Spanish colonization of the Americas
Conquista redirects here. For other uses, see Conquista
(disambiguation).
The Colonial expansion under the crown of Castile was
Flag of Spanish conquistadors with crown of Castile on a red
ag, used by Hernn Corts, Francisco Pizarro and others
initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed
by its administrators and missionaries. The motivations
for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the
Catholic faith through indigenous conversions.
Beginning with the 1492 arrival of Christopher Colum-
bus and continuing for over three centuries, the Spanish
Empire would expand across the Caribbean Islands, half
of South America, most of Central America and much
of North America (including present day Mexico, Florida
and the Southwestern and Pacic Coastal regions of the
United States). It is estimated that during the colonial pe-
riod (14921832), a total of 1.86 million Spaniards set-
tled in the Americas and a further 3.5 million immigrated
during the post-colonial era (18501950).
In the early 19th century, the Spanish American wars
of independence resulted in the emancipation of most
Spanish colonies in the Americas, except for Cuba and
Puerto Rico, which were nally given up in 1898, follow-
ing the SpanishAmerican War, together with Guam and
the Philippines in the Pacic. Spains loss of these last
territories politically ended the Spanish rule in the Amer-
icas.
1
1 Conquests
Iberian territory of Crown of Castile. .Overseas north territory
of Crown of Castile (New Spain and Philippines) Overseas
south territory of Crown of Castile (Per, New Granada and
Ro de la Plata)
The Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile, Queen of
Castile and her husband King Ferdinand, King of Aragon,
pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and cre-
ated a single Spanish monarchy. Even though Castile
and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monar-
chs, they remained separate kingdoms. The Catholic
Monarchs gave ocial approval for the plans of Genoese
mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach In-
dia by sailing West. The funding came from the queen
of Castile, so the prots from Spanish expedition owed
to Castile. In the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its
overseas territories, authority for expeditions of discov-
ery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy.[1]
1.1 West Indies
Columbus made four voyages to the West Indies as the
monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new
territories, and nanced more of his trans-Atlantic jour-
neys. He founded La Navidad on the island later named
Hispaniola (now divided into Haiti and the Dominican
Republic), in what is present day Haiti on his rst voy-
age. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino peo-
ple, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, on his sec-
ond voyage. In 1496 his brother, Bartholomew, founded
Santo Domingo. By 1500, despite a high death rate, there
were between 300 and 1000 Spanish settled in the area.
The local Tano people continued to resist, refusing to
2 1 CONQUESTS

plant crops and abandoning their Spanish-occupied vil- conquest of Guatemala, the war of Mexicos west, and the
lages. The rst mainland explorations were followed by Chichimeca War in northern Mexico expanded Spanish
a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 control over territory and indigenous populations.[4][5][6]
the city of Nueva Cdiz was founded on the island of But not until the Spanish conquest of Peru was the con-
Cubagua, Venezuela, and it was followed by the founding quest of the Aztecs matched in scope by the victory over
by Alonso de Ojeda of Santa Cruz in present-day Guajira the Inca empire in 1532.
peninsula. Cuman in Venezuela was the rst perma- The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was led by
nent settlement founded by Europeans in the mainland Hernn Corts. The victory over the Aztecs was rela-
Americas,[2] in 1501 by Franciscan friars, but due to suc-
tively quick, from 1519 to 1521, and aided by his Tlaxcala
cessful attacks by the indigenous people, it had to be re- and other allies from indigenous city-states or altepetl.
founded several times, until Diego Hernndez de Serpa's
These polities allied against the Aztec empire, to which
foundation in 1569. The Spanish founded San Sebas- they paid tribute following conquest or threat of conquest,
tian de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year.
leaving the city-states political hierarchy and social struc-
There is indirect evidence that the rst permanent Span- ture in place.
ish mainland settlement established in the Americas was
Santa Mara la Antigua del Darin.[3] The Spanish conquest of Yucatn was a much longer
campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peo-
ples in the Yucatn Peninsula of present-day Mexico and
1.2 Mexico northern Central America. When Hernn Corts landed
ashore at present day Veracruz and founded the Spanish
Main article: Spanish conquest of Mexico city there on April 22, 1519, marks the beginning of 300
For more details on this topic, see Spanish conquest of years of Spanish hegemony over the region. The asser-
Yucatn and Spanish conquest of Guatemala. tion of royal control over the Kingdom of New Spain
The Spanish conquest of Mexico is generally under- and the initial Spanish conquerors took over a decade,
with importance of the region meriting the creation of
the Viceroyalty of New Spain was established by Charles
V in 1535 with the appointment of Don Antonio de Men-
doza as the rst viceroy.
Spain colonized and exerted control of Alta Califor-
nia through the Spanish missions in California until the
Mexican secularization act of 1833.

1.3 Peru

Spanish Conquest of Mexico, meeting of Corts and Moctezuma

II
Map depicting Cortes invasion route
stood to be the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
(151921) which was the base for later conquests of
other regions. Later conquests were protracted cam-
paigns with less spectacular results than conquest of the
Aztecs. The Spanish conquest of Yucatn, the Spanish
Main article: Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
In 1532 at the Battle of Cajamarca a group of Spaniards
under Francisco Pizarro and their indigenous Andean
Indian auxiliaries native allies ambushed and captured the
Emperor Atahualpa of the Inca Empire. It was the rst
step in a long campaign that took decades of ghting to
subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the fol-
lowing years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of
the Inca civilization.
The Spanish took advantage of a recent civil war between
the factions of the two brothers Emperor Atahualpa and
Huscar, and the enmity of indigenous nations the Incas
had subjugated, such as the Huancas, Chachapoyas, and
Caaris. In the following years the conquistadors and in-
digenous allies extended control over Greater Andes Re-
gion. The Viceroyalty of Per was established in 1542.
The last Inca stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in
1572.
 3

Vasco Nez de Balboa claiming possession of the South Sea

(Pacic Ocean)
Map depicting the route of Pizarro from Panama to Cuzco
1.4 Ro de la Plata and Paraguay
tion, and set up the New Kingdom of Granada (Spanish:
European explorers arrived in Ro de la Plata in 1516. Nuevo Reino de Granada). Gonzalo Jimnez de Quesada
Their rst Spanish settlement in this zone was the Fort was the leading conquistador with his brother Hernn sec-
of Sancti Spiritu established in 1527 next to the Paran ond in command.[7] It was governed by the president of
River. Buenos Aires, a permanent colony, was estab- the Audiencia of Bogot, and comprised an area corre-
lished in 1536 and in 1537 Asuncin was established in sponding mainly to modern-day Colombia and parts of
the area that is now Paraguay. Buenos Aires suered at- Venezuela. The conquistadors originally organized it as
tacks by the indigenous peoples that forced the settlers a captaincy general within the Viceroyalty of Peru. The
away, and in 1541 the site was abandoned. A second (and crown established the audiencia in 1549. Ultimately, the
permanent) settlement was established in 1580 by Juan kingdom became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada
de Garay, who arrived by sailing down the Paran River rst in 1717 and permanently in 1739. After several at-
from Asuncin (now the capital of Paraguay). He dubbed tempts to set up independent states in the 1810s, the king-
the settlement Santsima Trinidad and its port became dom and the viceroyalty ceased to exist altogether in 1819
Puerto de Santa Mara de los Buenos Aires. The city with the establishment of Gran Colombia.[8]
came to be the head of the Governorate of the Ro de la
Plata and in 1776 elevated to be the capital of the new
Viceroyalty of the Ro de la Plata.
2 Governing
Main articles: Viceroyalty of New Spain, Viceroyalty of
1.5 New Granada Peru, and Intendant The Spanish Monarchy
Spains administration of its colonies in the Americas was
Main article: Spanish conquest of the Muisca divided into the Viceroyalty of New Spain 1535 (capital,
See also: Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations Mxico City), and the Viceroyalty of Peru 1542 (capital,
Lima). In the 18th century the additional Viceroyalty of
Between 1537 and 1543, six Spanish expeditions entered New Granada 1717 (capital, Bogot), and Viceroyalty of
highland Colombia, conquered the Muisca Confedera- Rio de la Plata 1776 (capital, Buenos Aires) were estab-
4 3 19TH CENTURY

Las Californias
Nuevo Reino de Len
Nuevo Santander
Nueva Vizcaya
Santa Fe de Nuevo Mxico
Nueva Extremadura
Nueva Galicia

Captaincy General of the Philippines (administered

Argentine Cabildo council
lished from portions of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
This evolved from the Council of the Indies and Viceroy-
alties into an Intendant system, raise more revenue and
promote greater eciency.
by New Spain from 1565 to 1821, then after Mexi-
can independence transferred to and directly admin-
istered by Madrid until 1898)
Captaincy General of Cuba (until 1898) Included
in this captaincy general until 1819 was La Florida,
Spains North American colonies in what is now the
southeastern United States.
Captaincy General of Puerto Rico (until 1898)
Santo Domingo (last Spanish rule 18611865)

Captaincy General of Guatemala

2.1 Dominions
2.1.2 South

Viceroyalty of New Granada (17171819)

Captaincy General of Venezuela

Viceroyalty of Per (15421824)

Captaincy General of Chile (15411818)

Viceroyalty of the Ro de la Plata (17761814)

3 19th century
Main article: Spanish American wars of independence
During the Napoleonic Peninsular War in Europe be-
tween France and Spain, assemblies called juntas were
established to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain.
The Libertadores (Spanish and Portuguese for Libera-
tors) were the principal leaders of the Spanish Amer-
ican wars of independence. They were predominantly
criollos (Americas-born people of European ancestry,
mostly Spanish or Portuguese), bourgeois and inuenced
by liberalism and in some cases with military training in
Juan Ponce de Len (Santervs de Campos, Valladolid, Spain). the mother country.
He was one of the rst Europeans to arrive to the current United In 1809 the rst declarations of independence from Span-
States because he led the rst European expedition to Florida, ish rule occurred in the Viceroyalty of New Granada. The
which he named.
rst two were in present-day Bolivia at Sucre (May 25),
and La Paz (July 16); and the third in present-day Ecuador
at Quito (August 10). In 1810 Mexico declared indepen-
2.1.1 North dence, with the Mexican War of Independence follow-
ing for over a decade. In 1821 Treaty of Crdoba estab-
Viceroyalty of New Spain (15351821) lished Mexican independence from Spain and concluded

Spanish colonialization in the Americas.
the War. The Plan of Iguala was part of the peace treaty
to establish a constitutional foundation for an independent
Mexico.
These began a movement for colonial independence that
spread to Spains other colonies in the Americas. The
ideas from the French and the American Revolution in-
uenced the eorts. All of the colonies, except Cuba and
Puerto Rico, attained independence by the 1820s. The
British Empire oered support, wanting to end the Span-
ish monopoly on trade with its colonies in the Americas.
In 1898, the United States achieved victory in the
SpanishAmerican War with Spain, ending the Spanish
colonial era. Spanish possession and rule of its remain-
ing colonies in the Americas ended in that year with its
sovereignty transferred to the United States. The United
States took occupation of Cuba, the Philippines, and
Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico continues to be a possession
of the United States, now ocially continues as a self-
governing unincorporated territory.
3.1 Demographic impact
It has been estimated that over 1.86 million Spaniards
emigrated to Latin America in the period between 1492
and 1824, with millions more continuing to immigrate
following independence.[9]
In Hispaniola, the indigenous Tano pre-contact popu-
lation before the arrival of Columbus of several hun-
dred thousand had declined to sixty thousand by 1509.
5
Although population estimates vary, Dominican friar
Bartolom de las Casas, the Defender of the Indians
estimated there were 6 million (6,000,000) Tano and
Arawak in the Caribbean at the time of Columbuss ar-
rival in 1492.
The population of the Native Amerindian population in
Mexico declined by an estimated 90% (reduced to 12.5
million people) by the early 17th century. In Peru the
indigenous Amerindian pre-contact population of around
6.5 million declined to 1 million by the early 17th cen-
tury. The overwhelming cause of decline in both Mexico
and Peru was infectious diseases, although the brutality
of the Encomienda also played a signicant part in the
population decline.
Of the history of the indigenous population of California,
Sherburne F. Cook (18961974) was the most painstak-
ingly careful researcher. From decades of research he
made estimates for the pre-contact population and the
history of demographic decline during the Spanish and
post-Spanish periods. According to Cook, the indige-
nous Californian population at rst contact, in 1769, was
about 310,000 and had dropped to 25,000 by 1910. The
vast majority of the decline happened after the Spanish
period, during the Mexican and US periods of Califor-
nian history (18211910), with the most dramatic col-
lapse (200,000 to 25,000) occurring in the US period
(18461910).[10][11][12]
4 See also
Atlantic World
Historiography of Colonial Spanish America
Black Legend
Habsburg Spain
Inter caetera
List of largest empires
New Spain
Old Spanish Trail (trade route)
Population history of indigenous peoples of the
Americas
Smallpox Epidemics in the New World
Spanish conquest of Chiapas
Spanish conquest of El Salvador
Spanish conquest of Guatemala
Spanish conquest of Honduras
Spanish conquest of Petn
6 6 FURTHER READING
Spanish conquest of the Maya
Timeline of imperialism#Colonization of North
America
Valladolid debate
Viceroyalty of Peru
5 References
[1] Ida Altman, S.L. Cline, and Javier Pescador, The Early
History of Greater Mexico, Pearson, 2003 pp. 3536.
[2] Sucre State Government: Cuman in History (Spanish)
[3] Tibesar, A.S. (1957). The Franciscan Province of the
Holy Cross of Espanaola, 15051559. The Americas.
13 (4): 377389. JSTOR 979442. doi:10.2307/979442.
[4] Robert S. Chamberlain, The Conquest and Colonization of
Yucatan. Washington DC: Carnegie Institution.
[5] Ida Altman, The War for Mexicos West. Albuquerque:
University of New Mexico Press 2010.
[6] Philip W. Powell, Soldiers, Indians, and Silver: North
Americas Last Frontier War. Tempe: Center for Latin
America Studies, Arizona State University 1975. First
published by University of California Press 1952.
[7] Clements Markham, The Conquest of New Granada
(1912) online
[8] Avellaneda Navas, Jos Ignacio. The Conquerors of the
New Kingdom of Granada (Albuquerque: University of
New Mexico Press, 1995) ISBN 978-0-8263-1612-7
[9] https://books.google.com/books?id=lvvynCzrJOwC& Portuondo, Mara M. Secret Science: Spanish Cos-
pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=emigraci% mography and the New World (Chicago: Chicago
C3%B3n+espa%C3%B1ola+a+las+indias+ UP, 2009).
cifras&source=bl&ots=WIWVcSlOdq&sig=
4XmK7Gkv36L6qQ4jItqp7a553dI&hl=es&sa=X& Restall, Matthew and Felipe Fernndez-Armesto.
ved=0ahUKEwinzqqfsrLPAhWKAsAKHXbSBf0Q6AEINzAE#The Conquistadors: A Very Short Introduction
v=onepage&q=emigraci%C3%B3n%20espa%C3% (2012) excerpt and text search
B1ola%20a%20las%20indias%20cifras&f=false
[10] Baumho, Martin A. 1963. Ecological Determinants of
Aboriginal California Populations. University of Califor-
nia Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology
49:155236.
[11] Powers, Stephen. 1875. California Indian Characteris-
tics. Overland Monthly 14:297309. on-line
[12] Cooks judgement on the eects of U.S rule upon the na-
tive Californians is harsh: The rst (factor) was the food
supply... The second factor was disease. ...A third factor,
which strongly intensied the eect of the other two, was
the social and physical disruption visited upon the Indian.
He was driven from his home by the thousands, starved,
beaten, raped, and murdered with impunity. He was not
only given no assistance in the struggle against foreign dis-
eases, but was prevented from adopting even the most ele-
mentary measures to secure his food, clothing, and shelter.
The utter devastation caused by the white man was literally
incredible, and not until the population gures are exam-
ined does the extent of the havoc become evident."Cook,
Sherburne F. 1976b. The Population of the California In-
dians, 17691970. University of California Press, Berke-
ley|p. 200
6 Further reading
Brading, D. A., The First America: the Spanish
Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State,
14921867 (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1993).
Clark, Larry R. Spanish Attempts to Colonize South-
east North America: 15131587 (McFarland &
Company, 2010) ISBN 978-0-7864-5909-4
Elliott, J. H. Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain
and Spain in America, 14921830 (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 2007)
Hanke, Lewis. The Spanish Struggle for Justice in
the Conquest of America (Boston: Little, Brown, and
Co., 1965).
Haring, Clarence H. The Spanish Empire in America
(London: Oxford University Press, 1947)
Kamen, Henry. Empire: How Spain Became a
World Power, 14921763 (HarperCollins, 2004)
Merriman, Roger Bigelow. The Rise of the Spanish
Empire in the Old World and in the New (Vol. 1.
London: Macmillan, 1918)
Thomas, Hugh. Rivers of Gold: the rise of the Span-
ish Empire, from Columbus to Magellan (2005)
Weber, David J. The Spanish Frontier in North
America (Yale University Press, 1992)
6.1 Historiography
Alejandro Caeque. The Political and Institu-
tional History of Colonial Spanish America His-
tory Compass (April 2013) 114 pp 280291, DOI:
10.1111/hic3.12043
Weber, David J. John Francis Bannon and the His-
toriography of the Spanish Borderlands: Retrospect
and Prospect. Journal of the Southwest (1987):
331363.
 7

7 External links
Spanish Exploration and Conquest of North Amer-
ica
Spain in America (Edward Gaylord Bourne, 1904)
'Spain in America'

The Spanish Borderlands (Herbert E. Bolton, 1921)

'The Spanish Borderlands

Indigenous Puerto Rico DNA evidence upsets estab-

lished history

The short lm Spanish Empire in the New World

(1992) is available for free download at the Internet
Archive
The Political Force of Images, Vistas: Visual Cul-
ture in Spanish America, 1520-1820.
8 8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1 Text
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