 1). Accordingly, the heat absorpti-
housing (header). The temperature is on by tbe live-steam reheater increa-
contx:olled by bypassing part of tho ses with decreasing boiler load.
flow around the heat exchanger. In tbe circuit shown in Fig. 18.21a,
Live-steam reheaters usually have all superheated steam passes through
a number of sections, up to a few tons tho live-steam reheater. The tempera-
in high-capacity plants. Tho sections ture o[ reheated steam ·is controll ed by
are connected in parallel. T ho range varying its flow rate, i.e. by directing
of steam t emperature control is 30- pari, of the. rot1oa ted sl,eam flow around
40 deg C. the live-steam reheater through a ste-
A live-steam reheatcr absorbs tho am bypass valve, which changes the
heat of the superheated steam and is coefficient o[ h ea t transfer from the
located outside the gas path. OUter wall to steam, ex., and the temperatu-
reheating surfaces in the boiler are re gradient in the live-steam reheater.
arranged in the convective gas duct The drawback with this circuit is a
and connected in series. high power loss due to an appreciable
The main connection schemes (or hydraulic resistance in the su perhea-
a live-steam reheater in tho circuit ted steam path.
are shown in Fig. 18.21. In all of them, In the circuit illustrated in F ig.
the live-steam rehealer is connected 18.21 b, the iive-steam reheater is vir-
Steam from
h igh·
·p r essure
2
Tram
cglincler I hiqh-
- jJI'essure
cglintf_~r
J To
metfivm-
·pressure •
Reheated
cylinder
steam ..
oullel l/nif A
Fig. 18.20. Typicul section of a live-steam reheater
r- tlvt•· steam rchcater section; 2-control valve; 3- by·pass lin e; 4-spa cer striP;. ~-bottom; 6-Gectlon
· head; 7-senllng disc; 8- hent-i!xc honce lubes; 9- secllon housmg
 230
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Ch. 18. Steam Superheaters and Superheat Control 18.4. Superheat Temperature Control 231

Supercrilico?· aLer; these flows are usually control- (.,.r F lame control in the furnace. Heat
--P.e3sure f 2 led by means of b ypass valves. ..-7 t.,(wi/11 utircufofion) absorption- by furnace water walls is
n eam polh oliOO
--...lr,-- Gas control. Gas control is effected . ·reO determined by the temperature level
reel
by recirculating combustion products,
tilting burners, turning on and off
-- 't--5 C8J 2 6 ~~~
o\
•\\10
and the pattern of temperature di-
stribution. H eat absorption in the fur-
:J 0 nace, and therefore, {)-;, can be varied
the burner tiers, or bypassing combu-
stion products. - \9
by varying the position of the flame.
Supercrilicol·
·pressure
~team path 1
(aJ

2
Gas control is employed to maintain
the desired temperature oftbe reheated
4
t
/ 0
This, in turn, changes the heat absor-
ption by the roheater which is arran-
ged in the convective gas duct. For
--1\r-Ti'i<IT--4--- steam, but it is associated with chan- {a) (h)
.I ·51,--..:: 4 8 ges in combustion conditions in the
Fig. 18.22. Steam temperature control by
instance, if the burners are tilted down-
wards, tho total radiant heat a b-
r:----~ea'lum·
·P.ressure
furnace, and therefore, can influen-
ce the temr>erature of the superh eated recirculation of combustion products
(a) recirculation scheme: (b) crrect ol bolle•· steom-
sorption by the water walls, Qr1Q1,
Supucrifical· increases, while the temperature al
·pressure •leom puf!t steam, too. Gas control involves addi- ~:~encrnting capacity on the superheat ternpe•·aturc
<fl'om po...;.l_h_...J ,.~~ and the traction of recirculated combustion pro- the furnace outlet, {)-(, decreases (Fig.
1 tional power consumption for draft ducts: J - lumace; 2-economtzer; J- reclrculatlng
18.23), resulting in a lower heat ab-
and heat Joss with waste gases and al- ran: 4- admisslon or col d combustion products
Into the lower portion ol lurnace; S-combustlon
5 so has an effect on the temperature of produc ts recirculated Into the upper portion or fur- sorption by the reheater. On the other
the superheated steam, which compli- nace: 6-to regenerative air heater: 7-supe rbea lc r band, if the burners arc tilted up-
Medium- wards, the heat absorption by the wa-
· pressure cates boiler operation .
sieom pal/I Gas control cannot ensure the spe- at the furnace outlet. Recirculation ter walls decreases, while the tempe-
Fig. 18.21. Connection of live-steam rchea t- cified temperature of th e superheated increases Lhe flow ra to of gases thro- rature of combustion products at t.he
crs into the circuit steam and for this reason is employed ugh the superheater. These two cit:- furnace outlot i ncroases. Thus, as the
1-radiant and semi-radiant supcrbcal<:r sec tions; in modern boiler::; only in combina- cu ms lances increase the convective boiler load drops down, the tempera-
t-convcctlvc SUJlCrhea ter sections· J- stcnm bv-
pass vnh•c; 4- llvc-steam reheater; s'-rntxing charn- tion with steam control. In circuits heat exchange, and therefore, the tem- ture of the reheated steam diminishes
ber; 6 nnd 8-convccllve reheatcr sections; 7- (Fig. 18.13, curve 2) and the burnet·s
bypnss line; 9-orilice plate with steam reheating, the application perature of the superheated steam.
of the two independent control meth- Since recirculation decreases the direct are tilted upwards so as to raise the
ods is inevitable. heat exchange in the furnace, it has a steam temperature. Gas control by
tually not used at . the rated load of Recirculation of combustion products. positive role in protecting the water burner tilting can maintain a constant
the boiler. AI most all the superheated Combustion products at a temperature walls of the lower radiation sectio n temperature of reheated steam at bo-
steam passes through the bypass val- of 250-350°C are taken off the conve- ~gainst overheating (see Sec. 17 .3). iler loads ranging from 100 % to 70%.
ve and only 5% of it enters the I i ve- ctive shaft by the recirculation blower Recirculation of combustion products The position of the flame can also
steam heater. At a reduced Load, the and subsequently returned to the fur- is increased at low loads, when the be changed by tur ning some of the
flow rate of the reheated steam thro- nace. This makes it possible to redi- temperature of the superheated steam burner tiers on and off. If the furna-
ugh the live-steam reheater decreases, stribute the beat between t he beating drops, and is turned off at high loads, ce has three tiers of burners and the
and the fraction of superheated steam surfaces, depending on the circulation when steam superheating increases; total fuel consumption by them cor-
passing through it is increased by clo- ratio. At a higher recirculation ratio, as a result, the volume of combustion responds to 150% of the steam-g~ne­
sing the bypass valve. This ensures a a greater thermal effect is obtained. products at the outlet from the plant rating capacity, operation with any
constant reheated steam tempornt.ure The lowest recirculation ratio to avoid varies only s lightly. S ince, however,
at reduced loads of the unit. The draw- a reverse How in the recirculation the volume of combustion products
back of this scheme is that the cont- circuit and prevent the blower from at low loads becomes higher, this
ro~ valves must have a large cross se- cooling is roughly 5%. leads to an increase in {)-wg and q 1
ctlOn and operate at high or supercri- Recirculated combustion products a nd an elevated fuel consumption.
tical steam parameters. can he introduced into the upper or It is advisable to introduce recircula-
The scheme shown in Fig. 18.21c lower portion of the furnace (Fig. ted gases into the hot air box of the
is a compromise between the former 18.22). The temperature and aerody- burners.
two. In this case, an uncontrollable namic conditions in the zo ne of mo- Recycling combustion products in-
fraction of Jive s team flows through tion of .recirculated gases may diEfer, to the top portion of the furnace has
the live-steam reheater; this is esta- depcndtng on the recirculation circu- no essentia l effect on furnace opera-
blished at tho rated boiler load and it and recirculation ratio. The intro- tion, but substantially lowers the
remains constant at other loads. duction of recirculated gases into the temperature of combustion products
The flow of reheated steam is usua- lower portion of the furnace decreases in the superheater, thus preventing Fig. i8.23. Effect of the angle of burner
lly divided into the main flow, which the direct heat absorption in tho furna- s lagging of the superheater tubes, but tilting on th e beat absorption of furnace
passes through a Live-steam robe a tor, ce and accordingly increases the tem- somewhat decreasing the heat absorp- water walls and the temperature of com-
and the bypass flow around tha 1. r el10- perature of the combusLion products tion. bustion products at furnace exit

'
Il
232
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Ch. 19. Low-temperature Heating Surfaces 191. Arrangement of Low-te mperature lleatlng Surfaces 233

Combust ion products Combust ion orn.dll" ·'·• gradient, which determines the inten-
- - t sity of h eat exchange, decreases to a
th minimum at the 'hot' end of the air
I heater (Fig. 19.1). Because of this,
1 the temperature level of waste gases
I
I is determined not by the temperature
J I gradient between the fluids at the cold
I end of th e air heater, but by the eco-
(a) ' I nomically effi cien t temperature gra-
I dient D. t at the hot end, which is lo-
wer than the former. This tempera tu-
Fig. 19.1. Variation of temperature gra- re difference is usually not less than
dient during air heatmg 30-40 dog C. Any further increase in
the temperature of hot air is ineffici-
The air heater operates tinder condi- ent in view of the very weak beat ex-
(6) (c) tions which differ from those of the change in the hot portion of the air
economizer or other heating surfaces. heater (llt is too low). Thus, an incre-
Fig. 18.24. Schemes of temperature control of superheated steam by bypassing of combustion I t bas the lowest temperature gra- ase in the temperature of hot air is
products dient between combustion products associated with an increase in the
(a) passin g combustion produc ts through a tree g11s duct; (b) distribution or combustion productR be tween
parallel gna duels by mcnna or control gill<: '·nlves; (c) distribution ol combustion )lroducts by mcuns ol n and air and the lowest heat-transfer temperature of waste gases or an in-
control Inn; J - rcbcntc r; ll- cconomlz<:r; a- control gate valve; 4- mnln tan; 5-control Inn coefficient. For this reason, the surfa- crease in tho heating area of the air
ce area of the air heater is usually gre- heater. Figure 19.2 shows the tempe-
two tiers turned on can ensure 100-% controlled by a gate valve. The latter ater than the total area of all elements ratures of waste gases which depend on
load .. Thus , at high loads, i.e. when operates under heavy cond ilions, of the steam-water path, and in high- the temperature of air preheating at
steam superheating incr eases , the lo- which explains why this scheme is capacity boilers may range from a few various ratios of water equivalents
wer tiers are turned on, and at lower not popular. I n Fig. 18.24b a nd c, tens to a few hundreds of thousands of ('I' < 1), t eo = 30 deg C and the tem-
loads, the upper tiers are turned on. the reheater sections and the economi- square metres. perature gradient at the hot end 6.t =
Bypassing combustion products. The zer are mounted in parallel gas duels The air in the air heater is a medium = 40 deg C. As may be seen, to pre-
temperature of reheated s team can be ('split duct') and the gases are distri- that has a low water vapour content. heat the air to 400-420°C (fuel anth-
controlled by passing the combustion buted between them either by gate On the other hand, combustion pro- racite) at 'I' = 0.8 , the temperature
products around the reheater. Vari- valves arranged behind the heating ducts which pass through it usually of the waste gases at the air heater
ous schemes for effecting the method surfaces (as in 'b'), or by exhaust fans have a high water vapour concentra- outlet should b e not less than 1.40-
are illustrated in Fig. 18.24. In (as in 'c'). The latter two methods are tion (depending on the content of mo- 1500C. For fuels with a higher mois-
Fig. 18 .24a, a 'free ' gas duct is pro- more reliable than the first, but com- isture and hydrogen in the fuel), as tu re content (brown coal), 'I' = 0.65,
vided between the reheater sections, plicate the design and increase the well as of triatomic gases (C0 2 and and the temperature of waste gases
and the gas flow rate through ·it 1s cost of the plant. 80 2), and their volume and heat capa- for the same level of air preheating
city are higher than the respective must be {}118 = 200-220°C, which is
values for air. The volume of combu- economically inefficient. l n contrast
stion products also increases due to to this , in a counter-current economi-
the presence of excess air. As a result, zer the temperature gradient at the
the ratio of the water equivalents of
air and combustion products, 'I'. =;::
= caV 0 /c 8 Vg, in the air heater is .al-
ways less than unity. This means that
air is heated in the air b eater more
LOW-TEMPERATURE HEATING SURFACES quickly than the combustion products •
are cooled. For instance, with a low
moisture content of the fuel, air is
19.1. Arrangement o£ Low-temperature se elements should pursue the follo- heated in the air heater on the avera- tha
Heating Surfaces wing objects: to intensify h eat ex- ge by 1.2 deg C per each degree the 50~--~--~--~~--~
change, minimize th e dimensions of the combustion products are cooled, or tOO 200 300 400 500
The low-temperature heating sur- elements with a moderate use of metal, with fuels of a high moisture content Fig. 1!1.2. Effect of air heating on the tem-
fa ces of a boiler include the air h eater and minimize the effects of abrasion by 1.4 d eg C per each degree. T hus, as pera ture of waste gases at various ratios of
and the economizer. The design of the- wear by ash , fouli ng a nd corrosion. air is b eing heated, the tempera ture water equivalents
 234
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Ch. 19. Low-temperature Heating Surfaces
l)~c t"ec
Temperature
0
Fig. 19.3. Distribution or temperature gra-
di ents in a single-stage arrangement of low-
temperature heating surfaces
I -economixer; f - air heater
hot end increases , since water has an
appreciably higher heaL capaciLy.
The low-temperature elements of
a boiler can be connected into a s ing-
le-stage or two-stage circuit.
In a single-stage circuit, the econo-
mi zer and ai•· heater are arranged in
I series in the gas path and connected
by the counter-flow scheme (Fig. 19.3).
This scheme limi ts the possibility
of air heating in the air heater. I n
the single-stage circuit, it is essential
to properly select the gas temperatu-
re at the boundary between the eco-
nomizer and ai r heater. Noting the ra-
tio of water equivalents, the most ef-
ficient temperature of waste gases is
obtained on air preheating to 250-
3500C. If air should be preheated to
350-450°C, the air beater is of the
two-stage type and the economizer 1s
t"ec Tetnperature
_o+===:::;
"+f,-; ;, =:;:=::::;r.;
,\; "4c
~~
lira
!,
/ I ~~(
I i[)erpendicu lar or parallel to the boilet'
It
arra nged between its sections (Fig.
19.4). The essence of tho two-stage
circu it is an increased tem perature
g1·adient D.t at th e hot end of the ai r
h ea ter, since ·its hotter (seco nd) s tage
is in the zone where combustion pro-
ducts have a higher temperature. T his
makes it possible t o hold the tempera-
ture of waste gases at an appreciably
low level.
Air heaters a re made of carbon steel
for which the allowable temperatu-
re is not more than 500°C; with an air
preheating t emperature of 420°C, this
means that the temperature of the
combustion products should be not
higher than 580°C. The temperature
of the combustion products behind
the superheater is usually higher,
600-650°C, so that a hot section of t he
economizer is mounted before the se-
cond stage of the air heater in order
t o protect the metal in the latter.
The two-stage circuit of the air heater
and economizer substantially increa-
ses the height of the convective shaft
and the cost of construction; that is
why it is employed only wi tb fuels
for which a high preheating of air is
essential.
19.2. Economizers
Plain-tube economizers. A con-
tinuous loop-type economizer is the
main type of economizer employed in
boilers for various pressures. I n order
to intensify heat transfer and minimi-
ze fouling, the economizer coils are
l1ra
..=7 l)k
'-/
Fig. i 9.4. Distribution o[ temperatu-
re gradients in a two-stage arrange-
ment of low-temperature heating sur-
faces
1 and J -sccond and first sta~:c ot the eeo-
nomh.er; e a nd 4-sccond and tlrst s t age of
t he air heate n
19.2. Econom:: us 235
f
4
(a } (h)
Fig. i9 .5. Connection of economizer coils to the header
(a) h>' means or connection pipes pnsotf•g through the boiler setting; (bl with the headers urranged in thr
gas duc t; 1- colls; :!- header; .t- conru·ctlon pi pes; 4- coll-supportlnJI s tructure
made from steel tubes o( a small dia- front, t ho length of the supply header
m eter (internal diameter 20-30 mm and th o number of Lubes can be s ig-
and wall thickness 2.5-3.5 mm). As nificantly decreased but the length of
in other heating surfaces, the ends of the tubes in the coils is greater and
the coils are connected to headers requires a more reliable means of fa-
whicl1 are ananged beyo nd the zone stening. In boilers with a wide front,
o()f gas heating. The coils are connected two-sid ed symmetrical economizers
to the headers by welding. In high- are employed with the headers arran-
capacity boilers wh ere the number of ged at the two sides (Fig. 19.6b).
<economizer coils is J:~rge , requiring Water in the steel tubes of eco nomi-
that many tubes be passed through zers may be vaporized. A ccoi'Ciingly,
tho refractory lining fo •· connection to economizers may be either non-boi-
an externa l header, thus increasing ling, where water at the outlet is sub-
air inleakage, the coil ends are conno- cooled below the sat uration point or
ct ed to a small num ber of intermedi ate boiling, in which a certain quantity of
pipe connections, as shown in Fig. steam forms in the outlet portion. The
19.5a. In gas-tight boilers, the eco- steam content of water at the econo-
nomizer headers are almost always mizer ou tlet should not exceed 25% .
m ounted in the gas duct and serve as Both types of economizer do not dif-
economizer supports (Fig. 19.5b). A fer substantially in design.
st aggered arrangement is prefera ble Extended hea ting surfaces of econo-
for tl1e economizer tubes. Motion of mizers. Jn order to intensify heat
water in an economizer is ascending to absorption on the gas side and make
ensure the free exit of gases a nd steam the apparatus more compact, rectan-
with water. To facil itate operation gular fins are often welded to the pla-
.and repairs, economizers are usually in tubes of an economizer (Fig. 19.7a).
sectionalized in the path of combusti- This in creases the use of m etal per
o()n products, with sections (banks) of a unit h eating surface area, but gives an
height up to 1 m. The spacings bet- essential gain in heat absorption, so
ween the sections are usually 550- that, for the same amo unt of metal
600 mm wide. 1
) J f
Economizer coils can be arranged I
-
- 2
/ ~
front. In the former case (Fig . 19.6a),
v ·
2
/ J 4
th eir length is not largo a nd is deter- /
mined by the depth o( th e gas duct
T his simplifi es coil fastening, but all (a) (b)
\
co ils in a bank are subjected to abra- Fig. 19.6. Economizer arrangemen t
s ion wear by ash. W ith economizer 1-drum; 2- watcr tubes; 3 -economizer; 4 -suppJy
wils arranged parallel to the boiler headers
 236
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Ch. 19. Low-temperature 0 eating Surfaces
19.3. A lr Heaters 237
s, operation. Economizer membranes
may b e made with a more extended su r- Air heating
~ face ('lobe-type' membranes). b!f com/Jus/tan products by intermediate
com!Jmed
heat rorrter

z 2 -......,
Z:_:t -- l~
19.3. Air Heaters I J
t
Operating conditions and classifica-
\ \
- =t - - -fL~
I
l
-__
...
).,
J:-r----1 /
tion of air heaters. Modern high-ca- (0) 1- J

(a) (b)
pacity boilers are always provided
with a n air heater. The role of the air
4

(o)
I 2-.......
-:...r
5-...
__
(C) ,A
...). _
I-I
Fig. i9.7. Finned tubes of economizers heater increases with the unit power I
(a) welded-on tins; (b) Integral tins of a plant. This is associated with the .- 7- '-" I I
fact that the temperature of combusti- ~----+-_)
on products behind the economizer is. J~ (d)
and same draft, the volum e occupied / Q/
still rather high (350-450°C). By uti- 9 ff

~~--tr--A--
by a finned heating surface with re-

cta ngular I ins is 25-30% smaller than
that of a surface with plain tubes. Be-
sides, p late steel is cheaper than tubes.
I n recent times, profil ed finned tu-
bes (with trapezoidal fins) have b een
adopted for use in economizers (Fig.
19.7b). Finned tubes decrease tho di-
mensions of an economizer by 40-
50% .
lizing t his heat in the air heater, th~
temperature of combustion products
can be lowered to 120-160°C. Air
preheati ng increases boiler officien-
cy.
On the other hand, the a ir heater
proper operates in the zone of lite lo-
west t emperature of combustio n pro-
ducts, so that part of its surface (in
L_~-:- ~ ~--·-;-
\ I (e) J
8 5
Fig. 19.9. Mclhods of air heating
(a) tubular air heater; (b) regencrntlvc air heater; (c) alr preheating: (d) combina~lon or ~ow~.rc~~T ~co~~
ml •cr and air hentcr: ( <) cascade ai r heater; 1- Lubular air beater, .e--co~ust O~lr? UC • scadc ~tlon
regenerative air heater· s - low-pressure economlu:r; 6- nlr beater; 7- water, 8-s m. 9 -ea
ortubular air beater; 10- maln tubular air heater; 11-mlxe.r

Cross-finned tubes (with helical or the co ld end) may be at a temp em ture

circu lar fins) are also used in economi-
zers . They can be employed in boilers
fi red on non-slagging fuels.
Membrane-type heating surfaces
may be promising in economizers
(Fig. 19.8). They are made from plain-
tube coils with steel-sheet spacers
2-3 mm thick welded inbetween the
straight portions of the tubes. Mem-
brane-type economizers are more effi-
cient than the plain-tu be type, con-
sume less metal for the same heat ab-
sorpt ion, and are quite . reliable in
s, s,
I
II Fig. i9.8. Convective membrane
'
!
equal to or lower than the dew po int
of combustion products. Und er s uch
conditions, a moisture film can form
in the colder por tion and cause corro-
sion and fouling. These adverse effects
are enhanced in the combustion of
high-sulphur fuel oils and at high ex-
cess air ratios . In gas-tight boilers
where fuel can be burned at a low ex-
cess air ratio, the corrosion rate is
lower (see Sec. 16.3).
Air beaters operate either by there-
cuperative or the regenerative prin-
cip le. I n recuperative air heaters , heat
from ·combustion products or another
heat source is· transferred continuously
to air thro1Jgh a heating surface. I n
regenerative a ir heaters, the heating
surface is swept alternately by com-
bustion products and air and is thus
alternately heated and cooled.
Air can be h eated in air h eaters by
combustion produc ts either directly
(Fig. 19.9a) or through an intermedia-
te heat-transfer agent which may be
in the form of solid p acking (Fig.
19.9b), hot water (Fig.19.9d) or bleed-
er steam from the turbine (Fig.
19.9c and e).
Direct heati ng of air by combustion
products. R ecuperative air heaters are
mostly of the tubular type. They arc
s imple in manufacture, but consume
mu ch metal a nd occupy a large space.
Tubular air heaters usually have a
verti cal tube arrangement (Fig. 19.10).
Tubes with an ex ternal diameter of
30-40 mm and a wall thickness of
1.2-1.5 mm are welded by the ends to
tube plates and arranged in a stagge-
r ed order. The upper tube plate h as a
thickness of 20-25 mm and the lower
<>ne, 15-20 mm.
Combustion products ~low through
the tubes (longitudinal f~ow) and give
up their heat to the air wh ich moves
b etween the t ubes (cross-flow), i.e.
the working fluids are in cross-curre~t
flow relative to each other. As 1s
known, the most compact heat ex-
eh anger is obtained with a pure~y _coun-
ter-current fl uid flow, but th1s IS un-
realizable in tubular air beaters. T he
eounter-currout scheme can be appro-
xima ted r ather closely by causing the
a ir to move in a number of passes bet-
ween the tubes. The air heater is divi-
ded by a number of p artitions in tho
air path so as to obtain the optimal
air voloci ty for the conditions of heat
exchange. Air boxes are provided_ in
places where the air flow changes due-
ction. A tubular air heater has an ex-
ternal steel casing and its lower tube
plate bears against a frame wh ich is
fastened to the stands of the boiler
structure. The tube system can ex-
pand upwards on heating. The upper
tube p la te is connected to the gas duct
above it by means of a gas-tight sea-
ling with expansion compensators
(Fig. 19.11 ). For convenience of t ran-
sport and mounting, tubular air hea-
ters are usually in the form of sepa-
rate cubical sections .
In boilers of moderate capacity, the
tubular air heater is usually of the
single-flow scheme with air enteri_ng
the wider side of the ap paratus (F1g.
19.10) . In boilers of a higher capacity ,
i.e. with a larger air flow rate, the
single flow scheme requires a greater
luiight of th e air healer. resu lting in a
lower tom perature gradient.. The height
of the apparatus can be substan-
tially diminished by using the spli t-
fl ow scheme, i.e. by dividing the air

l.
 238
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Ch. 19. Low-temperature Heating Surfaces
Combustion products Fig. 19.10. Tubular air heater
7.-l.ubes; II and 6- tube plates; J-cxpnu -
~ ~
soon compensator; 4- box, 5-part.ltlons :
2 ?- framework; 8- lramc
J
Hot air
f ..
ICm~d olr
8 rugated tubes are more expensive, the
Waste gases
in the heater into two or more sepa- and therefore, the ternrJerature gra-
rate flows; this makes it possible to in- dient (Fig. 19.12a). The combination
crease the number of passes for air, of the split-flow scheme with densely
arranged small-diam eter tubes ma-
kes the tubular air heater rather com-
pact. In boilers of very high ca paci-
t ies , air in the h eater is divided int()
a greater number offlows (Fig.19.12b).
. With the same velocity of combu-
. 3
stion products and air, tho coefficient
of heat transfer at the gas side of an
2 air heater a 1 (longitudinal flow) is
lower than the heat-transfer coeffi-
cient at the air side a. 2 (cross flow).
Heat transfer can be intensified by
I increasing the coefficient a.~. in longi-
tudinal flow, for instance, by making
the heating surfaces from corrugated
tubes (Fig. 19.13) of a sinusoidal shape-
Fig. 19.11. Tube-plate packing
with a constant radius of curvature.
1- tube plnt.e; 2 and s-expnnslon compensators; To avoid clogging of tho tubes by ash,
4- framework bcurn corrugated-tube air h eaters are conne-
19.3. Air Heaters
Fig. 19.12. Air paths in tubular air
heaters
J- cold air entry; 11- hot nl r exll
ctcd by the reverse scheme, that is
air moves in them through the tubes
(longitudinal flow) and combustion
gases, between the tubes (cross flow).
Corrugated-tube ai r heaters are rnore
efficient than the straight-tube type
and, for the same capacity, their
mass may be 50% ]ower. Though cor-
cost of a corrugated-tube air heater
turns out to be 33% lower than that
of the conventional type. Tubular air
heat ers are simple in design, reliable
in operation, and are more tigllt than
other types of air heaters.
Air beating by combustion products
through an intermediate heat-transfer
agent. From the standpoint of thermo-
dynamics, it does not matLer whether
heat is iransferred from combustion
products directly through a wall or
first to an intermediate h eat-transfer
agent and then to air. In the latter
case, each of the processes involved
can be carried out independently and
under optimal conditions.
The principle of air heating through
an intermediate heat-transfer med ium
is realized i.n regenerative air heaters
which are employed widely at ther-
mal power s tations. A regenerative
239
Combustion Combustion
products products
. t t
--'---,.- ~ I + i
t t I I
I
(O) (h) '
a ir heater has a so lid packing-usually
a pack of steel sheets which are heated
by combustion products and then give
up their heat to air. It is typica l of
air hent.ers with an intermediate heat-
transfer agent that corrosion on t ho
heating surfaces hAs practically no of-
feel on the air inlenkage into tho gas
path of t he boiler.
Regenerative air h eaters. Regenera-
tive ai r heaters employed at thermal
power stations are mostly of tho rota-
ry type. The heat-transfer packing
is formed from thin corrugatedor;plane
steel sheets w ith narrow channels
(of art equivalent diameter d 811 =
= 6-9 rom) formed between them for
the passage of combustion products
and air (Fig. 19.14). The packing is
placed into a hollow cylindrical rotor
wh ich is divided by radial partitions
into isolated sectors. The rotor (Fig.
19.15) is driven by an electric motor
through a gear or a cogwheel transmis-
sion and rotates slowly (at a speed of
0.008-0.065 s-1).
Tl1e housing of the regenerator is di-
vided into two sections by the upper
and lower sector plates with necks for
admitting combustion products and
air. The gas an d air flows move
Fig. 19.13. Corrugated tube
240
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 19. Low-temperature Heating Surfaces
~"l\:'\~(~af)rr~~~t~~~~-\:1
" ·· spacer sheets which h ave wavy ridges
""I
(b) t ly than in tubular air hea tors. Further,
Fig . 19-14. Packing profiles of regenerative
air heaters
((I) packing or th e bot section with corrugated
!' spacing sbeel; (b) packing or the cold section
ugh t.he rotor separately and continu-
ously, while the rotating p acking in-
tersects them allernately. The two
flows are in counter-curr ent relations.
Thus, when some of the sectors ·are
h eated by combustion products, others
give up t he accumulated heat to air.
The packing of a rotary air heater
should ensure an intensive heat ex-
change and have an aerodynamic re-
sistance as low as possible. Its designs
are diverse, the most popular being
shown in Fig. 19.14_ The packing pro-
file is chosen according to the tempe-
tea
4
2
1
....
·~
""=
'
r}ah
tha (a)
Fig. 19. t 5. Rotary regenerative air heater
(a) longitudinal section ; (b) rotor; (c) points or air pass-over; 1-rotor; 2- s tat!onary bousing; J-packing;
4- dnvcn gear wheel; 5- drivlng gear wbeel; G-reducer gear; 7-elcc trlc drive mo tor; bt and sb-top and
bottom sector plate to separate gas and air flow; -
rature conditions. Its hotter portion is
made so as to intensify heat transfer
(as in Fig . 19 .14a) and consists of two
types of sh eets: corrugated sheets and
oriented at an angle of 30° to the flow
direction. T he colder portion of pa-
cking )las a simpler design (Fig.
19.14b) and consists of corrugated
sheets and plane sheets between them.
Corrugations turbulize the flow and
enhance heat transfer.
Since rotary air heaters have ch an-
nels of non-uniform cross section in
the packing, convective heat transfer
in them can be intensified more easi-
they are simpler in manufacture, since
corrugated sheets for the packing
can be made from large sheets by rol-
ling or stamping .
The quality of rotor packing may
have an essential effect on the coeffi-
cient of utilization of the heating sur-
face area. With poor filling of the ro-
tor, combustio n products and air may
partly encircle t he packing, thus de-
creasing the air heater efficiency.
The heating surface area of 1 m 8
of tho rotor packing is usually 300-
340 m 2 • Contact of t he packing with
the gas and air flow is limited in ti-
me (usually less than 30 s). Th e ro tor
packing should be heated quickly in
the gas flow and quickly give up its
heat to air. Packing sheets of a thick-
ness of only 0.6-1.2 mm can transfer an
Combustion
products r+-.
rr- --
I
-- - ~
I
.I
~
J
f
- -
y Air
(h) (c)
- air pass-over
19.9. A tr Heaters
appreciable quantity of h eat. Thin she-
ets are also favourable in that t hey
vibrate in the gas or air flow and t hus
are cleaned from ash. In some types
of regenerative air heaters, the pa-
cking is made from metallic, ceramic
or glass spheres.
Corrugated-sheet packing has a se-
rious drawback: thin sheets are destroy-
ed quickly by corrosion and abrasion.
Another drawback is that the heat-
transfer coefficient in longitudinal
fl ow is rather low.
Regenerative air heaters are usual-
ly made with a rotor of a diameter up
to 10m, or even 15-17 m in high-ca-
pacity plants, which rotates on a ver-
tical axis. vVhen the roto r is of a lar-
ge mass, it requires a heavy-duty ra-
dial thrust bearing. \iVith l10rizontal
arrangeme nt of the rotor, the rotor
load can be distributed between two
ball bearings of a smaller size; fur-
thermore, horizontal-rotor air heaters
can be arranged more easily in the gas
path of the boiler.
The gas and air flows in elements of
a regenerative air heater produce an
appreciable pressure gradient, which
is roughly the same in balanced-draft
and supercharged gas paths and con-
stitutes 7-8 kPa. With a substantial
gap between the rotor and stationary
structures, this pressure gradient can
lead t o an overflow of a part of the
air t o tl1e gas side. Moreover, cold air
can be sucked in at the periphery of
the air ·heater gas side and some air
can be lost in the air portion (see
Fig. 19.15c). The total rated inlea-
l<age in regenerative air heaters is
around 20%, but may be substantial-
ly h igher in operation . Gas and air
overflow in a rotary air l1ea ter is pre-
vented by sealings in the inlet and out-
let of the rotor housing: annular sea-
lings at the external and internal cir-
cumference of the rotor and a number of
radial sealings which separate gas and
air sections . The peripheral sealing of
a standard rotary air h eater is illustra-
t ed in Fig. 19.16. It is made in the
form of a cut-t hrough sealing ring
whose elements form a very narrow
I G-0 1524
24 1
·~-tt---r-8
2
~---r- 4
~.-- 5
Fig . 19.16. Sealing ofregenerative air heater
l-wall or gas-supply pipe; 2-cover flange ; 3-
block; 4-sprlng; 5- guode p late screwe d to flange ;
6 - cap screwed to rJange; 7-rotor flange; a - cy-
lindrical cas ing; 0- gap
gap 6 with the rotating flange of the
rotor. The width of the gap is controlled
by springs protected by gas-tight caps.
T he internal annul ar and the radial sea-
lings are designed in a similar manner.
The quantity of air transferred be-
tween the rotating plates into the gas
path (and vice versa) in rotary air hea-
ters may be substantiaL In some ro-
tary air heater designs, the air that
passes through the sealings is sucked
off and returned into the air path to
the intake of the blow fan_ .
Regenerative air heaters have found
wide application in high-capacity mo-
nobloc units. They are more intricate
in design than the recuperative type,
but occupy substantially less space,
have a low aerodynamic resistance
and, further, corrosion of the heating
surfaces does not increase air. inlea-
kage. Regenerative a~r heaters also
have certain drawbacks- for instan-
ce, they have rotating elements (the
rotor), intricate sealings which sepa-
rate the gas and ai.r flows, and a high
overflow of air into the gas path. T he
essential drawback of regenerative
air heaters with corrugated-sheet .Pa-
cking is that the sheets buckle, thus
preventing atr h eating above :~oo-
3500C.
 Download From Boilersinfo.com
242 Ch. 19. Low-temperature Heating Surfacer
Combustion
products /lot air
Fig. 19.17. Regenerative air heater with
separated air flows
/ - hot packing; J!- cold packing; 3- prlmnry air;
4- sccondary air; S- gate valve; I nnd 11- prlmnry
and secondary atr sections
In some power plants, for instance,
when burning low-volatile (anthra-
cite) or high-moisture fuels, primary
air should be heated to a higher tem-
perature than secondary air. In other
plants, such as in coal-pu lvorizing sys-
tems with an intermediate bunker,
the aerodynamic resistance of the
paths of primary and secondary air
may be substantially different. I n
such cases it is advisable to employ
rotary air heaters with separation of
the air and gas flow into sections (Fig.
19.17). The apparatus has a separating
ring and an additional sealing. The
place for mounting tho separating
ring is determined by the r atio of the
required cross-sectiona I areas for the
passage of primary and secondary air.
The separating ring separates both
the a ir flow and the gas flow. Air
temperature is controlled by gate val-
ves in the gas path, and the air flow
rate by gate valves in the air path.
Combined air heating. In addition
to conventional heating by low-tem-
perature heat of combustion products,
air can be preheated in steam air hea-
ters by low-temperature steam from
the regenerative system of the turbi-
ne. This method is advantageous for
combatting low-temperature corrosion
and fouling in the combustion of high-
sulphur fuels. The steam air heater
utilizes tho latent heat of condensa-
tion of worked-off steam from the tur-
bine and thus decreases the beat loss
in the circuit. Air can also be prehe-
ated by hot water produced in an eco-
nomizer by ut.ilizi ng th e low-tempera-.
lure heat of waslo gases. Steam air he-
aters and lo,v-preSSltre economizers are
usually employed for preheating air
which is then further heated in con-
ventional air h ea ters.
In modern high-capacity boilers,
the steam air heater is essentially a
tubular heat exchanger arranged bet-
ween the discharge of the blow fan
and the inlet stage to the main air he-
ater (Fig. 19.18). Bleeder steam from
the turbine, at u temperature of aro-
und 120°C, flows in the tubes while
air flows around thoro (cross-current
flow).
In winter at substanti al sub-zero
temperatures of the atmospheric air
(below - 15°C) , the inlet tubes of
a steam air hea ter and the condensate
drainage lines may frost up. Sche-
mes have been developed for prehe-
ating air in power units at various cli-
matic conditions.
In the low-pressure: economizer-air
heater system, air is preheated iu the
air heater by bot water from the low-
pressure economizer. Such systems
operate by the closed cycle and pre-
heat air before it is finally heated by
combustion products in a tubular air
heater (Fig. 19.19). An advantage of
the circuit is that it substantially de-
Wasle
gases
2 (a) connection cbcuit; (b) temperature
Fig. 19.18. Diagram o[ air preheating in
a steam air heater
J- s tenm ntr heater; t - blower
19.4. Corrosion Control of Air Heaters
..----- 7.
•
~
2
,_5
~
J
' cade stage; the greater portion of air
I 6
z.---
- portion behind the cascade stage, after
r- 0-
"--><
~
Fig. 19.19. Combined scheme or air preheat-
ing with economizer and air heater
J-low-pressure economizer; 2-IIIgb-pressure eco-
nomizer; J - alr beater· 4- clrculntlon pump; 5-
alr prchcater; 6-fced-wntcr pump,; 7- combu-
slion products; 8-n r
creases air inleakage. The system is
made closed in order to prevent. conta-
mination of the condensate by corro-
sion products; the ci rculation of de-
aer ated water in it is effected by a
pump. The temperature of the water
is slightly above the dew point, which
helps prevent corrosion in the low-
pressure economizer.
In a cascade air heater, all cube sec-
tions, except for tho last one in the
gas path, are heated by the total flow
rate of the combustion products and
cooled by the total flow rate of air.
Corrosion in the low-temperature por-
tion of the apparatus is prevented or
minimized by maintaining the tem-
perature of the metal above the dew
point of the combustion products. To
form such conditions, the cube sec-
tion which is the last in the gas p ath and
the first in the air path is fed with the
total flow rate of the combustion pro-
1 2
{j
(a)
I
243 I
ducts and a low flow rate of air (Fig.
19.20a). Cold air is divided into two
flows. The smaller flow (30-40% of
the total air flow rate} passes through
the air heater and then through the cas-
(70-60% of the total flow rate) . is
bypassed and mixed with tho first
which the mixed air moves in a coun-
ter-current flow through the hot
.. stages of the cascade air heater.
A simplified temperature curve of a
cascade air heater is shown in Fig.
19.20b. As may be seen, air temperatu-
re in the preliminary air heater and
cascade stage increases more rapidly,
since the flow rate of air through them
is small. For this reason, these heating
surfaces can be made rather compact.
Combustion products are cooled less
appreciably in the cascade stage, and
therefore, Lbeir temperature is high-
er.
19.4. Corrosion Control of Air Heaters
Among all the methods for corrosion
control in low-temperature heating
surfaces, the most efficient are raising
the working temperature of the metal
above the dew point, organizing the
operation of an air heater on the }ow-
corrosion part of the curve K = 'f (tw},
as seen in Fig. 16.9, andfuelcombus-
tion at the lowest excess air ratio.
Increasing the metal temperature
above tho dew point! td.p. is the most
common method for preventing low-
temperature gas corrosion. Watervapo-
urs are most likely to condense at
start-up and low loads of the boiler
7
Fig. 19.20. Cascade air heater
curve· J - blower; z-a.Ir heater; J -
Vwg cnscade section or air prebenter; 4 -
mnln section or air prebeater; :s-mlx-
{h) cr; 41- bypass line; 7-a.Ir; B-com-
bustlon products
 244
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 19. Low-temperature Heattng Surfaces
A -A
2 to 80-85oC at the outlet. [ n winter, air
plant, i.e. at u low temperature or
the combustion products. Such cond i-
tions occur, however, only for a short
time during boiler operation . Besides,
at low loads corrosion processes occur
substantially less intensively.
The local temperature of the wor-
king surface of an air heater is deter-
mined from the formula
I
I (tw}i = (ta}; + (q/a.2}1
II
. from which it follows that, for tho
,, given heating conditions , the tempe-
' rature of the wall in the coldest point
at the inlet of air to an air heater de-
. pends on the inlet air temperature t0
I and tho coefficient of heat transfer
'
I
I
from wall to air, a. 2. Therefore, it can
i be raised by raising ·ta or docreasi ng
i
a. 2. The IaLter circumstance, however,
Ii contradicts the general tendency to mi-
nimize the heating surfaces.
A universally applicab le method for
I preventing gas corrosion is by raising
I the inlet temperatu re of air, which is
Ii realized by preh ea ting the a ir in
steam air heaters.
• With nn~· method employed for
I raising the inlet temperature of air, it
helps to separate the colder po1'tion of
I
. 19.4. Corrosion Control of Air Ilcatc rs
Fig. i 9.21. Fastening unit of a
glass-tu be air beater
1- tu be pin tc~ 2-press ure plate; .1- g lass
lube; 4- rubber ri ng; S- spring wns hcr ;
G-stccl tube
the air heater as an indiv idual section
in which corrosion wear w ill be much
higher than elsewhere. This simplifies
repairs of tho air heater, since only
the separated section must be repla-
ced. The service life of regenerative
air heat ers can be increased a nd repairs
made easier by making the packing
of the colder section from sheets
1.0-1.5 mm thick (with the sheet thick-
ness in the hotter por tion being 0.5-
0 .8 mm).
I n new fuel oil-fired boilers, in the
initial heating zone of the air heater
where low-temperature corrosion may
be especially intensive, steel tubes are
replaced by glass tubes with a diame-
ter of 30-40 mm and a wall thickness
of approximately 4 mm. A glass-tube
air heater has essentially the same
design as a conventional air heater
with steel tubes, but glass tubes are
horizontally staggered. The combusti-
on products pass around a bank of
glass Lubes and the air moves in the
tubes. Glass t.n bes are fastened in tube
plates by means of pressure steel pla-
tes and ring washers made of heat-re-
sistant rubber (Fig. 19.21). The struc-
ture is made rigid by means of a
g/(mZh)
0.4
K'\
~
0.3
/
0.2
""'
0. I
"'/ i'-..
0 h eater are improved by introducing
100 flO 120 fJO
Fig. 19.22. Corrosion rate in cold pncking
of regcncrntive air healers
J - mclollic packing; 2- enamcllrd-metal paclang
number of steel tube li es welded bet-
ween the glass tubes.
Tho working t emperature range of
the ai r heater is from 10° at the inlet
is preheated to 10oC in a steam air
heater.
l n recent times, low-temperature
sul phuric conosion in air heaters is
prevented by applying corrosion-resi-
stant coatings to their heating sur-
faces or by making these from ceramic
materials. Acid- and heat-resistant
enamels are used for this purpose, in
particular, fo r coating the metallic
packing of the colder portion of rege-
nerative air heaters. The thickness of
an enamel coating is roughly the same
as that of steel sheets (0.5-0.6 rom) .
The rate of corrosion on enamelled
heating surfaces is mu ch lower than on
bare metal (Fig. 19.22); ash deposits
on enamelled surfaces are thinner and
can be removed more easily.
Under comparable conditions, low-
temperature gus corrosion is more in-
tensive at a higher su lphur content of
the fuel used. It is especially fast in
boiler plants that fire high-sulphu r
fu el oil.
Combustion of high-sulphur fuel oil
at tho minimal excess air ratio is an
effective means of diminishing low-
temperature sulphuric corrosion. With
a lower value o[ a.1 and a lower excess
o[ oxygen, combustion products con-
tain less SO a (see Sec. 16.3) , and the-
refore, their corrosion activity is lo-
245
we•·· In a particular temperature in-
. terval, fly ash particles can stick to
heating surfaces and form a moist
fi'lm on attaining the dew point td.p.•
in which ash particles are cemented
into a dense mass. Ash deposits di-
rniuish tho free cross section for the
passage of combustion produ cts and
....... 1-
lw
sometimes completely clog some tu-
bes in air heaters.
The operating conditions in the air
140 "C
various additives into high-sulphur
fuel oil (alkali additives, an aqueous
solution of magnesium chloride, etc.).
Additives lower the dew point td.p.
of combustion products and neutralize
the solution of suI pl1 uric acid that
forms on tho surface. The deposits on
the l• eating surfaces become loose and
can be easily removed by shot-bla-
sting. Further, liquid add itives di-
minish the amount of deposits, imp-
rove the conditions of fuel o i I com-
bustion, a nd decr:onse clogging of the
bumer nozzles by fuel oil coke. In
solid fuel combustion, moderate quan-
tities of additions give no positive re-
sults and additions in amounts com-
parable with tb e ash content of solid
fuel are too complicated and economi-
cally unfavourable.
[ n some plants, air is heated in
a mounts exceeding the quantity of
air required for combustion. The heat
of surplus air can then be used for
2
1
IJwg fca l)wg lett Vw! fca
(a) (6)
Fig. 19.23. Dingram.s o£ excess air preheat-
mg
(o) In tbe mnln air heater; (b) in an auxiliary air
hratcr; J-nlr Cor fuel combus tion; : -excess air;
a and 4- main and nux:iliary air hea ter
 246
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Ch. 20. H ea.t Exchange Cn H eaUng Surfaces
20.1. Thermal Characterlrctcs of Water Walls 247

can be heated to a high temperature. Fig. 20.1. Formation o£ effective heat

oth er purposes, say, for the heating
and desalination of water, heating of
fuel oil, drying of solid fu el, etc. Such
heat utilization also solves some prob-
lems in the boiler plant proper, for
instance, it decreases the temperature
of waste gases, raises the boiler effi-
ciency, or increases the efficiency of
electrostatic precipitators.
The heating of surplus air is utili-
zed advantageously in multi-purpose
plants where the heat-transfer medi-
um-air is free from impurities and
HEAT EXCHANGE IN HEATING SURFACES
OF BOILERS
20.1. Thermal Characteristics
of Water Wails
Heat absorption by water walls in
a boiler furnace is determined mainly
by the radiant heat transfer from
high-temperature gases in the furnace
to the external surface of water wall
tubes which may be covered by a
layer of ash. In open-type furnaces
with an uprising flame, the heat absor-
ption by water walls due to convecti-
on can be neglected, since gas veloci-
ties at furnace walls are low, while
deposits on the tube surface offer a
large thermal resistance to heat trans-
fer. In furnaces with a turbulent flame
(cyclone primary furnaces, furna-
ces with intercepting jets, etc.), the
convective component is significant
and should bo taken into account.
The intensity of heat exchange by
radiation is expressed by the Stefan-
Boltzmann law which relates the heat
flux density to the aren of heat-absor-
I bing surface and the fourth power of
temperature. The incident heat flux
In such plants, the heat-transfer medi-
um (combustion products) has a sub-
stantially lower temperature and the
gases are much more pure and have a
lower corrosion activity. Surplus hot
air can be produced in various air
heater circuits (Fig. 19.23). Tubular
air heaters are preferable, since they
can deliver clean, ash-free air and are
less prone to clogging by ash at low
temperatures of waste gases.
the sum of the intrinsic radiation
fro m deposits on the tube surface and
from the r efractory lining, which have
a suEficieotly l1igh temperature, and
of tho walls and the deposits is less
from the flame core onto the water
walls in boiler furnaces, q 1nc• is usu-
ally equal to 400-700 kW/mz, which
forms a temperature gradient t!..t =
= tu: - tw = 150-350 deg C across a
relatively thin layer of surface depo-
sits on the tubes, i.e. the temperature
on the surface of deposits, tex• sub-
stantially exceeds the temperature of
the tube wall metal tw. Thus, the in-
tensity of radiant heat exchange bet-
ween high-temperature gases and the
surface of water walls in a boiler fur-
nace depends neither on temperature
nor on the pressure of the working
fluid in the boilor.
The zone near a water wall is under
the combined influence of the incident,
effective and absorbed (result.ing) heat
fluxes. The incident heat flux from
the flame core, according to Stefan-
Boltzmann's law, can be written in
the following form:
qlnc = anc 0 (Tn/100) 4 •10-3 kW/m 2
(20.1)
)
rlux on n water wall
. 9er
.t t 1 t
·' The ratio·
The effective heat flux (Fig. 20.1) is
'l>e! == qr fq lnc (20.4)
characterizes the fraction of heat ab-
sorbed by heating surfaces on furnace
walls. It is called the coefficient of
the reflected flux, since the coefficient thermal efficiency of a water wall. With
thermal radiation from the surface a higher value of 'l>e!• wa~er walls
operate more efficie?tly, 1.0. they
than unity: absorb a higher fract10n of the total
heat. According to the results of tests
q.,= qinlr + qrc/1 in boiler furnaces , 'i>c/ has rather sta-
= [adepc 0 T~.p ·10 -1l ble values in combustion of similar
(1 - aaep) qlnel X fuels and constitutes: 'l>e! == 0.4-0.45
for solid fuels, 0.5-0.55 for fuel oils,
-1- [a, 0 JC 0T;,, ·10 - 11 and 0.65 for natural gas . It should be
-1- (1 -!are/) qincl (1 - x) (20.2) noted that the thermal efficiency of
ln formulae (20.1) and (20.2): r,, water walls in a boiler furnace is not
constant along their height: it is
TdeP• Tref are the temperatures of the higher at the level of the flarf:le core
flame, the external layer of deposits and diminishes towards the ex1t from
and the refractory lining, K, a," the furnace. For refractory-faced water
adeP• and a,.1 are the emissivities of walls from studded tubes, 'l>eJ == 0.2-
these elements, c0 is the emissivity of 0.25; for bottom water walls covered
the black body, W/(m2 K 4 ), and xis a by a layer of fireclay brick, ,p.,
coefficient determining tho fraction of == 0.1. Tho patterns of variation of the
==
tho total radiation which falls on the incident, effective and absorbed heat
surface of the water walls; this is fluxes along the height of a furnace
essentially the ratio of tho radiation- are shown in Fig. 20.2.
absorbing surface of a water wall to The fraction of heat flux falling on
the surface of the furnace occupied by a water wall is also determined by the
that wall. angular coefficient x of a water wall.
The effective radiation from heat- As may be seen [rom Fig. 20.1, the
absorbing surfaces in boiler furnaces angular coefficient x cannot. be fo_und
is rather high and may roach 50-60% merely from geometric ~on~tdorations
of the incident heat flux. as tho ratio of the pro]ect•on of tl10
The difference between the incident area of all tubes onto tho refractory
heat nux and tho effective heat flux lining of the wall to the total area of
is what is called the radiant heat flux that wall. Part of the incident heat
absorbed by a heating surface, q,. absorbed by tho wall lining is then
whi ch is further transferred to tho re-radiated onto the rear surfaces of
working fluid:

qr == qinc -- Qcf
tubes and is thus utilized. Only a
(20.3) small fraction o£ the heat flux from
 248
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Ch. 20. Heat Exchange tn Heating Surfaces
tically, with densely arranged tubes
(at = 1) or with a refractory-faced
water wall, x = 1, i.e. the heat flux
falls entirely onto a water wall.
The ratio
T4 r• r•
s
= n- dep = 1 - ( dep ) (20 5
1'~
1I
T4 . ) · II
tfinc
.
lS
'
called the coefficient of relative fou-
ling of water wall tubes. S ince Tdep >
> 0, th~ coefficient is always less s
than u~uty and is lower at a higher
T der• 1.e. at a higher thickness or
Fig. 20.2. Variations or the incident and thermal resistance of deposits. The
erfective heat flux along the furnace height difference T1t - T~ep determines the
absorbed heat flux, and therefore, the
Relractory-taced portion or water walls is shown
hatched s
coefficient characterizes the fraction
of the incident radiant heat which is
the lining within the angle of vision
absorbed by working fluid in the tu-
of the flame (<a) is reflected back
into the furnace volume. With a denser bes. Thus, the coefficient of thermal
efficiency ~)ef of a water wall and the
spacing of the tubes (smaller tube
pitch (} t = s/d), the angle a is na1·- coefficient of fouling £ are correlated
as follows:
rower, and therefore, a hi<rher fra-
• b
ctwn of the total heat flux fa lls onto 'l(l. 1 = x£
th~ tubes of a water wall (Fig. 20.3) . The cocHicient £ is somewhat higher
v~7 tth a common density of tube spa- than 'l(l. 1, since it disregards the small
cmg at = 1.05-1.1, the angular coef-
fraction of heat radiated onto the li-
ficient is equal to 0.97-0.99. Theore- ning of furnace walls.
:I In boiler furnace calculations, the
i 1.0 X concept of a radiant heat absorbing
I I surface is often used:
I of thermal (infra-red) wavelengths. At
I , 0.9
I : (20.7)
0.8 where F':,w is the surface area of the
·\
furnace that is occupied by water
0. 7 walls, m 2 •
i : \ sentially the sum of the radiations of
The radiant heat absorbing surface
0.6
is thought of as a continuous plane
0.5 surface which has the same tempera-
ture values, degree of fouling and
0.4 emissivity as the tubes of the water
wall. As follows from (20.7), Hr is
O.J somewhat smaller than the surface
area of the walls on which heating
0.2 tubes are arranged, hut greater than
1 2 J 4 5 fj 7 the sum of projections of these tubes
onto the wall.
Fig. 20.3. Angular coefficient of a single- The ratio of H r to the total surface
row smooth-tube water wall
J-!or a water wall on !umacc side . inc luding the area of furnace walls
radtatton !rom refractory facing. at e/d ;;;. 1.4;
ll-dttto, at e/d = 0.8; 8- ditto , at e/d = 0.5; 'X. = H rfFw (20.8)
4-dttto, at e/tl . 0 (the wall is partiall)· covered
by refractory lacmg); 5- !or a tulle row in a mem- is called the coefficient of furnace scre-
brane or platen (radiation or refruc tory racing
neglected) ening.
20.2. Flame Emissivity
In most cases, all the walls of a boi-
ler furnace are covered by heating tu-
bes, except for small portions around
the burner ports, manholes and view-
hol es, and the coefficient of furnace
screening is usually equal to 0 .95-0.96
and approaches the magnitude of the
angular coefficient x . In low-capacity
boilers, some portions of the fu rnace
walls are left uncovered by tubes and
.
the coefficient 'X. is substantially lo-
wer.
20.2. l~ lame E missivity
As regards their intensity of radia-
tion in the visible spectrum, flames
may be luminous, semi-luminous or non-
luminous. This division is rather con-
ditional, since radiation is a flow of
radiant energy not only in the vi-
sible region. The radiation o.E a lu-
minous or semi-luminous flame is de-
(20.6)
termined by the presence of solid par-
ticles (coke, soot and ash) in the flow
of combustion products. Radiation of
a non-luminous flame is mainly due to
triatomic gases (C0 2 and H 2 0) present
in the furnace. Their radiation is se-
lective and falls mainly on the region
the same temperature, gaseous substan-
ces have a much lower radiation in-
t ensity than solids. The radiation in
the volume of a boiler furnace is es-
solid particles and gases and depends
on the kind of fuel being burned .
The intensity of radiation. of solid
. partides in a flame depends on par-
ticle size, particle concentration in the
furnace volume, and the properties of
the solid.
Coke particles are usually of a size
Oc = 10-250 J.l.ID. T heir radiation in-
tensity is close to that of black body
radiation, but their concentration in
the flame is not high (less than 0.1
kg/m 3 ). They are concentrated mainly
near burners, so that their radiation
onto furnace water walls is on! y 25-
30% of the total radiation in th e fur-
nace.
249
Ash particles are mostly of the same
size as coke particles, but are distribu-
ted all over the furnace volume. Thei1
concentration in the gaseous med ium
depends on the ash content of the fuel
being used. The intensity of their ra-
diation constitutes 40-60% of the to-
tal radiation in the furnace . The in-
tensity oE radiation is lower at a high or
temperature oE the gaseous medium
and increases as the gases are cooled .
Soot particles can form in large
quantities on combustion of fuel oils
and natural gas. They have a high
concentration in the flame core and
possess a high emissiv ity [10] .
Radiation of triatomic gases in the
furnace is determined by their con-
centration and the thickness of the
radiating volume. The emissivity of a
gaseous medium is determined by the
relationship following from Bougu-
er's law:
-h p s
an= 1 - e g "
0
(20.9)
where kg is the coefficient of absorpt i-
on in the gaseous medium, Pr is the
total partial pressure of triatomic ga-
ses, MPa, and sis the effective thick-
ness of the radiating layer, m, which
may be found from formulae given in
[201.
The emissivity of the gaseous medi-
um in boiler furnaces ag = 0.4-0.5-
and their radiation is roughly 20-
30% of the total radiation in the fur-
nace. For all solid fuels, the flame
emissivity in the.- boiler furnace is
found by the formula:
an = 1 -e - ktP•
. (20.10)
where k 1 is the effective coefficient of
absorption in the furnace and p is the·
pressure of gases in the furnace, MPa.
In pulverized-coal combustion, the·
luminous flame fills almost the whole
volume of the furnace (Fig. 20.4). The
process of burning extends along al-
most the whole height of the furnace,
while the presence of incandescent ash
particles makes the flam e brightness
almost the same along the whole
height. The coefficient of absorption
 250
Ch. 20. Heat Ezchange in H eating Surfaces
1.0 Urt
\
0.8
~ vz
_'\
0.6
II
/ f
~ ............
0.1 11/11~
g 0.2 0.4 0.5
Fig. 20.4. Variation of flame emissivity
along the height of furnace
J-tor pulverhced coal; z- tor f uel oil
<>f radiation by the furnace volume is
l calculated by the formul a:
k1 = k8 r+ ka!.la + k cx (20.11)
where r = rRo, + rH,O is th o total
volume concentration of triatomic ga-
ses, lea is the effecti vo coeffi cient of
absorption by ash particles, fJ.a is the
dimensionless concentration of ash in
furnace gases, kc is the effective coef-
f icient of abso rp tion of r adiation by
coke particles, and x is a constant for
a particular kind of fu el (low-reactive
<>r b igh-reactiv e).
Solid fuels produce a semi-luminous
flame on combustion.
In fuel-oil fired boilers , the radiati-
<>n of th e flame varies g reatly along
the furnace height (Fig. 20.4.). Inten-
sive radiation by soot particles is con-
I. centrated in the zone of the flame core
II and quickly decreases beyond that
zo ne. For this reason , in calculating
the emissivity of a flame a11 , the
•
; ! fl am e is conditionally di vided into
I Bo =
I t wo. portions: luminous and non-lu-
I
I
•
mmous:
'
!I
a, 1 = malum +
(1 - m) a 8 (20.12)
whore a 1um is the emissiv ity of tho lu-
minous portion which can be found
:I
• from formula (20.10) upon s ubstitu-
ting ktum for lcf, ag is the emissivity
<>f the non-luminous gaseous medium
whi ch is found by formul a (20.9) and
m is an averaging coefficient which is
determined as the frac tion of the fur-
naco volume that is occupied by the
l fl ame core.
The averaging coefficient for natu-
r al gas combustion is m = 0.1 and
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. for fu el oil, m = 0. 55. Wit h soli d
fuels, s ince the f lame is extended along
the whole furnace a nd is eq ually bright
in all its portions, it is taken that
m = 1.
The radiation of t he luminous por-
tion of the flame is mainly due to
burning soot particles and additional-
0.8 f.O ' temperature triatomic ga-
• ly to high-
ses. The effective a bsorption of radia-
tion in the luminous portion of the
flame is:
(20.13)
where k, is the absorp tion by soot par-
ticles.
The intensity of radiation from the
flame cor e on combustion of fuel oil
is 2-3 times that for solid fuel s and,
even assuming that the averaging coef-
fi.ci ent m = 0. 55, the heat absorption
by water walls ill a fuel-oil fired fur-
nace is high er, as noted earlier (see
Sec. 8.1). Thus, as a bo iler furnace is
changed from pulverized coal to fuel
oil, the temperature of gases at the
furnace outlet decreases not icea bly.
I n natural gas combustion, heat ab-
sorption by tho water walls is mainly
determined by the radiation of non-
luminous triatomic gases, which is
less intens ive, so that the heat absorp-
tion by less fouled water walls is clo-
se to that in tho combustion of solid
fuel.
The coefficient of thermal radiatiun
i n a furna ce, a 1, is determined by t he
emissivity of the flame aiL and the
thermal efficiency 1J>eJ of t he wa ter
walls :
a! =
i
(20.14)
1
1+ (aft -1 ) 'Vet
An increase in a/1 leads to a hig her
absorption of radiant heat in the fur-
nace. An increase in the thermal effi-
ciency of the water walls, 1jJ"" implies
a n increase in their h eat absorption,
and therefore, a decrease in the effe-
ctive radi ation into the furnace vo lu-
me, the result being a lower thermal
radiatio n in the f urnace and lower
heat flux falling o nto the water walls.
20.3. Ca/culat/.on of Radiant Heat Tran1jer In Furnace
In that case the mean heat fl ux absor-
b ed by a water wall
TJI ) '
qr = coaJ'Pet ( 100 ·10-3 kVI/m2
(20.15)
i ncreases somewhat due to a relative-
ly greater change in the coefficient
1Pct· In formu la (20.15), 1'/lis themean
effective temperature of the gase-
ous medium in tho furn ace,,I K.
20.3. Calculation of Radiant H ea t
T ransfe r in a F urnace
Heat transfer from t he flame to the
h eating surf aces arranged on the walls
<>f a furnace is highly complex. The
heat transfer process occurs bore in
parallel with fuel com bustion which
forms internal heat s ources in the ra-
diating medium. The gas temperature
distribution a long the furnace height
is determined by ~he ratio between
the i ntensities of heat release and
heat abso rption . Additionally, the
therm al characteris tics of water wall
t ubes may vary owing to surface fou-
ling .
At the initial s tage just after igni-
tion, intensive burning of fuel ensures
a rise in temperature of the gases. At
the same time, the flow of heat energy
to the water walls increases. At a
certain distance from the burners, the
temperature attains a maximum cor-
r esponding to the equal ity between
the heat release and heat absorption.
F urther, heat release decreases rapidly
and becomes less than the level of heat
abso rp tion, so that tho temperature of
the gases diminishes monotonically.
The rate of its decrease depends on
the temperatl•re maximum in the
fl ame core, the presence or absence
of fuel afterburning in the top portion
of the furnace, and the deg1·ee of fou-
ling of the water walls.
Tho method for analysis of hea t
exchange in boiler furnaces developed
i n the USSR is based on the combined
us e of the r esul ts of analytical and
experimental studies [20]. It proceeds
from the possibility of application of
251.
the theory of s imilarity which fairly
well describes the principal thermal
characteristics of boiler furnace opera-
tion and their connection to furnace
des ign .
The calculation is based on the semi-
empi rical formula (A. M. Gurvich)
whi ch can be written in t he fo llowing
dime nsionless form:
Bo 0 ·•
6j = (20.16)
Bo0 • 6 +MaY. 6
It relates tho dimensionless tempe-
r ature of gases at the furnace outlet,
Gj, with tho Boltzmann number Bo
which characterizes the ratio o[ the
b eat released o n fuel combustion to
the maximum intensity of heat remo -
val to the s urface of the water walls.
The coeffi cient M in the formula is
i ntroduced to consider the pattern of
the temperature field in the furn ace
volume. Tho dimens ionless tempera-
ture of gases is found from the formula:
Gj = T j! Ta (20.17)
i.e. , it is essentially the ratio of the
gas temperatu re at the furnace outlet,
Tj , K, t o the adiabatic temperature
T 0 , K. It is always less than unity
and shows how the temperature of
gases in the furnace volume decreases
due to hea t exchange.
The Boltzmann number in formula
(20.16) can be found by the following
formulae depending on the original
data available for the calculation:
cpBtDVgcg
F (20.18a)
Co'llef wTa3
1
Bo = BwQr
c0 'i>eJF w T~ 1- 6i
(20.18b)
(Bw is the rated fuel cons umption).
Let us cons ider in more detail the
heat calc ula t ion and the ro le of v a-
rious terms in formulae (20.16) t h rou g h
(20. 18).
The principal thermal characteri-
s tics of a f urnace are the usefnl heat
release Q, and the enthalpy of gases
at the f urnace outlet, J j . The useful
heat release is the sum of the available
heat of burned fuel Q': (minus the heat
losses q 3 , q4 and q6 within t he furn ace) ,
' '
252
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Ch. 20. Heat Exchange in Heating Surfaces 20.3. Calculation of Radiant Heat Transfer ln Furnace 253

the heat introduced into the furnace 1)11 r>f!

solution of equation (20.26) is quite
by preheated and cold (sucked in) air complicated and can be found in the
(Qo = Qlla +
Qca), and the heat. of
the portion of flue gases recirculated ~ ~ specialist literature [10).
In view of the difficulties associated
from the convective shaft back into Or Ij! with the mathematical description of

~
Heat temperature fields in furnaces, attempts
the furnace, Qrec:
Q _ Qw 100 - q3 -q,1 - q6
f - a
100-q4 Or
I hnlance
equation
Bumer
have been made to find semi-
empirical solutions for Tn by using
2 the two characteristic temperatures Tj
+ (Qa-Qa. ex) + Qrec (20.19)
I
} Burner
The quantity of heat Qha is calcula-
ted hy the temperature of hot air at
BwOr

~
Radiation
heal
transfer
J 1
I
I
X,
and T a. The most successful is the
solution found by G . L. Polyak and
S. N. Shorin, which is given as are-
the outlet from the air heater. If air Fw equation lationship of the dimensionless rela-
is preheated before the air heater by tive temperatures of gases:
an external heat source (say, by bleeder ~ Fig. 20.6. Temperature field in gases along
steam from the turbine), Qa should
Famace
dimensions nurr~er
the height of furnace
1, Burner 2-bllrner lines in the Curnacc~
e/l = y m (8!z)'' (20. 27)
be diminished by the quantity of that x, x,-bcights or burner lines
where ell = Tfi!T" is the dimension-
heat Qa.ex (see Sec. 7 .2). Fig. 20.5. Sequence of beat calculation of can be transformed as follows: less average effective temperature of
The enthalpy of gases at the outlet boiler furnace gases, and m and n are empirical
from the furnace, lj, can be found on
the /, 11·-diagram or from tables for a la Lion of a boiler furnace is done in
BwQr = coa,xF wT1z ( 1 ·- ~~:P ) .1Q-II coefficients which depend on the con-
ditions of combustion and gas cooling
given gas temperature \tj (soc Sec. 8.1). the following sequence (Fig. 20.5). (20.23) in a furnace.
If the useful heat release of the Upon determining Q and ! [ , the heat The expression in the brackets is Upon substituting the dimensionless
furnace, Q1 , could be transferred comp- transferred by radiation 1
in the fur- th e coefficient of fouling £; noting ges temperatures, equation (20.27) can
letely to the products of combustion, nace, Q, kJ /kg, is found . After that further that x~ = 'ljl 01 , we fin ally get: be wri Lten in the following form:
i.e. without heat exchange with the we can calculate the surface area of
heating surfaces (adiabatic conditions), the furnace covered by water walls, BwQr = Coaf~)e/FwT1z-10 -ll (20.24) T] 1 = mT~O-n>(Tiz)4n (20.28)
we would obtain the highest (theore- Fw, to absorb the total quantity of from which the surface area of tho
tical) temperature of combustion that heat BwQr at the given temperature water walls is found as Numerous experimental studies of
heat transfer in boiler furnaces have
could be developed in the furnace; it conditions (fta and ft/) and determine
is more often termed the adiabatic the thermal efficiency of the water
temperature of combustion:
Fw
1011
! 0;
coat ef 11
10
(20.25) demonstrated that the coefficient m,
which characterizes the similarity of
walls. Finally, we determine the di- The accuracy of the calculation oi a temperature fields in boiler furnaces
01 mensions of the furnace to arrange the boiler furnace depends heavily on how under different conditions of combu-
\ta = (V c)ao (20.20) water walls. . accurately the effective temperature of stion, is only slightly dependent on the
Thus, the calculation of heat ex- gases in the furnace, T t~> has been operating conditions of a furnace, but
where (Vc)av = Q"f}o is the average change in a boiler furnace is based on
specific heat of combustion products solving two principal equations: averaged. The actual temperature field is closely associated with the coeffi-
formed by 1 kg of fuel within the tem- of gases has a rather intricate pattern cient n . Coefficient m is close to unity
the heat balance equation along the furnace height (Fig. 20.6). and constant for a g'iven value of n.
perature interv~l 0-fta, kJ /(kg K). As
may be seen, to find the adiabatic tem- Qr = q> (Q/ - li) = q> (Vc)g X Th is variation in the flame temperatu- The exponent n is a function of the
perature, we have first to pre-estimate re is described satisfactorily by the relative position of the temperature
X (fta - {)·i) (20.21) formula of three parameters: maximum of gases in a furnace (Fig.
it. The adiabatic temperature of ga-
ses depends on the kind of fuel (in par- and the equation of radiant heat ex- 20.7) . The most typical values of X
T = T,.{Ax 1e-px (20.26)
ticular on its calorific value) and excess change
air ratio and is equal to 1 700- BwQr = CoatXFw (T1z- T~ep)·10 -IL which covers the entire diversity of 1.0 n
temperature fields possible in boiler /
1 850°C for bro·wn coals and peat and 0.8
1 850-2 100°C for coals, anthracite, fu- (20.22) furnaces. In this formula, A, t and p /
0.8 v
el oils and natural gas. where T dep is the temperature on the are the parameters of the temperature OA
The characteristic temperatures of a surface of the deposits on the water- field in the furnace, T and T" are the 0.2
I
boiler furnace are the adiabatic tem- wall tubes, K, q> is the coefficient of current and adiabatic temperatures of 0
0.2 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.0
perature and the temperature of gases heat retention (see Sec. 6.2), and gases, K, X is the r elative height of
at the furnace outlet. They serve as (Vc) g is the averaged h eat capacity of the position of the flame zone with the Fig. 20.7. Variations of the exponent n as
reference points in the calculation of gases in the temperature interval highest temperature of burning in the a function of the position of the maximum
h eat exchange in furnaces. The calcu- ({)·a- \t/), kJ/(kg K). Equation (20.22} design h eight of the furnace. The of gas temperature X in the furnace
 254
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Ch. 20. Beat Exchange tn Beating Surfaces
for boiler furnaces (X = 0 .15-0.30)
fall on the region where n depends
substantially on X. In this connection,
the methodics of heat transfer cal-
culation for boiler furnaces is revised
periodically (every few years) whon
new types of boilers appear.
For boiler furnaces of small dimen-
sions and for combustion chambers in
two-chamber and open-type furnaces
of high-capacity boilers, it may be
taken that n = 0.5. Then the average
temperature of gases can be determi-
ned by the formu la:
Tn=0.925VTaTi (20.29)
For open-type single-chamber fur-
naces of s team boilers of power sta-
tions, it is taken that n = 2/3 and
m = 1 which corresp onds to X =
= 0.33. With a lower position of tho
burners in the furnace, and consequen-
tly, of the zone of the highest tempe-
rature of gases (Fig. 20.6), the tempe-
rature of gases at the outlet of a fur-
nace of a given design will be lower,
so that in the calculation by the assu -
m ed value of Ti , the height of the
furnace should be diminished.
Since the actual position of the
highest temperature of flame may de-
viate from the design value, an addi-
tional temperature field parameter is
introduced into formula (20.25):
M=A -BX
where A and B are empirical coeffi-
cients depending on th e kind of fuel
used.
In most cases, the r elative position
of the highest temperature zone in the
furnace, X, coincides with the l evel
of burners xb, since with horizontally
directed burners the maximum of tem-
perature in the flame core lies in the
horizontal portion of the flame. In a)]
cases of delayed ignition or combu-
stion (straight-flow burners, multi-
tier burners), a correction /':!.X is
added to X b to account for a higher
actual position of the flame core; then
X = X b + I':!. X.
The final formula for determining
the surface area of a boiler furnace is
a s follows:
· 1 n zonal calculation, the tempera-
X }
3/ 7JZ
1 (Tj
Ta
- 1)2 (20.30)
Check calculations of heat transfer
in boiler furna ces of given dimensions
can also be m ade by using the dimen-
sionless formul a (20.16) which can be
transformed as follows:
[t'tj = Ta -273 {20.31)
a1 ) u. 61
l+M ( Bo
The fraction of heat absorbed by the
beating surfaces in the furnace due to
radiat ion, r elative to the useful heat
release in the furnace, is called the
coejjicient of direct heat release:
(20.32)
Disclosing Or from formula (20.21),
we obtain:
~~, = q>,' ( 1 - ' Q,
lj ) (20.33)
Th e direct boat release to the bea-
t ing surfaces in tho furnace is usually
roughly half of Q1 . It is higher in the
combustion of dry solid fuels, natural
gas and fuel oils which have a high
temperature of burning (!Lt = 0.45-
-0.55) and lower for moist brown coals
(!Lt = 0.38-0.4 5); for fuels with a very
high moisture content (W > 7), the
dir ect heat r elease may be less than
0.35. In all cases, 1-LJ decreases with an
increase of t'ti, as follows from formu-
la (20.33) .
Zonal calculation of furnace. T he
general l1eat-transfer calcula Lion enab-
les u s to find only the average heat
absorption by furnace walls. In many
cases, however, esp ecially for once-
through boilers, it is essential to know
the h eat absorption in individual zones
of the furnace so as to determine the
temperature conditions in tubes (say,
in the lower, medium and upper ra-
diant sections). This can be done by
zonal calculation of a furnace: the
furnace is divided into a number of
20.4. Radiant B eat Transfer In Boiler Flue Ducts
zones (four-six), each 3-6m in height.
T ho first zone is that of tho h ighest
heat release (the zone of 1wrncrs).
tures of the gases at the outlet from
each zone arc determined, after which
th e ltoat flu xes in th e zones ca n be
calculated. First, the heat balance is
written for l.he zone o£ the highest
h eat release so as to find the tempera-
ture of gases at the outlet fro m that
zono: ••
Q'i: = Bw (V c) "-61 = Bw (l}buOI
+ Qp/o + Oa + Orec - Q6) - B u;Qrl
(20.34)
wh ere ~uu = 0.92-0.98 is the degree of
fu el burn-up in the zone and Q, 1 is
the radiant heat of the gases th at is ab-
sorbed by the water walls and by the
upper and lower horizontal planes
which confine that zone.
T he term BwQr1 is calcu Ia ted from
formula (20. 22) by assuming an appro-
ximate value of T 1n which will the n
bo d etermined more accurately . U pon
solving equation (20.34), one can de-
t ermine th o temperature of gases a t the
outlet from the first zone, -frj'.
After that, gas temperatures at the
outlet of the second and subsequent
zones are found by consid ering the ad-
ditional heat of fuel burn-up in a zone,
~~ buQi' and the radiant heat given up
to the water walls. Having made the
calculation for all th e zones, one can
;,, 4-
. -
~~~~
r-- - 1\ 1\
- -.
JJ[ I\
-
1/[
. ·-
\liJ 1\
- unt of the mutual heat exchange bet-
'I"\
I ses in the volumes between platens; it
v~
12QQ HIJO llilKII8flD •"C 0.5 0.6 lO 1.2 1.4 l5 1.6
( a) (b)
Fig. 20.8. Curves of zonal calculation of
furnace
(a) v aria tion or ens tem perature nl ong: Uoc lurna-
LCe height: (b) variations or re lative h cnt fluxes
255
construct the curve of gas temperature
variation along tho furnace height
(Fig. 20.8a). For the given tempera-
ture conditions in the zones, one finds
the absorbed radiant heat fluxes in
the furn ace zones, q,. [by formula
(20.15)}. The ratio of q,. for a parti-
cular zone to the absorbed heat flux
of tbe whole furnace, gr. (Fig. 20.8b)
is called the coefficient of distribution
of h eat absorption along the furnace
height:
(20.35)
20.4. Radiant H eat T ransfer in Boiler
F lue Ducts
The heating surfaces of a boiler just
downstream of the furnace are swept
by high-temperature gases and receive
an appreciable portion of heat by ra-
diant heat transfer. I n particular, se-
mi-radiant heating surfaces of a boiler,
such as the plate n superheater or slag
screen, which are arranged at the out-
lot from tho furnace, receive th e major
portion of their heat by absorbing
direct radiation of the fl ame core.
The r adiant heat absorbed by pla-
tens from the furnace, Qr.pt. is found
as the difference between the radiant
heat flux at the inlet to a platen and
the heat Hux re-radiated fr om the pla-
ten onto subsequent heating surfaces:
Or.pl = Q,.ln - Or.ou 1 (20.36)
The radia nt beat of the furnace that
is absorbed in t he inlet plane of pla-
tens is found by the results of heat
calculation of the furnace:
n; .., 1 20 3
Or.tn = ~T]IIqr Br ( · 7)
. where ~ is the coefficient taking acco-
ween th e furnace medium and the ga-
.1/r
is taken equal to 0.6-1.0 depending on
the kind of fuel and the gas tempera-
ture at the furnace outl et ; and H;.p 1
is the surface area of the inlet section
of platens that absorbs radiant heat
hom the furnace, m 2 ; ·
 256
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Ch.. 20. Heat Exchange In Heating Surfaces
The heat flux at the outlet from
platens, Qr.out. kJ /kg, is the sum of
th e radiant heat that has passed from
the furnace through the platens (re-ra-
diated heat) and the heat that is ra-
diated from the gas volume in the
platens onto the subsequent heating
surfaces:
Qr.out = Qr.jn (1- a) + Q;.pl
(20.38)
where a. is the emissivity of gases in
the zone of platens, cpp 1 is the angular
coefficient of radiation from the inlet
onto the outlet section of the platens,
which is determined by their geometri-
,.I cal characteristics (the spacing bet-
ween the platens and the depth of pla-
I tens), and Q;.pl is the radiation of
I
gases from the platen zone onto a hea-
ting surface behind the platens , which
can be found from. the laws of radiant
h eal excha nge.
The heat absorption by the platens
from the gas flow is determined by
the coefficient of heat transfer a. 1 ,
kW/ (m 2 K), which considers both the
radiant and convective heat transfer
in a platen:
(20.39)
where the coefficient~ is introduced to
account for the non-uniform sweeping
of the platens by gases.
Direct radiation from the furnace
into the zone of platens increases the
temperature on the surface of the de-
posits on the front row of the platen
I ubes and decreases the heat absorp-
I
tion from the gas flow sweeping these
!I
lubes. This circumstance is conside-
I red in the calculation of the coeffi-
cient of heat transfer in platens, kp,
by introducing a multip1ier (1 + T dep = T wf (e 1/a.2 ) ';0 (20.43)
+ Qr.p/Qp 1) into the denominator,
I which gives the following formula
for kp 1:
rI. 1
lcpl = -.,-------~---.,..--:----
(].11 + (f+Qr.ptiOpt) ( e + :. )
(20.40)
where Qp 1 is the total heat absorption
by the platens due to convective heat
transfer and to radiation of gases in
the platen zone.
For other heating surfaces of a boi-
ler, radiant heat transfer is determi-
ned only by radiation from the space
between the tubes, i .e. they receive no
direct radiation from the furnace . The
emissivity of gases depends on their
temperature, the intensity of thermal
radiation in the gas volume, the size
of that volume, and the temperature
and emissivity of external deposits on
the heating surfaces. The emissivity
in a convective heating surface can be
found from the formula:
Ctr = qr - (20.41)
Tg - Tdep
where T c is the average temperature
of gases, K, and T dep is the tempera-
ture of the deposits on heating tube
surfaces, K.
The radiant heat flux absorbed by
the unit surface area of a heating sur-
face in a convective gas duct can be
found from the equation:
(T;- T~ep) .1o- u
(20.42)
where a 8 and adep is the emissivity of
the gaseous medium and external de-
posits on the tube surface (it is usual-
ly taken that adep = 0 .8). The expo-
nent n is equal to four in a dust-laden
gas flow (to consider the radiation of
ash particles) and n = 3.6 for clean
gas flows (on combustion of natural
gas or fuel oil). The temperature of
the surface of the deposits on superhe-
ater tubes is determined by the for-
mula: ·
8 low 400°C, 1·adiation in dense tube
+ +
where T wt is the temperature of the
working fluid (steam), K, and Q is
the total heat absorption by the hea-
ting surface, including the radiation
from intertubular space, kJ /kg. ·
As may be seen, the equation for
T der> includes another unknown quan-
20.5. Convective Heat Transfer in Boiler Flue Ducts
tity, the intertubu Jar radiation, so
that the solution should be found by
· the successive approximation method.
For o ther heating surfaces arranged in
the zones of lower gas temperatures
and lower l1eat fh1xes, ·the difference
between T dcp aod T wf decreases and
Tdcp can be fotl[ld from the formula:
(20.44)
where !lt is the recommended calcu-
lation norm for various tyiles of hea-
ting surfaces and temperature zones.
The emissivity of a gaseous medium
in the general case is expressed by
Bouguer's relationship:
(20.45)
where t.he product kps is called the to-
tal optical thickness of combustion
products (see also Sec. 20.2).
The coefficient of absorption of ra-
diant heat by a gaseotJS medium on
combustion of solid fuels is determi-
ned (with the concentration of fly
ash taken into account) by the for-
mula :
(20.46)
For ash-free gas flows, the second
term is equal to zero . In convective
tube banks, the thickness of the in-
tertubular radiating layer s depends
on the relative tube pitches s1 /d and
s 2 /d [20] and is usually equal to
0.1-0.2 m, i.e. it is only 1/20-1/50
of the thickness of gas layer in the
furnace. For this reason, radiant heat
transfer in convective banks (conside-
ring also that the temperature of gases
decreases in flue ducts) is two or three
orders of magnitude lower than that in
the furnace. At gas temperatures be-
banks can be neglected.
Gas volumes in front of convective
banh have a more noticeable radia-
tion intensity owing to a higher effe-
ctive thickness of tl1e radi ating layer.
In this case, the emissivity for a con-
vective bank arranged behind such a
voh1me is higher than in the calcula-
tion of intertubular radiation and can
17 - 0 152!,
257
be found from the formula:
Tg )0.25 (.!E...)o.o7]
1 000 l/)
(20.47)
where Ctr is the heat transfer coeffi-
cient determined by the relationships
of intertubular radiation, A is a coef-
ficient dependin.g on the kind of fue l,
l v and lb are the depth of the gas vo-
lume (along the gas motion) and of
the tube bank, m, and T g is the gas
temperature in the volume upstream of
the bank, K.
The beat transferred by radiation
from a gas volume onto a tube bank
upstream. of that volume is negligible,
since the temperature of gases in the
volume is lower than the average tem-
perature in the bank. This radiation
is not considered in our calculations.
20.5. Conyective Heat Transfer
in Boiler F lue D ucts
Convective heating surfaces of a
boiler include the elements arranged in
the horizontal gas duct behind the
semi-radiant surfaces of platens or
slag screen and those mounted in the
convective shaft. This is a zone of
relatively low gas temperatures where
the effectiveness of radiant heat trans-
fer decreases r apidly. In. order to
increase heat absorption by convec-
tion, gas velocities in this zone are inc-
reased and the heating surfaces are
extended by using tube-coil banks with
densely spaced tubes arranged for
cross-current sweeping by the gas
flow. The intensity of heat absorption
by convective beating surfaces dimi-
nishes along the gas path from
40 kW/m. 2 for the convective super-
heater to 1-2 kW/m 2 for the air heater.
In regenerative air heaters, gases and
air move along heat-transfer plates,
so that the intensity of heat transfer
P.er unit area of smooth surface of pla-
tes is only 1/3 or 1/4 that in tube-coil
banl(s. Heat transfer can be intensi-
fied by various methods (see Ch. 19).
The principal equations of heat trans-
fer are as follows:
 258
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Ch. 20. Beat Ezchange ln Beating Surfaces 20.5. Conuectlue Heat Trrwsfer in Bolle r Plue Ducts 259

heat transfer equation: transfer coefficient for the heating I I

Q- ,- kb.tll
B, (20.48)
surface.
In a check calculation, one has to
Cross-current fl ow
•
Multiple
cross-current flow Mixed flow
determine the heat absorption by the .
beat balance equation for the gas
side:
1; +
heating surface from equation (20.48).
To calculate ~t and /c, one has to
assume the heat absorption Qb appro-
,_c _j _I I
-:;:; ::..
c:;
I l

~ = <p (!~ - ~a/~) (20.49)

ximately and then t o correct it, since .
~
.... ... ~
~
l::
...
:::. ::: ....~~
.,,,... ......
~

..." ....:.
~
- ...... .,;:::
~

and equation of heat absorption
by the working fluid:
Q'b1 = %. w- i') (20.50)
An additional condition is that Q1 =
= Qf = Q'/:1, k J /kg.
In equations (20.48) through (20. 50),
1I is th e h eating surface area of an
element, m 2 , k is the heat-transfer
coefficient, kW/(m Z K), ~t is the r a-
ted temperature gradient, K, B, is
the rated fu el consumption, kg/s , D
is the flow rate of the working fluid ,
kg/s, I~ and l'i: are lho onthalpics of
combustion products at the inlet to
and outlet from an element, kJ/kg,
n, is the enthalpy of sucked-in air,
I<J /kg, ~a is the relative air inlea ka-
ge in a gas duct , i' and i • are the en-
thalpies of the working fluid at the
inlet t o and outlet from the element,
kJ /kg.
For the air l1eater, the heat absorpti-
on by working fluid (air) is determined
by the following form ula instead of
(20.50):
Q& = (~a - 0.5~aal•) (l~a - I~a)
(20. 51)
where ~a is the relative excess of air
at the inlet to the air heater, and
ll:a and I~a are the enthalpies of the
theoretical volume of air taken res-
pectively at the temperature of h ot
a nd cold air, kJ/kg.
In design calculations, the heating
surface area H is found from equation
(20.48). In this case, tho heat absorp-
tion by working fluid through surface
area H is known, so that one can de-
termine from equation (20.49) the en-
thalpy and temperature of gases be-
hind that surface and then the tem-
perature gradient M and the heat-
the sp ecified val ue and th at obtained
fro m equation (20.48) should differ
by not more than 2%.
In the heating surfaces o( boilers,
heat transfer occurs through a multi-
layer cylindrical wall-a metallic tube
with deposiLs on its outside and inside
surfaces. The heat-transfer coefficient
is usually determined by using the
formula for a plane multi-layer wall.
With a sufficiently large tube diame-
ter, this involves no substantial. error
and s implifies the calcu lation consi-
derably.
The formula for the heat-transfer
coefficient of a plane multi-layer wall
is ns follows:
k = ~~~~~~--~~----
i the tubes should cause uo noticeable
1/a.l +6sd A. t +6m/Arn +6sc/Asc +1/az
(20.52)
where a 1 and a 2 are the coefficients
of heat transfer from the heating fluid
to the wall and from the wall to the
healed fluid, Om, 6,, and o,. are the
thicknesses of the metallic wall, the
external layer of deposits (slag) and
the internal layer (scale) and /,rn, A..,
and A.,. are the respective conductivi-
ties.
T he ratios ila 1 and 1/a 2 are essen-
tially the therma l resistances to heat
transfer at tl1e external and internal
side of the surface. For heating sur-
faces in which the working fluid is
water, a steam-water mixture or su-
p erheated steam of supercritical pres-
sure, the coefficient a 2 substantially
exceeds (by two or three ord ers of mag-
nitude) the coefficient a 1 , so that the
thermal resistance on the internal side
1/a 2 can be neglected , since 11a1 is
much greater than 1/a 2 • The same is
tru e of the therm al resistance of the
metallic wall: 6m1A.m is much lower
than 1/a1 •
...
•
....:g.. ~
';'-
';>.. ....
~
~ ...
::::.,.
.... ~
t.;.;
"'
....
~
~
~
§~
~\:!
"~
~ . ,i<'i"'"'....l: l::"'
t::J "~
~I:
~
..
I
'-------~~~--------~ , E~
conomtzer 1
Air heater ,Transi/Ton zone
~~~~~~------~v~--------------~'
Svperlmtfer
Fig. 20.9. Dingrnms of motion of the hcnting nnd hentcd mcdin in the convective elements
of boilers
For the normal operation of a boiler, for tube-coil surfaces
the scale on the internal surface of k= 1 (20.53a}
1./a.t +e-t- 1/a.:
increase in thermal resistance, so that and for r egenerative air h eaters
the thermal resistance of scale is not
considered in calculations (o,.fl.,,. =-= k= i/a., ~f/a~ (20.53b)
= 0).
The thermal resistance of deposits Diagrams of the relative motion of
on the outside surface of the tubes heating and heated fluids in most ty-
e = o.z/'>.,, 1 (ash, slag, soot, corrosion pical heating surfaces of boiler plants
products) cannot be disregarded, are shown in Fig . 20.9. The tempera-
though measures are taken in boiler ture gradient, i.e. the average tempe-
operation to remove deposits periodi- rature diiierence between the heating
cnlly (see Sec. 16.1). and heated fluid for the whole heating
I n certain cases when som e of the surface in parallel flow, counter-cur-
quantities in the r elationships indi- rent flow and multiple cross-flow
cated are unknown or the flow condi- (with the number of passes more than
tions are too complicated, the coeffi- four) can be found by the formula :
cient of effectiveness 'l' of a heating b.tg - b.tl
surface is used, which can be fou nd ~t = 2.3 log Atg/At1 (
20 ·54a)
fro m the heat balance of that surface.
The heat-transfer coefficient is de- where ~tg is the greatest and ~t 1 is
termined as an average value for the the lowest temperature difference bet-
whole surface considered at an avera- ween the fluids at the ends of a bea-
ge velocity of gases. The coefficient ting surface, deg C.
of utilization £ is also introduced to If the ratio ~tgl~t 1 does not exceed
take account of the incomplete or non- f. 7, the temperature gradient can be
uniform swooping of a heating sur- determined sufficiently accurately as
face by tho gas flow. In view of the the mean arithmet ic value.
above, formula (20.52) can be re-writ- As shown in Fig. 20.9, a multiple
ten in the following form: cross-current flow of fluids is used pre-
 260
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Ch. 20. Heat Exchange in Heating Surfaces
dominanlly in the heating su rfaces of
boilers. Willrtho number of passes for
one of tho fluids less than four or with
a mixed mode of flow , heat transfer in
a heating surface will be somewhat lo-
wer than in a purely counter-current
motion of fluids; this can be conside-
red by introducing a correction coef-
ficient 'I' for tho tom perature gradient
determined for tho counter-current
mode:
(20.54b)
Tho coefficient 'I' is determined
graphically for a particular scheme of
motion of the two fluids (20].
I"n circuits with parallel or succes-
sive-mixed fluid flow, the calculation
can· he carried out separately for each
of the passes a nd dotorrnines ··the ave-
rage temperature gradient for the
whole hea ting surface:
t:.tav = At ,fl d - 6t2Tf2
11,-1- [{2
{20.5 5}
where H 1 , lf 2 are tho areas of indivi-
dual portions, m\ and t:.t 1 , t:.t 2 are
tho temperature gradients in them,
deg C.
!I
Tho same approach is used when the
heat capacity of one of the fluids chan-
' ges significantly within the hea ting
surface calculated, for instance, il the
fluid changes the state of aggregation
(as in a boiling economizer). In this
case, the heat absorptions Q, and Q2
in the portions with the single-phase
and two-phase fluid are found separa-
tely, alter which the tom perature gra-
dients t:.L 1 and t:.l 2 are determined for
these portions nnd averaged for the
whole healing surface.
~0.6. Velocil:ies of Gases
ancl Working Fluid in Convective
Heating Surfaces
The optimal velocity o~ gases is
that at which the cost of construction
and operation of a heating surface is
at a minimum. With an increase in
gas velocity, the coefficient of heat
transfer i ncreasos, with the result
that the healing surface is smaller
and its cost is lower. A smaller
beating surface offers a lower hyd-
raulic resistance to the motion
of working fluid (steam, water, steam-
water mixture) in tubes, which makes
it possible to reduce tho power of the
feed p umps (in the design of super-
heaters and economizers) and increase
the power of the turbine (duo to a lo-
wer resistance of the reheater). On the
other hand, this increases the con-
sumption of energy needed to over-
come the greater resistan ce of the gas
path.
The optimal velocity of gases can be
found by technico-econom ical calcula-
tion. The best version is that in which
the expected expenditures Z are at a
mmunum:
Z = C -1- Prf( (20.56)
where C is the annual expenditures
associated with operalion of t.he equip-
ment, Pr is the coefficient of dep•·ecia-
tion for the capital expenditures (in
power engineering, it is usual ly taken
equal to 0 .15 per year), and K is tho
initial capital expenditure:
K = Ke, + Kdr + K,ub (20.57)
where Ke 1 is the cost of the considered
element in the gas path, Kdr is the
cost of the dralt fan, and K •ub is the
cost of a substituting auxiliary plant
to provide continuous power genera-
tion in the system.
Gas velocities calculated by this
method are called econom ical (w 00).
For instance, for balanced-draft steam
boilers with tho cost of referen ce fue l
of 10-12 (roubles/t), tho economical gas
velocities, m/s , in superheaters and
economizers with staggered tubes are
as follows (at tho rat.ed boil er load):
For tubes of steel 20 (economizer) 13±2
For pearliLic-steel tubes (su per-
heater) . . . . . . . . . . 12 ± 2
For pearlilic-steel lubes (rchcater) 19 ± 2
For austenitic-steel tubes (super-
heater) . . . . . . . . . . 19 ± 2
For in-line tubes, the economic gas
velocities are 40% hig her.
20.6. Velocities of Gases /11 Convective llcating Surfaces
'fop!
1.0
~
0.96
'\.·,
~ superheater and reheater are arranged
0.92
',·, ~ /1
0.88
0.84
>- ,""" ........
2
',
llg/Ua ',...
0.80
1.0 f.2 (.4 1.6 (.8 2.0
Fig. 20.10. Curves of optimal ratio or air
and gas velocities in air heaters
1- at specific heat ratio c 0 /cc = I; z-ut c0 /CC -
= 0.9
In solid fuel combustion, these ve-
locities in most cases arc not ronched
in view of excessive abrasion wcn r of
tubes by ash (see Ch. 16).
The intensity of heat transfer and
the heating surface area in air heaters
depend on the Yelocity of gases and
air, since the beat-transfer coefficients
at both sides (gas and air) aro rather
close to each other, especiall)' in re-
generative-type air heaters. For this
reason, one first bas to determine the
optimal velocity ratio q> 0 p1 = walwc·
Figure 20.10 shows variations of <Popt
which depend on the ratio of volumes
and specific heats of gas and air in re-
generative air heaters .
As has been demonstrated by ca lcu-
lations, q> 0 p 1 depends on the type of
air heater. For tubular air heaters,
<p 0 p 1 = 0 .4-0 .55 at the optimal gas ve-
locity Wee= 11 ± 2 m/s; for regene-
rative air heaters, <p 0 p 1 = 0.86-0.92
at Wee = 10 + 1 m/s [53].
Th e velocity of working fluid (ste-
am, water) has no essential effect on
tho intensity of heat transfer and on
the dimensions of the heati ng surfaces,
since the highest thermal r esistanco
appears on the side of heating gases.
The velocity of steam in superlt oa-
ters should be such as to ensure relia-
ble conditions for the operation of the
metal, which in the fin a 1 resu 1t deter-
mines the cost of a heating surfa ce.
All superheaters can be divided into
261
three main types which require diffe-
rent approaches to the selection of ve-
locities [6).
1. The last (outlet) banks of the
in the high temperature zone of gases
and have the highest temperature of
steam. The high velocity of steam
ensures tho reliable cooling of tubo
walls; at any load of the boiler, the
metal temperature is not allowed tori-
se above the limit for a particular
steel. Pressu re loss is of minor impor-
tance in this case. This group also
includes radiant and semi-1·adiant (pla-
ten) superheaters whictt receive high
heat fluxes by direct radiation from
the furnace with a high degree of non-
uniformity across tho furnace width.
2. Co nvective superheaters are ar-
rauged in zones with gas temperatures
below 1 000°C and cooled by modera-
tely superheated s team. These have a
certai 11 reliability margin of the me-
t al. J n this case, the optimal steam
velocity is determined mainly by the
superheater design and by the mini-
mal cost of a tube bank (for a lower
steam veloci ty, one bas to increase
the number of tubes in a bank or the
diameter of the tubes, which will
increase the dimensions, and there-
fore, the cost of a superheater section).
3. Reheater banks are arranged in
zones of moderate gas temperatures
(450-600°C). Their optimization is car-
ried out by considering the effect of
steam velocity on the dimensions of a
heating surface and on the hydraulic
resistance of the reheater (a higher
hydraulic resistance decreases the po-
wer oi the turbine).
Practical recommendations can be
reduced to specifying the mass veloci-
ties of steam wp, kg/(m 2 s), for various
types of heating surfaces. For instan-
ce, tho recommended values are wp =
= 800-1 100 kg/{m 2 s) for the outlet
convective banks and450-600kg/{m 2 s)
foi· other banks. For reheator hanks,
wp = 250-400 kg/{m 2 s) is sufficient.
The velocity of water in convective
economizers is selected so as to pre-
vent s tratification of the steam-water
 262
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Ch. 21. Layout and Heat Calculation of Steam Boller
flow should boiling occur and to ensu-
r e carry-oyer of gas bubbles along the
t ubes, which appear in heated water.
On the other hand, it should be con-
sidered that an increase in water velo-
city can substantially raise the hyd-
r aulic resistance and the energy con-
LAYOUT AND HEAT CALCULATION
OF STEAM BOILER
21.1. Boiler Layout and Structures
Boiler layout. The mutual arrange-
ment of the gas ducts·or a boiler and
the direction of combustion products io
them d etermine what is called the
boiler layout which may be II- T- N-
' ' '
U-shaped, four-pass or t ower-type
(Fig. 21.1).
. Among them, the IT-shaped layout
IS most popular (Fig. 21.1a): the
furnace is arranged in an ascending
shaft and the convective heating sur-
I faces are arranged in a parallel descen-
ding shaft. I ts advantage is that fuel
is su pplied and gases are removed at
[ the bottom, which is convenient for
the removal of liquid slag and for the
l In some cases, the three-pass layout
shot-blasting of the convective surfa-
ces. The draft fans are mounted on
I
the zero (floor) level so t hat their vib-
rations are not transferred to the boiler
structure. A drawback of the ll-sha-
ped layout is that, s ince the gases are
tu~ned by 180°, the heating of conve-
ctive surfaces and the concentration of
ash over the cross section of the con-
vective shaft may be uneven.
The T -shaped layout is often emplo-
yed in high-capacity boilers, with two
convective shafts arranged at both s i-
des of the furnace (Fig. 21.1b); th is
!
-
sumption by feed water pumps. The
recommended values of water velocity
are wp. = 500-600 kg/(m 2 s); in the
econom1zer zone where partial evapo-
ra~i~n of w~ter can take place (the
bo1hng sectwn of the economizer)
wp = 800-900 kg/(m 2 s). '
makes it possible to diminish the depth
of the convective shaHs and the heigbt
of the connecting horizontal ducts. The
total cross-sectional area of the two
convective shafts is higher than in the
former scheme. The draft fans are mo-
unted on the zero level. The T-shaped
layout is especially suitable for the
boilers fired on fuels which produce
abrasive ash (such as Ekibastuz coals)
where it is essential to reduce the ve-
locity of combustion products. There-
moval of combustion products from
the two shafts i~ this layout involves,
however, certam design difficulties.
Furthermore, aT-shaped boiler is mo-
re intricate in design than a IT-shaped
one and consumes more metal.
with draft fans arranged at the top, i~
employed (Fig. 21.1c); this scheme is
popular, in particular , in the FR G.
In this layout, combus tion products
move ascendingly in the furnace and
convective shaft and d escendingly in
the connecting vertical gas duct. The
four-pass layout (Fig. 21.1d) is used in
boilers firing fuels with a very high
ash content (such as oil shales). These
schemes are characterized by the pro-
vision o~ an intermediate vertical gas
duct wlnch may have heating surfaces
(say, platens) with widoly s paced tubes
263
21.1. Boller Layout and Structures
J
.• '
(a) (b) (d)
(f) (g)
I~ig. 21.1. Various schemes o{ boiler layout
so as to prevent slagging in the high- nerative air heater and draft means nre
temperature zone . mounted on the floor level and conne-
High-capacity supercharged boiler cted with the boiler tower by a descen-
plants are often buill by the tower ding gas duct which has no heating sur-
scheme (Fig. 21.1e) in which combus- faces.
tion products move in the furn ace and The tower l ayout requires a heavier
convective shaft only upwards. Tbis boiler structure to carry the air hea-
layout offers the follo\\<ing advant ages: ters, draft fans and stack. I t is more
the boiler plant occupies the least area suitable for super charged fuel-oil fired
in plan; convective heating surfaces boilers and for boilers operating on
are swept evenly by the combustion high-ash brown coals : since ash-laden
products, since there are no turns of combustion products move in a stra-
gas flow; the gas path has the lowest ight path, abr asion wear of convective
r esist ance, since Lhere are neither des- surfaces is not as strong as in other ty-
cending gas ducts nor gas turns. The pes of boiler layout.
drawbacks of this Layout are as follows: In the U-shaped two-pass layout
the boiler structure should be strong~r (Fig. 21.1/), combustion products move
to carry the convective heating surfa- downwards in tho furnace and upwards
ces; the last banks of the superheater in the convective shaft (inverted lay-
a nd the draft and exhaust fans must be out). Burners are arranged in the fur-
installed at a high height; it is impos- nace roof. The U-shaped layout has the
sible to employ shot-blasting for clea- following advantages : the flame ade-
ning the convective heating surfaces. quately fills in the furnace volume;
Thoro is a compromise solution: the the superheater can be mounted on a
sem i-tower layout in which t ho rege- low level, i.e. it · can be connected
I.
I
I 264
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Cit. 21. Layout and Heat Calculation of Steam Boller
I with tho turbine by a shorter pipeline;
and the air path has a low aerodyna-
mic resistance (the a ir healer is quite
i
close lo the burners). l ts draw backs arc
as follows: fuel must be supplied t.o the
burners t.o an appreciable height; draft
and exhaust fans and ash collectors
must be mounted on a high level. The
U-shaped (inver ted) layout can be
employed for the combustion of gas,
fuel oil and solid fuels provided that
the furnace is of the dry-bottom type.
The layout of high-capacity boilers
of monobloc units should meet certain
add itional r equirements (in view of
lhe considerable size of the plant in
pl an, tho application of steam rehea-
ting, etc.) and ensure reliable opera-
tion of the boiler in combination with
I.I t.l1e turbine.
The span of roof beams in high-
cap acity boilers is sometimes dimi-
nished by dividing the furna ce and
convective shaft.s into two sections,
i. e. a boiler has two housings (each
with its own metal structure and re-
fractory setting) in which the h eating
surfaces are arranged symmetrically
(two-housing symmetrical boiler lay-
out) . Provision of shut-off valves on
the two symmetrical sections gives
what is ca lled the double-bloc layout.
With one of the sections shut down ,
a dl•uble-bloc boiler p lant can operat e
at 50-% load, which improves its
manoeuvrability, but increases the
cost and the unit fuel consumption
since the superheater has the sam~
rated h ydrau lie resistance. Furth er,
the turbine effi ciency decreases at
partial loads.
In two- a nd multi-pass schemes of
gas motion, the furn ace and gas ducts
may either be fully · separated from
I eacl1 other (us in Fig. 21.1a, b, d, and
f) or have a common longitudinal par-
tition form ed by gas-tight water walls
(Fig. 21.1c and g).
Air heaters arc arr anged either in
the lower portion of the convective
shaft or outside the boiler or even the
boiler room, so as to leave space for
the arrangement of burners or shot-
blasting installation. The arrange-
21.1. Boller Layout and Structures 265
m ents of the particu Jar beating sur- Fig. 21.2. Structure of a once- 57840
faces of boilers have been described in through boiler type P-57 (D = ...:L-\p±c:~ '~::c:j::::r::Jc=;
1 650 t/h) with an indepondcnt k
more detail in Chs. '17-1!). foundation
Boiler s tructure. Modern high-capa- J- column; ( 2-verlicnl truss; J-horl·
city boilers manu[acturod in the USSH zonta l truss; 4-stand; s- roor: 6- rnnln
~>enm; 7-m~lined ceiling pi~Le; a-
are usually of tho 11- or T -shaped lay- beam; 9-furnace frame; JO-laes; 1 t- 145534 7
shoc _;g
out. The layout of a boiler determines
the design of the hoi Ier structure and 3 8
stress distribution in it.
The boiler structure is essentially a
supporting sleet framework wh icll car- _H
ries various hoi ler elements, such as
the drum, heating sur[aces a nd hea- 27950 lllz!siz~
d ers, refractory setting, insu lation and
casing, pipelines and duels, s tages,
stairs, etc. The boiler stru cture may be
either isolated from the load-carrying
structure of the boiler roo m building
and be supported on an individual
fmJndation or made integra l with tho-
tOZOO
se structures. In tho for·mer case, the
boiler structure ca uics the wholo load
of the boi ler and tra nsm its it to tho
foundation. The load on the foundati-
on includes tho mass of tho boiler pro-
per and its structure and the mass of
A·A
the working fluid: water and steam.
In southern regions where an open or
semi-open layout of boiler equipment
is allowed, the boiler structure s hould
also withstand the wind load, and
often , seismic loads.
Figure 21.2 shows schematically a
once-through boiler (type II-57, D =
= 1 650 t/h) of the T-shaped layout
mounted on a sep arate foundation. lers), heating surfaces, and the su ppor- prevents substa ntial thermal stresses.
The boiler structure consists of vertical ting structures of stages. Additional Boiler structures are mostly made of
columns, horizontal beams and sup- stands and beams of smal ler cross carbon steels, such as Grade St. 3 .
port t russes, main beams, roof ceiling section are mounted to in crease the Some less critical elements may be
ties, and stands. All elements of th~ structure rigidity and to fasten water made of steel Gt·ade St. 0.
structure are joined by welding. walls, headers, hot-air ducts, etc. The introduction of gas-tight all-
The number of supporting columns The columns of a boiler stru cture welded water walls (see Sec. 17 .3) with.
dep ends on the s team-generating ca- transmit substantial concentrated lighter refractory setting has made it
pacity of a boiler. Columns are usually loads onto the foundation. The unit possible to substan tially reduce the
mounted only at tho coroet·s of the pressure on the foundation is decreased boil er mass (sometimes by 30-50% ).
furnace and convective shaft. Additio- by providing supporting shoes at tho A lighter boiler can thus be supported
nal columns may be installed in high- lower ends of the columns. Metal con- by the structures of the boiler room
capacity boilers having an appreciab- sumption for a boiler structu1:e de- bui ldiug. Tho drum and all h eating
le width or depth. All co lumns are pends on boiler capacity and may con- sw·faces of the furnace and convective
connected at the top by transvet·se be- stitute 0.8-1.2 kg per kg of hourly shaft are susp ended from heavy
ams or trusses. They increase the boi- steam-generating capacity. Supporting beams of tbe boiler room build ing roof
ler structure stab ility, prevent the columns and beams are not heated by and can freely expand downward. In
buckling of columns, and serve to gases; this insures more favourabl e this case, the boiler structw·e proper
support the drum (in drum-type boi- operating conditions of the metal and serves only to ensure the required ri-
 Download From Boilersinfo.com 21J. Boller Layout and Structure•
267
:266 Ch. 21. Layout and Heat Calculation of Steam Bolle r
sible to dispense with separate boiler
l 11 ded only from the main beams of the foundations, allow more space for
' .
..u. building and are not connected with mounting the auxiliary equipment, sa-
I ). the building walls, so that deforma- ve much metal [or the construction of
tions of the building are not trans- the boiler structure, and r educe th e
ferred to the boiler. The boiler ele- time of construction work.
;l; l: -5 ments are suspended from the main
_.- 16 A boiler and its elements have defi-
.-
II
I~ beams by means of numerous suspen- nite dimensions in the cold state and
o· 1- 17 sion ties. The heating surfaces are occupy certain positions in space. In
f- -n ljlftt -fli connected with the boiler structure
!--,3\2 the working 'hot' condition, their di-
I and their temperature expansions mensions and positions in space vary
~'---t4 I
1-,_.1:-w - 19 should be essentially of the same ma- substantially. Thermal displacements
. ! f.:
~ -Gu
"' gnitude to avoid temperature stresses. are determined by the working tem-
IV IJVJ...
~/\
T his is ensured by means of 'hot' perature of the metal and the length
Ill*
~ ~»
I suspensions which are made from tu-
- 21 of an clement from its fixed end. With

IJ<[ \ t> -~
)
bes supplied with the working fluid at
a temper ature r oughly equal to that
the coefficient of thermal expansion of
the metal equal to 0.012 X 10 - 3 m/K,
~
in the corresponding beating surfaces.
) I n supercharged boilers, the pressure
in the gas path is absorbed by horiton-
certain boiler elements may expand
by 300 mm or even more.
Figure 21.4. shows the diagram of
tal beams spaced 2.5-3.0 m apart on
- I~ + It all walls of the furnace, convective
thermal expansions of elements in a
'T T suspended boiler typo TGM.P-204. All
shaft and connecting gas ducts. These level marks relate to the cold state.
beams ensure proper rigidity of the
0
5 ~ boil er walls.
Displacements have been calculated
for temperatures of the metal in ope-
Suspended str uctures make it pos-
'G G'"'
. .
~67270
1
I ~ I

iJ!IIll
.Jl200l
. .
Jj5JD~ •• • • • • ••
• • ••
•• k

I
,I
. 3< tliM
lis
~
111

IJ!It
At'" H,
.
2~
Fig. 21.4. Diagram of temperatu- I\
re expansions (H, mm; I, mm) or '
lzo l~ 35J(),'0
j54DD 1117
I \..__/\__f\_1--f\__/'u elements of a boiler type
lTGMP-204 (D = 2 650 t/ u)
tteaders or the bottom water Nau,
fl, - 290 ; benders or water walls in
H

fl.
I-ll
~,: '
lzr i Hzo "
lzr
. .
'
I Fig. 2L3. Structure of gas-ttght botler type P-67 (D
.
4J--~uspended
bo1ler roomtubes
column· suspensi.fnstJ1 ~1ld
('bot't-workin s-Jro!f
t 1
room
= 2 650 t/h) combined witll boiler

1~. ! th~ lod:er radiation section; J-reinlorclng beams·

0
parting Join ts, FI, = 208; H, = I ao; io ·
wer headers o r the wa ter wall In hori-
zontal gas duct, R , - 70; u pper hea-
ders or water walls, n, = 33; lower $2/JaJ 11,6
Hs
l• tl f'16
~
hot box•· 9-mnln beams· JO- in'terme<ti t
~v orkJ.rg t!uld
' .- s an ' 7-truss lor auspen<ting furnace side walls: headers or water walls ln the convective
D
6 1 (re~rr ~~~~~c/.!au'·o~~~aftntm;
1- Hg
t o suspended tubes ot rront J1z- w1odrklng fluid mixer;
13
...:.
!urn nee shaft, H, = 200; headers or con-
vective superheaters, H., = 2.9; econo- ·-
interme<tiatc bea.m.s; IU-suspended 'cold' t~b';,': so::: sc Ulcf~ header or economizer; 18- suspenslon from
sc large 11 eader o r convective super he t .. 11 dl 1 • o, o II s e wnll; H -siu g screen· mize r headers. H, "' 145. H 1 = 187 ; 11,6·-- -
~i=
burners. R,, = 230 , H, = 24~. fl., = r- 1-H,o
Cldenl); 21-Water Walls Of COnvcctlv:~.rr::~cee sbtubftC~
a . 2! SUfpcrbeater andwalls
cconoml7.er (coin· Hz
~e- urnnce water = 200; vertlcn I tubes or suspended tu·
be sys tem in horizontal gas duct, - 1-
. - ~-~,

gidity an d to fasten the boiler to the patl~ (in supercharged boilers), and
H,. - I 38; vertical tubes or furnace
water walls, fl,. = 248, H,. = 221, , - - - t- H,s 1-F H,z
r?om buildin? structures. I n such de- carrtes st~ges and stairs. An example
H" = 162. H., = t03; supporting
plaLes on 'hot' suspens ions, H,. = 247; j 81X1 lt9
~
Ill.
of the bo1ler structure carried by the common wind box ol rumacc. H,. =
s igns, the bo1ler structure ensures the - 322. 1,. • 62; bcadcrs or control sw·- 1ft
l,s 11,!1vi Hut 11,!1
appropriate rigidity of welded water room building is illustrated in Fig. race or rehenter , u,. = tt9, 1,' 0 = 8. u
• ' •
walls, absorbs the pressure in the gas 21.3. Tho boiler elements are suspen- I t o - 105. H., = 142, ht = 4, lu =57

I
 268
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Ch. 21. Layout and Beat Calculation of Steam Boiler
Untti
f 2 J 4
Unit I
2 start-up and shu t-dow n owing to un-
---
I construction of th e enclosure. For this
I.
ration. Ver tica l displacements are mar-
ked by H's and horizontal, by l's . In
the example iJlustratcd , horizontal
displacements are marked only for tltc
common box of the furnace, l 1u, and
for the headers of the control stage
of rehealer , l 20 and l 21 •
T o avoid excessive t hermal stres-
ses, the structure of a boiler should
have proper means to allow ils !Tee
exp ansion on healing. A steam boiler
is connected with its auxiliary eq uip-
m ent mounted externally of the boiler
structure (pulverizing plant, feed wa-
ter pipelines, etc.). It is also connected
by pipelines with the turbine. Pipe-
lines usually all ow free expansion of
the boiler owing to their seli-compen-
sation . Exceptions are pulverizing
pl ants with mill fans, which h ave no
dust pipelines of appreciable leng th ,
but are connected directly to t he bur-
ners. In such cases,· burner por-ts of a
boiler are designed so as to move freely
r elative to the fixed burners and the
gaps between them are sealed (Fig.
21.5).
•Hot box' . In' high-capacity boilers,
a great number of tubes and suspen-
sions pass through the furnace roof to
the outside, so that tight sca ling of
all of them is a problem. In s uch ca-
ses, the roof is covered by a Light s teel
shell which receives hot air from the
air heater; this forms what is called
the 'hot box' . Air pressure in a hot
box is somew hat higher than the pres-
sure of t.ltc combustion prod ucts a t
Fig. 21. .5. Arrangement of burner
in n port
J - turn ace wull; 2- port tJ a n ~:rc:
sca llng sheets; 4- burno:r
3 temperature sti·esscs which appear on
the furn ace to p, which preven ts the
leakage of combustion products to the
outs ide, bu l, increases so mo\\·hat air
inleakage.
The nu mbe•· of 'passes' from the hot
box to the outside is much sma ller
th an through the boiler roof; they
main ly include the external pipelines
and suspensions of headers . These
'passes' usually have sil phon sealings.
When a boiler is shut down for r e-
pairs , the Lime for natura l cooling of
the hot box is as much as 20-30 hours.
Cooling can be accelerated by cold
air blowing of the hot box.
Boiler enclosures. Boiler enclosmes
are important elements of boiler pl ants
and consume much of work and mate-
rials for the manufacture. They ha,·e
an essential effect on the conditions
of operation of the furnace and con-
vective shaft. In high-capacity boilers,
the enclosure mass is so large that it
greatly influences the design of the
boiler structure and foundation.
I n boilers of un tight design, tho en-
closw·e is formed by continuous walls
of coram ic materials, which isolate the
gas path of the boiler from the sur-
roundings . I L is subjected to the
action of hot combustion products
which rnn y carry ash, molten slag
and unburned fuel particles . The en-
closure is also subjected to pressure
vari ations in the furnace (on flame
break-off and fuel ignition), variable
temperature stresses appearing on
start-up and shut-down oi the boiler,
21.1. Bolle r Layout and Strncturu
stresses from temperature displace-
ment of other boiler ele;nents, static
J-
· loads from various s tructures above it,
aud so on . The most dangerous are
c,·cn heating of boiler elements , so
thal various compressive, tensile and
shoat· stresses may appear in the en-
closure.
All these factors can hardly be con-
s idered properly in the de'sign and
reason, reliable operation of the en-
closure is ensured by selecting tho
appropriate materials which can ope-
ra te under the heavy cond itions indi-
cated , and by certa in design measures
which can minimize the effect of
these factors (composite enclosure, ex-
pansion joints, expansion compensa-
tors , etc.). Tho modern light enclo-
sure of boilers has a mass of around
850 kg/m 3 . The mass of enclosure re-
lated to kg of hourly steam-generating
capacity of a boiler is usually 0.4-0.5
kg or more. The enclosure of a high-
capacity boiler consumes on. the tota l
more than 2 000 t of ceramic mate-
rials. The boiler enc'losure should have
a high refractoriness, high mechanical
strength , proper tightness, possess h e-
at-insulating p roperties, withstand
~em perature s tresses and resist the
action of ash and molten slag. The
enclosme design is heavily dependent
on the tube system of the heating
surfaces in the furnace and convective
shaft.
In modern power-st ation boilers,
two t ypes of enclosure are employed.
The enclosure of tho first type is atta-
ched immediately to tubes (on-tube
enclosure), i.e. to tubular water walls
of \.he furnace and gas ducts. the se-
cond type is made in t.he form of bloclcs
or: plates which are fastened to the
boiler structm·e. E nclosure plates or·
blocks are manufactlll'ed industrially
and mounted simu ltaneously with the
boiler. The boiler enclosme consists of
several layers: the first layer fa cing
the gases and operating at temperatu-
res of 1 500-1 800°C is made of a rc-
269
11
ll m 1lf
1 T
-
(a) (6}
- - On-tube enclosure
- - Ptale enclosure
U ]oinl
Fig. 21.6. Types or enclosure in various por-
tions of n boiler
fractory material. Two or three l ayers
beneath i t, which operate at tempera-
tures of 500-900°C, are made of heat-
insulating ma tel"ials . The outside sur-
face of the enclosure is coated wil,h
gas-impermeable pl aster (the allowa-
ble t emperature for plaster coating is
100-200°C} or metal sh eets . In gas-
tight boilers with all-welded membr·a-
ne water walls (soc Sec. 17.3), light
heat insulation over the tubes is quite
sufficient .
In some boilers , the enclosure is of a
combined type: plate enclosure in tho
prismatic portion of the furnace and
on-tube enclosure in the dry-bottom
hopper or inclined bottom. Enclosure
blocks are suspended from r oof beams
of the boiler structure and can expand
on heating together with the water-wall
tubes. The two portions of the enclo-
sure form a temperature joint around
the furnace periphery, which should be
properly sealed to prevent air inleaka-
gc (the horizontal plane /-/ in Fig.
21.6a) . The enclosure of convective
gas ducts is usually of the plate type.
If the furnace has an on-tube enclo-
sure, a vertical joint is provided at the
entry from the furnace to the horizon-
tal convective duct (II-II in Fig.
21.6b). In a number of designs, on-
tube enclosure extends further into
the convective duct and the ternpcra-
tiue joint is provided in a horizontal
plane of the convective shaft (/II -II I
in Fig. 21.6c). If the on-tube enclo-
sure extends further into the convecti-
ve portion of a boiler, the temperature
 Download From Boilersinfo.com 21.2. Thermal Diagram of a Boller 27'1
270 Ch. 21. Layout and Heat Calculation of Steam Botler

joint between it and plate enclosure uld not exceed 850°C to avoid m etal Fig. 21.7. Thermal diagram o£ a J 4
drum- type pulverized coal-fired
operates aL a lower temperature and failure should steam supply to the re- boiler
may be simpler in design and more re- h eater be occasionally stopped (see z-cvopo raling bea ting surfaces (fur-
liable. Sec. 18.2). The reliability of the last nace water wa lls); t-·platen superhea-
ter; 3 and 4-hot and cold stage of
Heat insulation. The boiler drum, banks of tho superheater, which ope- convective superheater; s ond 7 - 2nd
and 1st stage of economizer; 6 and a-
h eaders, superheated steam, feed wa- rate under the most severo tempera- 2nd nnd 1st stage or tubul ar nlr bea ter
t er and blow-down water pipelines , ture conditions, is determined at the
gas and air ducts, etc. are arranged s pecified steam parameters by the
beyond the boiler enclosure around allowable temperature of the superhe-
the boiler, above the roof or along the ater metal , which defines tl1 e design of
boiler walls. These elements have a the s uperheater and its position in a
t emperature of 200-600oC and are hea t- particular temperature zone along the
insulated to protect the personnel gas flow (see Sec. 18.3). To ensure sta-
against burns and minimize heat los- bility of hydrodynamic processes in
ses to the s urroundings. B y sanitary intensively heated elements of once-
norms, the temperature on the exter- through boilers, these elements must
nal surface of heat-insulated elements not be fed with a two-phase mixture. I
must not exceed 55°C. A properly ma- For this reason, the convective econo- I
---
I
de heat insulation can diminish heat mizer should supply them with water I I I I
losses by 95-97% compared with a of a certain degree of subcooling, rather I I I I
non-insulated surface. In addition, than with a steam-water mixture, i.e. I I I I lea
heaL insulation of drums, headers, pi- it must be of the non-boiling t ype
pelines and fittings improves the t em- (see Sec. 11.2). A t s upercritical pres- 1 2 4 5 7 8
perature conditions for the metal, sin- sures, r eliable operation of heating
co it decreases the t emperature gra- surfaces in the zones of high heat ca-
d ient across the wa ll , and t herefore, re- p acity of the work ing fluid imposes
duces tem per ature stresses. T he exter- s pecific r equirements for their posi-
nal surface of heat insulation is made tioning in the furnace. For subcritical-
smooth and mechanically strong by prossure b oilers, the transition zone,
applying cotton cloth and metallic in which scale deposition is mainly
casing or p ainting . Painting is also concentrated , should be arranged in at a higher temperature, so as to main- nected sections, which diminishes the
userul for marking various pipelines . the zones of moderate heating. Tho tain a high temperature gradient; it is maldistribution of heat and ensures
hot air temperature , which is deter- advisable t o employ counter~urrent better intermixing of the flow (see
mined by fuel characteristics , is es- flow of the working fluid and com- Figs . 18.10 and 18.11).
21.2. Thermal D iagram of a Boiler bustion products where possible. The- In high-capacity boilers, the heat
sential for the selection of a particu-
All heating surfaces of a boiler lar type of air heater (see Sec. 19.3). se conditions, however, are not always absorption by the water walls in the
communicate with one another in the Thus, there is a system of limiting properly satisfied. For inst ance, the furnace is insufficient, which has led
gas and steam-water path, thus for- conditions, or reference points , for the heating intensity of radian t heating to the appearance of platens (see
ming a complex system. Let us recall temperatures of pa1·ticular h eating s ur- surfaces arranged in the burner zone Sec. 7.1) and curtain walls (see Sec.
that the temperature of combustion faces. Selection of these points means m ay b e enormous, resulting in the low 18.1). They diminish the t emperature
products in certain points of the gas essen tially the distribution of enthal- reliability of m etal operation. For of combustion products at the furnace
path and the temperature of water py increm ents between these heating this reason, the hea ting surfaces to be exit to the required level.
and steam ir1 other points of the water- surfaces and optim a! positioning of arranged in such zones have a low The superheated steam path in v er y
steam path should be maintained with- these surfaces in tho flow of combus- tem perature of i.he w orking fluid p owerful drum-type boilers and the
in definite limits to attain the high- tion produc ts, i.e. it means selection (preheating and evaporating surfaces entire water-steam path in once-thro-
est efficiency and reliability. For of the thermal diagram of a boiler. and 'cold' s uperheater banks), while ugh boilers are made in the form of a
instance, the temperature of combu- 1'he thermal diagram of a boiler is tho last superheater banks are moun- number of individually controlled
stion products at the exit from the the scheme of arrangement of the he- ted in the zones of moderat e tempera- flows. For convenience of control, the
furnace is determined by the kind and ating surface banks along the gas tures of combustion products . n1llllber of flows is us ually two or four.
With a high heat absorption of par- Separation of the water-steam path
characteristics of the fuel used (see flow and of arrangement of their pipe-
Sec. 7.1). The temperature of waste lines . Two conditions are important ticular heating surfaces (most often of into flows diminishes the non-unifor-
gases is determined by technico-eco- for th is selection: the wor king fluid superheaters), to enhance their r eli- mity of heat distribution across the
nomical calculations (see S ec. 6.2). The at a higher temperature should be ability the heating s urfaces are divi- boiler width and permits of using tu-
temperature in the reheater zone sho- swept by the combus tion products also ded into a number of successively con- bes of smaller diameter, but makes the
272
Download From Boilersinfo.com 21.3. Heat Calculation of Boiler 273
Ch. 21. Layout and Heat Calculation of Steam Botler

Fig . 21 .8. Thermal diagram o£ a once- wllicll delivers the s uperheated s team
through gas and fuel oil fired boiler of s pecified parameters . There aro two
5- - - IV1 - 6 J- lowc r radiation section; .1?- rnedlurn rn- water-s pray means to control tho t om-
4 - - c:... .!=;::!. .16!
!: ~ dlnllon section: J- upper rncllntlon section:
4- 18L platen superheater; S- 2nd plat en perature of Jive s l.oaru . Stearn reheating 5
r} \ 1><1 - 7 supcrl1c~a ter; 6 - con\'f!-CU vn super hen tcr; 7 is effected in two reheuter banks con-
3- :_ ,_ -- l>"<'l - 8 nn d 8- hol. a nd cold rc hcnter s tages; 9- cco-
t nomit.er; JO- regcnerat.i\'C nlr heater nected by a mixed scheme and ar-ran-
I><J - 9__ ged in the convccti "e shaft. Mea ns for
&:::: controlling the temper ature of rehea-
ted s tea m arc n ot shown in the d iag-
5
10 ram.
t,.,,,p,.,;,
1 Owl!
21.:3. Heat Calculation of a ·Boiler filii
Or
Aims and methods of heat calcula- Yt.a
I I! I Drr-- tioo. One should dis tinguish between
a design h eal calculation and check
7

I
--
u-r- - -
I
I ~ p1 ~~~~
I II
calculation of a boiler, which d iffer
from each olher in their aims and the
t ea

J I I I I thd q uan titles to bo d otcrmined.

j - T --t-t --r - ~- -~ - t I~ Design calculation is undertaken in
I I 1 I il I I lfrw )l , 11 order to determine tho dimensio ns of
i I i I I the furnace and other heating surfaces
Fig. 21.9. Calculation diagram of a dmm-
I f J 2 I J I t. I 5 I 5 - T 7 I 8 I 9 I tO IH which can ens ure the rated s team-ge- typc boiler
1"'1'"1· . 1. ' .1 • . 1. I "I" 1' ' 1 ' I nerating capacity for the specified J-evaporating healing s urraces (!u nance water
I I I I I1 I Ill I s team paramolers and l he desired ef- walls); 2- roo r SUIIerhpa ter: J- pl~ten superheater;
1
1
1 I ll 1 1 1 1 ficiency and rel ia bility of a boiler 4- suspe nded tu bes; 5- convect avc s uperhea ter:
6- economiz.er; 7-uir heater

' -o--.f-1
1 I
b oiler pl ant design more complicated
and expensive, increases the number
of fittings, and complicates automatic
control.
Let us consider as examples the
thermal diagrams of a drum- type and
once-through boiler. The drum- type
boiler (Fig . 21.7) has two stages of air
preheating and accordingly two s tages
of heating tho feed water which is
fed to the drum from the second eco-
nomizer s tage. The eva porating water
walls are arranged on the furnace
walls and together with unheated
downtake tubes form circulation cir-
cuits. Saturated s team separated in
the drum is fed into the s uperhea-
ter which consists of a r adian t sec-
tion and pl atens connected in series
aloncr the steam path and of two
conv~cti ve banks connected by a mi-
xed scheme, with the outlet bank ar-
II t pl aut which uses a parti cular fuel and
ranged in t he zone of a higher tempe-
rature. Water spraying t o control the
t emperature of superheated s team is
not shown in the diagram. Tho ordi-
nates of the diagram (vertical hatch-
ing) give the tempel'ature gradients in
particular heating surfaces . As may be
seen, they decrease signi fi cantly along
the gas p ath.
In the once-through boiler whose
thermal diagram is illus trated in
Fig. 21.8 , there is one stage of a_ir pr~­
hoating in an external regeneratlVe arr
h eater and one s tage of feed water
heating in the economizer. Preheated
water is fed into the lower radiation
section of the1 boiler from whore it
flows in to the' medium rad iation se-
ction, the firs t bank of the platen su-
perheater , the upper l'adiation section,
the second bank of the platen s uper-
heater. and th e convective s uperheater
is fed with tho feed water of a given
temperature. Tho resul ts o£ the design
calculation aro ftulher used for
s trength calculation and the selection
of materials for particular boiler ele-
ments, hydraulic and aerodynamic cal-
culations , and tho selection of au xi-
liary equipment.
Check calculation is carried out for
an existing or a design boiler. It is
dono for t he given dimensions of tho
heating surfaces and the given chara-
cteris tics of the fu el and determines
the tempera tures of the working fluid ,
ai r and combus tion products at the
boundaries between the healing s ur-
faces. Check calculation is also made
when the temperature of feed water ot·
s uperheated steam varies or a boiler
changes over t o another kind of fuel.
An object of check calculation is to
determine the thermal characteris tics
of a boiler and the possibilities for
its control. In tho design calcu lation ,
the dimensions of pal"ticular heating
s urfaces (say, of plat ens) can bo cho-
sen from the considerations of their
I 8 - 0 1524
arrangement in the boiler. In this
case, a check calculation should then
be m ade for these surfaces. Check cal-
culation can es t ima te tho efficiency
and reliability of a boiler, provide da-
ta for recommendations on the boiler
reconstruction and the initial data for
hydraulic, aerodynamic and strength
calculations.
The m ethod ics of heat calculations
of boilers arc s tandardized (201.
Design heat calculation of a drum-
type boiler. T he procedure of the cal-
culation will bo demonstr ated for tho
boiler s hown in Fig . 21.9. Firs t , we
have to establis h the theoretically
required quantity of a!r and combu-
stion products . Tho actual volume of
air and combus ti on products in the
furnace and gas ducts is calculated by
considering the organized air s upply
to the furnace and air inleakages in
the boiler of this particular design
(with balanced draft). Then, the on-
thalpies of combus tion products and
air are determined. After that the
heat balance of the boiler is ·calcu la-
I
274
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 21. Layout and Heat Calculation of Steam Boller
ted, from which we find the heat losses
q2 , q3 , q4 , q5 , and q6 , gross efficiency
and fuel consumption.
T he furnac.e is calculated as given
in Sec. 20.3. Assuming the allowable
heat release rate per unit area q1,
MW / m2 , we find the cross-sectional
area of the furnace. The total surface
area of furnace walls F w is determined
for the selected temperature at the
furnace outlet {}j . The last st age of
th e calculation is to check that t he
heat release rate per unit volume qv
is within the specified limits and that
the assumed thermal efficiency,~ does
not diller greatly from the calcula ted
value (the allowable discr epanc y is
,1,~ = + 0.05).
Calculation of the h eat exchange in
the furnace should consider the heat
absorbed by the platens (heating sur-
faces arranged at the furnace outlet)
and by the radiant superheater section
on the roof. Therefore, the dimensions
o[ the platens and r adiant superheater
should be known before the calcula-
tion. Further, we determine the quan-
tity of heat absorbed by the platens
due to radiation from the furn ace and
to h eat exchange within their zone,
Qp1, and can then find the tempera ture
of combustion products behind the pla-
tens , {}~ 1 • Having considered the heat
absorption by suspended tubes in the
boiler, Q, 1, we can determine the tem-
perature of combustion products before
tho convective superheater banks, {};h .
The remaining heat of the combu-
stion products (upon their passage
through the furnace, platens and r a-
diant superheater) should be distribu-
ted between the convective h eating
surfaces of the steam-water path and
the air beater. This heat is first distri-
buted between the heating surfaces for
which the inlet and outlet parameters
of the working fluid are known or ha-
ve been assumed. Thus we can find
the quantity of heat that must be
transferred to the superheater, Qah •
to obtain the specified steam p ar ame-
ters (D •h• p.., and t , ,) and the quan-
tity of heat to be given up in the air
heater, Qoh (to obtain vho and t ho>·
The rest of the heat should be allo-
cated to the economizer for which the
outlet parameters of water are not
specified. Upon finding the quanti-
ties of heat transferred to the super-
beater and air b eater, we can determi-
ne the enthalpies and temperatures of
combustion products before and after
the economizer.
The distribution of heat between
the h eating surfaces is then checked by
tho heat b alance equation:
Q~v'Tlgr = (Qr + Q pl +Qall
+ Qec) i~;;;;q• (21.1)
The discrepancy in the balance sho-
uld not be more th an ± 0.5 % of t he
available beat Q::'v· If the chosen heat
distribution between the beating sur-
faces is correct, we can go furth er to
the design calcula l.ion of the super-
h eater , economizer and air heater
following the instructions given in
Ch. 20.
Design calculation of a once-through
boiler (soe the diagram in Fig. 21.10).
In once-through boilers , there arc no
definite zones of tho particular slates
of aggregation of th e working fluid.
This circumstance should be properly
cons idered when determining the zones
of phase transition of the working
fluid.
For the reliable operation of s team-
generating tubes in the boiler, the
convective economizer should be of
the non-boiling type (see Sec. 11.2},
and therefore, a portion of the tube
system in the furnace will operate as a
radiant economizer (the inlet portion
of the lower radiation section). In the
boiler design considered (Fig. 21.10},
the remaining p or tion of the lower ra-
diation section functions as steam-ge-
nerating tubes (at subcritical pressu-
re). Steam superheating takes place
in the top portion of the furnace (the
upper radiation section), platens and
convective superheater. T he fixed va-
lues of the enthalpies in t he reference
points oE the steam-water path allow
us to determine the h eat absorptions
by the economizer surfaces and the lo-
21.3. Heat Calculation of Boller
2 that there are no available data on the
" ..
l rh.Prlt
5 cannot determine the boiler efficiency
1 is impossible to calculate further the
Oan
7 and that of the superheated steam t,,.
Fig. 21.10. Calculation diagram or a once-
through boiler
J - lowcr radiation section: z-upper rndlnllon sec-
lion: !-platen supcrbenter: 4-convec\lve super-
heaLer; ~-con vective reheatu : o- cconomlzer:
7- nlr heater
wer and upper r adiation sections, the
remaining h eat being distributed bet-
ween the platens and convective hea-
ting surfaces.
As the working fluid moves along
the water-steam path, its pressure
decreases to a specified value at the
outlet. The total pressure loss in the
path is, estimated as .1p = (0.2-0.3)p ,.,
where Pa s is the superheated steam
pressure, and can be corrected when
needed by the hydraulic calculation.
The initial stage of the h eat calcu-
lation, including the determination of
heat losses and fuel consumption and
the calculation of heat exchange in
the furnace, is done following the same
procedure as given earlier for the drum-
t ype boiler.
The heat distribution between the
heating surfaces is checked by the beat
balance equation:
Q:vl'Jgr = (Q~c+Qlr•+Qur.+ Q pl+ Q.h)
(21.2)
The discrepancy should not exceed
± 0.5% of the available heat. Further,
the design heat calculation of the par-
u•
275
ticular heating surfaces is carried out
by the methods given in Ch. 20.
Check calculation of steam boiler. It
is typical for tho check calculation
t emperatures of waste gases (and the-
r efore, on q 2 ). For this reason, one
and fuel consumption before the cal-
culation. Without them, however, it
furnace and convective heating sur-
faces. Thus, we have to assume the
temperature of the waste gases {}we
Upon making the heat calculation.
these temperatures must be checked
and corrected, aft er wh ich we can
find TJcr and B . Thus, the check cal-
culation is made by the method of
successive approximations. With TJc,.
and B being known and assuming a
value of tho• we can begin the calcu-
la tion of t ho furnace and all the hea-
ting surfaces . In the calculation of
the furnace, we have to determine the
actual temperature of combustion pro-
ducts at the furnace outlet, {}j. We
first assume this temperature to per-
form the calculation and then correct
it by formula (20.31). If the discre-
pancy is too high, the calculation is
repeated for a n ew assumed value of
-&j. The convective heating surfaces
are calculated by the found tempera-
tures (and enthalpies) of combustion
products at the inlet to a particular
surface and one of the known enthal-
pies of the working fluid (either at the
inlet or at the outlet of that surface).
Thus , among four sought-for quanti-
ties, two are usually known and the
calculation of particular convective
heating surfaces is done by the succes-
sive approximation method, presetting
the value of Qb for the gases or the
working fluid and then comparing it
with the calculated heat absorption
Q1 (see Sec. 20.5). For the last heating
·Surface in the gas path (air heater),
the t emperature of gases at the inlet is
already known: {}~h = {};~. We also
know {}wg (it has been preset earlier).
With {};c found from the check calcu-
 276
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 22. Steam Boilers of High-capacity .!tfonobloc U11its
lation and with the known value of
Oa111 ~ve c~n determine Owe and com-
pare 1t wtth the assumed value. The
calc~lation is considered to be comple-
ted 1f the two values of \twg differ by
not more than ±10 deg C and the va-
lues of tlta by n ot more than ±40 deg C.
Otherwise, the calculation is r opeat.ed
for a now assumed value of Ow g ·
A serious inconvenience of the succes-
s ive approximation method is that the
calculation for a particular heating
surface must b e done more than once
to properly match the values of Q1
and Qb. It can be substantially faci-
litated by using electronic computers .
'j Computer calculation of a boiler in-
I volves a laborious work for developing
the mathematical means, model, algo-
rithm and program of the h eat cal-
culation.
A developed mathematical model of
STEAM BOILERS
OF HIGH-CAPACITY MONOBLOC UNITS
22.1. Selection of Boiler Design
According to the Type, Capacity
and Operating Conditions
of P ower Station
The principal trend in the develop-
ment of thermal pmver stations is the
application of monobloc (boiler-tur-
bine) un its whose capacity is steadily
increasing . Monobloc units for a capa-
city of 300 l\f\>\T wit h boilers produ-
cing 950-1 000 t steam per hour have
been mastered . 500- and 800-MW
units with single-housing boilers oi a
steam-generating capacity respective-
.ly of 1 650 t/h and 2 650 t/h have be-
en constructed and put into service.
a steam boiler is essentially an inter-
related system with three levels. The
lower level. includes computation units
for particular heating surfaces (furna-
ce, platens, convective surfaces, a ir
heater). Tlte mediu m level is a sub-
system that determines the computa-
tion procedw·e for particul.ar surfaces
and their interrelations (a l.ong the gas
and working fluid paths, injection li-
nes, recirculation, etc.). The third
(upper) level is a su b-system (or t he
stabilization and optimization of the
calculation.
An accurate check h eat calculation
of a boiler is only possible in lar(J'e
high-speed comp uters possessing a la"'r -
ge capacity of the external and on-line
memory; in that case the machine ti-
me of computation is around 10 mi-
nu tes.
A recent achievement is a monobloc
unit for a capacity of 1 200 MW with
the boiler producing 3 950 t steam per
hmu.
As the unit capacity of steam boi-
lers and especially of stearo turbines
increases, the unit capital cost (the
cost of 1 kW oi installed power) de-
creases noticeably; the staff coeffi-
cient (the number of personnel per
unit power) decreases, too . This re-
duc tion however is substantial orily
for the power stations of the capacity
up to 3-4 mln kW and becomes less
essent ial for higher capacit ies (Fig.
22.1). On the other hand, as the ste-
am-generating capacity of boilers m -
'
22.1. Selection of Boiler Dcsi.:rt
~·
}00
98 ~ tic. A way out is to in tensify heat ex-
'*..,
...: 96 """'
<:>
<>
94 ~ preliminary work has been carried
·--.,
~ '()
"1'-a."oo,#.~~. .
- "'
<>:.
92
90
'-..... ~
--
800-MW
1200·AIW -
• I
88
1.0 2.5 4.2
Fig. 22.1. Unit capital expenditures depend-
ing on power station capacity and unit power
of plants
creases, the problem of reliability be-
comes more important. This should
be quite clear, since boilers of high er
capacity have more heating surfaces
operating at supercritica l or high pre-
ssuJ·es; accordingly, they have a greater
total length of tubes and a l.arger num-
ber of welded joints which are pro-
bable poin ts of emergency situations.
Another probable cause of emergency
situations is an elevated non-unifor-
m ity of heat distribution.
Mainta ining the reliability of po-
werful monobloc units at the level al-
ready achieved in the existing smal-
ler un its presents a rather difficult
problem. It places more rigorous re-
quirements upon the quality of manu-
facture and the servicing of s team
boilers.
An increase of the unit power of
monobloc units is associated with an
increase in the boiler and turbine di-
mensions. A pulverized-fuel fired bo-
iler for an 800-MW unit may have a
height u p to 90 m or even more, which
requires a corresponding increase in
the height of the boiler room building .
vVith a greater cross-sectional area
of the bo iler furnace and gas ducts, it
is more difficult to properly organize
the aerodynamics of gas flows. There
are add itional difficulties in the moun-
ting and operation or: high-capacity
boiler equipment.
With the traditional design of the
boiler heati11g surfaces and Lhe con-
vectional technology of tbeir manu-
277
facture, there is a design harrier, a~
it were, which makes further growth
of the boiler unit capacity problema-
change in the heating surfaces . The
out in modern metallurgy and boiler
making to start the mass production
of intensified profiles of heating sur -
faces which can change radically the
I design of p articular bo iler elements
and the entire boiler plant. Th is can
solve the problem of decreasing the
boiler dimensions and increasing the
reliability and eHiciency of boilers.
Intensified heating surfaces of boilers
arc find ing ever wider application.
An increase of the unit ca pacity of
monobloc units is usually associated
with an increase of the capacity of
power stations, and therefore, with a
lower unit capital cost and accelera-
ted r ate of construction . As the capa-
city of thermal power stations increa-
ses, the effect of red uced un i I. capita l.
cost becomes loss pronou nced (Fig.
22.1).
The efficiency o·r: a monobloc unit
and thermal power st ation depends
substantially on the initial steam pa-
rameters. An increase in steam para-
meters involves, however, conside-
rable technical difficu I ties . The pos-
s ibility for increasing the temperatu-
re and pressure is determined, in the
first. place , by the availability of spe-
cial. steels which can operate reliably
at higher param eters of superheated
steam.
Pressure is one of the basic steam
parameters and is decisive for the
selection of the boiler type. At sub-
critical pressures, boilers of any typo
can principally be employed: once-
through, drum-type with a gravity
circulation or dn1m-type with a mul-
tiple forced circulation. The last ty-
pe has found no wide u se in the USSR .
At thermal power stations for subcri-
ti'cal pressw·es, natm·al-circulation
drum-type boilers are usuallv em-
ployed. The driving circulating head
decreases with increasing pressure,
so that the highest pressure in the
 278
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Ch. 22. Steam Botle rs of High-capacity .Monobloc Unlt1
drum is established at the level of
17 MPa so as to ensure reliable
circulation. A higher pressure may
cause a loss of reliability. This limit
I
.I
can be raised somewhat by using boi-
ler tubes with internal helical fins
I (rifled tubes) which increase turbuli-
I zation of the flu id at tho tube walls.
The decisi ve effect of pressure on
the selection of the type of boiler is
limited by the monobloc capacity.
With a very high capacity of mono bloc
units, the cost of the drum , which is
the most expensive and metal-con-
suming element of a drum-type boiler,
becomes too high . For instance, the
mass of the drum for a 500-MW boiler
plant may be as high as 200 t, which
involves considerable di£ficulties in
mounting and operating the boiler.
For this reason, the capacity of mono-
bloc units with drum-typo boilers for
suppl ying base loads does not usually
exceed 400-500 M\V. At suporcritical
pressures, the sole solution is the use
of once-through boilers wh ich are now
built for the unit capacities up to
4 000 t/h (for 1 200-MW monobloc
units) .
The superheated steam temperatu-
re is even more important than pres-
sure for the selection of the boiler de-
sign and especially that of the super-
heater (see Fig. 18.12).
For tile same steam temperature,
the metal temperature of the superhea-
ter tubes is higher than tha t in the pi-
peline and the differenc·e depends on
the heating intensity. The usual trend
in the design of sup erheaters is to use
various steel grades in tho super heater
proper and in t ho pipelines which con-
nect the superheater sections and the
boiler with the turbine, so as to mini-
mize the cost of metal and ensure the
required reliabi 1it y.
When selecting the parameters of
s uperheated steam, it should be taken
into consideration tha t the cost of m e-
tal in the superheater and pipelines
increases with an increase in tempera-
ture (Fig . 22.2) . This incr ease in the
cost may be different an d depends on
t ho temper ature zone wh ere the metal
22.1. Selection of BoUer De1tgn
at a supercritical pressure of 25.5 MPa
5
(o nce-throug~ boilers) . . Stea!D tom-
Xhi8Nt2T /
perature b ehmd tho roheater IS usual-
4
r ly t aken at the lev el of the temperatu-
re of live steam or slightly higher
:
I
(545-565°C), since tho pressure in the
reheater is significantly lower.
- t2KhMF j The kind and quality of fuel have
an essential effect on the boiler de-
St20
sign. Fossil solid fuel s are characteri-
zed by the presence of ash. The com po-
sition and temper ature chara cteristics
400 H O 500 550 600 °C. of ash determine the method of fuel
combustion and slag removal. They
Fig. 22.2. Relative cost of heating surfaces
as a funct ion of nominal wall tern pcra lUI"e also should be considered when selec-
(the;cost of steel Grade 20 (0.25 C) at a wall ting the temperature of combustion
tcmperatUI"e of 450"C is taken as unity) and prodt•cts at the furnace outlet. This
temperature ranges of application of various t emperature should be selected so as
steels
Kbl8Nt2T- 18Cr-t ON I-T; 12KhMF-O. t 2C-Cr-ll!o- to form granulated ash particles in
V; St20- 0. 25C the convective gas ducts and thus
avoid the slagging of the heating surfa-
operates. For ins tance , a change from ces. With a higher temperature at the
pearlitic low-carbon s teel to low-allo- furnace outlet, w ater walls in the fur-
yed steel of the same class in the tem- nace m ay h ave a smaller area, and
p erature zone of 450-550"C invol ves no therefore, the furn ace may be sm aller.
substantial increase in the cost of the On th e contrary, a lower tem perature
superheater , since the low-alloyed ste- of the com bustion products at t he fur-
el has a higher str ength, and therefo- n ace outlet requires an extension of
r e, superheater tubes may have a smal-
water walls and an increase in the di-
ler wall thickness. Poarlitic steel can mensions of the furnace and heating
however operate reliably only at tem- surfaces of the boiler plant, since
peratures up to 580-585"C (the s team the convective surfaces will operate
t emperature 545"C). A t higher t em- at reduced temperature gradients.
per atures, more alloyed austenitic ste- The velocity of combustion pro-
els must be employed which are much ducts in convective gas ducts must be
more expens ive (5-8 times) and thus limited to avoid quick wear of the
greatly increase the capital expenditu- h eating surfaces by ash ; this is asso-
res. On the other hand, within the ciated with a r educed intensity of
temperature limits of the applicability heat exchange, wh ich necessitates an
of a particular steel grade, an increase increase in the area of heating surfa-
in temperature causes only a slow rise ces and the metal consumption. A de-
of capital expenditures (due to a de- crease in the velocity of combustion
creased allowable stress and increased products, especially in high-capacity
metal consumption). For this reason, plants with high flow r ates of fuel
it is _q~ite important to ensure a high and combustion products , requires an
coeff1c1ent of heat transfer at the ste- essential increase in the cross-sectio-
~m. side of the superheater, especially nal area of gas ducts , which may lead
m 1ts hot b ank and radiant section, so t o a high non-uniformity of veloci-
as to lower the metal temperature. ties and tem peratures of gas flows and
In view of the p ossibilities offered by p oor r eliability of the boiler . This al-
pearlitic s tools, now boilers are desig- so makes the boiler design more com-
ned for a steam outlet temper ature of plicated. A way out is to use a m_ore
560°C at a subcritical pressure of int ricate and heavy T -shaped bo1ler
14 l\lPa (dru m-type boilers) or 545°C l ayout (see F ig. 2t.1 b).
27 9
In gas and fuel-oil fired boilers, tho
b eating surfaces are not subject to
wear by ash, which makes it possible
to increase the velocity of combustion
products and intensify the operation
of tho heating surfaces. Thus, fuel-
oil fired boilers are more compact than
those operating on pulverized coal. A
change to fuel oil or gas can raise the
reliability and efficiency of a boiler
plant. Since mineral impurities (ash)
are present in fuel oils only in low
concentrations and are not contained
in natural gas, one can choose the
optimal and economically most fa-
vourable (or close) t emperature at
the furn ace outlet to minimize the
cost of boiler; this temperature will
be much higher than the temperature
in pulverized-coal boilers to prevent
the slagging of heating surfaces. For
gas and fuel-oil fired boilers this tem-
perature is usually t aken to be 1 250"C.
With such a high temperature of com-
bustion products at the furnace out-
Jet , the fraction of radiant h eat ex-
ch ange in the furnace is not high and,
since the conditions of fuel combus-
tion allow a higher heat release rate in
the furnace volume, it is possible
to decrease the total area of water
walls, and therefore, the dimensions
of the furnace, in particular, its
height. .
A high temperature of combust10n
products in tho convective gas ducts ,
in combina tion with a higher allowa-
ble velocity (to avoid wear of heating
surfaces) m akes it possible to inten-
sify h eat transfer and heat absorpti~n
and thus t o diminish the cross-sectiO-
nal area of gas ducts and thus the di-
mensions of the boiler plant.
In the combustion of high-sulphur
fuel oils the metal of heating surfa-
ces in tl~e gas path may be subjected
to corrosion l.Ulder appropriate condi-
tions . The principal method for pre-
venting higl1-temperature corrosion is
't o main tain tho temperature of the
heat ing surface walls below 600"C.
Low-temper ature gas corrosion is pre-
vented by raising the temper ature of
air a t t he inlet t o th e air h eater and
 280
Ch. 22. Steam B oilers of High-capacity Atonobloc Units
I
I 100
N other hand, manoeuvring uni ts, i.e.
,j % ~
• J\ _[1..
90
1..
80
70
IJO
50
40
"L - 1:'
0 4 8 12 16
Fig. 22.3. Daily load curve of a power system
' by using corrosion-resisting ma te rinls
! and protective coatings . These meth-
ods have been described in Ch. 19.
Power engineer ing is the sole branch
of n ational economy where the l'inal
product is not stored, hut consumed
completely just as i t is produced. This
specific feature defines the interrela-
t ion between the operating modes of
energy-producing systems and energy
con sumers. This determines one of th e
! principal problems: organization of
., the optimal conditions for operation
of electric power systems, power sta-
tions and their equip ment.
The total power developed at a par-
ticular momen t~by all plants of a sys-
t em is called the system load. F igure
22.3 shows a curve of daily electric
load of a power system which includes
all its consumers: industrial and agri-
cult ural plants, electric transport, il-
h.Jmination and appliance loads. Peaks
o.f the load curve a.re due to uneven
operation of industrial enterprises,
transport, illumination , etc.
As regards the loading coefficient
and the utilization of installed power
of monobloc units, t hey may operate
to supply a base load, i.e. to operate at
their rated capacity for 6 000-7 500
hours per year (Tmax = 6 000-
l 7 500 h), a semi-peak load with "'max =
= 2 000-4 000 h , or a peak load with
<max less than 2 000 h. L arge monobloc
units for supercritical pressures usual-
'i ly supply a base load and are not sui-
ted well for load variations. On the
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those for supplying semi-peak and
peak loads , are ch aracterized by a low
1'1. tim e of u tilization of the installed
power and an elevated speed of start-
llp. Subcri tical-pressure plants are
more suitable for supplying semi-peak
and p eak. loads than those operating at
'
supercritical pressures.
.Monobloc units for supercritical
pressures require a longer time for
20 h boiler firing and heating up of pipe-
lines and greater heat consumption
for start-up. They are less convenient
Jor control. Their valves and fitting
are worn more rapidly, especia lly with
.frequent start-u ps, and the metal is
more liable to develop high thermal.
stresses owing to often load Yariations
at the high pressure.
For the E uropean terri tory of the
USSR, subcritical- pressurc units of
l,he capacities up to SOO MW are recom-
mended for suppling sem i-peak and
peak loads . Steam reheating is often
employed in order t o avoid erosion
oJ turbine blades in the las t stages, es-
pecially at vari able load conditions,
though this makes the plant more ex-
pensive.
For the reliable operation of poar-
li tic steels under semi-peak and peak
load conditions, the temperature of li-
ve and reheated steam can be taken
equal to 530-535°C. To prevent erosion
in the last s tages of the turbine, the
lower limit of superheated steam tem-
perature is 480-500°C. As a result, the
steam temperature of 510°/510°C turns
out to be the most preferable from the
considerations of minimizing the me-
tal consumption in the superheater
and decreasing the time and cost of
star t-ups.
When selecting the initial pressure
of steam, it should be remembered
that pressures of 13 MPa and Hi MPa
ensure roughly the same econorn ic ef-
ficiency characteristics. The manoeu-
vrability of the power units at these
pressures is also roughly the same.
In view of the positive experience of
operation of steam-turbine plants at a
pressure of 13 MPa, it is adv isable to
22.2. Charac teristics of Modern Steam Boilers
design manoeuvring power units for
the same initial pressure.
Th e experience of operation of high-
capacity high- pressure drum-t ype bo-
il ers in the power units fori00-200 MW
h as revealed t hat cracks of corrosion-
fa tigue origin form in the boiler drum,
which appeared due to non-un iform
temperature fields at variable load
conditions. In the boiler drums of mo-
re powerful units (500 1\tl\<V), ..)vhere the
drum has larger d imensions'rind thick-
er walls, the danger of high t em-
perature non-uniformity and tempe-
1·a ture stresses is higher, esp ecially at
varying operating modes in which the
equipment is shut down and started up
too frequen lly. In once-through boilers
there are no such heavy metal ele-
ments as the drum; they are lighter
and can be shut down and started up
more quickly. For this reason, once-
through boilers are recommended for
power units wh i.ch s upply semi-peak
and peak loads.
A manoeuvrable steam boiler
should be compact and the mass of me-
tal and other materials in it should be
as low as possible. With a lower mass,
less ti me is needed for a change from
one thermal state (mode) to another.
This condition is more easily met in
fuel oil-fired boilers which also h ave a
wider range of operating loads in which
fu el combustion can be officien t and
stable.
Since peak-load boilers are in ope-
ration only a limited number of hours,
they are made less cxpensi ve by redu-
cing the consumption of metal for the
low-temperature h ea ting surfaces; in
this case the temperature of waste ga-
ses is taken to be 160-180°C.
For more convenient maintenance,
all heating surfaces of a manoeuvring
boiler should be drainable, because of
which the convective elements are
made with the horizontal arrangement
of tubes.
The wo rking flu id in once-through
manoeuvring boilers has an elevated
mass velocity which ensures proper
cooling in a wider range of loads and
r eliable operat ion of a boiler at low
281
loads. Recirculation of the working
fluid in water walls by means of re-
circulation pumps can also serve the
same purpose.
22.2. Characteristics or Modern Steam
Boilers
Most supercritical-pressure once-
througll boilers at therma l power sta-
tions operate in monobloc uni ts of a
capacity of: 300 ivlW or more . There are
a Rum ber of once-through boilers for
subcri tical pressures which are instal-
led in 150-200-~.nv monobloc units,
but their manufaclure has been discon-
tinued.
The high-capacity once-through bo-
ilers produced in the s ixties were
mainly of the two-housing scheme, i.e.
in the form of two symmetrical hou-
sings constituting a doub le-bloc toge-
ther with the turbine. A double-bloc
can operate at a load half of the nomi-
nal with one of the boiler housings
shut down. Th e experience of opera-
tion of the double-bloc plants has re-
vealed no essential advan tages over
the single-housing type. On the other
hand, their disadvantages (more in-
tricate layout, greater number of flows
of the working flu id, and greater num-
ber of valves and fittings) make them
less convenient in exploitation. Their
manufacture has been abandoned in
favour of single-housing steam boilers
for monobloc un its .
Single-housing boilers for 300-MW
monoblocs h ave a prismatic (open)
furn ace without constriction, which
makes it possible to r educe the average
l•eatiog intensity of water w alls in
the flame core zone to a safe level. The
same object is achieved by the recir-
culation or combustion products which
are taken at a relatively low tempera-
ture from the convective gas duct (usu-
ally downstream of the economizer)
and supplied by the recit·culation fan
into the furnace. This decreases the
heat absorp tion in the lower radiation
section, which is favourab le for stabi-
lizing temperature conditions of the
I'
282
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Ch. 22. Steam Boilers of High-capacity Monobloc Units
water walls and decreasing high-tem-
perature corrosion. Fuel is burned at
the minimal excess air ratio which is
-effective for combatting low-tempera-
ture corrosion and preventing fouling
of the heating surfaces.
Recently, steam boilers with gas-
tight enclosures have found wide ap-
plication. T he principle of gas tight-
ness can be more easily realized when
the water walls are made from verti-
~al sections with a single-pass flow of
the working fluid .
Gas-tight water walls substantially
increase tho economic efficiency and
r eliability of boiler plants. Tho prin-
cipal advantages of gas-tight boilers
are as follows: there are no air inlea-
kages in to tho furnace and gus ducts
(and therefore, q 2 is lower); tho boiler
plant consumes less auxiliary power
for the transport of air and combusti-
on products; combustion can be orga-
nized under the optimal conditions
with the least excess air r atio, which
prevents low-temperature corrosion
and fouling of the heating surfaces
(in com bust ion of high-sul.phur fuel
oil, this also prevents high-temporatme
corrosion); heavy refractory set-
ting is replaced by light hea t insula-
tion (this decreases heat losses,
shortens the time for start-up and shut-
down, and reduces the mass of the boi-
ler structure and foundati on); slag
and soot can be more easily removed
from the furnace by water washing of
the water walls without risk to dama-
ge the lining.
Supercharging places a number of
additional requirements on tho boi-
ler design: the single-housing scheme
should be preferred so as to diminish
the unit surface area of expensive gas-
tight walls ; all-welded gas-tight wa-
ter walls serve as the enclosure of the
furnace and gas ducts; the number of
individually controlled flows of the
working fluid is smaller, and therefore,
there are fewer points of passage of the
tubes through gas-tight walls which
must be properly sealed; the furnace
chamber has a narrower front, but
greater depth and height (to reduce
.. I.
/ .
/1
"
.•
the number of successively connected J!D5~00 .1[
water wall sections whi ch must be
I
welded together by their sides); the !2 I:
temperature difference between the
welded sections is decreased duo to re-
circulation and bypassing of working JJ5UOO
fluid in water walls.
In supercharged boilers of supercri-
tical pressmes, the superheater tubes
are passed from tho furnace through
welded roof sections, with a second roof I ~IIIHMI:::"'"" t5 I
being provided on the furnace. The Ia
convective reheater banks are arran-
ged in the down-take gas duct hori-
zontally; the probable effect of non-
uniform temperature dis tribution is
minimized by scctionalizing the rehe- ''
ater across the gas duct width into II _] , 1 IIJH t;-... 17 II
autonomous parallel flows . All sides of 1 I I
Upper
radtolfon v
the convective shaft are formed by the section
gas-tight water walls of the economizer
and superheater.
The economizer , live-steam reheater _l ?_l ! .,
and regenerative air heater in su per-
charged boilers are essentially of the J .
same design as in balanced-draft boi-
vzo ~7400
lers . The boil er structure has additio- I
nal beam bolts spaced roughly 3 m 1\ 8585 / 7.915 . 0 7.9f5 "-.. 8585 1
!9
I
apart to absorb the stresses appearing
due to supercharging.
Lower .ralflal~ion
In modern high-capacity boiler
plants, the load-carrying boiler stru-
.' ..""..
~
cture is mostly combined with the I
v l
building structures (see Sec. 21.1) ,
which gives a noticeable saving in
k---
v ---71 Hoi qa<e.r to
cot'~ miils
metal. For instance, the metal saving
for a gas and fuel-oil fired boiler type
TGMP-204 for an 800-MW monobloc
unit is around 1 500 t. This {I·
design is employed in new monobloc
boilers, of capacities of 500, 800 and
I I
1 200 MW, both gas and fuel-oil fi-
red and those fired on pulverized
coal. Upper edge of
V-s!Japed drg· boltom
An example of high-capacity sing- hopper
le-housing boilers for supercritical
steam pat·amet.ers is shown in Fig. 22.4.
The boiler type P-67 for 800-MW mo-
nobloc units is fired on K aosko-Achi- Fig. 22.4. SLeam boiler type P-67
nsky coal; its s team-generating capa- J-ail-welded water walls In furnace; 2-bumera,. 3-n:c1reu1 a tedscreen:
gases· 6-
4-expanslon Joints (parting Jolnta);
3rd platen superheater (tbe last
city is D = 2 650 t/h and stea m para- .S-Ist platen superhcnter; 6-2nd platen superheater. 7-sla~ or rebeater· JO-roor tubes; JJ-"hot box•;
meters: 25.5 MPa, 545°/545°C. I t has scetlon or su pererltlcal-pressure superbeatcr); 0
Jll-maln beams; 13- llvc-steam rebeatcr; 14-
1
';We
"";u!'~umns· u-ail-wclded water walls In convcc-
er ro I I· ressuro superheater; 17-lst rcbcntcr stage;
the T-shaped layout with tho boiler live furnace sh a ft; JG - Ist stage of convective supererl~_ca Pnscs to tubular air beater· 20-tubes SUSJlen-
structure suspended from tho boiler
78-eCDnomher: JD- gns duct 1!o1rt~he remov1031 8°l! ~01 ~~':.~~~~rgremova l of dryln~t gases
ded lrorn tntcrmcdlotc beams JO s uspcns n • I ldlt b It•
to
pulverlzl nt: mill•;
2s- r· {f , y e ~
'I!
28't
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Ch. 22. S team Boilers oj High-capacity Monobloc Uni b I ..1.
if'.. A
room buil ding structure. The boiler A tubul ar air heater is m ounted in a
has gas-tight water walls , but opera- separ·ate bay of th e nHH n buil-
tes w ith balanced draft . T he furnace d ing. I

is of tho open dry-bottom typo, squa-

re in plan and has four tiers of tangen-
T he wa ter-steam path of the boiler
h as two circu its w ith non-mixing
I
JfiiOOO t! t2 ~;-_ ,
' uu . ... ,

t ial burners (two vertical g rou ps of

bu rners on each furn ace wall).
separatel y con trolled f l ow~; , which are -,
·n:-ilir.
>tcum
Ji ,j· .. tO - /
v
symmetrical abou t tho vertical axis
In view of the high explosibi lity of of tho boiler. T he b oiler is provided ~5 ~ J ~~
11'11
1-
~fo •
the p ulveri zed K ansk o-Achinsky co- 18 ....
al and the high fuel consum p t ion by
with an overhead tra Yclling cran e of
a load -can ying cap aci.ty of 30 t and
u~~ OoJ
Ir
-- 15
..,
8 ....
t h e boiler, the pulver izing system of w ith goods and passenger I ifts . !4-
t he boiler is p rov ided with gas drying 7 . .• '.-- 17
~19
of fu el and mill fans wh ich inject co-
arse coal dus t into the fu rnace.
F ig ure 22 .5 shows a gns and fuel-o il
fired boiler typo TGM P-1202 of sus-
pen ded design for 1 200-M\V monobloc
I
/

5 /·
15 - -v ..,

In ordet· to mini mize s lagging of un its. I t is of the sing le-housing lay-

~~I
water wa lis, fuel combustion is orga- out, wh ich makes it pos~ ib le to or- .., '
nized at n low t emperature {less than
1 260°C} and a l ow average h c~:•t re-
lease rate to water walls . For the same
ganize s ingle-pass ascen ding motion of
the work ing flu id in the furnace wa-
•CF
'::::

~H
-dllrx '>( 1.>< X o,.- 20
ter wnlls at a mass flow nlte wp ~
~· ].':,[£on
purpose, ptH:t of the com lw stio n pro- ~ 2 000 kg/( m ~ s). The hoiler is su- . 5 H )H
I •~•• ~"
du cts (roughly 20 %) is taken Jrom t ho percharged. The furn ace is 3'1 280 mm
~ ~
J!5200 n:
h orizontnl gns duct nt n tornpora lu re X 10 <1.20 mm in pian and en..·l"ies me- ~ ~ IX IX lX
of 670°C a nd recircul a ted t hrough a t> Zt1K 2
.. IX IX
I
mbrane sections of un ified w idth . The ,...
I~ ~~
It H
water-wal led gas condu it to th o hlll'- enclosing sections of lhe cou,·ce-ti vo
ncrs beh ind the gas drier. Tho t angen- and conuecliug gas d uels are also u ni -
tial burners form a ver tica l tu rbulent
fl ame in the h1r n ace centro, so that
fied . T he furn ace h as a rather large
depth which allows free de,·elopment H
l OWI!r

:,~ IH ,H
IX IX I~ ,..._ ZJ
I • •• I•
the direct contact of the fl a me with 'If'
lX I~J~
of the flame without touching water r: I

the water wa lls is m in im ized . walls . F iring-up of the hoi lor is done J- I•
T ho heating su rfaces beh ind the flll'- 10420 7!100
by us ing the fuel oil burners . 1 n order H IH
n ace arc of the p laten type, w h ich mi- to dim in ish the firing-up load (to
n imizes tho probability of tubes slag-
ging . Slugging is also prevented by
0.15D ,) and increase the reliability ' ~z, 1"!: "
~&
of al l-welded water walls, the boiler 2 --J::
r ecirculating another 10 % of the com- is provided with a w a ter recirculating 1- -
bust ion products through nozz les in- system which opera tes w hen th e load ......
to the top portion of tho ftll'n ace so as D, J!5500
is less than 40-50 % of D , . T he bur- ~u lr:' 2~
to ma intai n the gas temperature befo- ners are arranged in t wo fronts and
re the pl atens at a level below 1 025°C. f_s;
T he recycled gases are taken off Ly
th ree tiers . Combus t ion gases are ta-
"\
n-1
- [Jl ~:- I

ken off beh ind the econom izer and re-

two exh aust fans behind tho economi-
zer at a temper ature of 350°C.
T ho boiler has two symmetrical
con vecti ve shafts each of the cross-
sectio nal size 23 085 mm X 8 685 m m .
E ach shaft is d ivided vertica ll y int o
two portions by a gas channel 2 300 mm
wide forrnecl by two gas-tight walls
which carr y no h eating surfaces , i.e .
there ar e essent iall y four con vectiv e
sh afts. Combust ion products are taken
off at a temperature of around 800oC
at the entry to convective shafts and
move along the gas channels to pul-
veriz ing fans (Fig. 22.4, itorn 21) .
circulated in to the top and bottom
portion of the furn ace . The working I
IH
5Z50~ /
fluid moves in the furnace water walls
by the single-pass m ode. T here are r ;
h
~ JBJOO
two firi ng-up un its, one for each flow . .
The su pe1·cri tical-pressure superheater
(D = 3 950 t/h) is arranged in thlt ~ ~
"'(}. 00 '\.._
horizontal duct and comprises p la ten I
sections a nd two convecti ve stages.
Fi . 22.5. Steam boiler type TGM P-1202 .
The supercri t ical-pressu re steam pat h -g ,3
4- horlzontnl parting Jom t; 5- noulcs; G-
1-gas-ruel o il burners: z- rur box; 3- rurnncc " 1.e~ 9'~ 0 • r water wa ll; I O- ' bot box' : 11- maln bca_m;
115•
has two water injection points : one r igidity bell; 7- horl tonta l truss; 8- suspendcd l~bes, )" l.'ube slag screen: I J- l st stage o r convecltvc
before the p latens (5 % of th e total wa- 12-d istTibutlng ceiling; JJ - s upcr bcatcr platens, 14 7''
t'he l ast rchcatcr bank· Jb-boiler room columns;
supcrbe.~tcr; J6- 2nd 6tnl:e or convcct!vc suJocrhcat~,r:d. 20-rcbcalcr 6tage; :u...:.control stage o r rchco ter;
ter fl ow r ate) and the other befo re the 19-gas-tight cc 8...~,.-..·combustion products to regenerative air heater
2Z- conlrowa te r walls In
l byposslng convcct
valve; •ve rurnn1zcr;
23-cconom
Last st age of th e convective superh ea ter
(2 %) .
 286
Ch. 22. Steam Boilers of High-capacity .Monobloc Units
The low-pressure path bas a control
.
an mtermediate and an outlet bank.
At the rated capacity and fu el oil
firing, roughl y 30% of steam pass
thro ugh the control bank and the
remaining 70% are bypassed. The
two steam flows are then mixed in a
header and fed into the intermediate
and the outlet bank.
The economizer has two tube b anks.
There are four regenerative air heaters
of 12.9-m diameter.
The semi-peak once-through b oiler
type TMP-501 of a steam-generating
capacity 1 800 t/h (14 MPa, 515°/515°C)
operates in a monobloc with a 500-MW
steam turbine (Fig. 22.6). It h aR the
IT-shaped layout. The open-type pris-
matic furnace has weakly inclined
water wall tubes coiled all over its
walls in the lower radiation section·
this prevents temperature stratificatiod
in the zone of intensive heating of
the working fluid which might occur
~t low loads and transient regimes ,
1.e. when some walls are heated une-
venly. In the less heated upper radia-
tion secti on, water walls are made in
St600
Fig. 22.6. Semi-peak boiler type TMP-501
(D = 1 800 t/h, p = 14 MPa, 515°/515°C)
J - burner; t - lowcr radiation section· J-upper
radiation section; 4-supcrhe.a tcr platens; s-
root superheater; 6-bot box; 7- convcctlve super·
hentcrs; 8-rehcutcr; 9-cconomlzcr; 10-to rege-
nerntive air beater
Download From Boilersinfo.com
' the form of vertical sections. Since
there are no substantial t em perature
differences of tho working fluid in
parallel tubes , water walls are of the
all-welded design and the boiler is
gas-tight.
Since the superheated steam tom-
perature is relatively low, all heating
surfaces of the boiler are made from
pearlitic steel which operates at vari-
able temperatures more reliably than
austenitic steel. The headers have a
low wall thickn ess (less than 36 mro)
so as t o prevent substantial tempera-
ture stresses and thus increase their
reliability. This has become possible
b ecause of the moderate steam pres-
sure in the boiler. The temperature of
live steam is controlled by water
injection and that of r eh eated steam
by the recirculation of combust ion
products to the fu rnace burners and
in addition, by water injection at th~
fulljload.
In view of the high risk of corrosion
at low loads and a t frequent starting-
up and shutting-down, the boiler is
provided with two regenerative air
heaters with a porcelain packing in the
cold sections and a steam air heater
s which ensures a high t emperature of
air preheating in all operating regimes.
The boiler is suspended from the m ain
beams of the boiler room building.
Figure 22.7 shows the steam boiler
for 1 300-MW m onobloc unit of the
Gavin power station in the USA. It is
of the single-hous ing type with IT-
shaped layout. The open-type furnace
for firing pulverized coal has opposit-
ely arranged burners and a dry-bot-
tom hopper . Its width, depth and
height are respectively 34.4 m, 15.8 m
and 61 m. The boiler has 14 r oller
mills , with seven mills mounted on
each side. The rated capacity is cover-
ed by the operation of 10-12 mills, the
remaining being the reserve. P ulveriz-
ed fuel is dried by air and blown
directly into the burners. Capital
r epairs of the roller mills are carried
out once in two years. Fuel is supplied
t o the mills by closed belt conveyers
provided with automatic scales to
22.2. Characlertstlcs of Modern Steam Boilers
Fig. 22.7. Once-through boiler (D =
= 4 438 t/h, p = 27.3 MPa, 543°/538°C)
J- pulverizlng mills; Z- pulverizcd-.:oal ducts;
3- b umer; 4- sccondary nlr box; 5- box for re-
circula ted gnscs ; G-pla tens; 7- the last superhea-
ter stage; 8- ·hot box'; !J nnd JJ - reheaters; J O-
IsL supcrhenlcr stage; 12-economlzer; 1 3- lo
rcgcnc•·ative olr beater; 14- dust collection from
rec irculated gases; IS- to reeircu l nlln~ gas Inn
measure fu el consumption. E ach mill
is connected with the burners by
eight dust pipelines of an appreciable
length which also compensate for the
burner displacement owing to tem-
p erature expansion of the water walls.
The boiler bas 11 2 burners arranged
in four tiers on the front and rear walls
of the furna ce (the burners are enclosed
by secondary-air boxes).
The furnace water walls are m ade
in the form of all-welded sections
with vertical tubes and ascending
motion of the working fluid. There is
a single parting joint along the fur-
nace h eight. Three platens are mount-
ed in t be furnace top. Tho boiler is
provided with a gas recirculation
system which r eturns the combustion
products into the furnace in two
points: a smaller portion through the
tubes of the dry-bottom hopper (not
shown in the figure) and a greater
portion, through the boxes at the
furnace top.
The boiler is supercharged , the
surplus pressure being developed by
throe a ir blowers. There aro no reserve
287
blowers. The boiler structure is sus-
pended on long ties of a diameter
of 120 mm and spring-biased supports .
The heating surfaces can be blown by
fixed and retractable nozzles up to
17 m long, the blow-down system
being switched on automatically twice
a d ay.
Drum-type boilers are made for
subcritical steam pressures. The drum-
typo boilers employed at Soviet thor-
mal power station s are of the natural
circulation type and mostly with ba-
lanced draft. In other countries, forced-
circulation drum-typo boilers are also
in use.
The drum-type boiler typo.TPE-211
with natural circulation (Fig. 22.8)
has been developed on the basis of the
similar boiler type TP-100 which h as
foun d wide application. It is intended
for the combustion of coals (dry-bot-
tom furnace) and natural gas. It is
of the T-shaped layout, with the fur-
n aco being arranged in the central
uprising shaft and the low-temper a -
ture convective h eating surfaces, in
two vertical convective shafts sym-
metrically on the left and right of the
furnace. The convective shafts are
connected with the furnace by horizon-
tal gas ducts in which the high-tem-
perature convective superheater sect-
ions are mounted.
The open-type furnace of the pris-
matic shape is oriented by its longer
· side across the main buil ding and car-
ries evaporating water walls. It is
verLically divided by a platen into
two symmetrical furnace chambers.
At the bottom, the platen together
with opposite water walls forms two
cold-bottom hoppers. Each section of
the furn ace is provided with pul-
verized coal and gas burners arranged
in two tiers on its side walls. The
boiler drum is mounted transversely
to the furnace front; it is made of
steel Grade 16GNMA (0.16C-Mn-N i-
high quality) and has an internal
diameter of 1 800 mm and wall thick-
n ess 11 2 m.m.
Superheating of live steam is effect-
ed in a superheater section on the
 288 Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 22. Steam Boilers of High-capacity !tfonobloc Units
47JOO
t,tooo
- .s-control stage or superheater:
I
!I
I
!
I
I'
!.
•''
2 .13
I '
r----n
0.00
l ln the zone of tho com bus lion pro- 30% lower mass of the metal; the
Il furnace roof and in the radiant super-
healer located in the lop portion of tho
•I, furnace under the constriction above
I by us ing finned tubes. An example of
• the water wall tubes. Tho convective
I a small-size boiler plant is the boiler
l superhea ter an.d reheater are arranged
<~ l most completely in tho horizon tal
ga~ ducts. Steam for reheating is sup-
piled from lho turbine in two flows
each of which is separated into tw~
flows in a con trol bypass valve and
can be directed partially into an ad-
ditional (control) reheater surface and
partially arou nd it into the convective
banks. The temperature of high-pres-
~ ure superheated steam is controll ed
by the injection of boiler condensate.
The econorn izer is arranged in tho
down take shaft together with its head -
• ers. The air heater is o( the tubular
' throe-pass t ypo.
l Tn conventional boiler designs whore
wat~r walls arc arranged on the on-
closmg walls of the furnace the
dimensions of tho boiler plant m'ay be
too large. Their dim ensions can be
d ecreased by applying forced-flow tur-
Fig. 22.8. Drum-ty)Jc boiler
TPE-211 (D = 670 t b, p =
= 14 MPa)
J - burners; 2-furnac('; J- radiant
.;uperhcntcr section ; 4- cconomizer·
6- roor superhea ter; 7- rllaten-
drun.•; 9- rc hca ler; 10 und JJ _:cou-
v~ctlvo .supcrhea L4!1" snctlon s: t 2 -
aJr heater; 1 :1- coJd ulr in;
wa stc gases; J.s- uppcr end or dry-
bottom hopr>cr
0 •
bulent furnaces or by intensifying
heat transfer in the heating surfaces
type TGM-444 developed at the Cent-
ral boiler and turbine ins titute
( ~ig. 22.9). It is essentially a gas-
ttght supercharged dru m-typo boiler.
Tho furnace h as two chambers: a tur-
bulent primary furnace at tho bottom
and a furnace chamber with bare-
tube water walls above it. The total
~urface area of the heating surfaces
ts enlarged by adding two finned-
tube platens which are arranged per-
pendicul ar t o the fu rnace front and
divide the furna ce along its whole
height into tluee sections. All water
walls of the furnace are conn ected into
the natural-circulation circuits. In-
stead of a large number of downtake
tubes, the boiler has four water-des-
cending stand-pipes of 426-mm dia-
meter and 36-mm wall thickness.
The front wall of tho furnace carries
s ix straight-flow gas and fu ol oil
22.2. Characteristics of Modern. Steam Boiler1 289
A- A
8-8
s..:.
14 -
17000
~
Fig. 22.9. Small-size gas and fuel oil fired boiler type TGM-'•44 (D = 500 t/h, p = '14 MPa,
560°C) ·
J -cyclonc primary furnace; 2-burncr; J-coollng chamber; 4- furnace platen; 5-drum; ~ -external cyc-
lones· 7-eeonomlzcr; &-platen; 9-bcnt-tubc bank; JO- convecUve su perheater platens, JJ-asccndmg
' rras duct; 12-Lo rcgcueratiVe air hea ter
burners (two in each furnace section). with conventional boi lers and by 25-
ducts exit hom t he furnace there are volume of construction work for the
12 vertical all-welded s ingle-pass su- main building of the power stat ion,
perheater platens. The heal release including the boiler, can be decreased
rate per un it vol ume of the primary by 50-66% and t h e labour consump-
furna ce is roughly 2 MW/m3 and for tion for the boiler manufacture and
the whole furnace 0.7 MW/m 3 • mounting by 30-40 %. The boiler is
A horizontal gas duct and two ver- universal as regards its thermal cha-
tical connected gas ducts are mounted racteristics and manufacture. The lat-
behind the furnace chamber, all en- ter is achieved by developing a' stand-
closed by all-welded water walls. The ard furnace module of a length M =
vertical shafts carry convective platen 4 480 mm and diameter 3 960 rom .
sections of the superheater. At t he A number of modules can be combined
outlet hom the ascending gas duct, to form the furnace for boilers of
combustion products pass through an various capacities. For instance, the
economizer and, fin ally, through a boiler described (D = 500 t/ h) r e-
regenoraliYe air heater (one for the quires three modules, i.e . th o length
whol e boiler plant). All heating sur - of the primary furnace (width across
faces of the boiler are drainable. the front) is: L = 3M = 3 X 4 480 =
The boiler offers the .following ad- 13 440 mm. Small-size forced boilers
vantages: it has substantially smaller are in Uro stage of industrial develop-
cl i mens ions (by 30-40 %) compared ment.
19-015 24
I' 290
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 23. Steam Boiler Operatum
I
STEAM BOILER OPERATION
23.1. Operating Conditions
and Ch aracteristics
The principal object of boiler oper-
ation is to satisfy the current power
demand according to the load curve
and ensure ·th e highest service life
and highest effi ciency of boiler plant.
T he load curve of a power station is
mostly non-uniform which is deter-
mined by variations of energy con-
sumption by the consumers. There
are daily, weekly and seasonal load
curves. As a rule, a load curve has
peaks in the morning and in the
t'
evening and drops down at dayti me
' and especially at night. Load drops
arc also observed on non-working
days, especiall y at nighl. The seasonal
load curve mostly has a maximum in
autumn and winter. Energy-producing
equipment may operate in the·l base,
semi-peak or peak regime (mode). I n a
base regime, the load is essentially
constant, though certain variations
are allowed in this regime and even
shut-down to reserve on non-working
days . In semi-peak regime, the station
equipment is shut down to reserve
in the nighttime and all tho days of
rest. In peale regime, the equipmen t
is in operation onl y during peaks of
the load.
The following principal characteris-
tics are adopted to describe the oper-
ating conditions of boilers:
(a) the net efficiency of a boiler a t
• rated load and the average efficiency
ror a particular operating period ;
(b) t he operation factor which is
essen tially the r atio of the actual
operating t ime of a boiler, 'top• to tho
calender time '1:, 01 of the period con-
s idered (month or year);
23.1. Operating Condlltons and Characlertstlcs
trol system of a boiler should quickly
respond to load variations without
. interference of the persoimel. In this
range, it is not a llowed to change the
composition of the operating auxiliary
equipment, the number of boiler bu~·­
ners and the adjustment of automattc
regulators. The ~oncept o~ the a;Z~ow­
able load range mcludes, 10 add1t10n,
tho region of loads fr om the lower
(c) lite availability factor , i.e. the limit of the control range to the lowest
ratio of the total time during which capac ity at which the bailer can
a boiler was in operation and reserve operate steadily. In this range, the
to the calender time; load varies relatively slowly according
(d) the capacity factor which is the to tho load-dispatching curve and it
ratio of th e steam generation during is allowed t o vary the composition of
'top to tho probable steam generation the auxiliary equipment, change tho
during 'teal if the boiler operated at numhor of burners, and 'brighten'
the rat,od steam-generating capacity; the pulverized-coal flame by startup
and fuel in order to stabilize combustion.
(e) the average and max imu m time It is also allowed t o vary the adjust -
of a campaign or , using the tet·minolo- mont or switch off some of the auto-
gy from the rei iability theory, the maLic regula tors. The lowest capacity
operating time to failure (a failure of a boiler is determined by the relia-
is u11derstood as an event th at dis- bility of t emperature and hydraulic
t urbs tho operal.ing ab ility of a boiler). condi tions of lhe water walls and the
Boil ers operating in base regimes stability of fuel combustion and dis-
should have the highest values of the charge of molten slag from the slag-
indicated characteristics. It should be hole.
clear that such high indices cannot be Regimes of operation at any load
attained by the boilers operating in with insignificant variations of steam
semi-peak and peak regimes. parameters are called steady . I n con-
Since monobloc units gradually re- trast, regimes characterized by load
place older equ ipment in thermal variations and deviations of steam
power stations of power systems, some parameters due to internal or external
of thoro, including those of super- disturbances are called r.msteady. I n-
critical pressures, are employed in- t ernal disturbances of an operating
creasingly for supplying the variable regim e are caused by variations of one
portion of the load curve. In that or more boiler inlet parameters (flow
respect , the manoeuvrability of boiler rate or tern perature of feed water,
equipment is a characteristic that fuel consumption, air flow rate, etc.).
grows in importance. Extemal disturbances are caused by
The concept of manoeuvra bility of variations in the external conditions
monobloc units includes: the ch ar acter- (such as the pressure of steam in st eam
istics which determin e the range of main, the load of the turbo-gener ator,
operating loads of a unit; the startup- the degree of opening of the startup-
shutdown characteristics; t he dynamic shutdown device, etc.). An important
properties; the characteristics a t sud- characteristic of a boiler is its ahili ty
den sheddings and surges of tho load. to change the load quickly, which is
The condi tions of operation of boiler often called the acceleration characteris-
equipment at various loads are charac- tic . It is determined mainly by the
terized by the load control r ange and dyn amic properties of a boiler, i.o.
the range of all owable loads. In the by its response to r egime disturban-
load control range, the automatic con- ces.
291
The characteristics of manoeuvrabi-
lity of the boiler equipment are deter- I
mined largely by startup-shutdown
regimes. The principal types of boiler
shut-down are as follows:
lI
(1) shut-down to reserve or for some
t ypes of repair work which require no-
cooling of the boiler and steam pipe-
lines;
(2) shut-down for t·epairs with cool-
ing of tl10 whole boiler plant or a
particular element;
(3) emergency shut-down; it is car-
ried out by the prescribed t echnology
which is determined by the cause of
shut-down and the possibility of re-
starting.
The firing regime of a boiler includes-
heating the water-steam and gas-air
paths , after which the process of steam
generation begins and steam para-
meters are raised t o the specified val-
ues. For monobloc units, boiler firing
is a part of the starting-up regime of
a unit. Firing a boiler is considered
to be completed when tho steam-
generating capacity and steam para-
meters have been r a ised to the specified
values so as to 'push' the turbine
rotor and accelerate its rotation. This
regime is also called the starling-up
regime. The firing and starting-up
regimes heavily depend on the original
thermal state of the equipment. A boil-
er can bo started fl'om a hot state, a
warm state or a cold state. For mon'J-
bloc unit boilers, these regimes are
distinguishfd roughly by the tLn;te of
the preceding idle time (respecttvely
6-10 h, from 6-10 h to 70-90 h, and
more than 70-90 h). For conventional
boilers (not monobloc) the differen~e
between the first and second group ts
determined by the time of the prece-
ding idle time (6-10 h or more) and
between the second and third group,
by the loss of gauge pressure in the
boiler and the drop in the tempera-
ture of the hottest elements down to
150°C. For monobloc boilers , in ad-
dition, the starting-up regime from
the state of hot reserve is known.
 292 Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 23. Steam Boiler Operation
23.2. Steady Regimes of Boiler
Operation
Steady cond itions of boiler oper -
ation h ave been considered in many
preceding chapters, so that the present
chapter w ill give only some additional
data . I n the general case, boiler oper-
at ion is carried ou t according to a
regime char/ which g ives the principal
characteristics of the regime obtained
by the results of boiler tes ts . Modern
monobloc un ils ar e equipped with
computer m eans which make it pos-
sible to determine the current or aver-
age (for any given period, such as a
shift) effi ciency characteristics and
the ch aracteristics of the working fluid
in the water-steam path of the boiler.
This inform ation is used for . the
optimit ation of boiler· operation. In
addition , a number of m•tomatic regul-
ators maintain the process parameters
at optim al values (for instance, the
air regulato1· main tains the specified
concentration of oxygen in flu e gases).
For these devices the regim e chart
gives the extreme variations of the
variables, above which the p ersonnel
should correct the operation of the
controllers or ch ange to manual oper-
ation.
Controlling the efficiency of com-
bustion p rocess consists in maintain-
ing the opti mal excess air ratio in the
f~n ace (a.1) and in distributing the
atr flow between tho burners in ac-
cordance with fuel distribution. The
optimal a.1 is found by minimizing the
heat losses (soc Ch . 6). Uniform dis-
tribution of fuel and air between the
boiler burn ers is favourabl e for de-
creasing the max imum temperatures of
water-wall tubes, decreasing temper-
ature stnttification of flue gases at
the ~urnaco . outlet, and preventing
slaggwg of the heating surfaces.
It is essential to hold the temper-
ature of tube walls of tho heating sur-
faces within the limits allowed for
tbeir metal (seo Ch. 10). Direct m eas-
urement of lemperatttre of the tube
metal can only bo carried out in boiler
tests. In boiler opera tion, lhese tom-
peratures Arc contro ll ed b v m ai ntain -
ing the specified tcrnpcralur('S of the
working flu id at the outlet from p ar-
ticular heating surfaces . In some cnscs,
these temperatures m ay exceed the
specified values. For instance, in once-
through boilers th is may occur on a
decrease in the flow rate of feed water
or an increase in the flow rate of spray
w ater (the t,ota l or· in some spray
nozzles). In any boiler, this also ca n
resul t from improper conditions in the
furn ace. For instance, if the com bust-
ion core in the boiler furnace is too
high, it may raise th e steam t emper-
ature behind some stAges of the super-
heater, especial ly behind th e unpro-
t ected superheater sections . N on-nrli-
form distribution of fu el between tho
burners may lead to an increased tem-
p erature of one o[ gas flows and to
increased maldistribution of hent in
some heating surfaces . J1, is clear
that in once-through boilers it is
essential to redistribute continuously
the flow rate of feed wa ter a nd the
flow rates of fuel between tho burner
tiers and furnace sides so as to ensure
reliable opera tion of tho heal.ing sttr-
faces. In drum-type hoi lers , an ad-
ditional variable is tho water level
in the drum. Ar. excessively high
water level can lead to carry-o ver of
water droplets which can impair the
steam quality and for m interna l depo-
si ts (scale) in superheater tu bes. This
may result in a high er temperature of
the tube metal and even in burn-
through.
The temperature conditions of the
heating surfaces are also im pa irerl if
some tubes have l.eaks ot· bw·sts.
Tube-burst indicators of the acoustic
type are finding increasing use for
detecting bursts and leaks in boil er
tubes. If the temperature behind par-
ticular heating surfaces has increased
above the allowable lev el or if a tubo
burst has been detected, tho boiler is
shut down (see Sec. 23.5). In addition
to the current control of tempera ture
conditions in a hoi ler, the state of the
metal of the heating surfaces, h eaders
and steam pipelines operating at lem-
23.2. S teady R egim es of Boiler Operation
pera tures above 450°C is checked perio-
dically by measuring their dimensions
or b y cutting metal specimens from
the tu bes for metallogra phic an alysis .
An impor tan t task of the boiler per-
sonnel is to organize the bo iler oper-
ation so as t o minimize low-tem pera-
tu re corrosion in the t ail heat ing sur-
faces and gas ducts. As has been given
inCh. 16, it is essential for the purpose
to burn high-sulphur fuel ..oil at tho
leas t excess air ratio (1.02-1.03) and
maintain the temperature of the pre-
heated air at a level of 70°C before
a tublllar air heater or 60°C befor e
regenerative air healers . Combustion
of fuel oil at a low excess air ratio
involves certain difficulties , in par-
ticular, the furnace should bo perfectly
tight, fuel and air should be uniformly
distributed between the burners, the
plant should be provided with oxygen
meters and smoke density indical,ors .
If these conditions are not observed ,
soot will be deposited on the hea ting
surfaces(its ignition may cause damage
to the tubes) and ejected into the
atmosphere.
S teady r egimes of the boiler oper a-
tion m ay be different depending on the
load. Variations of a particular steam
parameter or regime characteristic as a
function of load are described by wh a t
is called tho static characteristic . As
follows from what has been said in
Ch. 18 , an increase in the load de-
creases the fr action of heat absor bed
by radiation and increases tha t ab-
sorbed by convection. In a drum-t ype
boiler, this leads to an increase in the
temperatures of live and rcl1 eated
steam, water behind the economizer,
and bot air. In once-through boilers
where no distinct bow1dary is obser-
ved between the steam-generating and
superheating sections , the temperature
of live steam may remain constant.
Typical static characteristic~ of live
and reheated steam in a once-through
and drum-type boiler are shown in
Fig. 23.1.
With an increase o[ load , the tem-
perature of flue gases at tho [urn aco
outlet increases, re~ulting in a grca t.er
293
_tss /1 tss
1
..... ~ -
1-
500 1-
f-..--<-..z
tr/1
l r /1
540
./
500 v
I I ,.0/.Dr
O.J 0.5 0. 7 1.0
Fig. 23.1. Static characteristics of fresh and
reheated steam for (i) once-through and (2)
drom-type boiler
volume of combustion products and
higher temperature gradients in the
convective heating surfaces whose h eat
ahso•·ption thus increases somewhat.
S ince the flue gases have a higher t em-
pera ture and the excess air ratio is un-
changed , the loss q2 increases. In
some cases, the boiler furnace is run
at an elevated excess air ratio to form
appropriate furnace conditions or main-
t ain the specified temperature of steam
at r educed loads. In th is case the loss
q2 m ay even increase at r educed loads.
T ho loss of h eat due to incomplete
combustion , q 3 , is usually very low.
T ho loss with unburned carbon , q4 ,
first decreases with increasing load,
duo to a higher t emperature level
of combustion , but then can rise due
to a shorter time of fuel particles
presence in the furnace. The loss of
heat to the surroundings, q5 , decreases
with an increase in load. It can be
concluded from the foregoing that the
relationship between the boiler ef-
ficiency . and load is influenced by a
number of fac tors: boi'ler design, fuel
grade, a ir conditions, air inleakage,
otc. The highest efficiency can be
obtained at a load somewhat below
the rated load [near (0.8-0.9) Dr in
th e combustion of solid fuels and
(0.6-0.7) D, in the combustion of fu el
oill .
A change in fu el consumption on a
change of load is determined by the
 II
I
I
294
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 23. Steam Boller Operatton
ratio of balance equations:
= [D:h (iss-lfw)X+D:h (t;h-t;h):>:)
[D~,. (t;,- ttw)r + D~,. (t;" - t;,.YI
(23.1)
where D "'" Drlt are the flow rates of
live and reheated steam ' i s B and "r
;· h
•
are re.~pecbvely their enthalpies, itw
and trlt are the enthalpies of feed
water and steam at the reheater inlet
and the subscripts 'r' and 'x' refer
to the rated and reduced load.
If load is reduced at constant rated
parameters of steam, i1w and i'1 will
d ecrease wtt r ' of
. h only a slight change
'I'Jb, so that the fuel consumption will
change less substantially tl1an the
boiler load.
As has been established by boiler
tesLs and by experience of boiler
operation, the lower limit of the load
control range is as follows: 40-50%
I
'' ' ()f the rated load in the combustion of
I fuel oils, gas and high-volatile coals;
I let from the wall tube system is low
50-60% for lean coals; and 60-75%
for slaggiog-bottom boilers. The lowest
load for stable operation of a boiler
is usually 30-4.0% of the rated load.
23.3. Unsteady Regimes of Operation
Within Allowable Loads
Let us consider the principal un-
steady processes which can occur in
boilers on the typical disturbances of
their operating r egimes. According to
the laws of conservation of mass and
energ~, we can write the equations of
matenal and heat balance:
(23.2)
(23.3)
where Gs and Q8 are the quantities of
water and heat supplied to the boiler
D d and Qd are the quanti ties of stea~
and heat delivered from it, and G;n
and Q;n are the quantities of water
and heat contained in the boiler.
The term G;n is the mass of water
and steam contained in the boiler (it
ma~r be called mass filling). The Lerro
Q;n is the quantity of heat accumul-
ated in the boiler:
1Jb
11~ Qln = ~ Gmcmtm + ~ Gwcwttll
where c is specific heat and the sub-
(23.4)
scripts 'm', 'w' and 's' stand res-
pectiv&ly for 'metal', 'water' and
'steam'.
Specific processes occurring in the
drum-type and once-through boilers
are determined by the differences
b_e tween these boiler types: · the posi-
tion of the boundaries of the steam-
generating. portion, its filling mass,
and capactty of heat accumulation.
It should be recalled , in particular,
that the steam-generating portion in
the drum-type boilers has the bound-
aries determined by the drum whereas
in the once-through boilers th~se boun-
d aries are indeterminate. Since the
drum: type boiler has a multiple cir-
culatiOn, the steam content at the out-
a1_1d the mass filling is respectively
htgh. On the other hand, in once-
through boilers, the working fluid
circulates in a single pass, so that the
steam content increases substantially
and the mass filling is appreciably
lower than in the former case. Besides,
wa_ter-wall tubes in the drum-type
boilers have a larger diameter (to
ensure proper circulation) than in
once-through boilers, which again in-
creases their mass filling and the heat
accumulated by the metal. The drum
is also an element that accumulates
much heat, so that the terms d (Gin)ld't
and d (Q;n)ld't for the drum-type boilers
are substantially higher.
. Such are the principal differences
m unsteady processes occurring in
these two principal types of boiler*.
Let us analyse a regime in which
the fuel consumption B (and therefore
heat release in the furnace) increase~
at a constant flow rate of feed water
Gtw· In a once-through boiler
* A more de~iled discussion of unsteady
processes and the1r mathematical description
can~ be found in (56, 61), etc.
23.9. Unsteady Regimes of Operation
(a}
0 ...
1---<' firw
!---+---'>---· I ·--
8
'l" • O '£,min
(b)
Fig. 23.2. Variations of operating CQnditions
of a once-through boiler with increasing
fuel consumption
(a.}displacement of boundaries of the steam-gene-
rating portion; (b) varinllons of tile flow rate and
temperature of steam
(Fig. 23.2), the surface area of tubes
required to heat water to the boiling
temper ature decreases in this case,
and therefore, the boundary of the
economizer portion displaces in the
direction against the water flow (from
l ec1 to lec 2 ). The heating surface area
of the steam-generating portion also
decreases (from l 8 Dl to lc vz) and,
besides, its beginning displaces. There-
fore, the point in which steam gener-
ation is completed shifts against the
flow more substantially than the boun-
dary of the economizer portion. Thus,
the mass filling of the boiler decreases
(see the hatched area in Fig. 23.2a),
while the superheating portion of the
boiler increases (from z.,ll to lshz>·
These boundaries displace gradually.
First, the boundary of the beginning
of steam generation is shifted and,
since part of the water contained in
the boiler is evaporated, the steam
flow raLe D exceeds for a certain time
the flow rate of water G1w. During
this period, the r atio BID remains con-
stant and the temperature of live
steam t •• is not changed (Fig. 23.2b} .
Further, as the boundary of the end
of the steam-generating portion is
shifted and the heat accumulated by
295
tss
B__.,.-"' ..... --
-----
-----
1---
-- ·B
It
...._____
----~
'C• O
~ig. 23.3. Variations of the operating condi-
tions of a drum-type boiler with increasing
fuel consumption
the working fluid and metal increases,
t ss becomes higher. The processes
occurring in a s upercritical-pressure
boiler can be presen ted in a similar
manner if the zone of the highest heat
capacity of the fluid is regard ed as the
steam-generating portion.
The process in a drum-type boiler
occurs in a different manner (Fig. 23.3).
T he mass filling of the boiler is several
times greater than in the once-through
type, and therefore, the steam flow
rateD will for a certain time be higher
than the flow rate of feed water G,
leading to a lower water level h in
. the drum . On the other hand, since the
pressure in the water-wall tube system
and drum increases with D, some heat
must be spent for heating the water
contained in the drum to the corres-
ponding boiling point. For this reason,
D increases more slowly aod for a
certain time the proportion between
B and D is disturbed and results in
a higher t,,. As D approaches a new
static value, steam temperature ceases
to rise and then drops down to the
original or a new level which is deter-
mined by the static characteristic of
the superheater (whose dimensions are
pot changed in the regime considered).
It should be clear that the considered
pattern of the process is true only for
the period in which water level in the
drum decreases to a lower allowable
limit.

296
II the flow rato of feed water in the
once-through boiler decreases at con-
s tant B, the process w ill occur essenti-
all y .in the samo way as s hown i n
Fig. 23.2. In tho drum- type uoiler in
this case, the luiat cons umption for
heating water in the drum decreases,
resulting in a higher s team generation
in the water walls and higher s team
flow rate through the s uperheater.
Since the dimensions and heating
load 9f tho superheater remain un-
changed, the temperature of steam
drops somewhat down. This process,
as the previous one, occurs only in th e
period when the water love! in the
drum falls down to the lowest mark.
A different process lakes pluce if fuel
combustion is increased s uddenly. In
the once-through boiler, Lh is leads to
an 'ou t burst', i.o. vi gorous s team
generation and can·y-ovor of mois ture
by s team along the s tea m path. In
this case, the length of tho s team-
generating portion increases sharply
(Fig. 23.4b), r esul ting in a shorLcr
super heating p ortion and lower live
steam temperature. As the additional
steam passes from the boiler, the Jive
s team temperature begins to rise and
may exceed substantially the original
level (Fig. 23.4c). The process that
takes place in tho drum-typo boiler
is similar, in a certain respect, to that
described. The water leve l in the
lee!
-- .......... . ..
• • • . • .. .
...... : . .............
...... ....
(a)
leY2
--~- -
~
-
.... ..........
·---- - - ·... .............
- . - ---.-
·. •_
• • • • •
(6)
-
-
- --. ..... .·. .
~0_. • ..
..
(c)
• •
.•
...
• •
·..
... .......·............
•
. . ..
Fig. 23.4. Displacement of boundaries of the of steam-generating portion in a simi-
I
ste_am-generatiDg. portion in a once-through lar manner as shown in Fig . 24.2, and
boiler on a sharp mcrease of fuel consumption in an increase oft,. . I n the drum-type
(a) conditi~ns before disturbance: (b) niter dis tur-
bance. (c) final stcndy-stl\tc conditions
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 23. Steam Boiler Operation
2 val ue, the process considered m akes
h capacity of the boiler for quick varia-
B
I the unit, tho position of the control
·r: = (J
Fig. 23.5. Val'iatioos of the water level in
the boiler drum on n sharp chanae o[ [uel
• <>
consumptiOn
drum 's wells' to a heiaht as much us
"'
a few hund red millimetres. Tho d istur-
bance of tho material bal ance and the
$\Yelling of water in the circulation
system have opposite effects on tho
water level in the drum (Fig. 23.5). An
increase in D abov e G1w results in
a lower h (curve 1), while swell ing
leads to a sharp rise in h which is then
stabilized (curve 2). Using the super-
position method, one can find the
resulting change in h (curve 3) . This
curve shows that the effect of water
swelling is predominant at the initial
stage of the process and that of a
change in tho material balance, at the
l shf
final stage. In contrast to the process
: .._
. . ......
__
in the once-through boiler, the drum
in this case serves as a trap for en-
trained mois ture, and therefore, t ••
changes much in the same manner as
.. r
, __,
0
_ on a common increase of fuel con-
sumption.
• ••
The effect of variation in the feed
water tempcratm·e t1w in the two
....
• •
. •
boilers is also different. In the once-
through boiler, n change of t 1w, under
other conditions unchanged, results
in the displacement of the boundaries
boiler, the quantity of heat consumed
23.3. Unsteady Regimes of Operation
I
{
--- ' '-,
0 ond energy tran::;fe r in the system. Tho
+---~----- --
•
__--·-·-,.,.. -
"'-.......... p
-r:-(J
'C'm in
Fig. 23.6. Variations or the operating condi-
tions of a boiler on opening o[ turbine cont-
rol valves
for preheating water in tho drum de-
creases, whicl1 leads l.o an increase of
tho s team flow rate through the super-
hea Ler portiou an d a decrease of t •• .
If the flow rate of feed water increases
and i ts temperature decreases, the
processes occur in reverse d irection.
An exception is the process of 'out-
bursting' of moisture in the once-
through boiler, which can only be
observed on a sharp riso of heat release
in the furnace. With an external
disturbance of the regime, the processes
in the once-through and clrum- type
boilers are essentially similar. For
instance, as the opening H. of the
control valves of the monobloc turbine
increases, the pressure of live steam
and the saturation temperature di-
minish. This resul ts in n lower filled-
in mass of the boiler, higher steam
generation, and lower temperature of
s uperheated s team (Fig. 23.6). In the
drum-type boiler, this process takes
more time, since the mass filling
s hould be changed more s ubstantially.
The change in t •• in tho once-through
boiler is greater than in tho drum
type , since in addition to an increase
in steam flow rate, tho length of the
steam-generating portion d im inishes
(the boundary of this r egion shifts
downstream due to an increase of the
enthalpy of dry s team on a decrease
in pressure).
297
With t., maintained at the specified
it possible to utilize the accumulating
tion of tho turbogenerator load when
it is needed to control the frequency
process has a definite effect on tho
unit operation in a regime of variable
pressure of live s team. Load shedding
in the unit is [it·st carried out at a
constant pressure of live s team by
closing the control valves of the
turbine. With furthe r unloading of
valves remains unchanged and the
pressure of live s team decreases. This
regime offers certain advantages in
boiler operation. In particular, the
ef£i.ciency of the un it increases due to·
lower tlt1·ottling of s team in the cou-
l.rol valves or the turbine a nd s mall er
energy consumption by the feed pump.
The range of tiHJ u11it loads in wlli ch
the temperature of reheated steam
can be maintained at nearly nomiual
value becomes wider since. as tho
unit is unloaded, the temperature of
steam at the inlet to the reheater is
not decreased but increased. Those
advantages are mainly revealed at
supercritical pressures. On the other
hand, tho variable-pressure r egime
decreases the rate at which the boilel·
load can be raised since part of heat
is accllmulated in tho working fluid
and tube metal. This drawback, how-
ever, can be decisive for the selection
of the operating r egime onl y in ex-
ceptional cases.
The combination of the processes
discussed determines the dynamic pro-
perties of a boiler. It should be em pha-
sized that the variable component of
mass filling and the accumulating
capacity of a boiler are decisive in
this res pect. Assuming these factors to
be ineffective [d (G;n)ld-r: = 0 and
d (Q 1n)ld-r: = OJ, it follows from equa-
tions (23.2) and (23.3) that the fl ow
rate of s team s hould be equal at any
moment to the flow rate of the feed
water and that t he temperature of
superheated steam should follow the
 298
Download From Boilersinfo.com 299
Ch. 29. Steam Boller Operation ~.,.4. Starting-up Circullt of Monobloc Unit.

variations in the heat release in the

furnace without time lag. Under such
conditions, a boiler would be un-
controllable. Under real conditions,
the inertia of transient processes forms
.a certain t ime reserve essential for
effecting the con trol process.
For a drum-type boiler , a chango in
l oad is done by changing simultaneous-
ly the fuel consumption and tho capa-
city of blowers, with subsequent varia-
tion of the feed water flow r ate which
is controlled by the water Level in
tho drum, with leading pulses from
variations of the steam and feed water
flow rates. The load of a once-tluough
boiler can be varied by similar pro-
cedures, with the sole difference being
that feed water flow rate is controlled
by the fluid temperature in an inter-
mediate portion of tho path. A differ-
ent control procedure is often employ-
ed in the automatic control sys tems of
once-through hoi lers: first tho feed
wa ter flow rate is varied according to
th o load and tho flow rates of fuel
and air are controlled in proportion
to it and corrected by the fluid tem-
p erature in the intermediate portion
conventional boilers, these include
de\'ices for discharging the s team
from tho boiler into the atmosphere
before the boiler is connected to the
steam main. Once-through boil ers
should in addition be provided with
.;.<
means for the drainage of water into a
drainage tank during the period before
steam superheating is started in the
boiler. In monobloc units, the start- up
and shut-down regimes of t he boiler
and turbine are interrelated more clos-
ely and are m uch more complicated.
In th is connection , start ing-up cir-
•
•
cuits are specially developed for mono-
bloc units at the design stage . I n
Soviet practice, starting-up circuits ,
opera ting instructions and automatic
f2
con tro 1 systems for monobloc units
have been typified. They are based VHigh-pressure""-.f~Feed
on a standard procedw·e of starling up rev pump
a unit by 'sliding' regim,e, i.e . by r- water healer Low-press11re
water /~euler
gradually increas ing the flow ra tes,
lA v
pressures an d temperatures of live
and reheated steam. This procedUl"e
creatoR the most favourab le conditions
for starting the turbi ne and decreases . . 200 MW monobloc unit with a drum-type boiler
starting- up losses. The procedure re- Fig 23.7. Starting-up CLrcUlt of a - lv•·· SSD-stnrtup-shutdown device ; HPC-
quires no special devices for its realiz- AbbJevi~tlons In Lbe cy
high-pressure dia n er, 1
11grdam_: FP•CcVI~f~~.;.~~:~:g:!~~ rcv~yli~der; LPG- low-pressure cylinder
1

of the path. In monobloc uni ts, two

versions of load varia tion are employ-
ed. For planned load variations , the
load of the tur bine is changed by vary-
ing tho steam-generating capacity of
the boiler so as to maintain a constant
pressure of live steam. When the uuit
operates in a regime controlled by the
power controller of the turbine, the
load of the turbogenorator is changed
"fi rst and the boiler load is then correct-
ed. l\~e thods to control the tern p era-
tures of live and reheated steam and
t he steam temperature in the boiler
path h ave been discussed in Sec. 18 .4.
23.4. Starting-up Circuits
()!" Monobloc Units
fn addition to the main elem ents of
the thermal diagram of a boiler, the
starting-up circuit includes special
starting devices and pipelines which
arc used only at stat-t-up, shut-down
and load shedding of the boiler. In
ation in monobloc units with drum-
type boilers. On the other hand, the
drum has a large mass of metal and
t hus limits the rate of pressure r ise
in the boiler (and accordingly the
temperature of saturation) during start-
up. T h is limitation primarily holds
for the in i lial period of boiler firing
(to a pressure of 0.6 MPa) when the
temperature of saturat ion increases
most rapidly with increasing pressure.
D uring this period, water retained in
superheater coils may often prevent
free passage of steam from the drum
and the pressure in the latter rises
more t·apidly.
For tho qu ick starting-up of a boi ler,
the starting circuit bas a pipeline for
steam discharge from Lhe drum into
the atmosphere (Fig. 23.7, J), which
is in use during the period when pres-
sure rises roughly Lo 0.6 MPa . The
sliding regime of starting-up of a
once-t hrough boiler cannot be per-
formed w iLhou t s pecia l devices, since
[rom the requirements of reliable tem-
perature conditions and hydrodyna-
mics of steam-gener ating water walls ,
the starting-up flow rate of ~e.ed water
must not b e less than a specifted value
(usually 30 % of the rat?d flow rate)
d the fluid pressure m the water
~nalls must be maintained at a level
close to the nominal p~essure. For a
sliding starting-up reg ~mo, a. once-
t hrough boiler is prov~ded _with an
internal starting-up umt (Ftg. 23 ·8 )
which comprises an internal ~ate
valve an internal separator, and pipe-
lines 'with throttle valves for the
supply of the work ing fluid t~ the
internal separator (Thr1), dramage
of moisture (Thr2), and steam removal
h·om the internal separator (Thr~)­
The intern al gate valve is arranged In
an intermediate portion of Lhe ~upe~­
h eater path of the boil~r. :rho nse In
the enthalpy of the flUid 111 lhe path
b el•ind the internal gate v alve at the
rated load is usually 590-6~0 . k J /kg·
The internal gate valve hm_ttS the
throughput capacity of the mternal
separator and throttle valv~s. The
internal separator ensures an tn.crease
in the steam-generating c_apactty of
the boiler by a sliding regtmo With a
constant (starting-up) feed water flow
rate . The quantity of steam separ~ted
in the internal separator is determmed
by the moisture content of ~he ~t am-
w ater mixture supplied, whtch ts con-
trolled to the specified value ~y vary-
ing the fuel consumption. Durmg that
period of starting-up, a once-through
boiler may be likened to a drum- typo
boiler. By means of the thr ottle valve
Thr1, the pressure in the steam~gene~­
ating water walls of the ~od er IS
m aintained close to the workmg pr~s-
uring starting-up of the umt,
sure. D ( 1 ·t h
tho pressure of li~e stea_m anc er~-
fo re the pressure m the mterual separ-
ator) is determined by the s team-
 300 Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 29. Steam Boller Operation
Stearn main
. . . . . . ,2
Cold. r.·ehea t
~>---!><~----,
~ llol r eheat
' Abbrevia tions:
FCY I reduc ing dcsuperbea te r
lligiJ- pressure 1....
-.:!.-.:~:.__ _ _ __J
water neater
Fig . 23.8. Starting-up circuit of a 300-M W
A~breviallons: SSD- startup-sbutdown d ,. .
q h n dcr; LPC- Iow-prc"i'ur~ Stlindcr; 1G ~ ~~~\tc~::.r ga~~g~~~ec~~r,~r~;l; nd~{i IPC-intermedla te-pressure
or,
- sta rt-up CXJ!nnder; FCV- reed:wa ter co;r..ol ev~~~e: l S-In tcm a l separa-
generating capacity of tho boiler and
the posiLioni.ng of the control va lves
of th e tuJ·b~r~c . T)le throttle valve
Thr2 ~erves to regulate the removal
of moisture separated in the internal
~eparator. .The throttle valve Thr3
IS used ~awly to cut off tho s toam-
superheatmg path behind the internal
se~ arator d~mng the ini tial period of
holler start tng when the effectiveness
of the separator is still insuJiicien t
(at the st~am content of the fluid less
Jfan 8-10 %) and to control the steam
ow ~at ~ through the superheater
when It '.s connected to the circuit.
The ~lurlmg-up circuit for any type
of h?Iler has a bypass line around tho
tu.r?me (2 in F igs. 23.7 and 23.8)
whic~ connects the steam main dit·cct.-
ly WJth the condenser. A sturtup-
sh~tdown d ~vice in this line com-
pnses a closing throttle valve a noise
absorber , and a spray-type' s team
attemperator. Live steam is dischar-
?ed through the turbine bypass line
Ill the followin g cases:
o:Jt eam -
uutlot
valve ~ __..... /
SSO ' [HPC !PC lPC
>-- ~ '--........ ~
~15 2"' (~
Low-pressure
wotor IJeater
'----+{g
. .
m?oobloc UDil With a once-t hrough boiler
1
(~) at starting-up of the unit for a
p e!·wd when steam ternpera t~re is
r aised to the. !~vel determined by the
thermal condJtJOns at the turbine inlet·
(~) at ~hut-down, for the period
durmg_ whJch steam is discharged from
the boi ler and the latter is cooled. and
(c) at load shedding, for the p~riod
when. tho tur bine is idle-run ning or
suppli~s only the auxiliary load of
the umt. · or flow rates through the tlU'bine
In the USSR, single-stage bypassing
of tho turbine is the standru·d solutio
f?r mor1obloc units of 200-l\1\V capa~
ctty and rnore. Since the s team dis-
ch~ge~ through the startup-shutdown
device Is not supplied to the reheater
the latter is arranged in a zone of
re~uce~ tompet·atures of gases . T he
~oiler IS ull ?wod to operate with no
steam suppli ed to the reh eater at a
fuel consumption up to 30 % of th
rated value. e the steam disch arged through tho
In some monobloc units (150-;\Iw
etc.), two-st~ge turbine bypassing i ~
employed (FJg . 23.9). Live s team is
23.4. Starttng-ap Clrcaltl of Monobloc Unit.
·1 /
V Steam main
OPRDf
""'
Cold
rehea{er ·
Hot reheat
Fig. 23.9. Diagram of two-stage bypassing
of turbine
HPC- hlg h-pressure cylinder:
I PC- intenned late-pressure C)'linder; LPC- Iow-
pressure c ylinder; QPR O- quick-ac llon pressure·
Demine-
ralizer
discharged through tho first bypass
<J) Condf!flsofe lin e into the cold reheat pipeline and
pump 2
is discharged frorn the hot reheat line
through the second bypass line into
th e condenser . In this circuit , th e
roheater can be located in the 1.one
of eleYaled gas tom perature, which
widens the load range of the unit at
the rated temperature of reheated
steam. This , however, increases tho
use of expensive austenitic steel in the
plant. Besides , for sudden shedding of
the load , it is essential to employ
quick-action pressure-r educing de-
superheaters . The st arting-up control
of the unit is rnore complicated , since
the steam flow rate through the quick-
action dcsuperheater should be con-
trolled according to the specified ratio
cylinders. For these reasons, t ho two-
stage bypassing scheme is not popular
in the USSR.
The start-up circuit for a drum-
t ype boiler has, in addition, a pipe-
l.ine (3 in Fig . 23.7) througb which
t.he steam accumulated in the boiler
is discharged to tho ntmosphere when
t,he unit should be shu t down when
vacuum is broken in tho condenser.
In starting-up circuits, the heat of
turbine bypass is n ot utilized , since
this is n ot econ omicall y justified in
view of the short time of the regime .
301
fn some monobloc units, live steam
can ~e supplied through a pressure-
reducing desuperheater into the re-
heater system l.o heat up the l atter
(see Fig . 23 .7) . After that, steam
from the hot reheat p ipelin e l1efore
the intermediate-pressure cylinder is
discharged through steam-discharging
lines 4 into the condenser. In once-
through boiler units, the circuit has
means For utilization of the heat of
fluid d isc!t argod from the in t.em a!
separator. Tho fluid is fed through
pipeline 1 (sec Fig. 23.8) into the
second separation stage - the start-up
expander (SE) ; saturated steam from
the expander is supplied into a doaer-
ator where it gives up its heal to the
feed water (line 3 in Fig. 23.8) . Und er
certain condiLions (for instance, at
start-up of the unit. af:ter a short st and-
still) , the quantity of: steam separated
in tho expand e1· may be higher than
the quantity tha t can bo supplied lo
the deaor ator , and the surplus of
steam is discharged through pipeline 5
into the condenser.
The steam removed from the expan-
der entrains only a small fraction of
the im puri tics presen t in the water
drained from the internal sopa1·ator
(they are mostly dissolved in water).
Thus, when this steam is fed from the
expander Lo doaorator, it practically
does not impair the quality of feed
water in the boiler. Contaminated
water can be discharged from the ex-
pander through a drainage pipeline
into t he circulation water cond u it 6.
When water in the expander is suf-
ficiently clean, it is delivered through
pipeline 7 into the condenser an d then
passes tluough tho domineralizer.
In order to ensure the specified water
conditions, the starting-up circu it of
a monobloc unit with a once-through
boiler has pipeline 8 through which
water (contaminated on washing t he
steam space during start-up) is dis-
.charged from tho high-pressure water
heaters into tho condenser. T o remove
d irty condensate from the circuit dur-
ing t he turbine washing, there is pro-
vided drainngo pipeline 9 (see F ig . 22.8)
 302 Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 23. Steam. Boiler Operatton
after the first-stage condensate pumps.
During that period, clean condensate
is supplied from the condensate stor-
l age tank through pipeline 10 immedi-
ately ~efore the demineralizer. During
the umt start-up, pipeline 11 supplies
clean condensate to the condenser.
S~arting-up circuits have special
dev1ces to maintain the temperature
of live and reheated steam. A charac-
teristic feature of drum-type boilers
is t~at their steam-generating capacity
l
' durmg start-up lags substantially he-
•• hind the increasing fuel consumption,
!' so that the temperature of tubes of
the superheater rises substantially and
may exceed the allowable limit. Besi-
d~~· it is essential to maintain the spe-
Cifled schedule of live-steam tem-
perature variation before the turbine.
f
On the other hand, the condensate-
spraying system of the main circuit
(5-7 in Fig. 23.7) can operate only at
boiler loads not less than 30 % of the
. rated val ue. For this reason , there
.! is provided a starting-up spray sys-
~em with at omizing nozzles arranged
10 the cond ensate-spray diffusers. The
first two groups of the spray nozzles
(8, 9) are in tended to hold tl1e tom-
perature of the platen superheater
section tubes within the safe limits
w.hile the tl~i~d group (10) maint~
ams the specified schedule of tho live-
steam t emperature growth. This group
can be arranged in the circuit before
the outlet stage of the superheater if
t~is bas fav?u~able dynamic proper-
ties and a limJ ted rise of steam en-
thalpy (up to 170 kJ/kg at the rated
load). In once-through boiler units
this condition cannot usually bo ob~
served, so th at the starting spray
group is provid ed in the steam main
(12 in Fig. 23.8). Moreover, the heat-
accumulating capacity of once-through
boilers is relatively low and there is
no need to employ spraying to protect
the superheater stages against over-
heating.
In the sliding starting-up regime,
the pressure o£ feed water is much
higher than that of live steam. The
Jlressure of water in a once-tluough
•
boiler unit, which is continuously
fed with water, is reduced by means
of a constant-flow r ate circuit com-
p~ising a bypass line 13 (see Fig. 23.8)
w1th a set of orifices and a line 14
with tluottle valve Thr4 for recircul-
ating water into the deaerator. The
valve Thr4 maintains a cons tan t pres-
sure 'before itself', which makes it
possible to redistribute water between
the starting spray and deacrator at a
constant total water flow rate and in
the set of orifices at a constant pres-
sure gradient. This circuit allows water
to be supplied to the starting spray
from .the discharge of the feed pump.
This scheme is inapplicable in cir-
cuits with drum-type boilers, since a
boiler is fed with water during a cer-
~ain p e~iod of firing from neighbour-
JOg UDLts through a crossover feed
wa~er pip~line (11 in Fig. 23.7), so that
rec1rculatton of water to the deaerator
of the unit being started would cause
o.verfilling. Because of this, the pipe-
line for supplying water from tho cros-
sover line 11 is provided with the
main control valve 12 in which the
excessive pressure gradient is reduced.
When. the boiler is changed to feeding
from 1ts own feed pump, the starting
sprays are switched over to tho feed
water pipeline 13.
The feed water supply to the drum-
type boiler is controlled by means of
bypass lines 14 with a reduced through-
put capacity and the main feed water
COJ;ttrol :val~e. In the once-through
hotler CirCult, only the ma in feed
water control valve is provided since
the minimal flow rate of feed w~ter is
much higher than in the drum-type
boiler.
In most cases, the starting regime
of a monobloc unit should ensure a
reduced reheated steam temperature
level and further control of this tem-
perature according to the specified
schedule. In view of the dynamic pro-
perties of the reheater and some other
factors, the main means of control
can be used only beginning from loads
of 25-30% of the rat ed value. A me-
thod for starting control that is widely
23.S. Shut-down and Load-shedding Regimes
used in all types of monobloc units is
steam bypassing in the reheating sys-
tem (line 15 in Figs . 23.7 and 23.8).
'Part of the steam is passed from the
cold reheat line into the hot reheat
line, thus lowering the temperature
gradient, and therefore, the heat ab-
sorption in the reheater. As steam from
the cold reheat line is mixed with
that in the hot reheat line, the tem-
perature of the reheated steam can be
controlled at a lower level._-ln once-
through boiler units, a starting spray
is additionally provided in the steam
main (16 in Fig. 23.8), which is used
to control the temperature of reheated
steam upon closing tho steam bypass.
Feed water to the starting spray is
supplied at a pressure of more than
7 MPa from the intermediate stage
of the feed pump, so that there is no
need to control the water pressure in
the spray line. In some cases, only
one means of r eheated s team temper-
ature control is employed. It is pos-
sible t o employ s team bypassing only,
if it has been est ablished by boiler
tes ts that the r eheater has reliable
temperature conditions at the maxi-
mum load at which the s team bypass
will be used. The allowable conditions
for starting spraying are determined
by the minimal flow rate and pressure
of steam at which moisture will be
evapor ated completely in the steam
flow and will not precipitate on the
internal surface of the steam main,
especially in the nearest bend after the
spray. Depending on the test results,
the distance from the spray to the
nearest bend of the steam main should
be not less than 18-25 m.
The starting circuits discussed above
have been employed in monobloc units
of a capacity of 500, 800 and 1200 MW.
Their specifics are determined by the
application of feed pumps and in
some units, of air blowers driven by
steam turbines. To this end, the cir-
cuits can be supplied by steam from
other plants to drive these turbines
and also can be fed with live steam
(through the startup-shutdown device
of the quick-action desuperheater) at
303
load shedding. Starting-up circuits of
monobloc units are described in more
detail in [12, 43].
23.5. Shut-down and Load-shedding
Regimes
Before normal (not emergency) shut-
down, the boiler of a monobloc unit
should be unloaded, i.e. its load should
be shedded. When shutting down for
a short time (for instance, overnight),
the hot state of the plant is usually
retained wherever possible, so that
load shedding is limited (for tho most
part not less than 50% of the rated
load). Wben shutting down for a longer
time, it is advisable to utilize the
accumulating capacity of the boiler
as much as possible. This is favoured
by the deep unloading of the unit
with sliding (variable) pressure of live
steam. I n addi tioo to this, upon flame
extinction in the boiler furn ace, the
turbogenerator is left for a certain
time connected to the system so as to
work off the accumula ted steam in the
boiler. The load-shedding conditions in
a drum-type boiler are determined by
the rate at which the saturation tem-
perature in the drum decreases; this
should not exceed 1.5-2 · deg C/min.
The rate at which load shedding oc-
curred in a once-through boiler by the
action of its automatic control system
is determined only by the dynamic
properties of the boiler.
A boiler is shu t down by interrup t-
ing the fuel supply to the burners and
the supply of feed water. In drum-
type boilers, the drum is first filled
with water to the upper workin.g level.
Upon flame extinction in~ the furnace,
the draft fans remain in operation for
10-15 minutes to prevent the accum-
ulation of an explosive mixture in the
gas-air path, which is thus ventilated.
During the standstill, measures are
taken to prevent the condensation of
s team in superheater tubes, since this
might involve complications in sub-
sequent firing of the boiler and de-
crease the boiler r eliability. In view
of this, as a once-through boiler is
 II Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 23. Steam Boiler Operation
shut down to reserve and the feed
wa ter supply to it is discontinued, the
water path up to the internal gate
va lve is closed (by closing the feed
water valve, internal gate valve, and
tho fiLLin gs of the interna l separator}
and s team is discharged from . the
s uperheater (via the start~p-shutdmyn
device) and reheater (vta the dts-
charge line from the s team mai?s)
into tho condenser. When shuttmg
down a drum-type boiler , the pressure
in it is reduced gradually (by steam
discharging through the startup-shut-
down device of the desuperheater),
so as to maintain the saturation tem-
perature below the te mporat~re of
flue gases in the superheater, 1.e. by
forming conditions preventing the con-
densation of live steam in the super-
heater. Tho drum is periodically fed
with water. The reheater is freed from
steam in the same way as in a once-
through boiler .
When the cold shut-down of a mono-
bloc unit mus t be performed, requir-
ing tha t a ll boiler equipment be cooled,
load shedding is carried with the gra-
dual reduc tion of the pressure of live
steam. In a once-through boiler, the
internal gate valve is closed at a load
roughly 60 % of the rated value an.d
tho pressure in the path up to th1s
v alve is then maintained constant. In
both types of boilers, the temperature
of live steam is lowered together with
its pressure a t a rate allowed by ther-
mal stresses in massive metallic ele-
ments of the boiler, pipelines and tur-
bine. A t the s ame time, the tempera-
ture of reh eated steam is lowered. The
superheater and reheator can thus be
cooled roughly to 300°C.
When it is needed to coo l a drum-
typo boiler and s team pipelines for
repairs , as tho boiler furnace is extin-
I guished and tho turbine switched off,
I the steam accumulated in the boiler
is discharged into the steam main of
I tho station, tho turbine condenser or
I!I Lho a tmosphere. The water level in
Lhe drum is raised to the ·upper mark
(roughly 200 mm below the top surface
of tho drum); this measure can minim-
ize the temperature difference between
the top and bottom of the drum (which
should be not more than 40 deg C) . At a
pressure of 0.6-0.8 MPa in the boiler,
the gas-a ir pa th is intensively ventila-
ted. Once-through boilers have no mas-
sive me ta l elements (such as the drum)
and can be cooled more quic kly . The
load shedding of a unit up to the fur-
nace extinction and turbine switch-off
is carried out a t the rated pressure
of live steam. In suporcri tica l-pres-
sure boilers, steam discharging is then
started through the steam drainage
before the steam-outlot valve , with
the startup-shutdown device being
closed. When the t emperature of Jive
steam has dropped dowo roughly to
420°C, the feed water supply to the
boiler is restarted at a flow rate of
10-15% of the nominal value. Duo to
the heat accumulated in tho boiler,
the temperature of fluid along the path
decreases gradually. As the wa tor tom-
perature drops down roughly to 300°C,
the flow rate of the feed wa ter is in-
creased up to 30% of the nominal
value and water is pumped through
the path until the complete cooling
of the boiler and pipelines is accom-
plished. In subcritical-pressure mono-
bloc units, the once-through boiler and
pipelines are cooled by gradually de-
creasing the saturation temperature
at the superheat er outlet . To perform
this, as the feed water supply to the
boiler is restored at 10-15% of the
nominal flow rate, the pressure in the
boiler is maintained cons tant (by
means of the startup-shutdown device)
until the temperature of fluid at the
boiler outlet drops down to the s atur-
ation point. The feed water flow rate
is then increased to 30-40% of the
nominal value and, since the boiler
has accumulated an appreciable quan-
tity of heat, the fluid at its outlet is
for an appreciable time in the state of
a steam-water mi x ture. Tho reduction
rate of the saturation tempera ture can
be controlled properly by regulating
the pressure reduction rate of tho fluid;
this ensures the desired cooling rate
of the plant. Similar methods are em-
23.5. Shut-down and Load-shcddinf! Jlcgimcs
played for cooling the path of once-
through boilers up to tho internal
ga te valve.
· fn emergency situations, a boiler
is shut down with ' pressure retention' .
As the furnace is extinguished, t he
feed water control \'al ve a nd steam-
outlet valve are closed , the tu rbo-
generator is switched off, and the
s tartup-shut down dev ice is ke pt closed
if the pressure of the live s team is
below the actua ting pressure of t he boi-
ler safety valves. In this me thorl, tho
pressure and temper ature of fluid
along tho hoi ler path are first he Id
at the sam e values as in normal oper-
ation. After that, they dim in ish s lowly
owing to heat transfer to tho surround-
ings and loose fittings of the water-
steam path. If the trouble is elimin-
ated quickly, this method of shutting-
down makes it possible to start the
boiler from tho s tate of ho l reser ve.
Otherwise, shutting-down is contiuu-
ed and steam from the suporhea tor is
discharged.
Emergency shut-down of a boiler
must be carried out immedia tely in th e
following situations :
(1) when the water level in the drum
passes beyond the safety marks or the
s upply of feed water to one of the fl ows
in a once-through boiler is in terrupted
for more than 30 s;
(2) on failure of the wa ter-level gau-
ges in a drum-type boiler or of the
feed water flowm etors in a once-
through boiler;
(3) when there is no flo w of s team
through the reheater;
(4) when the pressure has risen in-
tolerably (in once-throug h boilers , a
pressure drop is also dnngerous);
(5) on rupture of tubes in the wate r-
steam path;
(6) on flame extinction in the furn-
ace, explosions in the furnace or gas
ducts , or inflammation of combus tible
deposits in convective boa ting sur-
faces·
(7) ' on an intolerable roducti.on of
the pressure of gas or fu el oi l behind
the control valve;
(8) when there is no voltage a t re-
20 - 0 1524
305
mote-control ·devices and measuring
and co ntrol ins truments; and
(9) 0 11 switching off of the turbine
(in monobloc units) or of some of the
a uxi li ary equipment (draft fans, blo-
wers, etc.) .
In a ll such cases, a delayed shut-
down can aggravate the situation a nd
cause ser ious dam age, so that the
boi lor opera tor is ins tructed to stop
tho boiler without waiting for per-
m iss ion from the station management
or load dispatcher of the power system.
A n emergency shut-down of a boiler
is effected by the protection system
on receiving tho signal on tho appear-
ance of som e or other emergency situ-
a tion. If the ·protection system fails,
the required procedures should be
ca rried out by the operating personnel.
These functions are facilitated by pro-
vis ion of ligllt and audio s ignalling
means on tho control board of the
llllit.
lu certain situations, a boiler can be
shut down only upon agreement with
the s tation management, since the
de velopment of a failure and serious
consequences are only probable after a
certain time. Such situations include
the appear ance of small failures
(cracks) in the water-steam p ath elem-
eo ts, a rise in the temperature of the
m et a l of p articular heating surfaces,
low quality feed water, failures in the
pro tection sys tems , automatic control-
lers, measur ing and control instrum-
ents, remote-control devices, etc. In
such cases, measures first should be
t akon to eliminate the trouble and if
those [ail, it should be decided how
long the boiler can be in operation
bo[oro shut-down.
If a group oE tho auxiliary equ ip-
mont is switched off, the boiler load
should be immediately shedded to
avoid heavy ~amage to the equipment.
For instance, if one of tho two induced-
d!·aft fun s has been stopped, the flame
will shoot out from viewholes, blow-
down holes, etc. und can cause fire in
the boiler room, damage to the boiler
s t.ructuro, etc . If one of two Eorced-
d•·A ft fans is s lop pod, this ma y cause
I'
306
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 23. Steam Boiler Operation
flam e extincLion, the accumulation
of unburned fuel in the furnace and
its explosion which can lead to serious
consequences. As may be clear [rom
these examples, the pri me task in
such situations is to diminish tho fuel
consumption to a sufficient level for
operation of the remaining equipment.
At tho same time, it is essential to
control tho flow rate of feed water and
the temperatures of live and reheated
s team and to change the load of the
steam consumer and of the auxiliary
equipment that still remains in op er-
ation. In some cases, certain swit-
chings should be made in the circui Ls
of the water-s team and gas-air pa ths .
All these procedures are performed by
the protection system or specia l sys-
tems for automatic load shedding of
the unit. Nonetheless, the operating
personnel should be always ready to
perform those procedures by moans of
remote-control devices. For this reas-
on, the personnel is periodica lly train-
ed to cope wi tlt emergency situations .
Training simulators are used effecti v-
ely for the purpose.
An extreme case among tho above is
load shedding of a unit to a level at
which the boiler supplies only its auxili-
ary equipment.
As has been demonstrated by boiler
tests, a drum-type boiler in such cases
can be shut down while the turbo-
generator continues operation by con-
suming tho s team accumulated in the
boiler. In monobloc units with once-
through hoi lers, the load o[ the boiler
in such a s ituation decreases rapidly
to the firing load (roughly 30 % of the
rated load). In boilers fired on solid
fuel, part of the burners are closed
(together with their fuel-supplying
means) and fuel-oil burners are swi t-
ched on in order to 'bt"igh ten' the
flame. In some cases, tho furnace
should be chnnged completely to fuel-
oil firing. At the same time, all the
procedures required for partial load
shedding arc performed, but since the
regime has been disturbed more sub-
stantially, it is more diflicult to s ta-
bilize it. Tf these procedut·es are not
properly conducted, this can lead to
emergency situations. In boilers with
a single bypass in the starting-up cir-
cuit, it is especially important to cut
down the fuel consumption as quickly
as possible, since otherwise 'burn-
through' of the rehea tor tubes is I i kely
to occur. In view of this, it is pre-
scribed by boiler rules that a monobloc
unit can continue its opera tion only
if its protection system and automatic
control systems are intact.
23.6. Regimes of Boiler Firing
and Unil Starting
These regimes include the following
three main stages: preparatory pro-
cedures, boiler firing proper, and rais-
ing the load to the specified value.
These regimes will be described as
applied to mono bloc units, the most.
advanced equipment of modern thor·
ma l power s tations. T h e fi rs t, ' pre·
para tory' , stage includes 'assembling'
the wa ter-steam, fuel, and gas-air
paths , preparing aH mech anisms and
systems, creating vacuum in the turb-
ine condenser, pre-starting deoeration
of feed water, etc. A drum-type boiler
is filled with water as required. The
water level in the drum should be
somewhat below the norm al mar k so
as to allow 'swelling' . A once-through
boiler is to be filled with water in all
firing regimes, except for firing from
the state of hot reserve. As water is
fed into the boiler, it displaces air
from the system (provided thnt the
air pressw·e is not excessive). In a
once-through boiler, the food wa Ler
flow rate is adjusted at the slarti ng-u p
level and the water pressure is raised
to tho working value by closing the
throttle va lve Thr1 (with t he internal
gate valve being closed). rn boiler
firing from the hot state, fi rs l. n reduc-
ed flow rate of water is established
(10-15% of the nominal. va lue), which
makes it possible to slowly cool the
boiler path up to the interna l gate
valve and internal sep arator. The
starting-up £low ratel of wa ter is set
in upon raising the ·wa Lor pressure
23.6. R egi mes of Boller Firing and Un it Starllttg
before the inLorual gate valve. Water
from the in lernnl separator is dis-
charged into tho start-up expander
SE and further into the circulation
conduit (6 in Fig. 23.8) . The startup-
shutdown device is opened to create
vacuum in tho s uperheater (except for
cases of starting from hot reserve).
This procedure is also carried out in
a drum-type boiler if there is no
excessive pressut·e in it; this ensures
a slower rise in the saturation tem-
perature of the drum during firing.
In cases when the s tartup-shutdown
?ovice is initially closed , its opening
IS performed only upon firing the
furnace, so as to maintain a cons tant
pressure of the live steam that has
been generated to that moment.
During boiler standstills, moisture
ntay accumulate in some stages of Lho
superheater, though certain measures,
as indicated in Sec. 23.5, huve been
tak en to prevent this. Besides, un-
tightnoss of the internal gate valve
and thr ottle valve Thr3 in a once-
through boiler may lead to mois ture
accumulation in the pipeline and the
first heating surface behind the in-
ternal gate valve. This moisture can
be 'pushed out' into the hot headers
of the boiler during firing and cause
their cr acking. In a drum-type boiler,
this may result in a quicker pressure
rise in the drum at the initia l stage of
firing, which, in turn, diminishes the
allowable heating intensity in the
furnace . By open ing the startup-shut-
down device, the superheater is co n-
nected with the condenser which pro-
motes the evaporation of mois ture
from the superheater tubes duri ng
boiler firing.
After switching on the draft fans,
ventilating the gas-air path, and pre-
paring fuel-supply mechanisms, the
regime of burner firing is carried out
(firing fuel-oil or gas burners are ignit-
ed). It is advisable to carry out the
boiler firing by igniting as many
burners as possible with the least fuel
£low rate through each of them; this
is essential for the uniform heating of
the water walls around the furnace
~o ·
307
periphery and for minimizing local
thermal stresses; in drum-type boi lers,
this measure is addition ally essential
for the developmen t of circulation in
all the water walls. As established by
tests of the exis ting drum-type a11 d
once-through boilers in the USSR , the
flow rate of fue l during the initial
period of firing should not exceed 20%
of the nom inal va lue. Unde1· such
conditions, the tube wall tempet·ature
of sup erheating surfaces does noL ex-
ceed the allowable limit even in no-
load operation or the boiler. fn boiler
starting from a cold or warm state, the
initial flow rate of the fuel is control-
led at a level of 12-15 % of the nominal
value. I n a drum-type boile1·, this
ensures the quick development of cir-
culation in water walls and, on the
other hand, the rate of pressure rise
in the drum is within the tolerable
limits (with steam discharge from the
drum to the 11 tmosp here or with the
drainable superhea ter). Irrespective of
the type of boi ler, the indicated flow
rate of fuel is sufficient for heating
the steam pipelines.
. In starting from the hot state, the
fu el flow rate in the initial period is
established at 20% of the nominal
value or, if there is steam flow through
the superheater, is increased addition-
ally so as to attain the required tem-
perature of live and reheated steam.
As the initial flow rate of fuel has
be~n established in a once-through
botler, the f low rate of the 'feed water
and the pressure of fluid before the
internal gate valve are maintained
constant. As the pressure of fluid in
the start-up expander SE has ri sen
up to 0.4-0.5 MPa, steam from the
expander is removed to the deaerator
and_, when a suffic ient quanti Ly of
dram water has been accumulated, the
cycle is closed (by switching over water
discharge from the start-up expander
from the circulation pump to the
condenser). A drum-type boiler during
this p~riod of firing is periodically
fed w1th water from neighbouring
monobloc units (lines 11 and 13 in
Fig. 23.7) so as to maintain the water
308
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Cit. 23. Steam Boiler Operation 23.6. Regime& of Holle r Firing aud Vnit Starting 30!l

leve l within tolerable limits. In boil-
-ers with boiling-type economizers, the
regime with periodic water feeding
and a low constant flow rate of water
-can in some cases lead to a substantial
mald istribution of heat and hydraulic
maldistribution. Some water-distri b-
uting tubes may supply the fluid of
a higher enthalpy (up to superheated
steam) to the drum. This is prove n led
by maintaining the s pecifie d te m-
perature o[ fluid in an intermediate
section and at the economizer outle t
by properly controlling the flow r ate
-of water and by increasing the rate of
blowdown on an increase in the water
level in the drum.
A.s the initial flow rate of fuel has
bee n es tab.lis hed, it is possible to
raise the flow rate and parameters of
live s team in a drum- type boiler or
the Lemperatut·e of fluid before tho
interual gate valve (t1 cv), in a once-
through boile r . The temperature of
the fluid determines its mo isture con-
t e nt on e ntry to the internal separator.
As found from tests, the internal
separator can operate efficiently at
a dryness fraction of 8-10% (t!cv =
= 250-270°C), and therefore, it is pos-
sible to con nect the s uperheater to the
circuit. This procedure is performed
by gradually opening the throttle
val \'O Thr3 (in s teps of 10-15 % in
2-3 minu te inter vals) . As the s uper-
hcalCl' is counectcd to the circuit, the
temperatu1·c of tube metal in the
heating zone decreases. At the same
time, the temperature of steam at the
boiler ou tle t gradually increases, since
the heat-tra nsfer coefficient a 2 in-
creases with the flow rate of the steam.
Since the throttle valve Thr2 is still
fully open at t his s tage of starting-up,
part of the s team is discharged to-
gether with water from the internal
separator i o to the start-up expander.
Thus, the next procedure is to close
the val ve Tttr2 which is carried out
to ensure removal of all moisture and
part of s team (roughly 5% of the
flow ra te of drain wate r) from the in-
te rn a l separa tor, which increases its
efficiency. F urther, as the dryness
fraction. of the fluid in the inte rnal
separator increases, the valve Thr2
is closed more, until it is comp lete ly
closed upon appearance of superheated
steam before tho internal sep a rator,
which is an indication of a change
from a separating regime to a once-
through regime having t aken place in
the boiler.
As the steam £low rate through the
superheater increases, tho steam mains
are gradually h eated. S team is dis-
charged from them through the s tart-
up-shutdown device and the drainage
of the dead-end sections. H eating is
usually carried out u n ti I the tem-
perature of steam before the high-
pressure cylinder of the turbine is
roughly 100 deg C higher than the
temperature at tho s team inlet . J n
units provided with a pressure-reduc-
ing desuperheater (sec Fig. 23 .7), the
reheater system is hea totl by supply-
ing live steam to the cold reheat pipe-
line and discharging it from the hot
reheat pipeline into tho condenser.
This heating is only started when the
temperature of steam before the de-
superheater exceeds the temperature at
the discharge end of the high- pressure
cylinder of the turbine, so as to avoid
cooling of that section. The end of
heating of the hot r eheat pipe line is
determined by the temperature of
steam before the intermediate-pres-
sure cylinder of the turbine which
exceeds the tcmperatu re at the s tea m
inlet by 50-80 dog C. In supercritical-
pressurc monobloc units for 300 MW
and 500 MW, there is no desuper-
heater in the s tarting-up circuits
(Fig. 23.8) and tho reheater s ystem
is heated by the 'combine d ' method.
The turbine rotor is pushed by open-
ing the control valves and the fre-
quency of its rotation is the n raised to
800-1000 rpm. Live s team passes
throug h tho hig h- pressm o cy lind e r nnd
the reheater system and is discharged
from the hot i-PI1 oat pipe line in to t.hc
condenser, with the valves or tho in-
terme diate-pressur·o cy lind er being
closed. As prove n by tests, tho rotors
of \.he intermediate- and hig h- pressure
cylinders can operate at a low rrcq ue u- preset. In some 200-l\[W and 300-~1 \II,T
cv without steam being. passed through monobloc units, the temperature o r
them . On the other hand , s ince onl y the reheated s team is controlled by
the high-pressu re cylinder is actlwlly the s team bypass. In units of higher·
in operation, the flow rate of s team is capacities (500, 800 and i 200 l\lW) ,
quite high anrl ensures quick heating the re is no steam b y pass and only the·
of the reheator system. In some cases, starting sprays to the steam main ,
Yacuum in the turbine condenser is which are put in operation before con-
lowered in order to further increase necting the turbo-generator to the
the flow rate of steam through tho electric network , are used . Before con-
S\'stem . necting the turbo-generator t o the
·In some regimes, a moiiobloc unit network, when its rotor is accel erated
can be started without preheating the and synchronized, the steam-genera t -
s team pipelines, in pa rticular , the ing capacity of the boiler and th e
reO'imc of starting [rom the hot s tate. tem pe rature of live steam are main -
l\l~reover, when the the rmal insul a- tained cons tant. During this period,
. tion is in proper cond iLion , a unit can tho te mperature of the reheated steam
be started without prehoal,ing tho grad ually increases for the same reas-
reheater system after a s tands till for ons as on connection of the super-
1-2 days. A cri t.erion of such reg im es hea tor .
is a decrease in tho steam tcrnpm·ature The temperature of the reheated
bv not more than 20-30 deg C com- s team rises especially sharply on cou--
pared with the temperature at. t.h e necUo rr of th o turbo-generator, i. e.
~t eam inlet. to the turbin e. . when the s team flow rate throug h tile
As preheating is comple ted, th o rl ow rchenl e r system is almost doubled.
ra te of fu el is correcled so as to ensu re fi"or this reasou, it is important to
the steam-genera Ling capacity of the switch on in due time the de vices.
boiler at ·which the initial load of the which control the temperature or
turbo-aenerator will be around 5% reheat. In units with once-thro ugh
of the ~ated value. In starling-up from boilers, tho startup-shutdown deYice.
a cold or a warm s tate, the flow rate is n ot closed during the period of
of the fuel is usually established at the t Uibogenerato r synchronization, s o
minimal level so as to o btain more that a ll the control valves of the
eas ily the required low temperatu re of turbine arc opened (and heated) due
live and reheated st eam. In st ar ting-u p to a drop o[ pressUie in the live steam.
from the hot state, however, the flow In units with drum-type boilers, the
rate of fuel is increased to the u ppor startup-shutdown device is partially
limit (30 % of tho nominal value in cl osed to maintain a constant pressure
the circuits with s ingle bypass) to of live s team, which improves the
obtain a steam tempera ture c lose to operatiog cond i tions of the boiler
the nominal value. crru·m. and control over tho steam
Before pushing the tu1·bin e ro tor, temperature. As the tUibo-generatot·
the s tarting sprays arc switched on is connected to the network, the
and tl1e temperature of live s t.oam is s ~nrtup-slwtdown device is closed and.
es tablished at a desired level. Tn a the unit begins to s upply the initial
once-through boiler, th e throLUc Yalve load.
Thr4 in the line of water l'OCirculaLion A I, ~h e tllird s tage of starting (load-
to the deaerator is sot so as to obtain ing) a monobloc unit, its elements are
a s team pressure llefore the ~ l,fl r·tin g heated from the initial temperature to
s pray nozzles that is 1.5-2.0 MPa the final te mperature corresponding to
higher than the pressure of live stea m. il.s operation under the rated con-
ln a drum-type boiler , the des ired ditions. An attempt to shorten the
steam temperatures beh iud the s tages time of loading may result in \.he
of the superh eater arc addiLionnlly quick heating of the boiler elements
 310
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Ch. 23. Steam Boiler Operation 23.6. Regtme1 of Boiler Firing and Unit Starting 311.

a nd the a~pea ra u ce of h igh t.e mper- of the m_e tal. The number of cycles N 111ode is rca lized, however, de pends on tom peratu re bch ind the control vn I ves
atltl'e grachen ls. Ji'or instance if a tho particular characteristics of the of tho turbine. T he internal gate val ve
to cra? k t~g depends on many factors,
wa ll of o a tl~ickness h is heated at a the prtnctpal one being the amp! itudo equipmout. Por ins ta nce, in monobloc is then closed and the boiler trans-
rate V , C/ mm, the temperatme gradi- of s tresses in a c •ycle·· 0ACJ = a mnx - unit s with drum- type boile r:- provided fe rred to the nominal pressure.
ent across the wa ll is: with radi ant !:lu per heater sections on Solid fuel-fired b oilers are transfer-
.-<Jm ln· The number of cycles IV is
furn ace w alls and a boiling- typo econo- red from s tar t ing fuel (gas or fuel
tnvorsely p roportion al to the square
(23.5) of 6CJ. The all owab le stresses in mizer (s uch as the TGM-9tt boiler), oil) to solid fuel, i[ the load is '1 5-30 %
t he pressure oF Ii ve steam is rtt isecl by of the nom in al value, and tho cons um-
eleme nts of a mo11obloc uni t depe nd
where a is the thermal d iffus ivi t y of on t he expec t~d number of s tMtup- au accole ra ted schedule. Upon connect- ption of tbe firing fuel is grad u a l!~·
the wall meta l, m2/h. · · sh':'tdown regnnes during its cam- ing the turbogenerator to the ne t- reduced. As tho boiler begins to s upply
If a wall is heated at a cons t ant p~tgn. These stresses, in turn , doter- work , its control valves arc set into the s pecified load , tho eleme nts of the
rate V, the temperature stresses in it a position in which the pressure of live s tarting circ uit which are used only
mtno the allowable heating ra tes of
<1t.t. m·e lin earl y re lated to the tern~ those clements. s team rises lo the nominal value, al- at s tart-up and s hut-down aro switched
p emture grAdien t : ready at a load tha t is 4.0-flO% of the off and the vol Lage s upply to the cor-
~ n v iew of the above , the Joad of a
rated value. In s uch a case, hcnt con- res ponding drive means is discon-
Ut.t = AaE D.t (23.G) untt s ho uld h_o inc t·eased strictl y in s ump tion for accu mulation in tho t inued.
accor~~ce wtth the specified rate
whe re a is th o coofri cient of linear of ra1s mg tbe parame ters of live an d fluid and tube metal takes place at Conventiona l boilers (not in mono
expa ns ion , E is the clastic modul us r~hea tod s~eam. As an example , a reduced te mperature level of the bloc units) are s tarted essentially in
of . the metal, a nd A is a proportion- Ftg. 23 .10 gtves th e s tarting cmve for fluid, so th a t the load of the boiler the same wa y , except for the s pecific
a lity factor. can be ra ised mo re quickly with the procedures t ypical of monoblocs .
a 300-M\\' monobloc unit aftei· a A special case is starting a once-
It. I hen foll ow!' that the hi rrhps t tem- s ta nds till for 60-90 h. As m av be l,e mperature of the tube metal in the
peru l urc grad ic•nts a nd high <'sl. tcm- seen , tho :ate of rais ing the tcii1pet·- radiant s uperheater rernai uing within through boiler from the state of hot
p e ~·a ture s tresses ca n a ppear in mAssi ve the tole ra ble li mits . Besides, an in- resen e. For s uporcritical-pt·essure boil-
atmes of ltve (t .. ) and re he11ted steam
thic k-walled el em en t~. suc h 11s the ~t r_h). s hould differ de pending on the c rease in the pt·essure a t low loads ers, this regime is allowed provided
hous ing 11nd rot or of 11 turbine th e mt t tal thermal s tate of the tur bine improves the thermal a nd h ydra ulic tha t tho pressure o[ the live s tea m h as
d_rum and he11dcrs of a boil er ,' a nd (Lu_PC• lu,cl. so as to ensure tho mos t. characteristics of the boiling econom- remained a bo,·c the critical val ue
fitt ings of the s toa m mains . I n s uch roltable regime of load a pplica l,ion to izer. A s imilar regime is ernplo yed in a[ter the poriod of stands ti II. In
cnscs , compressive s tresses appea r in the tut·bine. Sim il a r conditions s hould monobloc units with supercritical- subcritical-pressurc boilers , s ubcool-
the ~1eated surfMo of an cleme nt and n ~tura lly be ensured in monob loc units prcssure once-t.luough boilers, the only ing of the wate r at the in let to the
tcns d e s tresses in its unheated surface. wtth drum-type boil ers . Up to a load difference being that the rated pres- lower radiation section should not be
Upon heating an clement, temperature of 25-30 % of the nominal value, s team s ure of lh·e s team is attained at a loss than 15 deg C. Otherwise, as fol-
s l rcsses diminis h t.o zero and often temp_orature is controlled only by tho load roughly 60 % of the nominal value lows from experience, tho water walls
eveu change sign. Stresses of a n in- s tarling devices. After tha t, the main and is determined by the throughput of the lower radiation section may
verso sign can form in elements on the control devices are sw itched on a nd capacity oF the s tarting unit of the incur subs tanti al da mage during boil-
rerluction of tho s team tern perature the starting devices a re either 's wi t- boiler. As the load increases to this or s tarting [rom t he non-uniform dis-
or the shut-down of the unit. With ched off or used for the fine correction level and the s team pressure remains tri bution of fluid between the tubes
fre~u e ntly re peated s tartu p-shutdown of s team tempe rature . a t the nomin al value, tho internal (as regards i ts flow rate and enthalp y).
regunes. thermal s tresses vary cyclic- gate va!Ye is opened. [n 200-MW With these condi tions observed, the
~h e press ure of live steam is increas-
all y and can cause fatigue crncking ed 111 n 'sliding' mode . The way th is monobloc units with drum-type and boiler is s tarted by the method of
<>nee-through boilers, as the turbo- quick trausfer to tho regime of normal
generator is connected to tho ne twork, opet·ation. S ince tho parameters of the
500 fluid vary onl y s lightly during the
the control val ves of the turbine are
~ tHPc·28o·c opened fully and the rated pressure of period of s tands till in hot reserve,
.;, ~00 s tarting is performed b y controlling
~ live s team is attained onl y at the
uominal load. l n once-through boiler the Rtarting flow rate of the feed wa-
JOO ter, after which the fuel-oil burners
500 monobloc units, however, the through-
put capacity of the internal separator are put in operation for 2-3 min,
JOO with the flow rate of fuel oil controlled
and its fittings is not more than 60%
::,.. o f the no minal load. For this reason, according to the flow rate of the feed
~ 200 wa ter. Since tho flow rate of fuel
~- ,rpm 160·180 as the nomi nal load is attained , the
JOOO Fig. 23. 10. Main cbaracterislics pressur e of I i vo s leam before the tur- · lags somewhat behind that of feed
100 1.0 of cold starting-up of a 300-M W wa ter, the temperature of live steam
2000 n bine is raised to the nominal value
· 1000 mono bl oc unit firs t decreases (by 30-50 dog C), and is
' 0
-- f 2 3 4 5
71 - turhlnc rotor rrl!qucncy ; N-
lurbo ~crtcralot· lond; P 0- li w' Rtcam
a nd, at the same time, its temperature
is increased so as to obt ain n cons tant then restot·ed to the rated level. The
pressure
 312
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Ch. 2.J. S t eam Gene rators of Nuclcrtr Power Stations
pressure or Jive s lonm is ma in tain ed
con ~ tant by opening the startup-shut-
down device . When these procedures
are properly carried out, the s tarting
or a boiler lakes only 15-20 minutes.
Some m onobloc units, especia lly
those whic h suppl y a variable p ortion
or tho load c urve, a rc s tar ted by an
automatic process control s ys te m. In
modern pl an ts, s uch s ys tems can per-
form :rutoma tic control of a given
process and ca rry out discre te oper-
ations by means of logic control units.
These units CllJl s witch on and off the
m echanis ms of the auxiliary sys tem
of a boiler , c ha nge the pos ition (open
or close) of clos ing valves. switch on
nnrl orr a utornal.ic controllers, switch
O\'er the controllers from some actuat-
ors to othe r·s , alt.cr the s truc tural
sclrcmef; of the con trollers, etc. Before
performing a particular operation, a
log-ic con troJ unit checks that the
operatio n i~ nll owed. Jrr monobloc
unit ~ pi'Ovidorl w ith an automatic
STEAM GENERATORS OF NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS
24.1. Classification and Cha racteristics
of S team Generators for Nuclear
Power Stations
According Lo the th ermal diagram
of a nuclear power s tation, steam is
generated either d irectt y in a boiling-
t ype nuclear· r·eactor or in heat-ex-
control sys tem of this type, the boiler
operator· has the follow ing addi tioua t
function s:
(1) to perform prepnra tory operat-
ions for s tarting the uni t a nd select
the reserve mech a nis ms which wilt be
s witched on automa ticall y;
(2) to s upervise the func tioning of
the eouipment and perform ma nual
control should a f11iluro occu1· in the
operation of a pm·ticular automatic
controller;
(3) to correct the oper·ntiug cond i t-
ions (when needed) by adjus ting the
set- point devices of automatic corrtrol-
lers ;
(4) to check the s tato of l ho equip-
ment upon complet ion of a purticli lar
stage o[ th e startiug regime a nd issue
commands for a noxt s tage.
Thus, the a utom a tic contro l s ys tem
of a rnon obloc unit is a comp lex of the
technical means of con tr·ol and I. be
operating personn el which co-opcmtes
with th ese means .
ions , the function of s team generator is
performed by the nucleur renc tor pro-
per.
Water, gases and liquid meta ls ca u
be used as reactot· coolants , and th ere-
fore, as the heat-transfer agents in
the steam generator. An aq ueous cool-
24_1 _ Clautjtcatlon of St eam Generators
!), t
I I
I obta ined a t p = 6.4 MPa will be
I only ~t' = 17 deg ~· For .this reason,
I
lrw I I
I 0
Oec I Qey
.•
Q,,
p·1 24 1 1 Q-diagram of a steam generator
.v l{it a ga~e~us coolant (superheated steam or
\ a particular pressure)
a tme at tho reactor outlot. Liquid
metals possess fa yourablo th ermopl ~ y-
sical propcrt.ies and can he .rasd y
heated to high tempcratu res .w r th~ut
tak ing sp ecial measures t.o rn t.e ns tfy
hea t tra nsfer . On the con trAry, ga ~es
have poor thermophys ical proportrcs
and at a tmospheric pressure cannot be
used as coolants which co~ l ? onsuro
suitable heat-transfer coeffrcte nts. It
is poss ible to intens ify heat transfer
from gases by increasing the ·~ a.ss flow
rate of a gas flow, i.e. l~y r~rs m g the
as pressure in a circutt. 'Iherefore,
;team of high or s upercritical pa_ra-
m eters can onl y be produced by u ~ mg _
a gas or liquid metal , which ~re htgh-
temperature coolants . For tns tnncc,
if the coolant at the reactor ou tlc t
(or wh at is the same, at the inle t to
the steam aenerator) has a temperature
{}' = 600-S50°C, it can ens ure s te nm
s~perheating to the standard para~o­
ters (p = 13-24 MPa and t •• :- 5<'. 5 C).
Figure 24.1 shows the t , Q-dtag~nm .or
such a steam generator. J n th tS d ra-
'/JOO
gram, the temperatures _of th e cool~nt
and working fluid are latd .orr as ordtn-
ates and the quantities ol· heat l.r·ans- 200
ill us trated in Fig. ~4. 2 . Assuming
th r temperature gradient bet.ween the·
coolon t (pressurized water) and work-
ing fluid to b~ ~t = 25 deg C so as
to e ns ure act• ve heat transfer, the·
degree of superheating that c~n be
nuclear power statwns w 1th aqueous.
coolant usuall y op er ate on satura ted
s team of a pressure of .5-7 !\lPa. Wnen
supplied t o th o turbme •. wet steam
(w ~ 0.2%) can c~use eroswn of s~eam­
distributing dcvtces and lower t~e
turbine reliability. To prevent thlS·
effect, it is essen ti ol to superheat th e
s team slightl y (usually by 20 ~eg ~)
so as to avoid moisture formatwn tn
s team-d is tributi ng devices.
As steam mo ves through the tur-
bine, its mois ture conte nt increas.es,
so t'lt at some s tages oE . tho turbme
opera te i 11 the region of wet steam ,
which decreases the effi cieucy ? f the
power station and causes e ros ron of
the e le ments in the low-pressure cy-
linde t· of the turbine. In order to-
re move moisture, s team be tween the
tUJ•bine cylinders is dried and _s uper-
heated. Both processes a re ca~rted out
in a separating superheater (F'tg. ~4.3).
S tea m from the h igh-pressure cyltnd~r
of the turbine is introduced tangenti-
ally at the top of the ap paratus, passes
thro ugh the separator, s~veeps ~he
s uperheating surfaces and ts rerno' ed
ut a t empera ture of 241oc through the-
top to th e low- press ure c ylinder of th (}-
turbirte .
.
t
.d I+ - .
I
Llt''l I-'
.-(
LJt' t(
)/ I
__L

change s team ge ne ru tors in which
heat. is trnnsfeued from a coolant
supplied from tho r·eacto r to the wotk-
ing .fluid (water, from which steam is
produced). Thus, the s team generator
is an essontia.l element of two- and
three-circ uiL nucl eur powe r s tations.
In s ingle-circuit nuclear power stat-
ant in the primary circu it. , as a s ub-
s tance having a low boiling point,
ferred to the heating surJaces of s team I i I
cannot be heated to n subs tantia lly
generator, as abscissae.
Water is a low-temperature coolant.
. If i I 1
100
I I
high temperature. This requires mn irr- If it is needed to generate ~ te am . a~ _l
I
tailling a high pressme in tho primary a pressure as high as poss.t ble (fot .0 2.5 50 10.0 t2.ar. p,MPa
circuit, wh ich makes the whol e pa t.lr ins tance , p = 6.!1 i\IPa and tc'?pot·-
too compl icated and e xpen!'ive. '· 24.2. Selection of the working flu~d
ature of aqueous coolant at th o rul e ~, Fia~ameters
Liquid me tals and gase~ have no fo r steam generators or nuclear-
I imitations as regards their tom per-
t~ = 320°C) , the degree of , ~ upo! ­ ~ower stations with water-cooled water-mo-
heating will b e only 20 neg C. lhr s IS derated reactors
 314
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Ch. 24. Steam Generators of N uclear Power Stations
24.2. Steam Generators wtth AqueOU$ Coolant 315
steam generators arc roug hly equival-
ent. Both t~• pes arc assorn hled and
tested at the manufac turing works
• r- 2 and can be I ransportcd b y railroads.
-4 - The dimens ions of horizontal s team
r- g enerators for a capacity of more than
8 ... 1\t I\ I 250-300 l\1\o\1 aro e xcessive ly large.
.
~
~ IP ~,-__..3
Tho verti cal design rnal; es it possible
to subs tanti a lly inc ronsc tho uuit.
capacity; in this a p paratus, tho t.o tal
- / ,_ 4
cross section in tho bottom portion is
0
r- occupied by the heating c lements and
7- 5 the separator is arranged in tho lop
portion. For more con von ien l trans - J -Ht- 13
portation, the h eat-exc hango1· and se-
·---\$-
I '
,_
r- -
(j parator sections arc madP separate l y
a nu the apparat us is liSSO m bled Oil the
construction s ite.
{8
(a) (b) (C )

. S . tors with aqueous coolant

Fig. 24.3. Separating superheater 24.2. S tea m Gene rators F1g. 24./o. team gcnela . . coiled tubes· (d) plat•:n-
, . , ,. ) . · 1 t. •pc wlth U-slHtf'!:d tui.Jcs; (c) ditto, will.• hclLca 11: 1 t - s- teed water in t
J-su 1•c•r ltcn t••(l iih·n m to low -pressure cyl i 1ldt! r; with Aqueous Coolant: (a) horlmtllnt.tn~e,,<b Uve\t'cp~d fuuc s ystem· .1- hcotlc•· und tube slu'e.t, 4-tru ?g ,ea~e~' distributing tubes:
2- wt·l. stfllt»> rrom hl~ h-ru'f'ssun· cyl inder : 3 - t ypr; J-hous1 ng, 2 - -s 1a. , ·. .: n- jaclc..t.; 10- NCtlarolor, 11- ce
. Cirst~tnr;o hc·Jl ting s tcaru ; 4 second-s tage heat-
There nrc two main types of s team
in~; Sll' HIII: .1- 4'0IIdf•tt satf' rr om I lw ri i'St stnp c; ~­
6-s tcnm out; 7-eoolanl in, r2 (~?.:~n~ ~~C11 iu• liCII JI Y eoi lcd t.u hes; JJ- IJi atcns
·conclt•usa tr) f 10 m l.h•~ sc·cond s tng <' ; 7- nealJn:,!
o.: ut f:w• •.. : 8 ~·pa r·ntor· ge nerator for nuc lonr power s tntions
with water-coo led walor- mod c1·a ted re- some te n thousa nd. T lw onds or 1.11 ~· cs aL the outle t. Therefore, the. in \.cns i ~y
actors , as regards the processes occur- are expanded in tube . p l ~tcs . I b g h of s team generatio n is also dtfferc nt t n
Steam genera tors of nuclear power ri ng in the secondary circuit. I n the various portions of the drum. Th e
s tal ions may ue of either vertical or first type, the wot·king fluid (water ) tightness of joints is q111te 1m porta1~t,
since nny leakage can transfer rad LO- intens ity of evaporati?n from . the
horizonta l arra ngement. Those with a boils in the bulk on the s urface of
gaseous or liquid-me tal coolant are submerged heating e le ments (natural- acti vi ty from the primary to .tho ~econ ­ disengagement s urface ts also lffe r- ?
us ua lly of the vertical type. Steam c irculation s team generators ). In tho dary circuit. Since contammatton of e nt and is equalized by arrangmg a
ge nerators of water-cooled water-m ode- s~cond type, water moves in a tube t be- aqueous coolant by corros ion pro- subme rged pe rforated plate or by
rated reactor s tations may be of either sysLem or in the intertubular s pace of ducts is intolerable , all ele ments . of diffe rentiated s upply of feed :vater . to
ver t ical or horizontal t ype , each of a dense tu be bundle (once-through the primary circuit are made of s lam- the coils . Since the average .mtensity
l ess steel. o[ evaporation from the dtsengage-
which has its own advantages and steam generators). [n both t y pes, the
·drnwbacks . A horizontal s team gener- heating surface is form ed by a tube In order to minimi7.e the use of ment s urface i n the steam generator
ator is s impler in manufacture and system in which the tubes may be metal in the generator hous ing'. the is not high, steam of satisfactor y
more reliable in operation. Vertical straight, U -shaped , he lic al or ass em- heat-transfer agent having a htgher quality (w ~ 0.2%) c~n be produce~
s team generators are more compact, bled into plane cu r tains . The steam- temperature and pressure is ~ir~ulated by us ing steam-separat!Dg and steam
but the ir el ements are more intricate. separating devices of s ubmerged- type in tubes. The circuit contamtn?. th e washing d evices or only the former.
coolant operates under tho cond1t 1 ~ns 1 vertical steam generators
With U-shaped coils , tube plates must steam generators ili'C arranged ei thor
be of a s ubs tantial thick ness, so that inside the generato r cll·um (inlem a l of force d circulation . For the worlo~g (F'i;. 24.4b-d), the intensity of ev a por-
fas t1•ning of tube onds requires a more separators) or in a separate drum fluid (secondary c ircuit), natural Ctt·- ation from the disengagement ~u rface
exp~nsivc and co1oplicaled technology. culation is preferable. The s ~eam space .IS muc h h 'tgher . than in the . honzontal ,
(extern a I separators ).
'The total cos t of both types of appara- of the d rum is used to de~t ver ste.a m typo and results in a htgher carr) -
T ho principal t ypes a ro a horizontal with the l east concen trai,IOn of t.m- over · of mo·tsture
. by ..- steam . In order. f
tus is roughl y the same. (Fig. 24.4a) and a verl,ica l (Fig . 2<1.4b-
A horizontal s team genera tor occup- d) single-shell steam ge nerators wi t h puri ties. The des ig n of steam-cl O<l.n ~ng to dimin ish the mo1s ture content o
ies severa l t imes t he area of the vertic- submerged heating sur:facos and in tar- dev ices is de term ined by the. f~OS it lOn st earn, the s team space . of the t drum
of the drum and the conchttons of h as a substantial h e tglt 1 so as o ac-
-al type or the s ame steam-generating nal separators. The heating su rfaces
ca pacity. A higher compactness of ver- of these generators are made from tubes steam supply to the disengagement commodate two or three s team-separ-
ticnHypc s team generators is advanta- of a small outside diameter (12-22 mm) surface. In a horizontnl steam go ner- . ati ng stages. . ,.
aim (Fig. 24.4a), tho coolant has a l n vertical steam generators \\ t th
geous in view of radiation safety. and a wall thickness of 1.2-1.5 mm.
The performance characteris tics and In high-capacity steam ge nerators, the variable temperature a long the leng th U-shaped tubes (Fig. 24.4b) t~ermal
of steam-generating coils: it is the exp . ansion o[ the tube . bundle
. tsd self-t
·re liability of ve rtical and horizontal number of tubes may be as large as compensated; th is 1s a senous a van -
high est at tl1eir inlet and the lowest
 316
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Ch. 24. Steam Generators of Nuclear Po wer Stations 24.3. Gerwrators with LiqtLid- meta/ ar•d Gaseous Coolants 317

A-A.B-8 arc r adially arranged in vertical pl a nes

' (enlarged) _/
/steam ouff pf around the header. Headers in vertical-
... (~ •
I t ype s team generators (Fig. 24.4c an d
.=
\ ~. I d) have a relatively small diameter
?
I !!:" and thin wa lls.
I Figure 24.5 s hows a 500-MW vcrti-
cnl once- through steam generator de-
t=1 ! signed at the All-Union heat cngi-
neeri ng i nst.i t.u t.c. It has a vertical
I hous ing pro vide d with pipe connec-
I tions for lhc s upply of feed water and
. I ::.:- removal of wea kl y superhea ted s tean1.
..
<.
-
/

I A header is mounted coaxially inside

the housing; it h as pipe co nnections
/ . 'I !t for the supply and removal of aqueous
trw t • tss coolant. In the a nnula r space between
Fig. 24 .6 . Tcmperatul'e distr·ibuti on in coo l- the hous ing an d header a tubula r
ant and working flui d and tem perature gra- heating s urface is mou nted wh ich
di ents aloog the h eig ht of a o nce-through comprises two bundles o:f 12 mm x
s team generator (see F ig . 21o.5) X 1.2 mm tubes 14 m long. The to p
and bottom tube bund les arc con-
o nl y the inle t is s how 11 ). Peed wa tor nec ted in parallel Jor the coola nt and
is introduced from th e top of LIH' tu b<· in se ries for the working flui d. T he
s ys tem. Th e l atter is s ubm C' rgcd i11l.o l a tter moves in the i nte rlu bul r~ r space
water from \\'hich s atu rated S ( ('lllll al. (l"ig. 2LL6).
a pressure of G.ti MPa is p•·ocluccd .
\V ater moYos by g ra,•ity c irculatio n.
24.3. S team Gene rators
The jacket that s urrounds the Lube
'"'- with Liquid-metal
Feed water inl et system forms a descending channe l
a nd Gaseous Coolants
together w ith the housing. Ins ide the
jacket, the flu id moves ascending ly. !Steam-generators with a liquid -molal
The upper section, which h as a large r coolant. Liquid metal passing th rough
Fig. 24.5. Once-through s tea.m genera tor for 500 11·1W d i ameter, fo rms the s team s pace in
1- 00olnnt In ; 2- loous lng ; J- lower water distributor; 4-b~ader: ~-Upl!('r water distributor; 6- lube
the reactor gets activated, so t hat one
bank (h~n tlng s urface); 7- uppcr tube plate ; 8-middle tube plate ; 9-\'er lleal slits· 10- lnsert· 11-sector which two s tages of s team separators heat exchanger t ur ns out to be insuf-
charutels ; J 2- s baft; 13-Jower tube plate; u -coolant out · ' are arranged: the first st age (for coars e ficient and the heat-exchange system
steam sep aration) has cycl one separa- becomes more complicated. To make
age. On the other hand, the tube plate t he tube plate. T he s l udge layer in tors with axial supply of s team-wnte r the steam generator safe in opera tion,
shou ld be of an nppreciable thic kness. t his p.lacc is gradually evaporated~ mixture; the second s tage (for s tea m the nuclear power s tation has three
I n hig h-capacity s team generators this results in in creasing concentration drying) has verti ca l annular lo u ver- circui ts and two successive heat ex-
w ith tho 4 000-mm diameter of th~ of all water impurities (including- type sepru·ators. An advantage of s team changers (see Fig . 1.2c). In the first
hollSing in the n~~rrower sect i.on, Lhe chlorine ions and a lknlies) iu pores generators w ith he I icnlly coile d tu bcs heat exchanger, the heat of l iquid
thickness of tube plate may reach of th e sludge l ayer, which can destroy is that t emperatu re expans ion is self- meta l is transferred to an interme-
600-700 rom. T he manufacture and even stain less-s teel Lu bos. compensat e d. The princ ipa l dt·nwback diate heat- transfer agent and in the
assembly of such plates is complicated In t hat respect, vertica l-type s team cons i.s ts in compl icated mnnufnctnre second heat exchanger (the steam
and expens ive, s ince a large number of generators without the bottom tu be of helical coiling, s ince t he a ng le of ge nerator proper), the hea t of the
deep holes mus t be accurately drilled pl~te are advantageous and prornising- coiling is different in various Lube intermediate hea t-transfer agent is
for expanding of Lube e nds. The water (Fig. 24.4c). H has two sections . The rows. utilized to produce steam. In pl an ts
in stea m ge ne ra tors may contai n iron- lower section nccom mod a tcs the hen L- Certain advantages a re o l'l'e r·ed by with three circuits, sodium is used
oxide sludge which is removed by ing surfaces made from coiled s taiJ•- steam gene rators with pi a l.e n- ty pe hea- in the first (primary) and second
blow ing-down . [n s team generalor's less-steel tubes expande d iu tube ting s urfaces (Fig. 24.4d). Th e ir plu- '(secondary) circuit and water in the
h aving a bottom tu be p late, remoYal plates. The cool a nt (water) at a pres- t.ens are essentia llv. a s .ys te m o[ vur- third (ternary) circuit.
of s ludge involves certain d i fficullies, sure of 16 l\lPn moves in tho tubes. tical tubes of t he same leng t h wh ic h In s team generators with liquid-
since it accumulates in t he bottom The inle t a nd ou tlet o[ the coolant are- ru·c bent 180° m idway of the ir he ig ht metal coolant, the processes of steam
portion of the tube bu ndle jus t near divided by p~~rtition s ( in Fig . 24..1c, to proYide proper rig id i ly. The pi a Le ns ge neration a nd superheating are usn a I-
 318
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Ch. 24. St eam Generators oj Nuclear Pow er Stations
ly organized in two separate apparatus
which are connected in series. Steam
re heating is curried out in a third
a ppara tus. All of them may be of the
s hell- type or s hell-and- tube type. Tho
main reason for us ing the separated
design is Lo avoid welding of tubes
of various s loe! grades which are
employed in the heating surfac.e s of
the swam-generating and s uperheating
sections.
In the Soviet-ma de liquid-metal
s team generator operating with a fast-
neutron reactor type BN-600, the pro-
cesses of s team generation, superhea-
ting and ret1eating arc carried ont in
throe sepat·a te heat exchangers of the
s hell-and- tube type, which are called
mod/J,les. Three modules are combined
into a section. Eight sections form
a once- through steam generator. The
secti.ons are connected in parallel for
Lhe coolant and working fluid. The
power-producing unit comprises a
BN-600 reactor and throe steam ge ne-
ra tors.
The modules of tho s uperhea ter and
roh ea te r are connec ted in parallel for
the coolant, which ensures a high
tempera ture gradie nt in both m odules.
Liquid sodium from these modules
flows at a cons tant Lcmperature into
the evapora ting modulo. Feed water
in the evapora ting modu le is hea te d
to the saturation temperature, eva-
porated , and slightly superheated (by
12-15 deg C) . The fluids move in
counte r-current flow.
Tho eva porating and superheating
modules are essentially of the same
design. A version of the superheater
modulo is illustrated in Fig. 24.7.
Tho boat-exchange surface is made
from straight tubes which are bent
si ousoidally in the lowe1· portion for
compensation of thermal expansion of
tho s hell and tube system. Tho tubes
are expanded in tube plates and
arranged in them in the form of
hexagonal rows . The working fluid
(wa te r and s team-water mixture in
the evapora tor and s team in the
s uperheater and rehealer) moves in
the tubes a nd liquid sodium, in the
+-- ·
T/
5JOdiu
7 - -1]
fj --..... "
I r;
f/1/JJ
'I
~.
Fig. 24.7. Steam-generator section with li-
quid-rnetnl coolant
1 -bollom~ 2- diSf;harftC chamber: 3 - SC<'nm out;
4- lowc•· lube pla te; 3-stmccr plu l,.,; 6- houslng ;
?- lube bund le; 8- Jack ct; D- holcs: JO- l o I(OS
resen•olr; JJ - uppcr tuhc plntc ; 12- cover; 13-
inlet chnmbcr; JtJ-stcnuJ ln; JS- protccllvo plate;
16- sodlum out: 17- sodlum In:
inter tubular spaces. Tho s hell is sepa-
rated from tho flow o( liquid sodium
by a jacket in order to equalize
probable tempera ture vari ations of
the coola nt. The tube plates are
24.3. Gcncmtors with Liquid-metal a1td Gaseou s Coolants 3191
protected by displacing plates and
ins ula ting w ashers. S pdium is i ntro-
duced into the tube bundle fro m an
inlet chamber through 12 YOrtical
sli ts 250 mm X 110 mm in the jack et
and is thus distributed uniform ly in
the intertubular space. The cham ber
15 for sodium outlet is designed in
a similar way. The inlet and outlot
16 chambers for the working fluid are
' formed by tube plates and detac ha ble
1\ plane end covers of the she ll.
The main parameters of the s te am
generator are as follows: heat power
490 M\:V, steam-generating capacity
181.6 kg/s, superheated s team pres-
sure 14.2/2.45 MPa, superheated s team
temperature 505°/505°C, coolant tom- Fig. 24 .!). Arrangement of steam generator
clements in the housing of a power reactor
1- rc inforccd concrete hous ing; 2- reac lol' ; 3 -
9 /0
II RI.cam generator sec tion: 4-gas b iO\n:r; 5 - ~tcam
to J'Chcntt•,·: 0 - l'f"hcnt cd s tc•am ~ i - fe<!d wntcr:
8-sup('riH'a tcd stcum
pe rature: 520°C at the inlet and 320°C
at tho outlet.
A shell-type steam generator with
sodium coolant is shown in Fig. 24.8.
The outs ide diameter of the shell has
12 been t ake n to be not more than 3 m
17
L for ease of manufacture and transport.
The heating surfaces of all the heat
j
·- - 5
exchange rs are essentially of the same
design: they are made in the form of
U-shaped tubes arranged on the shell
periphery. Since the pressure of liquid
metal is lower than that of the working
fluid , the former is caused to circulate
in the intertubular space. A cylindri-
cal jacket is provided in the s hell
in order to organize counter-current
flow of the coolant and working
fluid. A thermal shiel d prevents over-
hea ting of the shell.
The steam genera lor described has
the following parameters: power
1 320 MW, superheated steam pressure
I 16.3/3.4 MPa, superheated s team tem-
perutme 540°/54.0°C, the temperature
18- clrulnu g"
Fig. 24.8. Sodium-coolant stcnrn generator of coolaot: 560° at the inlet and
of fast-neutron power reactor (Great Bri- 380°C at the outlet.
tain) Gaseous-coolant s team gene rators.
J-sod!um in ; z-outlc t or t he produc t s or in t erne-
lion or so dium and w al cr ; .t - tube bund le; 4- l.lu·r- Modern steam generators with gaseous
m al shield; s-~uid e tubes; G. J! - sodlu m oul: coolant arc arranged together with
?- level ~;auge a l t he sodium outlet side; 6 - wo ,·k-
in!! fl uid I n; 9- l evcl gauge at the sodium I nl et the reactor in a common shell made
side: 10-working ll uld out; 11- h ydrogrn dct crl or : of prestressed concrete (Fig . 24.9).
t J-support ; 1 4 - 1 ~ c kf'1.; I.S - cl rn lunuf'
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Ch. 24. Stearn Generators of Nuclear Power Stations
13
~-
'Fig. 2<1:! 0. S team generator section of a
nuclea r power station at Fort St. Vrain
•(U SA) (N = 330 MW, D = 1 040 t/ h, D
= 87 tl h)
c
! =cool? nt . ln.: 2:-;-:la!Jyrl nth '"'a ling: 11-rebeater:
housing , " -sccond-:<tage superhe ater· 6-eco-
?oml~cr, CV!lJ)OratOI' Und SUf'CfiJCater O( 'the first
s Lugc.. 7- lowcr fl oor: 8- coolnnt out; 9-first
c~vcr, .10-scc tlon •uppo,·t: 1 1-second cover·
1 -qupcrhco tcd stea m out: JO- fccd water hcadc/
' 4 - co ld rnheu t si.(!:Jm: /S- hot reheal steam!
IG- fccd wntcr In: 17- be ll ows
The steam genera tor comprises a num-
ber of parallel sections mounted cir-
·cumferentially beneath the reactor
core or in an a nnular spacing around
tho core. The hea t- t ransfer agent bet-
ween the steam gene ra tor sections is
moved by a gas blower driven by
worked-off reheat s tea m. The steam
generat_?r is of the once- through type
(p = 1t .3l\·1Pa, t,, = 540°C and t =
= :>
-45oco ) . Tho gas has n temperature
. rh
~f .706 C at the reactor inlet and
t80 ~ ~t tho outlot a nd a pressure
f = *· t l\fPa. The flow rate of gas
IS 1.6 X 108 kg/ h.
, ~ ~ec~ion of the steam genera tor
(F1g.. 24 . 10) has tluoe hea ting surfaces:
the first of them includes the economi-
zer, evaporator and the first s uper-
heater stage; the second is formed by
the so~ond stage of superhea te r, and
the ~htrd comprises the r·chea ter. The
heattng surfaces of the economizer and
~vaporator are finned on the gas side
~~ order to intensify heat trans fer.
I he coolant (he lium) moves from the
top downwards. Peed water is sup-
plied into an annular heade r an d is
~h en dis_tdbu Led by ttl hes between
1~termedrate heade rs. The Lubes pas-
smg from a h eader form a hea t- trans-
fa:· surf~ce (a. bundle of helica l coils ).
\;<, ~~er m tlus s urface is hea ted to
h~11Ing, e vaporated, and the s team is
sh~htly superheated. The working
flUid moves upwards in counter-cur-
rent flow relative to the coolant.
. Tubes from the top portion of the
first bundle pass through an annular
s pace formed between tho shell of the
sect10n and tho jacket of the second-
stage superheater a nd descend in the
form of helical coils in which the
work!ng fluid moves in parallel flow
relative to the coola nt. In the bottom
.P ortion of the s upe rheate r, tubes pass
= through an annular space be tween tho
~u ppor ting cylinder and the internal
Jacket of the lower tube bundle and
are connected to intermediate headers
?elow that bundle. S uperheated steam
~ s fed from the intermediate headers
' t~to a common annular. header. The
crrculating tubes for s upet·heated steam
and food water have helical loops for
thermal expansion compensation. The
counter-current rohea ter has helical
tube coils connected to headers.
The mass of all tube bundles is
supported by a s phe rica l cover a nd
24.4-. Nuclear React or as Steam Generator
I
I serves us the coolant of tho reactor
I a nd the working fluid from which
.•
Q,MW
Fig. 24.11. I, Q-diagram of gaseous-coolan t
steam genera lor
transferred through a section s uppo•·t
onto the reinforced-concreto hous ing.
The space between the end covers of
the apparatus is filled with helium a l.
a pressure slightly above tha t in tho
reactor. The difference in thermal
expansion of the shell and tubes of
the reheater is compensated by a s i 1-
phon.
Gaseous-coolant steam generators
should preferably be made with a n
eco nomizer and superheater. This is
demonstrated in Fig. 24.11 whore t"i'
is the exit temperature of the working
fluid when producing saturated s t.eam
and tH is the temperature of super-
heated steam at the same temper ature
of the gaseous coolant.
Indeed, for inte nsive heat transfe r
from the coolant to the working
fluid, the temper ature gradient D.t on
the colder side should not bo loss
than 10 deg C. When there is no
economizer, generation of saturated
steam, which is characterized by a con-
stant temperature of the working
fluid in the steam generator (line /),
is limited to producing steam at
a temperature t'jx corresponding to
the gi von value of M.
An economizer permits of increasing
the t.em p<:! ra Lure gradient at the in lo 1.,
nnd thercEore, raising tho exit te m-
perature of s team (line JJ). If a s upe r-
heater is added to the economize r,
a higher exit temperature t'i~ ca n be
obtained.
,,, 2I- OI 524
321
24.4. Nuclear Reactor as a Steam
Gc uoral.or
In single-circuit nuclear power sta-
tions, the functions of steam generator
a re performed by a boiling reactor
in which steam is produced from the
feed water being supplied. Thus, water
s team is generated. Boiling reactors
may be of shell or channel type .
Shell -type boiling reactor. A modern
s hell-type boiling reactor with forced
ci rculation of water from which satu-
rated steam for · a turbine is produced
is shown in Fig. 24.12. The reactor
has a vertica l cylindrical steel shell
(drum) with a diameter of 3-6 m.
The reactor core is arranged in the
wa tor s pace of the drum. For the
reliable removal of heat from the core,
water is intens ively circulated by
means of jet pumps mounted in the
s hell. In high-capaci Ly power-produ-
cing reactors, the number of jet pumps
may be up to 20. The pumps are
arranged io the annular space between
tho shell and reactor core. Water
behind the pumps is separated into
two flows: tho greater flow (2/3 of the
total flow rate of circulating water)
t tt
5
~:Hq 11 :1 1tJ,b..d
h i1 •' '' r
4 -~~/::_j'JI
11 ol II\
l~ig. 24 .12. Shell-type boiling reactor
J- t·orc· 2-housin~:: J- collecting chamber; 4-
sCIJaralo r uptakes: s-primary separators; G-
stt•;un drier: 7-stcam to turbme; a- reed wntcr
Rllflply; 9- Jct rumo•: JO-circu lalion pmnp
322
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Ch. 24. Steam Ce ncralors n/ Nuclear Power Stations
passes through tho core anti the smal-
ler £low is pumped by tho circulation
pumps through two p nrn llol loops
outside of the reactor she ll. This
portion of water is fod to tho in take
o[ the jet pumps and thus servo!; as
the working flu id [or tho pumps.
T hese externa l elements somewhat
diminish the radiation safety of the
reactor.
The cylindrical shell houses the
reactor core with fue l assemblies sup-
ported by a plate. At tho top, the
reactor core has a spherical cover
which forms the cham bcr for a steam-
water mix lure. Ver tical tu bcs nrc
connected to the spherical cover (one
tube for each cell of tho core). S team-
water mixture passes th rough these
t ubes into turbulent separn tors. Mois-
ture separated in tho turbulent. sepa-
rators is drained into tho space bot-
ween them a nd flows into tho wnter
s pace. T he separated wa to•· is mixed
with fee d water and sup pi ied to the
intake of the jet pumps which over-
come the resistance in the multiple
forced circul ation circu it. Separated
steam is directed from tho separators
in to the steam space where it is
rlricd in steam driers to a moisture
content roughly0.1 %. Since the steam-
separating means arc arranged inside
the reactor shell, tho circuit has no
external elements, which· improves
tho radiation situation at the reactor.
Shell-type boiling reactors have been
thoroughly developed and are used
most widely. They are highly comp act,
have a simple circuit, low worki ng
pressure (roughly half tho pressure of
coo lant in the primary circuit of
water-cooled water-moderated power
reactors}, relatively low consumption
of structural materinls for the reactor
core, and a low cost. Limited dimen-
s ions of the shell-type . reactors are
defined by the conditions of their
transportation to cons tr uct_ion sites.
The manufacture of large-diameter
shells may involve difficulties clue to
a n appreciable increase of the wall
thickness, especially in high-pressure
p\nnts. For this reason, the capacity
6 When a channel-typo reactor opera-
5 tes as a steam generator, its steam-
4 the number of channels an·d the steam-
3
Fig. 24.13. Diagram o f multipl e force d c ir-
culat.ion in ch nnnel- l.ypc boiling rea ctor
typo It BMJ<-1000
J- rcoctor; 2- diRLdhu l.lnr.: group lu::111cr i
supp ly hcud•·r: tl ruturu Vtl lve: .5 - mam <' IN' u.la-
tion p1nnp; a- di schnrJ:!C hcnder: 7-scpnnlltntr
drum~ 8 :uuJ U cquulb.lng- tubes: 10-SINHil
t urhhw; 1 t- downtakc tube$
of shell-type reactors in power units
is limited to 1 000 MW. The reactor
shell, especially when it has lnrge
dimensions, operates under heavy con-
ditions, since it is subjected to the
action of high pressure o[ the coolnu t.
and o[ neutron flux in the core.
I n shell-type reactors, it is diffi-
cult to collect information for pred ic-
ting the appearance of defects iu the
reactor housing, especially in high-
capacity plants where a large volu me
of welding is done at the constr uction
site, r ather than at the manufacturing
work. Shell-type reactors can operate
with natu ral or forced circulation nod
produce steam of subcritical parame-
ters.
A channel-type boiling reactor
(Fig. 24.13) h as a core which is a gra-
phite block with vertical fuel chau-
nels provided in a defin ite order.
Water in the ch anne ls moves a round
fue l assemblies, is heated to boiling
and partially evap or ated .
The adequate perfor mance of boiling
reactors at a high heat release rate
had mad e it possible to develop
24.4. Nuclea r R eacto r as Steam Generator
reactors in which steam is not only
generated, but also su perheated to the
required temperature. A number of
fuel channels is isolated for steam
superhea ting. They are fed with satu-
rated s team whi ch h as boon separated
from steam-water mixture in the reac-
tor drum.
generating capacity is det~rmined by
generating capacity of each channel.
With a given steam-generating capa-
city of a channel, tho total capacity
can be increased by providing more
channels in the core, but this compli-
cates the design and operation of the
plant.
Ch annel-type reactors can be built of
a substantial unit capacity (1000 MW,
J-
2000 MW and more) and can operate
flt high p arameters of the coolant, and
to
therefore, have a h igh efficiency.
The existing channel-type reactors
opora to with forced m u I tip le circula-
tion, but their design is suitable for
once- through steam generation.
The advantages offered by channel-
type reactors (the principal advantage
being that the pressure in the shell
is not h igh) have led to the develop-
ment of nuclear power stations with
ba tch prod ucerl boiling reactors of
high capacity. The ch annel-type ura-
nium-graphite react or type RBMK-
-1000 has been designed for produ-
cing saturated steam. The unit oper-
ates by the single-circuit scheme,
i .c. the steam generated in t he reactor
is directed immediately into the tur-
bine and the turbine condensate is
re turned into the reactor circuit.
T he reactor is mounted in a concreto
well with a cylindri cal stacking of
vertical graphite columns; these h ave
central borings(fuel channels)inwhich
fuel elements arc placed and coolant
is circulated. Within tho reactor core
21 *
323
(its height is roughly 7 m), tho [uel
channels arc made from 88 mm X
X 4 mm zirconium tubes. Beyond tho
core, they arc made of stainless steel.
Each cha nuel has a cassette with two
fuel assemblies (with 18 fue l ole men ts
in each as::;embly). A fue l element
consists of n zirconium t ube (13.5 rnm X
X 0.9 rnrn) filled with uranium diox i-
de tablets. Some of the channels carry
the absorpti on rods of the control and
protection system.
The heat released in the reactor is
removed by two loops of the multiple
forced circulation circuit. The circu-
lation of the coolant in each loop is
effected by means of four main circu-
lation pumps (with throe pumps being
in operation and one in reserve).
Wa tor a £tor a pump (at a pressure
around 8 MPa and temperature 265°C)
is fed iuto a supply header and th en
into distributing headers and is dis-
tribu ted by means of control valves
between the fuel channels. Water iu
the fuel channels movesfrom then bot-
Lorn u pwards and is first heated in
the economizer section and then p ar-
tially evaporated . The s team-water
mixture thus form ed (x = 14.5%) is
directed through individual pipelines
into separating drums. The two sep a-
rating drums in each circulation loop
are connected by a cross-over tube
in order to equalize the water levels
in them. The steam-wa ter mixture is
separated in the dn1ms into steam
and water. Saturated steam (with
the moisture con tont 0.1 %) is directed
into turbines and water is mixed with
tho turbine condensate, is purified,
preheated and dcaerated, and returned
by circula tion pumps to the inlols
of the fu el channels.
As a nex t s tep, the chan nel-typo
reactors for a capacity of 1 500-
2 000 MW with s team superhontiug
in tho renctor channels at a pressure
of u.S MT\1 aro now being developed.
 Download From Boilersinfo.com
321, Ch. 25. llfelals for Steam Boilers
METALS FOR STEAM BOILERS
25. t. Molal Behaviour at High
Te mperatures
We h ave discussed in earlier chap-
te rs some m e thods for organization
of boiler processes which can form
optimal conditions for the operation
of the boiler e lement metal at high
pressures. Even then, however, the me-
ta l of critical boiler el ements (water-
wall lubes, drum, h eaders, steam
pipelines) operates under heavy condi-
tions. In s ten dy regi mos, it is sub-
jected to stresses caused by internal
press ure a nd tho own mass of the ele-
me nts a nd to a high temperature.
Tn unsteady regimes (start-up, shut-
clown) i t is subjected, in addition, to
variable temperatures and pressures.
Under cer ta in conditions, cyclic varia-
tions of temperature may take place.
Besides, some critical elements at
high temperatures can be acted upon
by corrosi ve media: flue gases, satu-
rate d and superheated steam, s team-
water mixture, a nd feed water, which
can cause corrosion of the metal.
Ma ny boiler elements, especially
water-wall tubes nnd fittings in the
water-steam path, operate under the
conditions of erosion and abrasion
wear. E rosion is the kind of wear
produced by jets of liquid and abra-
sion is the mechanical wear under the
effect of so lid abrasive particles (for
instance, abras ion wear of water-wall
tubes by ash). Erosion of metal is
a complica ted process which combines
chemical corrosion produce d by an
aggressive medium a nd mechanical
wear as the d yna mic effect of a flow
of liquid or steam (mechanical wear
in eros ion can be enhanced by solid
ab rasive particles carried by the fluid).
In air heaters, the molal of their
tubes is subjected to a re lativel y l ow
pressure (up to 7-8 kPa), and there-
fo re, mecha nical s tresses a re ins ig ni-
ficant, but the metal operates at
a high temperature (up to 400-450°C).
The non-cool ed fas tening a nd sus-
pending elements in boiler gas ducts
operate under especially heavy condi-
tions. They carry a high weight load
and are subjected to the effect of
aggressive gases at high te mpe ratures
(up to 800°C).
The boiler s truc ture a lso cnrries a
high weight load, but operates a t tho
tempera ture of the su rro un ding nir.
Only few elements of the boiler
structure of suspended design ('hot
suspensi ons') operate at a n e levated
temperature dete rmined by the tom-
perature of the wor king fluid that
flows through them.
All boiler elements operating at
elevated pressures can be divided into
two groups:
(1) those which operate at tempera-
tures below 350-400°C; they include
the drum (in drum- type boilers),
steam-generating tubes and their hea-
ders, tubes and h eaders of tho econo-
mizer and transition zone, a nd pipe-
lines and fittin gs for wa ter a nd satu-
rated steam; and
(2) those operating at temperatures
above')350-400°C: s team s u perl1ea tors
and their headers, desuporhea tors , su-
perhea ted-steam pipoli nos and fittin gs.
Of special danger fo r tho operation
of critical boiler ola mon ts is the com-
bined long effect of tho internal pres-
sure a nd high temperature (a bove
450°C} of s uperheated steam (super-
heater t ubes and headers and stea m
mains). This may l oad to creep,
25.1. Metal Behaviour at fl lph Temperature s 325
tho ra te of s teady-state creep increases
t1l
uud rupture takes place earlier. The
r:f-constant
lz stress at which the rate of creep during
period I I does not exceed the s peci-
c fied value or the s tress that causes the
h tota l plastic deformation during a s pe-
cified time of operation not above
oc: a safe limit, is called t he creep stress,
or creep strength C1cr· For most steel
0
I u Ill grades, the allowable total plastic
deformation of 1 % after 100 000 h of
Fig. 25. L Creep curves of st.c)cl at. vu rious operation is allowed, which corres-
temperdtures and constant. stress ponds to the creep ra te Vcr =
= 10- 7 mm/(mm h) or 10-5 %/h.
a special kind of plastic deformation The s trength of the metal in opera-
in which the stra in increases s l ow I y tion under creep conditions can be
a nd continuously at a constant s tress characterize d by the long- term
below the yield stress and the s ize s tre ngth. As the metal is s tressed
of an element gradua lly increases. under creep conditions, the time of
As the residual plastic deformation its r e liable operation up to rupture
attains a definite l imit, rup turo of depends on t.he stress applied. The
the metal occurs. F or this reaso n, s tress which causes rupture of the
creep is controlled by periodically mol a l in c reep during a specified
measuring the dimens ions of sus pected period is ca lie d the long-term strength.
c lements. The re la ti onship between the stress
Figure 25.1 shows croop curves ob- and tho time to rupture at constant
tained at a constant s tress and dif- temperature 'tp is most often ex pres-
ferent temperatures {t1 < l 2 < t 3 ). Lot sed by an exponential equation:
us anal yse the process o[ creep at
't P = Bcr-m (25.2)
te mperature t 1 • The curve a t t 1 can
bo divided into three portions: Oa, whoro 8 and m are constants for
ab, and be. Portion Oa (the period of a given meta l and given temperature.
attenuating c reep) corresponds to a fn logarithmic coordinates, the re-
short initial period I when tho metal lationshi p between o and -c P is descri-
is even strengthened slightly. Then bed by a straight line; in Fig. 25.2,
follows a longe r period II o£ steady- s uch lines a re shown for throe diffe-
state (secondary) creep (portion ab) rent temperatures ~. t 2 and t 3 (t1 <
during which an clement sti ll cau < t2 < t3).
operate reliably without rupture. T ho Such curves can be used for deter-
rate of creep during that period is m ining the time of safe operation of
constant: a n c le ment (without rupture). Thoro-
v = !J.l/-c = tan ex (25. 1)
In the final critical period II I of log IS.
accelerated creep (portion be), a hig h
plastic deformation occurs in an e lo-
•nent (for instance, 'infla tiou' of tube t,
portions in water walls), after whic h
rupture takes place at point c. Reliab-
le operation of elements is only pos-
sible within the period II of s teady- tog rp
stale creep. At a higher temperature
(t 2 or t 3 ), the process of creep occurs Fig. 25.2. nelationship between long-term
in a sim ila r way, but more quickly; strength and time to rupture
326
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Ch. 25. Metals for Steam· Boilers · 25.2. Metal& for Steam noilers

fore, the elements operating under the better maintenance of the equipment, slight defects of tho metal hecome tubes, so[t and plastic ferrite is the
conditions of creep can he calculated and more perfect methods of metal dangerous. main component, while the ·concent-
by the long-term strength rather than control in the operating equipment. As a result, modern steam lJOilers ration of tho hardening component
by the creep strength. Giving the According to the new norms of strength of high capacities require a better pearlite, is not high. Sheet. steel hn~
time of safe operation and a particular calculations, clements of steam bo i- technology o[ manufacture nnd care- an olevat.od content of carbon, in the
safe margin, we can calculate the lers can be. .ca lculated for a service ful meta l test.iug wh ich cnu provide average from 0.15% (grade 15C) to
stress at which these conditions will lifo of 200 000 hours. ample information on the structure, 0.25% (grade 22C) and has a higher
be satisfied. Tho operation of a metal at eleva- composi t.ion, mechanical properti es strength and satisfactory weldability.
'
The physical uaturo of the cr eep ted temperatures can .also . be charac- (includ ing creep strength) and tho Steel grade 22C is characterized by
stress is different from that of the terized by dUlusion processes which stresses that may appear in the metal an eleva ted strength, which is due to
long-term strength. The creep strength can substantiall y change the structure
(stress) characterizes the resistance of and properties · of the metal. Under
1 in operation. .
For operation of sfeels at high
a higher content of manganese and
minor addition of titanium.
a metal to a low plas tic. deformation such conditions, the metal can lose I temperatures and pressures, it is pos- J,ow-a.lloy pearlitic-class steels. A
at an elevated temperature, while the strength owing to embrittlement and sible to formulate the following ·prin- steel is low-alloyed if it contains up
long-term strength characterizes its graphitization. I ri some cases, these cipal requirements which can ensure t,o 4.-5% of all a ll.oying elemon ts.
resistance under the conditions of effects can lead to emergency si tua- a long and reliable operation of Such steels are used for making boiler
creep. Nonetheless, either characte- tions. boiler plants: the metal should pos- clements for operation under creep
ristic can be used in creep calculations; The operation of steels under the sess high values oi creep strength and conditions: superheater tubes and hea-
moreover, there is a definite relation effect of flue gases and superheated long-term strength, high scaling re- ders, and steam pipelines. They are
between these characteristics of a par- steam at elevated or high tempera Lu- sist.llnco, stable structure which can also employed for making boiler drums
ticular material. . res ' can also · be characterized by the ensure that its properties will not. for pressmes up to 18-18.5 MPa.
Until recen tly, boiler elements ope- activization of electrochemical cor- chango dangerously in long-term ope- Low.:alloy steels resist~n t to creep
rati.ng under creep conditions were rosion and, as a consequence, by the ration, good weldability, and absence at temperatures up to 580°C, i[ a v ery
calculated by using in the form u lao oxidation and scaling of surfaces in 1 of met.allurgic<li and mechanical de- high scale resistance is not required,
the allowable stress as found from contact with the active media. Flue feels · on the surface, which might are called heat-resisting, or high-tern-
the long-term strength at a given gases have an especially strong effect serve as stress concentrators and wea- perature gteels. Those which aro creep-
temperature of the wall for a speci- on tho external surfaces ol' superhea- ken the cross section of boiler ele- resisting at temperatures above 580°C
fied period of operation (usually ter tubes and superhoa ted steam, on rnen ts. and have a high scale resistance at
100 000 h). The long-term stren,..,th their internal surfaces, superheated these temperatures are called refrac-
.IS denote d a I (where t is the wall b
11 steam headers, and steam main pipe- 25.2. Metals for Steam Boilers. tory steels. ·
temperature). With the operation fac- lines. In some cases sca le formation The prlncipal alloying elements in
tor K 01, = 0.85, the operating time may be so strong that tho thickness The main materials for boilers are steels are Mo, Cr, Si, and AI. Molyb:
1: = 100 000 h is roughly equivalent of tube walls decreases to a dangerous carbon steels and alloy steels; the denum is dissolved in ferrite and
to 15 years. For expensive equipment, value and may involve premature latter can contain chromium, nickel, increases the long-term strength and
such as steam boilers and turbines creep and even tube rupture. Scaling molybdenum, tungs ten, vanadil1m,
in which the r eplacement of certain is aggravated by intensive heating
elements (steam . pipelines, superhea- loads or high stresses due to the
I
•
etc . .Most of these alloying elements
are expensive,· but their addition in
creep strength. Chromium, silicon,
and al uminium increase scale resis-
tance, since they form with oxygen
ters, headers, the high-pressure por- pressure in tubes. Thinning of tubes minor quantities imparts valuable dense refractory oxides Cr 2 0 3 , Si0 2
tion of the turbine, etc.) is lal1our- due to scali ng should be properly properties to steel, which are unat- and Al20 3 whose coefficients or expan-
consuming and costly, this time of consi dered in s trength ca lculations. tainable in carbon steels. sion are · very close to that of steel.
op.e ration (campaign) is - now consi- As t.ho unit capacity of power plants Carbon (unalloyed) steels are used These compounds protect a steel
dered to be too short in vi.ew of the increases, tho requirements for their for making steam boiler ·elements against oxidation .
high safety margins on which their reliability become more rigorous and which operate under no-creep condi- Boi ler making uses widely the low-
strength has been calculated. 'It is can be satisfied with greater diffi- tions, i.e. at temperatures not higher alloyed Cr-Mo steel of pearlitic class
now recommended to increase tho culties in view of the large consump- than 450°C. As required by the techno- (grade 15KhM with 1% Cr and 0.5%
depreciation time roughly twice, i.e. tion of metal in the hea ting surfaces logy of welding which is the principal Mo) and Mo-Cr steel grade 12MKh
up to 200 000 hours. This can reduce and enormous number of welded joints. process in boiler making, many cri- (0.5% Cr anrl 0.5% Mo). These steels,
somewhat the long-term s trength at An increase in unit capacity is often tical elements of boilers are made of especially 15KhM, are characterized
the end of the service Hfe of tho metal associated with an increase of steam low-carbon steels (grades 10 and 20). by good weldability, elevated creep
compared will1 that at the end of pnramcters, which requ ires the appli- Steel 20 is predominantly used since strength, and low liability to graphi-
a period of 100 000 hours, bn t tho cation of steel grades having a higher it has a higher strength than grade tization.
reduction will not be high in view strength and therefore, lower ducti- 10 and is not inferior to this in wel- The trend for increasing the t om -
of the improved technology of manit- lity. They arc more sensitive to dability and corrosion resistance. In pe,·at.nre of superheated steam with
facture and heat treatment of steels, stress co neon tra tions, so that o von the microstructure of steels for boiler the nse or inexpensive low-alloyed
32B
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Cit. 25. Metals f or S t ea m Eol/ers
25.2. Metals for Steam Bollert 329
steels of pearlitic clnss h as le d to the m ium regions lose corros ion resis ta n-
appearance of Cr-Mo s tee l :ulcl i tio- ce whi ch may learl to intercrys tall inc Table 25.t. Principal Characteristics of Boiler St eels
na lly alloye d with 0. 2-0.::!% van a- corros ion.
The capa bility of s teels for forming Mechanical pro perties al ro om
di um. V a na di um is a s trong carb ide- tem perature
a purel y aus teni tic s truc t ur e can be
former an d th us is favoura ble for -
.._-.. .. - '"'""
., -
- _.,.,
Grade Alloying c
increased by increas ing t ho N i/Cr - o
incrensing the c reep s t roug th. cl ement s. % - .<:;
-o-.,
.c C ·-
... u~e
App lica tio ns
In modern boiler mnking , wid e use rn t.i o. Among s teels of t his t ypo , it. E ::l~"< U a) "'c ....

- "P..-••"
'Z co. ::S ~c - C..c! y
>t ~A § ~..;
is made of Cr-Mo s tee l 12Kh 1M I"
(1 % Cr, 0 .3% Mo, 0.2% V) a nd s tee l
is worth mentioning stee l gra1le
1 2Kh18 N12T, a nd als o g racle
;;:,.,;
- "'
"o
.. 0

15 Kh1MF (1 % Cr , 1 % Mo, 0.2% V) Kh14 N14V2M (which con tains tungs- Low-earboo (una lloyed) pearlltic-class st eels
wh ich h as a s l ig htl y higher carbo n te n and molybdenum) aod steel t y pe 15K - 352 215 25 685 Drums and vessels for pres
content and subs tantiall y hig he r con- 16-13-3 (16 % Cr , 13% N i, a nd 3% 20K - ·' 402 245 23 590 sures u p to 6 MPa and tom-
te nt of molybde num a nd possesses Mo). Mol ybdenu m and t ungs ten a re pora tures up to 45o•c
a higher creep s t reng t h . The m inor adde d to aus te ni tic s teels in order to
add ition of vanadium decreases t h e
r ate of creep . These s teels can operate
furt her inc rease tbe heat resistance,
since they form high-disperse s t rong
compounds Fe 2 Mo and Fc 2W in t he
22K

10
-
-
I 500

335
I I I-
245

205
22

31
835 Drums for pressures of
12.5 MPa
at te mper at ures up to 565-570°C. - Vessels and pipelines for
Pearlitic s teel grnd c 12K h2MFSR s teel s tructure. 20 402 205 24 1,9() tempera t ure or fluid up to
h as a ver y h igh sca le res is ta nce a nd High-alloyed s teels of martc ns itic 4so•c ; tubes of heating
surfaces of steel 20 ror
h ig h refrac toriucss; i ts high sca le re- and martens itc-fcrritic class. A dra w t emperatures up to 480-
s is tance is obta ined by add ing 2% Ct· back of nus tc nitic s teels is t heir I ia · soo•c
a nd 0.4-0.7 % S i. Tho high refrac to- b ility to cracking under the combi ned Low-a lloyed pearlitic-closs steels
riness is obtn incd by a ve r y s ma ll ac Lio n o[ s tresses a nd corros i ve mod i a 1GGNMA 1\In = 0.8-1. t 500 335 16 685 Boiler drums for pressures
add it ion of horo u (0 .003-0.005% ). (corros io n crac king) and format io n o[ Ni = 1-1 .3 14-18.5 MPa
This s teel is, howeYer, ver y sensitive annul nr c racks in welds o wing to l\'1o = 0.4-0.55
to heat treatme nt cond itio ns. It is a s hnrp d ro p of duc tili t y in some
used for making s uperhea ter tubes . portio ns o[ the we ld meta l on h eating . t 5GS Mn = 0.9-1.3 470-590 343 16 490 Feed-water pipelines for
High -alloyed a us teni tic-class s tee ls. Aus teni t ic s tee ls are expe ns ive due to Si = 0.7-1.0 pressures up to 38 MPa
The trend to ra ise the temperat ure of a high content of nickel. Att empts to and t w ~ 450°C
s uperheating up to 600-650oC has led lower t ho cos t of heat-res isting s teels
t o t he applicati on of s teel possessing an d e l iminate the drawbacks t y pical 12MKh Cr = 0.4...().6 412 205 22 685 Headers and pipelines for
even high er h cn t and scale resis tance. of austenitic steels h ave resulted in Mo = OA-0.6 steam temperature up to
15KhM
The struct ur e of these s tools is mai nl y the devolopmeot of no-n ickel s teels o n Cr =
Mo =
0.8-1.1
0.4-0.6
'·30 215 21 590 475-54o•c ; from grad e
formed by higl t-nlloycd Cr-N i or Cr- the bas is of 11-13% Cr with the 12MKh , up to 51o•c , from
additions o[ mol y bde num , t ungste n 15K hM, up to 540•c; su-
N i-l'v1 u aus ten ito. A u ~ te n i tic steels porhea ter tubes at tw up
h ave a high scale resis tance due t o a nd vanadium for h ig her heat res is- '. to 540-560•c
•
a h igh concentratio n of chromi um . t ance . With s uch n com bina tion of tho
In contras t to low-a llo yed grades, a lloy ing e le me nts , the s tr uc ture of tho i 2Kh1M F Cr = 0.9-1.2 440 225 21 590 Boiler tubes and stoam
h igh-nlloyed a us l en i tic s teels m a y co n- s teel is low-carbon m artensite or m a r- Mo = 0.25-0.35 pipel ines at. t iD up to 580°C
lain up t,o 30 % of n ickel an d chro- tens i te-fe rrite, whic h determ ines t he v = 0.15-0.3
mi um or even more; t he ir cos t is, na rno of this c lass of steels.
however , severn! times that of the Low-alloyed s teels fo r opera tion t 5Kh 1Mi F Cr = 1.1-1.4 577 343 16 490 Superheaters and steam
former. Titan ium and u iobium (sta- under no-creep conditions. I n boi ler Mo = 0.9-1.2 pipelines at l w np to 580°C
bi l izing eleme nts ) l\l'e nclded to auste- m aking, wide usc is m ade of low- v = 0.2-0.3
nitic s teels in o rder to prevent intcr- a lloyed s tee ls f or operation at re la-
tivcl y low te mpera t ures when t he 12Kh2MFSR Cr = i.6-1.9 470 235 21 590 Superheaters at t w up to
cr ys t.all inc corros ion. T hese elemen ts Mo = O.S-0.7
phe nomeno n of creep does no t appear . 5SO· c
are stroug carhide-form ors and can v = 0.2-0.35
combine a ll the carh on into car bides , Tho f{Lcol has n hig her s t reng th th nn Si = 0.4-Q.7
thus preventing t he fo r mnLion of chro- carbon gr·ades a nd is employed in B = 0.005
mi um ca r bides at t.he bounda ries of orde r to decrease the wn ll t hiclmoss .
of hoi lor cl omen ts and tlws red uco f2Kh2MFB 392 - 30 - Superheaters at tw up to
a us ten tic g ra ins . l f, howe ve t·, chro- Cr =2.1-2.6
mi um ca r bides h ave fo rmed in the m e t nl consumption. For instnnco, bo i- Mo = 0.5-0.7 5oo•c
s t ruct ure , austen ito aro und them is le r dnun s for high s tenm par amot.ors v = 0.2...().35
Nb =0.5-0.8
deplete d in chr·onli um; t hese low-chro- are mndc of 1\[n-N i-Mo s teel g ra de
22-0I SH
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330~------------------~C~h~
· =
25~.~M
~et=a~
ls~fo~r~S~t~ea~n~l~B~o~i~le~r~s_____________________ 25.9. Stre'llglh Calwtations · 331

Cont i11ued tions of the metal mo re completely latio n . of the p lan t or determined by
and carefully. The rated pressure is tests. For each particular case, the
llfecbanlca I properties at room the pressure at the p lant outlet plus formula can ·be simplified and the
temperature
the hydraulic pressure loss at the design tem perature is determined as
. c .,
Grade
Alloying
elements. ')(, --
<> .:
=..... -c:::c:: ..=--.
~ o
o.,- AppltcaUons nom inal load of the path from tho recommended in (22].
.. o.=-
~ ec.=
=c- d ischarge header of the superheater Allowable stress. The allowable no-
.. u c:
,.. !!L-- - t,t.....

:: .
- c;:S
;:>Oi
.£c:;:
)1
-.. "'- -
::,,;eo" "'o
-c:.=Z...,
-" 0
to the point where the element being minal stress is the stress used in cal-
<- calculated is located, 'f.!J.p; filling the culations of the least thickness of
n igh-alloyed austenitic-class st eels elements by waler or steam-water walls and the highest allowable pres-
Kh14NtltV2M Cr = ·13-'1 5 540 2:1.5 35 - Superheaters nnd pipelines mixture is taken into account by the sure for ·a particular metal and expec-
Ni= 13-i5 a l lw up to G50"C hydrostatic pressure ,Of a column of ted conditions of operat ion.
w = 2-2.75 fluid above the element, 6p 1,. Thus, The allowable nominal stress is
1\lo =0.45-0.6 the design pressure is: selected for one of the strength cha-
12Kh t8K t2T Cr = 17-19 540 215 35 - -
Ni = 11-13
Ti = 0.65
P = Pss + 'f.!J.p + !J.p,, (25.3) racteristics of t he metal: t he ultimat e
tensile strength at 20°C, ai0 ; tho
Th e h yd r aulic resistances and th e yield l im it at 20°C an d at th e design
Cr = 15.5· 17 590 245 70 2 940 Stea rn pi pol i nos a t stea m pressure of t he column are considered tem per ature t ' <J 0·2
20
and a 0.2,,
t • tho
Kht 6N9 ~1 2
Ni = 8.5-10 temporn t u ro up to 650°C if their sum exceeds the pressure long-term strength at the design tem -
1\lo = 1.5·2 beh ind t he superheater by at least 3%. perature (10 5 hours to rupture), al110&;
An add ition al term appears due to the and the creep strength (to cause i %
09K h (1,::\ I!JV2BR Cr = 23-15 lr90 215 38 :1. 380 Steam pipel ines a t s team force of gravi ty acting on the elemen t defo rmation in 105 hours) at the
i'\ i = 18-20 torn porn tur·o up to 700"C;
w = 2-2.3 su perheater tulle~ at tw' u p being calculated and othe1· elemen ts design tem perature a~,·I%· T he allow-
Nb = 0.9-1.3 to 700"C connected t o it. T he ad ditional load able nominal stress is ta ken as the
B = 0.005 is restricted by extreme values at lowest of these characteristics d ivided
- which the safety margin dimin ishes by the safety factor adopted.
S team pipelines and s u-
w ithin tolerabl e li m its compared with l'vlost clements of steam boilers and
Kh16N 16V2l\IBR Cr = 15-17 510 215 38 1 380
pcrhcnters a t lru up to 700"C t he strength determined in terms of steam generators operating at a parti-
Ni = 15-17
\V =2-3 pressure. cular pressure of the working fluid are
lito =0.4-().9 The design temperature depends on of cyl indrical shape (drums, header&
N b =O.G-:1..0 the condit ion s of heating and cooling and tubes of the heating surfaces of
0 =0.005 of an element. For unheated elements, steam boilers , shells, chambers and
Kh16N14V2BR Cr = 15-17 520 235 38 1 380
Ni = 13-15 t he design temperature is taken to tu bes of the heat exchangers of st eam
w = 2-2.75 be equal t o the tem perature of the generators at nuclear power stat ions).
Nb = 0.9-1.3 working flui d ; for boiler drums, it is Cylindrical elements subjected t o an·
B = 0.005 taken as the temperature of satura- internal pressure can be calculated by
tion at the pressure in the drum; for the gener al formulae: .
headers and connecting pipelines as
16GNJ\1 A (1 % Mn , 1.2% N i , and up to 250-350°C. Scale-resisting cast the tempera ture of the working fluid S= (25.4)
0.5% Mo). F eed water pipelines for ir on (OCh) is all oyed with some cle- in them .
or
s upercritica l pressures are made of ments (such as sili con) wh ich endow For h eated elements, tho design
Mn-S i stee l grade 15GS (1.1 % Mn, it w ith scale-resisting properties. It is temperature is found fro m formula S= PDex
2<J>Oal+ P
+C (25 .5)
0.8% S i). .. em ployed in s pacing t eeth of super- (10 .10) which accoun ts for the na t ure
The principal char acteristics of steels heaters, tube s uspensions and other of thermal act ion on a heating s urface. where S is the cylindrical wall thick-
employed most w idel y for mak ing faste ning elemen ts operati ng in h igh- It is essential t o an alyse various n ess, m , p is the design pressure,
tubes, drlJrns, headers an d pipelines t emper atu re zones. portions of a tube bank, ·in particular MPa , DIn a nd D e x are respectivel y
of boilers are give n in T able 25.1. those which have the high est tempera- the in ternal an'd external diameter of
Cast iron (grey and 'scale-resisting) ture of steam and those with the h ighest an, element , m, <p is the coefficl.ent
25.3. Strength Calculations h eating intensity. It should ·also be
is also employed w idely in boiler of strength of · t he element which
m aki ng. Grey cast iron (SCh} h as T he calctll ation of s treng th is based considered that some tubes or a group might be weakened b y a longitudinal
high cast ing· properties and is used on estimating the strength of th e of tubes may oper ate w ith maldistri- weld seam or by holes for the expan-
for making various furnace d evices: metal in lerms of the ultimate load bution of heat !J.tmd• i.e. the fluid sion of tube en ds, and C is a n add ition
man- and vicw-lwles, explosion val- (stress) at tho rated pressure of the temperature in them may exceed the to the wall thickness which is in tro-
ves, fittings and fastenings of boiler work ing fluid, wl1ich makes it pos- averag~ design temperature. This dif- duced t o .account for probable vari a-
setting. It can operate at temperatures . sible to consider the operating condi- ference can be found from the calcu- tions of wall thickness in manufactu-
332
Download From Boilersinfo.com 25.4. ltfetal Control In Operallon
Ch. 25. Metals for Steam Boller1 333

red tubes, thinning of tho material pulsations on the internal surface of Bosses are welded on the surface of
in bends, and thinning from the for- the drum , say, on variations of water 25.4. Metal Contra' in Operation the control sections and , in addition
mation of scale during the element temper ature behind t he economizer. in straight portions of a pipeline more'
service lile. For the reliable operation of a drum As given earlier, the properties of than 1. 5 m long, in four points at two
Calculation of a drum. The drum is in various regimes, the strength con- steels are impnired at high tempera- mutually perpendicular diameters . All
one of the most intensively stressed dition should be satisfied for au y tures. For th at t·enson , it is essential measurements are made upon cooling
elements in boilers. The following moment of operation, i.e. the resoltled to periodical! y con lrol the state of the of tho molal at least to 50°C so as
kinds of stress can appear in a drum: stres~ (which is found by considering metal operal.ing uudcr the conditions to exclude the effect of tom per a tu ro.
from the internal pressure at the all the factors mentioned) should not of creep (at temperatures above 450°C) . Ct·eep in headers is controlled in
working parameters of tho fluid; ther- exceed the allowable stress of th e Periodic con trol of the metal is requi- a sim ilar way. Creep in superheater
mal stresses, which include stresses metal a t a given . temperature. Thus , red for pipe! ines, hoa!iCrs, tube coils co ils is controlled periodically by
due to the tempera ture diiference the strength calculation of a drum of superheaters, fl anges, and other means of measuring brackets; this
across the drum wall and those due to should consider all the stresses men- boiler elements . All points where makes it possible to prevent emergency
the temperature diiferenc·e b etween tioned and the non-cylindricity of the measuremen is arc carried out should situations.
the top and bottom portions of the drum and its solution is quite compli- have reliable thermal ins•1lation of the T he method of control sections is
drum. Thermal stresses across the cated. In the existing norms for tho same conductivity as in other portions disadvantageous in that cutting of
wall may appear during heating or strength calculations of boilet· cle- of a pipeline or a header. specimens is labour-consuming nnd
cooling of the drum. Those between ments, only the stresses from the In order to contr ol creep and the the cut-off portions of tubes must be
tho top and bottom portions of the internal pressure in a drum are con- structure and mechanical properties fill ed with metal by welding. The
drum also appear during start-up or sidered. In order to limit thermal of the metal in slonm mains, they are principal drawback, however, is l.h at
shut-down of the boiler; dLu·iug start- stresses, it is not advisable to allow provided with control sections 4.5 m the variations in the metal pr·operl.ios
up, for instance, the upper half of the t emperature differences between long in easil y accessible places near in a control section cannot be fully
the drum, which is in contact with the ad jacent elements of a boiler to tho boiler (see Fig. 25.3). lf a pipe- representative of the variations in all
the condensing steam, is healed up bo more than 50-55 deg C. line is made of pearlitic or ferrite- other tubes, so that control of all
more quickly than the lower h alf wher e Hea"ders are calculat<Jd essentially in austenitic steel, bosses are fastened to tubas is required.
the circulation of water is still too tho same way as boiler drums. In the surface of the control section so .'l !ethods have been developed for
weak. A t shut-down, on tho contrary, that case, one should consider t he loss as to control creep by variations of the control of all tubes by non-destruc-
,the upper half is cooled more slowly oE strength due to holes for the con- their diameter. With tubes made of tive testing, i.e. without cutting of
than the lower, since tho heat transfer nection of tubes. Headers have no austen itic st ools, bosses are not used, specimens. Microstructural analysis of
in the steam space is one or two orders longitudinal weld seams. A header and the r esidual deformation is mea- th o metal in operating tubes is carried
of magnitude smaller than in the has two transverse weld seams for sured directly on tho tube section by out in place by means of a portable
.water space. .the connection of end covers, but means of micrometers. Once in three microscope with a photographic came-
In addition to tho stresses indica- theil· effect on the strength is not years, a specimen is cut off from ra, wl1icb is fastened to tho tube to be
t ed, a drum is subjected to tho action considered. a control section for making mecha- t ested. Tho surface of tho tube should
of the mass of its metal and water and . Calculation of tubes in the heating nical and motallogruphic tests and be prepared, i.o. ground and polished
to the stresses caused by deformation surfaces and pipelines is carried out chemical and cnrbido analysis of the b y moans of a drill with a set of
of the attached water- and steam- by the formulae given earlier, with main meta l and weld seams (Fig. 25.4). grind ing and polishing discs.
circulating tubes and steam pipelines. q> = 1, since seamless tubes have no
These stresses are usually Low and can weakened points. Tubes of h eat ox- 4500
be neglected. changers subjected to pressure from A ..I 1000 1000 .1
'
In the r egimes of accelerated star- both sides are .c alculated for the
ting-up or emergency shut-down (for higher pressure , rather than for the
/ 2" ·~ ~
: :::
• ~ . i~
:I I' I ' I' I:
instance, on rupture of tubes in the pressure diiference. If the higher pres- I -t4;I -- I I
I' I
·c irculation circuit), thermal stresses sure is in a tube, the calculation is
inay exceed the allowable values. done by formulae (25.4) and (25. 5).
u
III
A
""" "
VJ ... 7
'Y
Yl
~ubstantial stress concentrations may With a higher pressure on the outside, .)~ A-A ....
occur at the sharp edges of holes in the a tube is compressed and is calculated -:_..(/'\)
'places of -tube COQnection, especially by the formula
5 ""\.\.. ~ v 4 5
of ?owntake · tubes. During start-up
and shut-down, these stresses vary S = Dcx V :.;~ +C (25.6) 19"/
from zero t 9· the maximum, while in where E is the modulus of elasticity,
steady regi,m es they vary less sub- MPa, and m is the safety (stabili ty) Fig. 25.3. Test section of a steam pi peline
·stan~ially , but with a higper frequen- factor; m :::::: 6 for carbon-steel tubes 1-steam pipeline; I- test ~t lon; 3-. bosses: 4-snap gauge for measuring residual deformation, 5-cutt-
mg spcc1 mcns for tests; 1- Vl- c ultlng sequence
cy in accordance with the temperature ·and m :::::: 5 for alloy-steel tubes.
 334 Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 25. M etals for S team Bolters
F ig. 25.4. Diagram of specimen cutt ing
J-cut-oll portion or pipeline; t-specimcn lor
:~~lie tests: .!- spt>cl rncn lor Impact toughness
cs , 4- s peclmcn lor cnrbldc unaiysls; s - spccl·
men tor mnking mkroscction
. N?n-destructive mechanical tests are
fmdmg over wider use for metal cont-
rol at power stations. T hey arc based
-on a defin ite relationship that ex ists
between the hardness of a n1etal, as
m~ns•:•re d by indentation, and its
prtnc•pal mechanical properties.
In ~b e.so methods, the strength cha-
r aclenstiCS of a metal, i.e. the yield
strength u 0 • 2 and the ultimate tensile
strength u 1 are determined respecti-
':el~ by the hardness at the yield
hm1t, H o.~ and the Brinell h ardn ess
HB_. The vnlue of H 0 • 2 is found as the
nt10 of tho indentat ion force P 2 (at
3n indentation load 2 450 N) ~~ tl;e
su~face area Jlf of the indentation ob-
tamcd on attaining a residual defor-
.,
mation . o[ 0.2% .. Wiq1 an indenting
ball of 10 mm diameter, tho residual
defor~ation of 0.2% is obtained when
the dtameter of indentation is 0.9 mm
and M = 0.6 mm 2 • The ultimate
~trength u 1 is determined by measur-
mg the Brinell hardness on indenting
a ball 2.5 mm in diameter by the
force 1 840 N.
Ductilit y of a metal is characterized
by the duct~lity characteristics: per
cent elongatiOn of a specimen with
lid = 5 . on tension, 6..,.. .,It , and its
con t ract10n 'I'· Per cent elongation is
determ ined by the fo rmula
65 = A 100 (25. 7)
2ot + cr0 .~
whe~e A is the :lJ·ea
under t he stress-
strum cur ve of a specimen tensioned
to ru pture, cm 2 • · ki n Yu .V ., Optimization of Thermal
Contraction . 1j> is found indi rectly
from t.hc Brmel l lt:~l'dnoss of the
metal.
Non-destructiYe methods of metal
con.trol are quito couveniont, but
thetr accuracy is somewhat lowet· than
that of direct tests of metal specimens .
. Therm.al expansions of steam pipe-
hoes which usually form a complica-
ted system in space, can cause redistr i-
bution of loads onto su pports and
result in excessive stresses in some
1 0. Bloch A.G., Thermo! Radialiolt in Boiler
P?rt i?ns of a pipeline. Expansions o£
ptpehnes operating at temperatures
above 300°C arc controlled by means
of strain gauges.
I 1.1. Boiler and Turbine Plants for M onobloc
12. Boiler and Tr£rbine Plants for 500-MW
13. Combustion of lligh-mlphur Fuel Oil
1 4. Design 11nd Cai.CILLntion of All-welded
REFERENCES
1. A erodynamic Design of B oiler Plants
(standard method). Ed. by S. I . Mochnn.
Moscow, Energiya, 1977. ·
2. Air Heaters of Boller Plants. Leningrad,
Encrgiya, 1977. Authors: T .S. Dobrya-
ko,·, V.K. Migai, V.S. Nalarcnko et al.
3. Akhmcdov R.B., Principles of Combus-
tion Control. Moscow, Encrgiya, i977.
4. Akol' zin P.A., Margulovu T.Kh. , Mur-
tynova O.l . , Water Condition.< of Supcr-
crilical-prc.<snre Monobloc Unlts.l\'l oscow,
Energiya , 1972 .
5. Andreev P.A., Gl'in man M. l. , Smol-
Equipment of Nu.clca r Power Stations.
Moscow, Al.om izdut, 1975.
(i. Andryu sbchenko A .I. , Zrnach insky A .V .,
Ponyatov V .A., Optimization of Heating
Cycles ruul Processes at Thermal Power
Station.<. l\loscow, Vysshayn Shkola,
1974.
7. Antikain P.A., Metals and Strength Ca l-
culations for Boilers and Pipelines. :Mos-
cow, Energiya, 1980.
8. Belinsky S.Ya., Lipov Yu.M., Power
Plants of Electric Power Stations. Mos-
cow, Energiya, 1974.
9. Belosel'sky B.S., Fuel Oils. Moscow,
Energiya, 1978.
Plants. Leningrad , Energiya, i 967.
Units. Experience of Operation. Ed. by
V.E. Doroshchuk, L.B. Krol eL al.
Moscow, Energiya, 1971.
and 800-liJW M onobLoc Units. Develop-
ment and Operation. Ed. by V.E. Do-
roshchuk and V.B. Hubin. Mosco w,
Energiya, 1979.
at Thermal Power Stations. Moscow,
Eoergiy a, 1970. Authors: N. I. Ver-
khovsky, G . K. Krasnoselov, E.V. Mashi-
lov c t a!.
W 11ter Walls of Boiler PLants. Len ingrad,
Energiya, 1975. Aut.hor·s: A. l . Gol berg,
V .S. Koryag in, S .l. Mochan cl al.
15. Dorosbchu k V .E., ffeflt -transfer Crisis of
Water BoiLing i11 Trtbes. Moscow, Encr-
giya, 1970.
16. Doroshchu k V .E., Nuclear Reactor.< for
Power Stations. 1\loscow, Atomizdat,
1977.
17 . Gavrilov A.F., Malkin B.ll!. , Fouling
and Cleaning of Healing Surfaus of
Boilers. Moscow, Energiya, 1980.
18. Gerasimov V.V., 1\.asperovich A.I., Mar-
tynova 0.1., Water Conditions at Nuclear
Power Stations. Moscow, Atomizdat,
1976.
19. Goncharov S .P., Mount ing the Boiler
Plants of Thermal Power S t ation.,. Mos-
cow, Energiya, 19/ 8.
20. Hea.t Calculat ions of Boiler Plants (sta n-
dun! me l.hod) . Ed . by N .V. Ku:mctsov,
V.V. 1\·Ii Lor , e l al. l\loscow. E ncrg iya,
1973.
21.. High-capacity Bo iler P l ants. Hefcrence
ca l.ulogue. Moscow, 1975.
22. /[y(lrartlic Calcul alio11s of Boiler Plan ts
(s tandard method). Ed. by V. A. Lok-
sbin , D.F. Peterson . A.L. Schwarz.
Moscow, Energiya. 1918.
23. 11 ydrodyt.amics and IIe(rt Transfer in
Nuclear Power Plants. 1\lo~cow, Alorn-
izdat, 1975. Authors: V.I. Subbotio,
M.Kh. Ibragimov, P.A. Usbakov et. al.
24. I mbriLsky M.N., Reliability of Fittings
of Monobloc Units. Moscow. Energiya,
1980.
25. Isachcnko V .P., Osipova V .A., Suko-
mcl A.S., H ea.t Transfer. Moscow, Ener-
giyu, 1975; English t ra!ll'lation: M I R
Publishers, Moscow, 1969.
26. Ivanov Yu.V ., Gas Burners. Moscow,
Nedra, 1.972.
27. KalininE.K., DreizerG.A., YarkhoS.A.,
Ifeat Transfer lrttensificalion in Channels.
Moscow, Mashinostrocnie, 1972.
28. Kemcl'mun D.N., Eski n N.B., Dav i-
dov A.A., B oiler A djustment (reference
book). Moscow , Encrgiya, · 1976.
29. Khzmalyan D.M., Kagan Ya.A., Com-
bustlort Theory and Furnaces. 1\loscow,
Encrgiya, 1976.
30. Kot A.A. , Dccva Z.V . , Chemical Water
Conditions of H igh-capacity k!ollobloc
UrLtts. Moscow, E nergi ya, 1978.
31. Kuta lcladze S.S., S tyrikov ich M.A.,
If ydrodynamlcs of Gas-liquid Systems.
Moscow, Encrgiya, 1976.
32. Ku tcpov A .M., Sterman L .S., Styu-
shin N .G., H ydrocly11amics and H eat
Transfer tn Evapora.tion. Moscow, Vys-
sbaya Shkola, 1977.
33. Kuznetsov N .M., Kanacv'A .A., Kopp I .z.
Power Equipment of Nuclear Power Sta-
llolls. Leningrad, Jllnshinos trocnic, 1.979.
 336 Download From Boilersinfo.com
References
34. Lebedev A.N., Fuel Preparation and
Pulverization at Thermal Power Stations.
Moscow, Energiya, 1969.
35. Levinzon V.M., Schwarz A.L., Thermal
Energeti cs, 1974, No. 6.
36. Lipov Yu.M ., Fundamentals of Com-
bustion Prousses. Moscow, Energiya,
1969.
37. Lifov Yu.l\1., Samoilov Yu.F., Mo-
de Z.G., Layout and Heat Calculations
of Steam Generators. Moscow, E nergiya,
1975.
38. Man 'kina N .N ., Physico-chemical Pro-
cesses in S team-water Cycle of Power
S tations. Moscow, Energiya, 1977.
39. Margulova T.Kh ., Nuclear Power Sta-
tions. Mosco w, Vysshaya Shkola, 1978;
English translation: Moscow, MIR Pub-
lishers, 1978.
lo O. Marine Boilers. Leningrad, Sudostroenie,
1977. Authors: N.J. Pushkin, D.I. Vol-
kov, K.S. Dementyev et al.
41. Meiklyar M.V ., Modern Boiler Plants of
Taga~~rog Boiler Works. Moscow, Ener-
giya, 1978.
42. Mikuailov N .J\1., Sbnrkov A.T., Physical
Properties of Fuel and Problems of F uel INDEX
Suppl!l at Thermal Power Stations.
Moscow, Encrgiya, 1972.
43. Operation of M onobloc Units (starting-
up, metals, tooter treatment, and automa-
tic control). Moscow, Energiya, 1971.
44. Ornatsky A.P .. Dashkiev Yu.G., Per-
kov V .G., Supercrlllcal.-pressure S team-
Generators. Kiev. Visbcha Shkola, 1980.
45. Peeker Ya.L., flea/ Calcula tions b!l Re-
solved Characteristics of Fuel. Moscow~ Abramovich G.N. 92
Energiya, 1977.
Abrasion 324
46. Pletnev G.P ., A utomallc Control and Abrasion wear of heating surfaces 196
Protection of Thermal Equipment at Absorbed radiant heat flux·' 247
Electric Power S tatio ns. Moscow, Ener -
giya, 1976. Acceleration characteristic 291
Activation energy 49
47. P owu Enginuring and Environmental
Control. Ed. by N .G. Zalogin, Actual steam content 102
L.I. K r opp, and Yu.M. Kostrikin. Adiabatic temperature of combustion 252
Moscow, Energiya, 1979.
48. Practical Theory of Combustion. Ed. by Adsorbed moisture 28
V .V. Pomeran tsev. Leningrad, Ener- Adventitious moisture 28
giya, 1973. Aflerburning zone 59
Air heaters 236
Air inleakage 62
Air regi ster il6
Allowable heat release rate 78
All-welded water walls "13
Ambiguity of hydraulic characteristi cs 127
Analytical mass of fuel 23 . Centrifugal separator 44
Apparent density of steam-water m1xture 103
Arrhenius' law 48
Ash content of fuel 26
Ash-handling system 19
Atomi zation of fuel 92
Attempera tors 226
Austenitic steels 328
Auxiliary power consum ption 70
Availability factor 290
Available beat of burned fuel 68
Ball-tube mill 41
Bare-tube water walls 203
Benzpyrene 65
Blow-do'I\'D water 178
Boiler enclosure 268
Boiler furnace 17
Boiler layout 262
Boiler plant 12
Boiler preassembling 21
Boiler shut-down 291
Boiler structure 264
Boiler water 16
Boiling crisis 113
Boiling economizer 202, 235
Boiling reactor 321
Boltzmann number 251
Bouguer's law 249, 257
Bubble-cap steam washer 188
Bubble flow 104
Bubbl ing systems 157
Burner arrangement 82
Burn-out conditions 113
Bypassi ng of combustion products 232.
Calorific value of fuel 25
Capacity factor 290
Carbon dioxide 25
Carbon steels 327
Carburization o[ fuel 22
Carry-over loss 73
Cascade air heater 242
Casing-head gas 23
Cast iron 330
Cellular moisture 28
Channel-type boiling reactor 322.
Chelates 165, 182
Chela te treatment of water 182
Chemical age of fuel 22
Chemical washing 178
Circulation ratio 1 7, 103
Circulation reliability 203
Circulation reversal 152
Circulation stagnation 152
Circulation veloci ty 100
Classification of steam boilers 15
Closed hydraulic systems 17, 145
Coefficient of:
ash abrasiveness 198
direct heat release 25lo
fouling 253
grindability 40
heat spread 119
thermal radiation m furnace 25D-
Coke 28
Cold Ilow bypassing 211
Cold ehut.-down 304
Colloidal impurities 165
Combined air heating 2lo 2
Combined burners 82
Com bined-ci rculation boilers 17
Combined gas-fuel oil burners 90, 96
Com bined steam-gas plants 14
 Download From Boilersinfo.com
Combustible mass or fuel 23
Combustion, of gaseous fuels 51
of liquid fuels 52
or solid fuels 53
Combus tion front 56, 58
Combus tion mec hanis ms 50
Combus tion products, composition GO
Combustion reactions, kinetics 47
Condensa te pump 11
Condensation plants 10
Condenser 11
Congelation tem perature 30
Continuous blowing-down 183
Convective superhea ters 19, 217
Convective surfaces 18
Corrosion con trol of air beaters 243
Corrugated-tube air beater 239
Counte r-flow superheater· 219
Creep control 325, 333
C ri tical concentration of imp urities 175
Cri tical ex.ce~s air m tio 73
Cri tical fatigue s tresses 129
Cri Lic.al load 11 3
Cross-fiiiiH!d lulws 218
Curtain wal ls 'i!'J, 20i
·Cyclones 45
<Cyclone separa lo r 185
Cyclone-type primary furnace 88
De nsity:
of fuel oi l 30
~f gaseous fuel 31
Des u perhea tcrs 226
Dew po int 200
Di£fusion combus tion zone 56
Dimensionless temperature of gases 251
Direct bala nce method 69
Discharge burners 36
Dise ngagement surface 16, 159
Double- bank rc heater 11
Down Lake tubes 16
Driving circulating head 145
Dry-bottom furnaces 85
Drying capacity of mi II 42
Dry rn ass of fu el 23
Dryness fraction 10 1
Dry-wall flow I04
Dust oxplosivcness 40
Dns t reed ers lo5
Dust sepur·ator· lolo
Dynamic ins tability 124
Dynamic Lwo-phuse layer 158
E co no mizers 15, 234
E ffective heat flux 247
E lemental analysis of fuel 23
Emergency shut-down 291, 305
Emulsion fl ow 104
Endothermic reactions 48
Energy balance equation 9!1
Energy release rate 78
Engler viscometer 29
Enthalpy of combustion products
Environmental control 65
Erosion 324
Ethylen diamine tetraacetic acid (EDT A)182
Evaporating surfaces 15, 202
Excess air ratio 61
Exothermic reactions 48
Explosive combustion 49
Explosiveness, of dust 40
of gases 31
Extern al cyclones 18G
External separator 314
Extinction temperature 50
F eed water 10, 18
Feed-wa ler pump 11
Fick's law 55
Film separation 187
Finned tubes 120, 217
Firi ng regimes 291, 307
Flame combustion 32
Flame control in furnace 231
Flame core zone 59
Flame emissivity 249
Flash point of fuel oil 30
Flow diagram of steam produc tion 17
Flow pulsations 143
Fluidized-bed combus tion 33
Fly ash 19, 26, 193
Fly ash carry-over 27
Fly-ash collector 1 !l
Forced-circulation hoi lers 16
Forced-draft fans 12
Forced multiple circulation 17
Fouling coefficient 194
Free circulation laws 145
Friable deposits 193
Frothy flow 104
Fuel carburi zation 22
Fuel consumption b y boiler· 69
Fuel feed ers 17
Fuel oil 23
Fuel oil burners 92
Fuel-preparation d e vices 12
Fusibility characteris ti cs or as h 26
339
Inertial separator r,5
<Jas burne rs 95
I uhcrent moisture 28
Cas-mete ring house lo6
Inte rnal cyclone separato r 185
Cas-oil combination burner 97
Internal separator 314
Cas-t.ight water walls 203, 210, 213, 282
Inverse balance method 69
Cas-turbine plant 13
Iron oxides 169
C eological a ge of fuel 22
Gilled tubes 218
Class-tube air hea ters 244 Khi lrin L.N. 54
(J;, Clas.o;y deposi ls 195 Kine tic combustion zone 56
CraviLational separation 44 Kineti cs of combustion 47
Grinding mills 17, 35, 41 Koroi tsky S. Y a. 63
Crinding capaci Ly of mill 42 ·· Kutateladzc S.S. 161
Cross efficiency of boiler 68 J-aw of mass action 48
Curvich J\.M. 251 Layout of boilers 262
Liquid sodium 13
H am mer mill 41, 43
Live-steam reheater 226, 228
Heat absorption by heating ~urfuces 69
Load s hedding 297
H ea t-and-power plants 10
H eat balance of stea m boiler 69 Loose cleposi ts 194
Lower hen Ling value 25
H ea t calcula t.ion of boiler 273
Healing value of fuel 25 · Lower ra dia ti on sec tion 18
Low-pressure economizer 242
Heat insulation of boiler 270
Heat losses, 6!l · Low-pressure wut.er beater 11
Low- temperature combustion G'i
by cooling 74 Low- t.ernpcrnturc' corrosion 65, 199
by incomt'lete· combustion 72 Low- tcmpcratuJ·e healing surfaces 232
with physical heal of slag 75 Low- te mperature sulphuric corrosion 245
with unburned carbon 73
Luminous flame 249
with waste gases 70
Magnesium salts 183
H eal power of furnace 77
l\lagnetobydrodynamic (l\lliD) plant 14
Heat release rate per unit furnnc·e area 77
!\lake-up velocity 151
Heat-resisting swels 327
Make-up water 11
H eat spread 119
Maldistribution of heat 136, 213
H eat -transfer agent 10
Margulova T. Kb. 182
Heat-transfer crisis 112
Marine fuel oil 29
H eat-wave cleaning 196
Martens i tic steels 328
H eterogeneous combustion 54
Martynova 0. 1. 166
Hig h-pressure water heater 11
Mass s lea rn content 101
Hi gh- temperature corrosion 198
Mass velocity 100
Hi gh- temperature steels 327
Muss water content 101
Hinshelwood C. N. 51
M n teri al balance equa Lion 99
llot box 268
Mechanical burners 92
Hydrate moisture 28
Mechanisms of combus tion 50
Hydraulic characte ristic 126
Melting temperature of ash 27
Il~'drn ulic mald isl ribution 138
Membrane walls 203
llyd raulic resi stances 105
1\•lendeleev's formulae 25
llydrazioe 165
Metal control in boiler operation 333
Hydrazi ne-ammoni a water treatment 180
l'l'letals for s team boile rs 327
Hygroscopic mois ture 24, 28
Methane 24
l g nition U!mperalure 1,9 Method of rcsol ved thermal characteristics 62
Impurities in feed water 165 Meyer L. 54
Inc ident heat flux 246 Microstructural analysis of metal 333
In duced-draft fans 12, 19 1\1 iII ing fine ness 38
Induc tion. pe riod 51 J\liropols ky Z.L. 11 5
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340
Model of combustion 55
Moisture content of fuel 28, 40
Monobloc units 21, 2761
Multi-jet retractable blowers 196
Multi-nozzle steam -mechanical burners 93
1\atural-circula ti on boilers 16
Na tural isotopes 12
Natural-circulation steam generators 314
Natural gases 23
Net efficiency of boiler 70, 290
Neutral water conditions 181
Nitrogen 25
Nitrogen oxides 65
Non-boiling economizer 202, 235
Non-destructive testing 333
Non-luminous flame 240
Non-scaling wn ter conditions 183
Offset transition zone 18
Once-through hoi lcrs 1G, 278
Once-through steam generators 314
Open hydraulic systems 17, 124
Operating conditions of boilers 290
Operation factor 290
Optimal tempera ture or waste gases 71
Organic fuels 22
Organic mass or fuel 23
Organic sulphur 24
Orifice pla tes t 29
Oxygen me ter 64
Oxygen-neutral water conditions t 8t
Pad dle-type mill 4 1
Parti cle-size distribu tio n curve 38
Pearlitic steels 327
Peeker Ya. L. 63
Periodic blowing-do wn 183
Phosphate water conditions 183
Physical hea t of fuel 68
Plain-tube economizers 234
Pinlens 79, 207
Pia ten superhea ters 217
Plutonium 22 - Semi-luminous flame 249
Polyak G.L. 253
Polydispersity coeffic ient of dust. 39
Pomerantscv V. V. SG
Powcr-producing fuels 22
Power system 10
Prcdvoditelcv A.S. 511
Pressure gradient 105
Primary air HI, 34
Primary furnace 88
Primary superheater 2 17
Process stea m 11
341.
Protopopov V.S. 9, 117 Slagging 193, 226 Theoretical surface area of pulverized coal 40
Pulverization equipment 4t Slagging-hottom furnaces 33, 86 Theo reti cal volume o[ combustion products
P u1 verizing fans 4 t , 44 Slag viscosity 27 61
Pyrite sulphur 24 Sludge formers 168 Therm al characteristics o[ water walls 246
Sodium sal ts 166, 183 Thermal diagram of boiler 270
Radiant economizer 18 Sokolovsky's formula 53 Thermodynamic dew temperature 200
Radiant heating surfaces 18 Solubility equation t 66 Totnl ca rry-Q[f coefficient t 73
Radiant heat transfer in furnace 25'1 Solubility product 168 Total-residue curve 38
Radiant superheaters 1.9, 217, 220 Spra y-type att~mpera tor 226, 227 Toxicity of gases 31
Radiation of triatomic gases 249 S tandard cone test 27 Toxic rate of substance 66
Rated fuel consumption 70 Starting-up circuits of monobloc units 298 Transi tion zone 1.8, 56, 203
Ravich M.B. 63 Starting-up regimes 291 ·· Turbine bypassing 300
Reaction rate 48 Start-up expander 301 Turbulent burners 80
Reaction rate constant 48 Static characteristic 293 Two-sc roll burners 80
Recirculation of combustion products 213, 230 Static instability t 24
Recirculation ratio 212 Unsteady regimes of operation 294
Steady regimes of operation 292
Recuperative air heater 23G Upper heating value 25
Steam air heater 242
Reference fuel 25 Uptake tubes 16
Steam boilers, classification 15
R efractory-faced water wolls 203, 21& Uranium 22
Stearn bubbling 1.58
Refractory steels 327 Useful circulating head 1.46
Steam-distribution plate 159
Regenerative air heaters 236 Steam-generating capacity 21. Usefu l heat release 251
Regenerative water heating H Stearn generators of nuclear ower stu ti ons, Vanadium corrosion 199
Reheater 217 312 Vanad iu m pcntoxide 65, 199
Relative velocity of steam 101 with aqueous coolant 314 Vune-typc burners 80
Removal of impurities 178 with gaseous coolant 319 Velocity of steam-water mixture 101
Resolved characteristic of fu el 2(> with liquid-metal coolant 317 Vibration cleaning 19G
Resolved flame length 59 Steam-mechanical burners 93 Viscosity of fu el oil 29
Reversible reactions 48 Steam-relieving area t 6 Vola tiles in fuel 27
RiUed tubes 218 Steam space 16 Volatile sulphur 24
Bittinger's law 39 Steam superheating 21 Volume steam content 102
Roller mills 4t, 44 Steam-turbine plant t 3 Vortex burners 58, 80
Romm E.I. 190 Steam washing t 88 Vor tic ity parameter 58, 81
Rotary air heater 240 Stepped evaporation HIO
Washing circuit 179
Stepped tubes 130
Scale 1.8 Washi ng of steam 162, 183
Sticky deposi ts 1.95
Scale formers t 68 Waste gases, 19
Straight-flow burners 80
Scaling mechanism 192 Wa ter blowing 196
Straight-scroll burners 80
Scroll-vane burners 80 Water carry-off by steam.f73
Studded water walls 216
Secondary air 1.9, 34 Wa ter conditions in boilers 178
Styrikovich M.A. 9, t 61, 1.76
Secondary atomization 91, Sulphate sulphur 24 Water co ntent of steam 1. 74
Secondary circulation 11 8 Water space 16
Sulphur oxides 65
Semenov N.N. 51 Water swell 159
Supercharged boiler 20
Supergrid 1.0
Water walls 1.7, 203
Water wall section alizing 205
Separating superheater 313
S uperheated steam 11, 21. Wetness fraction W1
Shape factor 40
Superheaters 1.5, 21.7 We t-wall flow 1.04
Shell-type boiling rea ctor 32 1
Superheat temperature control 225 Wick effect 169
Shmukler B.l.. 9
Surface-type nttemperator 226· Working [)uid 10
Shorin S. N. 253
Synthetic isotopes 12 Working mass of fuel23
Shot-blasting 196
Shut-down of boiler 291 Temperature asymm etry 12t Zmachinsky A.V. 9
Shut-down regimes 303 Temperature field 112 Zonal calculation of furnace 254
Sieve analysis of pulverized coal 38
Single-bank reheat er 11
Slag 26
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I
I
TO T HE READER

.Mir Publishers welcome your comments STEAM P OW E R PLANT PI PI NG DESIGN

on the contents, translation, and design of
the book.
We _would also be pleased to receive any .
suggest•ons you care to make about our futu- B. llUDOMINO and Yu . REMZH I N, Cand . Sc.
re publications. This book deals with the design of pipelines for modern thermal
Our address is: power stations, development of pipehne layout diagrams, hydro-
USSR, 129820, dynamic and strength calculations, and thermal expansion com-
Moscow, 1-110, GSP, pensation calculations.
Pcrvy Rizhsky Pcrculok, 2, The book is for engineers ·and designers concerned with buil-
Mir Publishers ding of thermal power stations. It may also be used as a textbook
for students tudying heat engineering.

'

Printed In the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

 Download From Boilersinfo.com •

NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS

T . Af ARGULOVA, D.Sc. .•
The author of the textbook Prof. T. Margulova is a well-known
:Specialist in the field oE heat-and-power engineering. The boo k
.expl ains the theory of thermal electrical power stations as applied
to power plants usi ng nuclear fuel. It covers general problems for
.any thermal electric power stations (conventional nod nuclear) and
specific ones which are true for nuclear power plants only. The
textbook is for uoi \'ersity students and may be used by enginee rs
specializing in design start-up and opera Lion or nuclear power
-stn tions.

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 • Download
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From Boilersinfo.com
·.
The b~ok presents the physico-chemical liab ili ty and efficiency of steam boiler
principles of the processes which oc- plants. Gives the principles of steam '.
_c ur in modern . high-capacity steam generation at nuc lear power stations •
boilers of powe·r stations and the ef- and describes particular designs of •
fects of tfle_s e prOCfi!SSes on the design steam generators for nuclear · power
of steam poilers and thei r elements. stations. • •

Describes sever.al particular designs of ~ The book is int!'lnded for higher-educa-

steam boilers and the general prin- . tion students ~pecializing in power en-
l ...
ciples of the ir calculation. Special at-
tention is given to monobloc (steam-
gineering and is a lso of use to en-
g ineers and te~hn icians engaged in ·the
...
,...:
•

turbine) units of power stations. Dis- design, construction, mounting imd

cusses methods for increasing the re- operation of steam boilers.
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