Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
and Shock
Measurements
Revised by:
April 1984
ISBN 87 87355 3 4 5
The book "M echanical V ib ra tio n and Shock M e a su re m e n ts has long been
a m ainstay in Brel & K j r's series of books on th e fu n dam entals of physical
m easurem ent and analysis. A lth o u g h the basic th e o ry is s till va lid , a great
m any developm ents have occurred since the book w as last revised by Profes
sor Jens Trampe Broch in M ay 1 9 7 2 , and it w a s decided in 1 9 7 9 to bring
th e book fu lly up-to-date, p a rtly by a revision o f existing m a te ria l, and partly
by adding new chapters w h e re relevant. It w a s decided to keep as closely as
possible to Professor Trampe B roch's o rig in a l te xt, and he has had the oppor
tu n ity to approve the m o difications. Even so, it is probably as w e ll to make it
clear how m uch of the present book is taken from the o rig in a l, and how
m uch is com pletely new.
The origin al Chapter 4 has been sp lit into tw o , both revised by John Has-
sall. Chapter 4 covers th a t part of th e o riginal w h ic h considered th e effects of
vibrations and shock on m echanical system s, w h ile Chapter 5 discusses the
quite d iffe re n t topic of the effects of vib ra tio n and shock on m an (Human V i
bration). There have been included some new developm ents in both areas, for
example a discussion of m ean stress effects and acoustic fa tig u e in Chapter
4, and m ore detailed in fo rm a tio n on hand-arm vibration in C hapter 5, but o th
erw ise these sections are based on the o rig in a ls.
C hapter 7 on the frequency analysis of shock and vib ra tio n is likew ise com
plete ly new and w as w ritte n by Bob Randall. M ain em phasis is put on tw o
topics w hich are considered to be c u rre n tly most relevant; on the one hand
analogue serial analysis using battery-operated portable equipm ent, and on
th e o ther hand d ig ita l real-tim e analysis w h ich has n o w superseded analogue
analysis in the laboratory.
F inally, the appendices have been revised by Bob Randall or Jolle Cour-
rech, depending on w h ic h section of th e m ain text th e y are related to. A p p e n
dix E on electronic integration has been expanded to include the inte g ra tio n
of im pulses as w e ll as co n tin u o u s sig n a ls. The o rig in a l Appendices F and G
have been dropped, the firs t (on low est measurable v ib ra tio n levels) because
th is inform ation can best be found from th e product data of the m uch w id e r
range of equipm ent now available (if not adequately covered by Fig. 6 .5) and
the second (on the fre q u e n cy analysis o f impulses) because th is to p ic is
covered in Chapter 7 and in more detail in the B & K book "Frequency A n a ly
s is ".
R.B. R a n d a ll
CONTENTS
IN T R O D U C T IO N ......................................................................................................1 3
C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S O F V IB R A TIO N A N D S H O C K ................................ 2 0
R E S P O N S E OF M E C H A N IC A L S Y S T E M S TO
V IB R A T IO N S A N D S H O C K S ............................................................................. 40
EFFECTS OF V IB R A T IO N S A ND S H O C K
ON M E C H A N IC A L S Y S TE M S ............................................................................. 7 2
5. EFFECTS OF V IB R A T IO N S A N D S H O C K ON M A N .................................... 8 5
6. V IB R A T IO N M E A S U R IN G IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N
A N D T E C H N IQ U E S ............................................................................................... 9 7
8. V IB R A T IO N M E A S U R E M E N T S FOR M A C H IN E
HEALTH M O N IT O R IN G ...................................................................................... 19 7
9. A C O U S T IC E M IS S IO N ..................................................................................... 2 1 2
10. V IB R A T IO N A N D SH O C K T E S T IN G ...........................................................2 3 7
1 1 .1 . INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 2 6 8
1 1 .2 . UNBALANCE OF RIGID ROTORS ................................................... 2 6 8
1 1 .3 . ROTOR SUPPORT SYSTEM ............................................................ 2 7 0
11 .4 . SETTING THE STANDARDS ............................................................. 2 7 3
11 .5 . BALANCING MACHINES .................................................................... 2 7 6
11 .6 . FIELD BALANCING ............................................................................. 2 7 8
1 1.7. DIFFICULT BALANCING TASKS ...................................................... 2 8 5
1 1 .7 .1 . Fine Balancing .........................................................................2 8 5
1 1 .7 .2 . Flexible Rotors .........................................................................2 8 5
1 1 .7 .3 . Crankshaft B alancing ......................................................... 2 8 7
1 1 .7 .4 . M ultiple-S pan S hafts .........................................................2 8 8
1 1 . 8 . SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................ 2 8 9
12. F U N D A M E N T A L S OF SHO CK A N D V IB R A T IO N C O N TR O L ............2 9 2
A P P E N D IC E S ................................................................................................................ 3 2 7
APPENDIX A
On th e S tatistical In te rp reta tio n of the R M S-Value .................... 3 2 8
APPENDIX B
Response Versus E xcitation C haracteristics fo r
Linear S in g le Degree-of-Freedom System s ............................. 3 3 0
APPENDIX C
On th e W ave-Shape D is to rtio n in
N on-Linear M echanical System s ................................................... 3 3 4
APPENDIX D
C onnection Between th e Fourier S pectrum of a
Shock Pulse and the Residual Shock S p e ctru m ........................ 3 3 7
APPENDIX E
E lectronic Integration o f Accelerom eter
O utput S ignals ...................................................................................... 3 3 9
APPENDIX F
On th e Use of Decibels ...................................................................... 3 4 5
APPENDIX G
C onversion Charts, Tables e tc ........................................................... 3 5 0
APPENDIX H
S tandards Related to V ib ra tio n and
Shock M easurem ents ......................................................................... 3 5 5
IN D E X 362
1. INTRODUCTION
M echanical vib ra tio n s and shock are dynamic phenom ena, i.e. th e ir in
tensity varies w ith tim e . Both th e m axim um in te n s ity , however, and the rate
of change in in te n sity w ith tim e , spread over w id e m easurem ent ranges and
often require h ighly specialized equipm ent for th e ir precise d e te rm in atio n .
Ground m otions caused by fa r-o ff earthquakes (or explosions) m ay, fo r in
stance, be barely detectable w h ile vibrations caused by large com bustion en
gines can cause severe m echanical fatigue damage.
13
tio n 2 .3 describes h ow the F o urier transform te ch n iq u e can also be appliecT
to tran sie nt phenom ena and shocks, although th e spectra are th e n in term s
of energy ra th e r than "p o w e r". Finally, section 2 .4 introduces th e concept
of non-stationary data and gives som e typical exam ples.
14
on mean stress e ffe cts, since m ost structural e le m e n ts have to bear a steady
load in addition to th e dynamic o n e , and another section deals b rie fly w ith
th e case of intense acoustic e x cita tio n w hich has been found to cause failure
of aerospace and oth e r stru ctu re s. Section 4 .2 discusses briefly th e dam ag
ing effects of shocks and tra n s ie n ts , w hich may give sudden b rittle fa ilu re as
opposed to fatigue fa ilu re .
Chapter 5 sum m arise s the m ost im portant effects o f vibration and shock on
m an, ranging fro m K inetosis (m o tio n sickness) in th e fractional H ertz range,
thro u g h Whole B ody Vibration in th e range 1 8 0 Hz, and in clu d in g Hand-
a rm vibration in th e range 8 1 0 0 0 Hz. Some c rite ria are included from the
relevant standards.
Chapter 7 gives specific in fo rm a tio n on how to o p tim ise the fre q u e n c y ana
lysis of vibration and shock sig n a ls, th is having a lready been show n to be the
m ost im portant analysis te ch n iq u e . Section 7.1 g ives an in tro d u ctio n to the
mode of operation of typical analyzer systems, both analogue and d ig ita l, and
to the choice of basic analysis param eters such as bandw idth and logarithm ic
vs. linear scales. Section 7.2 deals w ith the serial analysis of sta tio n a ry sig
nals, concentrating on w h a t is probably the most im p o rta n t rem aining applica
tio n area, viz., fie ld analysis using portable battery-operated e q u ipm e n t. Sec
tio n 7 . 3 , on the oth e r hand, discusses the use of real-tim e digital analyzers
fo r the more de tailed analysis of both stationary s ig n a ls and shocks and tra n
sients. Finally, section 7 .4 discusses the analysis o f non-stationary signals by
a m oving tim e -w in d o w approach, th is being useful fo r treating n o n -sta tio n a ri-
15
ties such as changing speed (e.g. ru n -u p s and ru n -d o w n s) and w h e re the sig
nal itself is made up of discrete im pulses, as in reciprocating m a chine vibra
tions.
Chapter 10 discussed the use o f electrodynam ic shakers for the active gen
eration of vibration and shock fo r a variety of purposes. Section 10.1 covers
vibra tio n generation both for e n v iro n m e n ta l te stin g and for d e te rm in a tio n of
the dynam ic p ro p e rtie s o f m a te ria ls a n d structures. A fte r a discussion of the
basic properties of exciters and th e ir controls, th e relative m e rits o f s in u
soidal vs random excitation are discussed. Finally, th e basic concepts of m e
ch a n ical im pedance a n d m o b ility m easurem ent are introduced and typ ica l sys
tem s fo r their m easurem ent are s h o w n . Section 1 0 .2 deals w ith shock te s t
ing both using electrodynam ic shakers and other m eans, and concludes w ith
a fu rth e r discussion of the Bum p R ecorder introduced in Chapter 6 .
16
balancing of fle xible rotors (ru n n in g above the c ritic a l speed) and m u ltip le -
span shafts, and cra n ksh a ft balancing fo r reciprocating m achines.
1 .1 . G EN ER A L R EFER EN C ES
Books:
17
HARRIS, C M. and Shock a n d Vibration Handbook. M c G ra w -H ill Book
CREDE, C.E.: Company, Inc. 1 976
Journals:
18
K a m p f dem Lrm Published by Deutschen A rb e its rin g f r Lrm bekm p
fung, E.V. Dsseldorf
The Shock and Published by The Shock and V ibration Inform ation
V ibration B u lle tin Center, Naval Research Laboratory, W a sh in g to n ,
DC.
The Shock and Published by The Shock and V ibration Inform ation
V ibration Digest Center, Naval Research Laboratory, W a sh in g to n ,
DC.
19
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION AND SHOCK
2 .1 . P E R IO D IC V IB R A T IO N
20
If the vib ration has the fo rm of a pure tra n sla tio n a l o s c illa tio n along one
axis (x) only, the insta n ta n e o u s displacem ent of the particle (or body) from
the reference position can be m a th e m a tica lly described by m eans of the equa
tion:
x = Xpeak sin [2n = X peak sin (2 n ft) = Xpeak sin (cot) (2.2)
w here
at = 2 n f = a ngular fre q u e n cy
t = tim e
dx
l/ = = CD Xpegk cos [cat) = Vpeak COS (cot) = 1/peak sin (cot + n /2 ) (2 .3 )
dt
Finally, the acceleration (a) of the motion is the tim e rate o f change of the
velocity:
From the above equations it can be seen th a t the form and period of vib ra
tio n rem ain the same w h e th e r it is the displacem ent, the v e lo c ity or the accel
eration th a t is being studied. H ow ever, the ve lo city leads th e displacem ent by
a phase angle of 9 0 ( n / 2 ) and th e acceleration again leads th e velocity by a
phase angle of 9 0 ( n / 2 ) . A s characterizing values for th e m agnitude the
peak values have been used, i.e. Xpeak Vpeak and Apeak . The m agnitude de
scription in te rm s of peak v a lu e s is quite u se fu l as long as p u re harm onic v i
bration is considered because it applies d ire c tly in the equ a tio n s given above.
If, on the oth e r hand, m ore com plex v ib ra tio n s are being stu d ie d other de
scriptive q u a n titie s may be p re fe rre d . One o f th e reasons fo r th is is that the
peak value describes the v ib ra tio n in term s o f a quantity w h ic h depends only
upon an instantaneous v ib ra tio n m agnitude regardless o f th e tim e history
producing it.
21
F ig.2 .2 . Example o f a h a rm o n ic vibration sig n a l w ith in d ic a tio n o f the peak,
th e RMS a n d th e average absolute value
Even tho ugh this q u a n tity takes into account the tim e h isto ry of the v ib ra
tion over one period [T) it has been found to be of lim ite d practical interest. A
much m ore useful d e scrip tive quantity w h ic h also takes th e tim e history in to
account, is the RMS (root m e a n square) va lu e (Fig.2.2):
X rm s = f / ~ I *x 2( t ) d t (2 .5 )
For a p u re harm onic m o tio n the re la tio n sh ip between th e various values is:
Y Y (2 '6 >
c a RMS c - ''P e a k
or f v c v
A A verage ARMS
22
The fa cto rs Ff and Fc are called "fo rm -fa c to r" and "c re s t-fa c to r", respec
tively, and give some in d ic a tio n of the w aveshape of the vib ra tio n s being s tu d
ied.
and Fc = \ 2 = 1 .4 1 4 (= 3 dB)
M ost of the vibrations encountered in d a ily life are not pure harm onic m o
tions even though m any o f them may be characterized as periodic. A typical
non -harm onic periodic m o tio n is show n in F ig .2.3 (piston acceleration of a
com bustion engine). By dete rm in in g the Peak, Average A b so lu te and RM S-
value of th is vibration as w e ll as the fo rm -fa c to r and cre s t-fa c to r a lot of use
fu l in fo rm a tio n is obtained, and it can be c le a rly concluded th a t the m otion is
not harm onic. However, it w ill be pra ctica lly impossible, on th e basis of th is
in fo rm a tio n, to predict all th e various effects th a t the vib ra tio n m ight produce
in connected structural e lem ents. O ther m ethods of d e scrip tio n must th e re
fore be used.
23
F ig.2 .4 . Illu s tra tio n o f h o w th e w aveform s h o w n in Fig.2 .3 can be "broken
u p " in to a sum o f h a rm o n ica lly re la te d sinewaves
The nu m ber of term s re q u ire d may be in fin ite , but in th a t case as the n u m
ber of elem e nts in the series is increased it becomes an increasingly better
approxim ation to the o rig in a l curve. The v a rio u s elem ents c o n s titu te the vib ra
tion frequ ency spectrum . In Fig.2 .4 th e nonharm onic periodic m otion of
F ig.2 .3 is redra w n to g e th e r w ith the tw o m ost im portant h a rm o n ic curves re
presenting its frequency spectrum . A so m e w h a t more co n ve n ie n t method of
representing th is spectrum is show n in F ig .2 .5 b, w h ile F ig .2 .6 shows som e
fu rth e r exam ples of periodic tim e fu n c tio n s and their fre q u e n c y spectra. A
specific fe a tu re of periodic vibrations, w h ic h becomes cle a r by looking at
Fig.2 .5 and 2 .6 is th a t th e ir spectra consist of discrete lin e s w h e n presented
I
f, (= ) f 2 *= ; H Frequency, f
T, T2
a) b ) 271261
24
Fig. 2 .6 . Exam ples o f periodic s ig n a ls and th e ir fre q u e n c y spectra
a) D e scrip tio n s in the tim e dom ain
b) D e scrip tio n s in the fre q u e n cy domain
25
2 .2 . S T A T IO N A R Y R A N D O M V IB R A T IO N
Random vibra tio n s are m et rather fre q u e n tly in nature and m ay be charac
terized as vibratory processes in w hich the vib ra tin g particles undergo irregu
lar m otion cycles that never repeat them selves exactly, see F ig .2 .7 . To obtain
a com plete description of th e vibrations, an in fin ite ly long tim e record is thus
th e o re tica lly necessary. This is of course an im possible re q u ire m e n t, and f i
nite tim e records w ould have to be used in practice. Even so, if the tim e re
cord becomes too long it w ill also become a very inconvenient means of de
scription and other methods have therefore been devised and are com m only
used. These m ethods have th e ir origin in s ta tis tic a l m echanics and com m uni
cation th eory and involve concepts such as a m p litu d e p ro b a b ility d istributions
and p rob ability densities, and continuous v ib ra tio n frequency spectra in term s
of mean square spectral d e n s itie s *.
W ith o u t going into too m uch m athem atical d e ta il the m eaning of the above
concepts should be briefly review ed because o f th e ir im portance in relation to
practical vib ra tio n m easurem ents.
* M ean sq ua re sp ectra l density is a lso o fte n te rm e d " P o w e r Spectral D e n s ity " (P .S .D .) because
th e m ean sq ua re is a q u a n tity p ro p o rtio n a l to pow e r.
26
? A t n = A t, + A t 2 + A t 3 + A t 4
271262
Fig. 2 .8 S ketch illu s tra tin g th e concepts o f p ro b a b ility and p ro b a b ility density
( 2 .8)
'O
27
in th e form of p ro b a b ility density curves and this m ethod of pre se n ta tio n
m u st the refore be considered the m ost generally acceptable one.
Even though probability density data are very useful sig n a l descriptions and
give excellent info rm a tio n on how , on th e average, the instantaneous a m p li
tudes in a vibratory signal are d istrib u te d , th e y give little or no in fo rm a tio n as
to th e tim e history or frequency c o n te n t of the process being studied. To try
and rem edy th is, and to obtain fu rth e r descriptive data, statistical p h ysicists
introduced a function called the a u to c o rre la tio n fu n ctio n , This fu n c tio n
describes (on the average) how a p a rtic u la r instantaneous am plitude value d e
pends upon previously occurring in sta n ta n e o u s am plitude values in th a t ip(r)
is defined as:
T
V '(t) = Hm -1 \ 2' f ( t ) f ( t + z )d t (2 .9 )
T-> co '
0.4
271263
28
tim e , t , and f ( t + t ) designates the m a g n itu d e of the sam e process observed
at a tim e , t , later, see F ig .2 .1 0 .
Amplitude
fit)
fit, + t)
f( 'l> tim e
t! + r 269034
F ig .2. 10. Basic concepts involved in d e riv in g the a u to co rre la tio n fu n c tio n
w h e re f is frequency.
( 2. 1 1)
29
Fig. 2 .1 1 . Exam ples o f au to co rre la tio n fu n ctio n s
a) A u to c o rre la tio n fu n c tio n fo r an id e a l stationary ra n d o m process
co n ta in in g frequencies from 0 to (co n sta n t spectral density)
b) A u to c o rre la tio n fu n c tio n for a "p ra c tic a l" wide b a n d stationary
ra ndom process
c) A u to c o rre la tio n fu n c tio n for a n a rro w band s ta tio n a ry random
process
The Fourier integral re la tio n s between iJj( t ) and S(f) are o fte n called the
W ie n e r-K h in ch in relations and play a very im p o rta n t role in th e theory of
random processes.
In physically realizable sta tio n a ry processes one operates w ith positive fre
quencies o n ly* and tp(r) = t//( r) w hereby the in te g ra l for iJj( t) becomes:
W {r) = 2 | ^ S ( / ) cos { 2 n f x ) d f
.0
or, if a fu n ctio n G (f) is defined so that
G ( f) = 2 S (f) fo r f> 0
30
To interpret th e fu n ctio n G(f) c o n sid e r the case w h e re r = 0:
T T
y /(o ) = Hm | 2 + o )d t = lim I 2 f 2( t ) d t
T-+aoT T )- 2
and V '(o ) = | G ( f ) d f
'o
th u s Hm ~ I 2T f 2(t) d t = I G ( f ) d f (2 .1 3 )
r^ c c T J -L Jo
T rad itionally, pow er spectra have been m easured using analog frequency
analyzers w hose mode of operation m ay be understood as follows:
T
i',+ B / f) !
|o G (f ) d f = G ( 0 d f = lim - | \ fB ( t ) dt
Here fB (t) is th e above-m entioned part of the com plete signal, f(t), w hich
has frequency com ponents w ith in B. If now B is m ade so small th a t G (f) can
be considered constant w ith in th is frequency range then
\ ' +BG ( f ) d f = G ( f) B
G ( f) = Hm hm 2 f (t) d t (2 .1 4 )
B ^O oo D ' '-L
31
F ig .2 .1 2 . D e te rm in a tio n o f the m e a n square s p e c tra l density by m eans of
idea! filte rs
32
The FFT procedure produces a co n s ta n t bandw idth spectrum , but fo r c o n
stant percentage b andw idth (w here th e filte r bandw idth is a constant p e rc e n
tage of its centre frequency) another d ig ita l analysis te ch n iq u e know n as re c
ursive digital filte rin g is found to be b e tte r. The choice of appropriate analysis
m ethod is discussed in Chapter 7.
2 .3 . T R A N S IE N T P H E N O M E N A A N D SHOCKS
T ransient phenom ena and m echanical shocks are, like random v ib ra tio n s
encountered re latively often in d a ily life . They may o rig in a te from such w id e ly
d iffe re n t releases of energy as ro ugh handling of equipm ent, explosions and
supersonic m otion. However, com m on fo r this type of energy release is its
sh o rt duration and sudden occurrence.
33
Shocks and tra n s ie n t vib ra tio n s may be described in term s of fo rce , acceler
atio n, velocity or displacem ent and for a co m p le te description it is necessary
to obtain an exact tim e history record of the q u a n tity in question.
F ( f) = I f( t) e ~ '2n,td t (2.15)
GO
The analogy betw e e n this expression and th e m ean square spectral density
fu n ctio n of s ta tio n a ry random vibrations (E quation (2.10)) is re a d ily seen.
There is, h ow ever, a very d is tin c t difference in th a t th e mean square spectral
density fu n ctio n fo r stationary random vib ra tio n s is the Fourier tra n sfo rm of
an already tim e-averaged, even fu n ctio n , th e a utocorrelation fu n c tio n , w ith
th e dim ensions o f am plitude squared. In the above Fourier in te g ra l fo r tra n
sient or shock fu n c tio n s the fu n c tio n f(t) its e lf m u st be tim e -lim ite d and has
th e dim ensions o f am plitude o n ly. Because it in general is not an even fu n c
tio n , its Fourier tra n sfo rm w ill be complex, but it is found that th e square of
th e am plitude o f th e Fourier tra n s fo rm at each fre q u e n cy gives a m easure of
th e energy d is trib u tio n of the tra n s ie n t.
34
F ig .2 .1 3 . Example o f shock tim e fu n c tio n s and th e ir Fourier tra n s fo rm s (am
plitude spectra)
a) A re cta n g u la r shock p u ls e
b) A fin a l peak saw tooth shock pulse
c) A h a lf-s in e shock p u lse
35
In the case o f tra n sie n t phenom ena the s itu a tio n is som ew hat different.
Such phenom ena, in the sense used in th is book, may consist e ith e r of a
single period ''sh o c k -w a v e '', or o f an o scillating tra n sie n t. The F o u rie r spec
tru m fu nction of a typical o s c illa tin g transient is sh o w n in F ig .2 .1 4 and it is
seen that the m agnitude of th e spectrum co m p o n e n ts in th is special case
tends tow ards zero as the fre q u e n cy f goes to zero. Also, a m a xim u m m agni
tude of the sp e ctru m is reached around f0 w h ic h corresponds ro u g h ly to the
frequency of o scilla tio n of the tra n s ie n t. This m a xim u m is broader th e quicker
th e tran sient phenom enon ceases.
tion
If the tra n s ie n t" does not cease at all, i.e. w h e n the "tr a n s ie n t" is no
longer a tra n sie n t but a periodic phenom enon (in th is case a h a rm o n ic vibra
tio n), the freque ncy spectrum degenerates into a discrete spectral lin e (in fin
itely narrow m a xim u m at f0).
2 .4 . N O N -S T A T IO N A R Y R A N D O M V IB R A T IO N
36
tio n a ry random vib ra tio n s is the vib ra tio n s induced in space vehicles d u rin g
launch and re-entry.
37
be small relative to im portant tim e trends in th e n o n -sta tio n a ry data. This
again may lead to considerable statistical u n c e rta in tie s in the m easurem ents.
2 .5 . SELECTED B IB LIO G R A P H Y
BEN DAT, J.S .: P rin cip le s and A p p lic a tio n s o f Random N oise Theory.
John W ile y and Sons, Inc. New York, 1 9 5 8
38
BLACKM AN, R.B. and The M e a su re m e n t o f Power S pectra. Dover P ublica
TUKEY, J.W .: tio n s , Inc. New York 1 9 5 8
OPPENHEIM, A.V. and D ig ita l S ignal Processing. P rentice-H all, New Jersey,
SCHAFER, R.W.: 1975
39
3. RESPONSE OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS TO
VIBRATIONS A ND SHOCKS
3 .1 . R E S P O N S E OF LIN EA R M E C H A N IC A L S Y S T E M S
TO V IB R A T IO N S . R E S O N A N C E
One of the sim plest m odels of a vibrating system is show n in Fig.3 .1 .a),
and consists of a mass, a sp rin g and a dam per. If the system behaves linearly
40
(and tim e -in va ria n t) th e equation of fre e m otion of th e m ass is (no e xternal
force applied):
(3 .1 )
(3 .2 )
The solution of th is e q uation gives d ire c tly the d isplacem ent response, x(t),
of the mass, m, produced by the e x c ita tio n , f(t). O th e r response q u a n titie s
such as the velocity response or the a cceleration response can be fo u n d fro m
the w e ll know n re la tio n sh ip s between th e displacem ent, velocity and a c c e le r
ation (see also A ppendix B):
The force f{t), can have any dependency on tim e, and as long as the m o tio n
of the mass can be described by a lin e a r d ifferential equation of th e type
given above, it is, in p rin cip le , possible to obtain exact so lu tio ns for x(t), v (t)
and a{t). A very p o w e rfu l tool in o b ta in in g the required so lu tio ns is the s u p e r
p o sitio n principle, w h ic h is applicable to linear d iffe re n tia l equations. It states
th a t th e effect o f s im u lta n e o u s ly super-im posed actions is equal to th e su m
o f the effects o f each in d iv id u a l action.
(3 .3 )
41
w here h(t r) is the response of the system (F ig .3.1), at th e tim e t to a unit
im pulse e xcita tio n acting at tim e t . A unit im p u lse excitation is characterized
by a force w h ic h is zero except at t = r w h e re it is in fin ite and encloses unit
area:
Hm I 6 {x )d x = 1
e>0 J - e
* ( 0 = | f h {T )f(t-T )d T (3.4)
oo
w h e re j = f - z
42
above, th e n tra n sfo rm s in to a complex frequency response function, H (f), and
x(t) is obtained in te rm s of its Fourier tra n s fo rm , X(f):
= i" dt f h { t - T)e~J2nhf ( T ) d x
- 00 J GO
= I h(,)e~i2 n f i d I 00 f { i ) e ~ i 2l t,Td i
J 00 J - 00
The Fourier tra n sfo rm of the response is the product of the Fourier tra n s
form of th e excitation and the frequency response fu n c tio n .
m d2 l + c + k x = F0 e,2nft (3.6)
d t2 dt
X( f ) = H { f ) F 0 e '2n,t (3 .7 )
\fj Q f0
43
f0 = J - t/Z the resonant fre q u e n c y of the m echanical system and
2n Im
Q = ^ Vkm is a m easure of th e system 's dam ping. Q is norm ally c a lle d the qu
a lity factor of th e system and th e larger the va lu e of Q the s m a lle r is the
dam ping. For a com pletely undam ped system Q = co w hile fo r a critically
damped system Q = 1/ 2. A n approxim ate m easure of Q is o b ta in e d in prac
tice by m easuring the w id th of th e response cu rve , \H(f)\, at th e ha lf power
points, see F ig.3 .3 .
\ H { f )\2 = ! 2 \ H ( f 0) \ 2
If th is w id th is A f then
The phase lag betw e e n the response and the e xcita tio n is given by th e ex
pression:
7
<p = tan~ (3 .1 0 )
F irs tly , in the case o f no damping (Q = a>) the response and the e xcita tio n
are in phase (<// = 0 ) b e lo w resonance, w h ile above resonance they are 1 8 0
out of phase. Because Q = o the change in phase takes place in the fo rm of a
d iscon tinuou s jum p.
45
Thirdly, independent of th e m agnitude of th e dam ping, th e phase lag be
tw een the response and th e excitation at resonance is 9 0 .
Systems in w h ic h a single mass moves in m ore than one d ire ctio n or sys
tem s w h ich consist of several, elastically interconnected m asses, are com
m only term ed m u lti-d e g re e -o f-fre e d o m system s. A linear m u lti-d e g re e -o f-fre e -
dorh system can be m a th e m a tica lly described by a set of coupled second-or-
der linear d iffe re n tia l e q u a tio n s and w hen th e frequency response curve of
the system is plotted it w ill n o rm a lly show one resonance "p e a k " per degree-
of-freedom . Thus a tw o degree-of-freedom system show s tw o resonance
peaks, a th re e degree-of-freedom system s h o w s three resonance peaks, etc.,
see Fig.3 .5 .
Frequency
1X
3 .2 . S O M E R E S P O N S E P R O PER TIES OF N O N -L IN E A R S Y S T E M S
In the previous section som e im portant response cha ra cte ristics of linear
system s have been discussed, in p a rticu la r th e ir so-called frequency
response fu n c tio n s . These fu n c tio n s can be derived m a th e m a tica lly from the
linea r d iffe re n tia l equation of m otion for the system . In the case of a single
degree of freedom system th is equation was given as
46
w h ere m, c and k w e re considered c o n sta n ts, independent of x and t. T h is re
qu irem ent is not alw ays fu lfille d in p ra ctice and the above equation m ay take
th e form :
(3 .1 1 )
w here
Hx
P ( ~ ) = velocity dependent "d a m p in g " term
dt
F{x) = displacem ent dependent " s tiffn e s s " term
Because this d iffe re n tia l equation is no longer lin e a r the p rin cip le o f su p e r
p o sitio n cannot be ap plied and th e derivations o u tlin e d in section 3.1 are
th ere fore no longer valid. In p rin c ip le each p a rtic u la r non-linear vib ra tio n
problem has to be solved on its o w n . However, ce rta in general properties
w h ic h are of considerable practical in te re st may be discussed w ith o u t actu
ally solving the equatio n .
m ~ ^ + c ^ - + F{ x) = f { t ) (3 .1 2 )
dt2 dt
If the system has no excitation f ( t ) and no dam ping term , the undam ped
free vibration is governed by the e q u a tio n .
(3 .1 3 )
47
F ig .3 .6 . Force vs displacem ent characteristics fo r som e sym m e trica l sp rin g a r
ran gem en ts:
a) L in e a r
b) L in e a r p lu s cubic (D u ffin g )
c) S in u s o id (pendulum )
d) P re te n sio n e d springs
e) Clearance
f) A sym p to tic elasticity
The free o scilla tio n is not sin u so id a l unless F(x) is linear. In the lin e a r case
th e period and th e shape of the o scillation are independent of the am plitude,
but in the n o n -lin e a r case both th e period and th e fo rm of the o scilla tio n vary
w ith the am plitude.
th e n v + F( x ) = 0
dx
48
+ F{x)dx = O
^ Ja
U(x) = F( ) d (3 .1 4 )
dx
then = v = \/2[U{a) ~U(x)]
dt
i'd
t (a) = 4 (3 .1 5 )
Jo V 2 [ U ( a ) - U ( x ) ]
49
W h e n lig ht dam ping and periodic e x cita tio n are added to the system , the
steady-state response is generally p e rio d ic, w ith the sam e period as th e e x c i
ta tio n unless there is subharm onic resonance, as discussed later. The w ave
shape of th e response o scillation is in general diffe re n t fro m that of the e x c i
ta tio n and also d iffe re n t from the free vib ra tio n wave shapes. M oreover, the
response waveshape changes w ith the level of the e xcita tio n .
For fixed excitation am plitude and lig h t dam ping, th e response curves have
the fo rm s show n in F ig s.3 .8 and 3 .9 . They are like the corresponding curves
fo r lin e a r system s but th e "backbones of th e resonant peaks are the n o n -lin
ear fre e vibration a m p litu d e -fre q u e n cy re la tio n s shown in F ig .3.7.
I A i A,
A
11 /v
//iVV
L. -------- - f ^ i - f
263382
50
W e can see in th e example s h o w n in Fig.3 .9 th a t there is a hyste re sis e f
fect on the steady-state response. The segm ent betw een points 2 and 3 is u n
stable. If the excita tio n fre q u e n cy is slow ly increased from zero, th e quasi
steady response am plitude fo llo w s the curve in F ig .3 .9 from 1 to 2 and
jum ps w ith an irre g u la r tra n s ie n t to point 4. N ow w h e n the e xcita tio n fre
quency is slo w ly decreased, th e re is a sudden ju m p in steady-state response
from 3 to 1. So in conclusion, th e location of th e peak response fo r a slow ly
sw eeping in put frequency is not th e same fo r an upw ard sweep as it is for a
dow nw ard sw eep.
51
nents harm onically related to the fre q u e n cy of the d rivin g force. This can be
confirm ed m athe m a tica lly, for in sta n ce , by a pproxim ating the so lution to the
n o n -lin e a r d iffe re n tia l equation by m eans of a series expansion, and e xp e ri
m e n ta lly by analyzing th e response w ave shape by m eans of a fre q u e n cy a n
alyzer.
Under certain circum stances (very lo w dam ping) a very special phe n o
m enon occurs in n o n -lin e a r resonant systems of th e type described above.
This is the phenom enon of subharm onics. A su b h a rm on ic is a response v ib ra
tio n occurring at 1 / 2 , 1 /3 , 1 /4 , 1 / 5 etc. of th e frequency of th e d riving
force. A n intuitive explanation fo r th e occurrence o f subharm onics may be
given in th a t the d riv in g force supplies energy to one of the harm onics o f the
n o n -lin e a r system and w hen energy is supplied it w ill start to oscilla te . The
higher harm onic th e n pulls all the o th e r harm onics w ith it, as the sp e cifica lly
excited harm onic is an integral part o f th e w hole m otion.
(3 .1 6 )
52
A special case occurs w h e n the dam ping is negative, in th a t in th is case the
system o scilla te s. Examples of systems w h e re these kinds of se lfsu sta in e d os
cillations m ay take place are the flu tte r of aeroplane w in g s, o scilla tio n s in
electrical tra n sm issio n lines due to th e a ction of th e w in d and som e cases of
Coulomb fric tio n , e.g. hysteresis w h irl in m achine rotors. One of th e most dis
astrous cases of damage caused by s e lf-su sta in e d oscillations is th e fa ilu re of
the Tacoma B ridge in 1 9 4 0 .
3 .3 . R O T A T IO N A L A N D T O R S IO N A L V IB R A T IO N S
A nother type of m otion occurs w hen a body is forced to vib ra te around one
or more axes, such as is ofte n the case fo r instance in rotating m achinery or
un sym m e trically loaded m achine fo u n d a tio n s. The sim plest fo rm of rotational
vibrations m ay be that of torsional vib ra tio n s in a shaft, see F ig .3.1 1 a). A s
sum ing th a t th e inertia of th e shaft its e lf is n e g lig ib le compared w ith the in e r
tia of the m ass, m, and th a t the e lastic behaviour of the m ass can be neg
lected in com parison w ith th e torsional e la s tic ity of the shaft, th e equation of
free rotation al motion fo r th e system can be w ritte n :
53
a) b)
271313
F ig.3 .1 2 . M odel o f a n u n sym m e trica lly loaded fo u n d a tio n , and the co rre
sponding e q u a tio n s o f m otion
54
3 .4 . R E S P O N S E OF M E C H A N IC A L S Y S T E M S TO S T A T IO N A R Y
R A N D O M V IB R A T IO N S
( ( t ) x ( t + r) = i f ( t - Ti)h(T,)dT, ( f ( t + t - r 2) h ( r 2) d r 2
J an J 00
- Ij x( t)x( t + t ) dt
'~2
Urn 1
f ( t - T i ) f ( t + r - r 2) h ( T : ) h ( r 2)dT dt
rJ-i
th e n
Vx ( t ) = y/f ( t + t , - T2) h ( r - l ) h ( T 2) d x : d r g (3 .1 9 )
55
or wh at is the same:
and inserting th e form ula given above for i/j x( t ) in to this expression:
as Sf ( f ) = r m i x + T, - T2 ) e i 2 K n T * x' - ^ d x
J - 00
The response mean square spectral density fu n c tio n may, fro m a measure
m ent point of vie w , be considered either as a frequency spectrum or as a sys
tem response fu n c tio n depending upon the problem at hand.
56
used in a th eoretical tre a tm e n t. A considerable am ount of th e o re tic a l and ex
perim ental w o rk has been laid dow n in th is area in the past decade or so and
interested readers are re fe rre d to the lite ra tu re listed at the end of th is ch a p
te r for fu rth e r studies.
3 .5 . S H O C K R ESPO N SE A N D SHO CK S PE C TR A
b)
___________________________________ 271275
Spectral decom positions are the most w id e ly used procedure for the a n a ly
sis of shock data. The tw o most com m on form s of spectral decom position
used are th e Fourier sp e ctru m and the S hock spectrum.
57
response being calculated in the fre q u e n cy dom ain, the inverse Fourier tra n s
fo rm a tio n operation produces the response tim e history o f th e system.
O ther d e fin itio n s may be the overall or m axim ax spectrum w hich is p lotted
on the basis of the m axim um response w ith o u t regard to tim e , and the o v e r
all negative m axim um shock spectrum w h ic h is obtained by considering th e
m axim um response of the single degree-of-freedom system in the negative d i
rection.
58
F ig.3 .1 4 . Shock spectra fo r a re cta n g u la r shock pulse
point out an interestin g fact, nam ely th a t the F o urier spectrum of th e shock
pulse and the undamped residual shock spectrum are related by th e form ula:
S ( f ) = 2 nf \ F( f ) \ (3.22)
Selection betw een the Fourier and the shock spectral m ethods of spectral
decom position is based on the a p p lication of th e data. Fourier analysis is
Fig. 3. 7 6. Shock spectra fo r a h a lf sin e shock pulse
3 .6 . V IB R A T IO N S IN S TR U C T U R E S . M E C H A N IC A L W AVES
The m echanical system s considered in the preceding text have been of the
so-called idealized lum ped param eter type, i.e. masses have been assum ed to
be rigid bodies w h e re all points w ith in the body m ove in phase, and elastic
e le m ents have been assumed to have no mass. In practice all masses have a
ce rta in elasticity and all spring e le m e n ts have m asses. For instance a beam
or a plate is a c o n tin u o u s com bination of masses and springs.
W h ile in lumped param eter system s all points w ith in a mass are supposed
to move in phase, th is is no longer tru e for c o n tin u o u s structures. A sim ple
exam ple illu strates th is clearly: In F ig .3 .1 7 the v ib ra tio n of a beam clam ped
at one end and acted upon by an o scillating force in the other is show n.
W h e n the frequency o f th e o scillating force coincides w ith one of th e beam 's
60
Fig.3.1 7. Illu stra tio n o f th e response o f a be a m to an o s c illa tin g force the fr e
quency o f w h ic h coincides w ith one o f the be a m 's n a tu ra l vib ra tio n
m odes
61
269019
YA . Beam
/
'A } < ---------Oscillating force, F(t)
a)
Beam
/
P
i
-
\JT Oscillating (rotational) torque, M (t)
vr
"
b) 271280
Fig. 3 .1 9 . Illu stra tio n o f com pressional a n d to rsio n a l v ib ra tio n s o f a beam
a) C om pressional vibration
b) Torsional vib ra tio n
g S ~ +~ ( E I )=0 ( 3.23)
d t2 dx2 \ dx2J
w here
62
Beams o f u n ifo rm section and u n ifo rm ly distributed load
A . /E l
Natural frequencies f = ----- r
2-n VPSI
where E = Y o u n g 's m odulus
I = Area m o m e n t o f inertia o f beam cross
section
I = Length o f beam
p = Mass d e n s ity o f beam material
S = Area o f cross-section
A = C o e ffic ie n t from table below
271281
In the case of free transverse vib ra tio n s of plates the equation of m otion is
again a fourth -o rder d iffe re n tia l equation, s till more com plicated to solve th a n
the one governing the vib ra tio n of beams:
63
+2 + + /2g (/~ l!l^ ff = o (3 24)
3x 4 dx2 dy2 dyA Eh2 d t2
Fig.3.1 8 illu stra te s the shapes of some o f th e firs t norm al modes of a c irc u
lar plate clam ped at its edges, w h ile exam ples of nodal lines of square plates
w ith various edge co nditions are shown in F ig .3 .2 1 . Note fro m Fig.3 .2 0 and
3.21 th a t the frequencies of the normal modes in stru ctu ra l m em bers are in
general not harm onically related.
There are, how ever, o th e r types of vib ra tio n s in s tru ctu re s w h ich are, at
least to a firs t approxim ation, harm onically related. These are com pressional
(longitudinal) vibrations, and in certain cases also torsional vibrations.
(3 .2 5 )
d x2 E d t2
1st Mode 2nd M ode 3rd Mode 4th Mode 6th Mode
ton/J D/pha4
Nodal lines
D/pha4
V /////Z
j J D/pha4
Nodal lines
/
777777/ '777777/ ' 7777^7? % > /////
64
Fig. 3 .2 2 . S ketch sho w in g th e derivation o f th e equation o f m o tio n for com -
p re ssio n a l (lo n g itu d in a l) vibrations in a beam
This equation has the same form as the so-called w ave -e q u a tio n w hich go v
erns various kinds of wave phenom ena in th e o re tica l physics. Compressional
vibrations are therefo re also often referred to as m e ch a n ica l waves w ith a
w ave velocity (v) of:
-V 2
T - TE- : ' i f 1 Q' 13 261
The m ain reason fo r the in clu sio n of th is b rie f section on stru ctu ra l v ib ra
tions in the book has been to illustrate th a t the actual vib ra tio n s m easured
on a com plica ted co n stru ctio n may be w id e ly d iffe re n t fro m p o in t to p o in t
even i f the m easurin g p o in ts considered are situ a te d a re la tiv e ly short d is
tance apart from each other. Also, the d ire c tio n in space o f the vibrations
may vary and fo r thorough investigations it is therefore necessary to m easure
the vib rations both as a fu n c tio n of fre q u e n c y and as a fu n c tio n of space
coordinates at each m easuring point.
3 .7 . S H O C K A N D V IB R A T IO N A N A L Y S IS U S IN G FINITE
E LE M E N T T E C H N IQ U E S
65
There are tw o fin ite e le m e n t techniques available: the m a trix displacem ent
o r s tiffn e ss m e th o d w h e re th e displacem ents are chosen as unknow ns, and
th e m a trix force or fle x ib ility m ethod w h e re forces are unknow ns. In both
cases, the continu u m is divided into a fin ite num ber of ele m e n ts connected
only at the node points. Each discrete e le m e n t is idealised. The d isp la ce
m ents of these points are assumed and th e complete s o lu tio n is obtained
com bining displacem ents so th a t it sa tis fie s force e q u ilib riu m and d isp la ce
m ent co m p a tib ility at th e jo in ts of th e e lem ents. The m a trix equations are
th e n solved n um e rica lly by a com puter. The m atrix displacem ent m ethod is
c u rre n tly the most popular and is the one w e w ill discuss in th is section.
S tatic analysis
[F ] = [K ] [ U ] (3 .2 7 )
The m atrix [/<"] is ge n e ra lly singular because rigid body m otion is not p re
vented.
Fy = k ( u y - u 2)
F2 = k ( u 2 - u ,)
~Fy~ k -k ~ ~u:
f 2- -k k_ P 2-
F1 = (Wi - u 2)
F 2 = *1 (u 2 ~ u ,) + k 2 ( u 2 - u 3)
= - /r, w, + (k , + k 2) u 2 - k 2u 3
F2 ^2 ( U3 ~ u t )
66
uT
k, -k , O'
f 2 = - /r, /c-] k 2 k2
0 - k2 k2
CO
H ow ever, the stiffne ss m atrix can also be assembled fro m the stiffn e ss of
the individ ual elem ents
1_______ 1
(1 ) -k ; (2) k2
NJ
[K ] = [,K ] =
-k 2
N
J
* i.
k^ -k , 0 0 0 O'
[K ] = -*1 k. 0 + 0 k2 - k2
Jr-
1
0 0 0 k2
N>
0
r
k^ k i 0
Thus [K ] = k ^ k^^ k2 k2
0 kn k?
D ynam ic Analysis
[M ] [X ] + [C ] [ * ] + [K ] [X ] = [ F ( t ) l (3 .2 8 )
w here
[M ] = mass m atrix
[C] = dam ping matrix
[K\ = stiffn e ss m atrix
[ f ( 0 ] = external force vector
W e see th a t tw o ad dition a l term s, the m ass and the dam p in g , are needed.
67
The lu m p e d m ass approach: th e mass of an uniform bar can for instance
be lum ped at tw o nodes and th e mass m atrix becomes
m/ 2 0
m
. 0 m /2 .
or at three nodes
m /3 0 0
m = 0 m l3 0
_0 0 m/3__
The co n siste n t mass approach: the mass m a trix is derived using the same
displacem ent fu n ctio n as th e stiffn e ss. The m a trix here is non-diagonal and
is a better representation of th e actual mass d istrib u tio n .
The d is trib u te d mass approach: this uses exact m athem atical expressions
for mass d istrib u tio n and yields better results but mass and s tiffn e s s m atrices
are fu n ctio n s of frequency and th e method is th erefore g e n e ra lly too expen
sive in com puter tim e.
The fin ite e le m e n t method w ith damping is com plex and such assum ptions
as p ro p o rtio n a l dam ping have to be made to include the c o n trib u tio n due to
the dam ping. This assum ption is generally not realistic except in lightly
damped stru ctu re s. W hen dam ping is p re d o m in a n t, the exact m odal co n trib u
tion of dam ping is im portant and experim ental modal analysis m ay be useful.
W hen the m a trix equations o f m otion are w ritte n the co m p u te r w ill solve
them using standard methods.
68
D etails about these d iffe re n t m ethods and th e ir advantages can be fo u n d in
the references given at the end of th e chapter.
To represent com plex stru ctu re s by using fin ite e le m e n ts one m u st have
various shapes of ele m e n ts available. Below are listed som e of the m ost co m
m only available elem e n ts in the com puter programs:
The fin ite elem ent m ethod is in constant e vo lu tion and new er and better
elem ents are c o n tin u a lly being developed. Its im p o rta n t place is due both to
its ease of application and its u n ive rsa lity in solving both stru ctu ra l and non-
stru ctu ra l problem s such as heat tra n s fe r, flu id flo w etc.
3 .8 . S TA T IS T IC A L E N E R G Y A N A L Y S IS
( 0 = ^ (3 .2 9 )
69
3 .9 . SELECTED B IB LIO G R A P H Y
70
PILKEY, W . and Shock a n d Vibration C om puter Program R eview s and
PILKEY, B.: S um m aries. The Shock and V ibration Inform ation
Center. U nited States D epartm ent of D efense. 1 975
71
4. EFFECTS OF VIBRATIONS A N D SHOCK ON
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
4 .1 . D A M A G IN G EFFECTS OF V IB R A T IO N S . M E C H A N IC A L FA TIG U E
72
However, th e im portance o f mechanical fa tig u in g effects has initiated a c o n
siderable a m o u n t of research and testing around the w o rld . It has therefore
been deem ed appropriate to include a section here w h ich deals w ith th is p a r
ticu la r topic.
The fa tig u e phenom enon is today deemed to originate fro m local yield in
the m aterial or, in other w o rd s , from a s lid in g o f atom ic layers. This sliding is
caused by a com bination of so-called "d is lo c a tio n s " (irre g u la ritie s in the cry s
ta llin e s tru c tu re of the m a te ria l) and local stress concentrations. It is now as
sumed th a t each slip, no m a tte r how sm a ll, is connected w ith a small d e te rio
ration of th e m aterial, independent of th e dire ctio n of th e s lip . The dete rio ra
tion stops only when the s lip stops. Some d e fin ite proof fo r th is hypothesis
has, to th e a u th o rs know ledge, not been established as ye t. It gives h o w
ever, a logical and reasonable explanation fo r the fo rm a tio n of the m icro s
copic "s lip band s" w hich are th e firs t visible signs of m aterial fatigue.
W hen slip bands have been form ed th e y are, under co n tin u o u s vibration
loading, observed to progress and form m in u te cracks w h ic h eventually jo in
together and produce m ajor cracks. As soon as a crack has reached a certain
size it w ill propagate th ro u g h the m aterial according to a m athem atical la w of
the form:
73
Log N
271315
Fig. 4 .2 . Typical histogram obtained fro m fa tig u e e xperim ents (after B loom er
a n d Roy lance)
the fa tig u e life of notched a lu m in iu m specim ens. The re s u lts show n w ere ob
tained from tests at a s in g le vibration stress level.
By m aking sim ila r tests at a num ber of vib ra tio n stress levels, a curve, co m
m only term ed the S-N cu rve (W hler-K urve) can be obta in e d , w hich show s
the re la tio n sh ip betw een th e average n u m b e r o f stress re ve rsa ls to fa ilu re
a n d the vibration stress level.
The actual S -N curve fo r a m aterial does not only depend upon the v ib ra
tio n a l effects, but is also affected by fa cto rs such as te m p e ra tu re , atm o s
pheric cond itions (corrosion effects), p re -tre a tm e n t of th e m aterial, etc.
Fig.4 .3 illu stra te s a set o f S -N curves va lid fo r 4 3 4 0 steel under norm al a t
m ospheric conditions. The curves show n are based on p u re harm onic v ib ra
tion loading only. In practice, how ever, a m echanical part, or m aterial, is very
rarely, if ever, subjected to pure harm onic vibrations of c o n sta n t m axim um
am plitude during its com plete " life " .
NSb = a (4.3)
it is som etim es possible to establish a closed m athem atical form ula for D.
Two co nditions w hich have to be fu lfille d w h e n use is to be m ade of the fo r
m ulae fo r D and the S -N curve are, how ever, th a t each stre ss reversal has
an approxim ately sinusoidal w ave-shape and th a t the mean stress is zero.
These co n d ition s are fu lfille d , fo r instance, by th e vibrational stresses o ccu r
ring in a lin e a r single degree-of-freedom system excited by random vib ra
tions, see F ig.4 .4 .
F urtherm ore, in such system s the sta tistica l d istrib u tio n of m axim um v ib ra
tion am plitudes (peaks) can be m athem atically described by m eans of the so-
called R a yleig h -d istrib u tio n , F ig.4.5:
X 2
p ( x ) d x = ^ e 2 2 dx ( 4 .4 )
o 2-
w here p(x)dx is the p ro b a b ility of occurrence of peaks w ith in the in fin ite ly
75
Fig. 4 .4 . Illu stra tio n o f th e s tre ss-ve rsu s-tim e trace p ro d u c e d in a sin g le de-
gree-of-freedom system excited b y random vib ra tio n s
Fig. 4 .5 . Typical peak p ro b a b ility density curve for n a rro w b a n d random vib ra
tio n s (Rayleigh d istrib u tio n )
sm all am plitu de " w in d o w " dx (Figs.4 .4 and 4.5). As th e total num ber of
peaks occurring w ith in dx is n(x) = f0 . T . p(x)dx, and th e p a rtia l fatigue dam
age caused by these stress reversals aro u n d the vibration level x is
D x = n ^ l = fo . T P W d x
N (x ) 0 N (x )
the accum ulated damage over all vib ra tio n peak levels d u rin g the period of
tim e , T, is:
76
x . n { x ) __ |' p ( x ) d x
N (x ) 0 Jo N (x )
T = --------------- a
,------(4.5)
f0 ( V 2 o) b r ( i + |)
The form ula for T in th e above equation has been derived on the basis of
n a rro w band random s tre s s /tim e h isto rie s of the typ e show n in F ig.4 .4 and
constant am plitude generated S-N curves. The same fo rm u la has also been ap
plied to wideband random signals such as shown in F ig .4 . 6 , using an "a v e r
age fre q u e n cy" determ ined from co u n tin g zero cro ssin g s. Recent w o rk , h o w
ever, has show n these techniques to be anti-conservative compared w ith ac
tual random fatigue data. This ten d e n cy increases w ith increasing ba n d w id th
leading to sig n ifica n t overestim ation of the fa tig u e life w hen d ealing w ith
w ide band random data. New pre d ictio n techniques em ploying random vib ra
tio n generated S-N curves and advanced peak c o u n tin g methods, w h ic h only
F ig .4 .6 . Typical stress-ve rsu s-tim e trace at a " c ritic a l p o in t" on a com plicated
stru ctu re
77
take the sig n ific a n t peaks in to consideration, agree more closely w ith prac
tic e . U nfo rtunate ly, much of th is is proprietary in fo rm a tio n and n o t generally
available in th e open lite ra tu re at th e tim e of w ritin g .
Several other m ethods of p re se n tin g this data are com m only used, one of
w h ic h is shown in Fig.4 .9 . In th is case the num ber of cycles to fa ilu re is plot
ted as a re lationsh ip between th e varying stress Sv , and the mean stre ss S m
For the case of a random signal varying about a m ean stress, th e problems
associated w ith th e random ness o f th e signal and those associated w ith the
steady stress can be considered to be independent o f each other. A tw o part
procedure is th e re fo re norm ally employed; one part dealing w ith th e random
ness of the flu c tu a tio n , and one dealing w ith the e ffe ct of the steady com po
n e n t. Firstly, the random ly flu c tu a tin g com ponent is reduced to an equivalent
78
C ycle s, N 800791
sinusoidal stress giving the sam e fatigue life, as described in som e detail at
th e beginning of th e chapter. Secondly, the com bined stresses are th e n evalu
ated together using curves of th e types shown in F ig s.4 8 and 4 .9 , to give an
estim ate of the life tim e . A lso in th is case, m ore re liable results can be ob
tained using S-N data generated using random e x c ita tio n .
In the practical case of a real s tru ctu re , the a ctu a l mode of fa ilu re and tim e
to fa ilu re are dom inated by the local physical fe a tu re s of the s tru c tu re as w ell
as the external factors such as corrosion, te m p e ra tu re , p re -tre a tm e n t, etc.
m entioned previously. The fa ilu re of a structure is th e re fc, 3 d om inated by the
w eakest links in th e fa ilu re ch a in and much e ffo rt is required to id e n tify and
elim in ate the m . Fatigue cracks m ay begin from stre ss con ce n tra tio n s at sharp
corners, surface irre g u la ritie s or damage, or w e ld s . Large w e lded structures
in a corrosive e n viro n m e n t under the action of c o n tin u o u s random excitation
are p a rticu larly susceptible to fa ilu re s em anating from d is c o n tin u itie s in
w elds. Ships, offshore stru c tu re s , turbine casings, and pressure vessels
in chem ical process plants are typ ica l examples.
4 .1 .2 . Acoustic Fatigue
80
recent years; th e fa ilu re of s tru c tu re s excited by direct a coustic radiation
rather than by stru ctu re -b o rn e vib ra tio n . The problem has been m ost acute
in aerospace stru ctu re s w h e re acoustic loading is caused both by d ire ct radia
tio n from the pow er plant, and by the generation of intense a co u stic d istu r
bances in the boundary layer d u rin g high speed flig h t. For m any a irc ra ft and
rocket com ponents, the acoustic fa tig u e re quirem ents, and not th e static
strength requirem ents, d e te rm in e th e design of th e structure.
The problem of random load fa tig u e has been stu d ie d quite extensively
over the past 1 5 to 2 0 years, and interested readers are referred to th e se
lected bibliography cited at the end of th e Chapter, in pa rticu la r to th e Brel
& Kj r Technical R eview s No. 1 1 9 6 8 and No.4 1 9 6 8 (included in "S e
lected R eprints").
4 .2 . D A M A G IN G EFFECTS OF S H O C K A N D T R A N S IE N T S
82
1. th e system exhibits no perm anent damage after a shock or a know n or ex
pected num ber of shocks, or
2. th e system su ffe rs no dete rio ratio n of perform ance eith e r during or after
th e shock or series of shocks.
4 .3 . SELECTED B IB LIO G R A PH Y
ASTM STP 3 3 8 1 9 6 3
83
M ADAYAG, A .E . Ed.: M e ta l Fatigue: Theory a n d Design. J o h n W ile y and
Sons 1 9 6 9
84
5. EFFECTS OF VIBRATIONS AND SHOCK ON MAN
5 .1 . W H O L E -B O D Y V IB R A T IO N
B iologically the situ a tio n is by no m eans sim pler, e specially when psycho
logical e ffects are included. In considering the response o f man to v ib ra tio n s
and shocks it is necessary, however, to take into a cco u n t both m echanical
and psychological effects.
Because experim ents w ith human b eings are d iffic u lt, tim e -co n su m in g and
in extrem e cases une sth e tica l, much o f th e knowledge gained to date has
been ob tained from experim ents on a n im a ls. It is, of course, not always po ssi
ble to " s c a le " results obtained from a n im a l experim ents to reactions expected
from m an, but nevertheless such e xp e rim e n ts often re s u lt in valuable in fo r
m ation.
85
on a vertica lly vib ra tin g platform . (A fte r Coerman et a I.)
Above 1 0 0 Hz, simple lum ped param eter m odels like that s h o w n in Fig.5.1
are not very useful. It is th e n necessary to apply continuous s tru c tu ra l analy
sis m ethods w h ic h become ve ry complex. By such methods, how ever, it has
been show n th a t for the sku ll its e lf the fu n d a m e n ta l mode of vib ra tio n seems
to be in the region of 3 0 0 4 0 0 Hz w ith resonances fo r higher modes
around 6 0 0 to 9 0 0 Hz A t s till higher fre q u e n cie s use m ust be made of w a
ve theory both in the fo rm of shear w aves and of com pressional waves
(sound waves).
86
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40
Frequency, H z
271285
Fig. 5 .2 . T ransm issibility o f vertical v ib ra tio n from table to various parts o f the
body o f a sta n d in g hum an s u b je c t as a fu n c tio n o f frequency. (A fte r
D ieckm ann; data for tra n s m is s io n to belt, a fte r Ftadke)
From a shock and vib ra tio n point o f v ie w the low fre q u e n cy range m ay be
considered most im p o rta n t. Some ve ry interesting m easurem ents have here
been made by von Bekesy and concern th e attenuation o f vibration along the
hum an body. In F ig .5 .4 the re su lts obtained at 5 0 Hz are reproduced and
show th a t the a ttenu a tio n from fo o t to head is of th e order of 30 dB. S im i
larly, th e attenuation fro m hand to head is roughly 4 0 dB.
Psychological effects such as p e rce p tio n , discom fort, and pain, have re
cently been studied in some detail. M o s t of the studies have been carried out
on ve hicle drivers and aircraft p ilo ts , w hose ability to perform com plex tasks
under adverse environm ental c o n d itio n s , including vib ra tio n , is p a rtic u la rly
87
Frequency Hz 270159
88
Fig. 5 .4 . A tte n u a tio n o f vibration a t 5 0 Hz along h u m a n body. The a tte n u a tio n
is expressed in decibels b e lo w values at th e po in t o f e xcita tio n . For
excitation o f (A) hand, a n d (B) p la tfo rm on w h ic h subject stands. (A f
ter von Bekesy)
Above 8 0 Hz, th e sensations and effects are very dependent upon local con
d itio n s at the point of application, e.g. the actual dire ctio n , position and area
over w h ich the vibratio n is tra n s m itte d , and upon th e damping at th is point,
e.g. due to clo th in g or footw ear. These external fa c to rs heavily in flu e n c e the
response of the skin and s u p e rficia l tissue c h ie fly affected by frequencies
above 8 0 Hz. It is th u s generally not possible at p re se n t to state va lid criteria
outside the stated range, 1 Hz to 8 0 Hz.
89
m /s 2
Fig. 5 .5 . Vertical vib ra tio n exposure crite ria curves d e fin in g equal fa tig u e -d e
creased p ro fic ie n c y boundaries
th e task but the curves indicate th e general range fo r onset of such in te rfe r
ence and the tim e dependency observed.
90
m/s 2
Fig. 5 .6 . Lateral vibration exposure crite ria curves d e fin in g equal fa tig u e -d e c
reased p ro ficie n c y boundaries
lar m otion (i.e. in ya w , roll and pitch) whose ce n tre s of rotation lie at a dis
tance from the poin t of application to the body, can be adequately a pproxi
m ated by purely tra n sla to ry m otion. However, th e re is much c u rre n t w ork
aim ed at the eventual d efinition of crite ria curves s im ila r to those of F ig s.5.5
and 5 .6 fo r tra n sla to ry vibration.
5 .2 . H A N D -A R M V IB R A T IO N
H and-arm vib ra tio n is the second large problem area where tra n sm issio n
into the hum an body is concerned. It is, h o w e ver, rather d iffe re n t from
w ho le-body vibration in the type o f problem s to w h ic h it gives rise. W hereas
vib ra tio n tra n sm itte d into the sta n d in g or seated body norm ally gives rise to
problem s of a general nature e.g. m otion sickness, discom fort, reduced-w ork-
91
displacement of pulse, cm
Maximum peak-to-peak
92
ing efficie ncy, etc, v ib ra tio n applied to th e hand-arm m ay, in addition, p ro
duce actual physical dam age locally if th e level and exposure tim es are s u ffic
ie ntly high.
0, 050
0,040
0,030
0,020
0,015
>
>
0,010 1
0,008
0,006
0,005
0,004
0,003
93
cerned. This is variously k n o w n as "dead h a n d ", vib ra tio n -in d u ce d w h ite
fin g e r, or Raynaud's disease. In extreme cases th is leads to p e rm anent d a m
age or gangrene. These diseases and th e ir causes are c u rre n tly being e x te n
sively investigated both by m edical and eng ine e rin g researchers.
A very recent ISO draft p u b lica tio n (5 3 4 9 ) attem pts to gather c u rre n t k n o w
ledge into a convenient fo rm and to enable conclusions to be draw n about
the damage risk of practically measured vib ra tio n exposures. The suggested
guideline levels are show n in F ig .5 .8 and cover the fre q u e n cy range fro m
8 Hz to 1 kHz. A lthough exposure curves fo r both third octave and octave
bands are presented, third octaves are recom m ended as these are likely to be
more strin g e n t than octaves w h e n applied to th e discrete fre q u e n c y spectra
often encountered in rotating hand-held tools. In te rm itte n t use is covered by
a series of curves w hich a llo w greater levels of vibration fo r s h o rte r exposure
tim es, via a non -lin e a r re la tio n s h ip w hich dem ands increasingly shorter expo
sure tim es at the highest levels, in a m a n n e r sim ila r to th a t fo r the w h o le -
body vibration curves. Compare F ig s.5.5 and 5 .8 .
M ost of th e data used to derive the curves w e re from pure sin e or n a rro w
band inve stigation s and they are th erefore m a in ly applicable to th a t type of e x
citatio n. H ow ever, they may be p rovisionally applied to repeated shock and
othe r types of markedly n o n -sin u so id a l e x c ita tio n , in w hich case a m easure
of the crest fa cto r should be d eterm ined.
5 .3 . SELECTED B IB LIO G R A PH Y
94
DIECKMANN, D.: E in flu vertikaler m echanischen S ch w in g u n g e n a u f
den M ensch. A rb e itsp h ysio l. Vol. 16, S. 5 1 9 , 1 957
I.S .O ./D IS 5 3 4 9 : P rin cip le s for the m e a surem ent and th e evaluation o f
h u m a n exposure to vib ra tio n tra n s m itte d to the hand
95
REYNOLDS, D.D. et al .H a n d -A rm V ib ra tio n Parts I, H a n d III. J.S .V. V ol. 5 1 ,
No. 2, 1 9 7 7 , pp 2 3 7 282
96
6. VIBRATION MEASURING INSTRUMENTATION
AND TECHNIQUES
6 .1 . G E N E R A L M E A S U R E M E N T C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
97
The firs t vib ra tio n pickups producing an e le c tric a l output w e re rather bulky
velocity sensitive devices. D u rin g th e last fe w ye a rs there has been a marked
move tow ards th e use of a cceleration sensitive transducers, c a lle d acceler
om eters Reasons for this tra n s fe r of preference are that accelerom eters are
generally m uch sm aller ph ysica lly than ve lo city pick-ups and th a t their fre
quency and d yna m ic ranges are s ig n ifica n tly w id e r, even after in te g ra tio n to
velocity. A w id e r dynam ic and frequency range is a prime re q u ire m e n t of the
modern vibration pickup, p a rtic u la rly to cater fo r th e growing in te re s t in high
frequency vib ra tio n as a ca rrie r o f inform ation on th e running c o n d itio n of m a
chinery and th e corresponding w id e range of vib ra tio n levels to be detected.
A n additional fa cto r w hich u n d e rlin e s the b e n e fits of accelerom eters is the
fact that an acceleration signal can be easily and validly in tegrated e lectroni
cally to obtain velocity and displacem ent w h e re a s electronic d iffe re n tia tio n
used w ith velocity and d isplacem ent transducers is a more co m p le x and dubi
ous affair
RMS velocity m easurem ents are w id e ly used fo r vibration 's e v e rity meas
urem ents. This is due to the fa ct th a t vibratory v e lo c ity is simply re la te d to vib
ratory energy and is therefore a m easure of th e destructive e ffe c t of vibra
tio n . A given velocity level also signifies c o n sta n t stress for geom etrically
s im ila r co nstru ction s vibrating in th e same mode.
98
V ib ra tio n pickups of sm all size and w e ig h t are desirable because the pickup
should load the s tru ctu ra l member on w h ic h it is m ounted as little as p o ssi
ble and because it is often required to m easure vibration at a point on a s tru c
ture rathe r than over an area.
The frequency range of interest in vib ra tio n m easurem ents has been in c re a
sing steadily over the past tw o or th re e decades. Today m any vibration m e a s
urem ents are carried o u t up to 10 kHz, and often higher. The increased in te r
est in higher frequencies has been prom pted by the developm ent of h ig h
speed m achinery and th e recognition th a t high fre q u e n cy vibrations ca rry va
luable inform a tion about the condition of ro llin g e le m e n t (ball, roller, needle)
bearings, gear teeth, turb o m a ch in e ry blading etc.
The vibration associated w ith flu id flo w , je t noise, ca vita tio n etc. is e sse n
tia lly random in nature and must often be measured e ith e r alone or to g e th e r
w ith periodic vibration com ponents. This again calls fo r more com plicated
m easurem ent te chn iqu e s than was com m on in earlier days.
99
situation m ust be decided upon by the u ltim a te use of the data obtained and
the m easuring equipm ent a vailable. This and th e follow ing chapters w ill dem
onstrate the fa c ilitie s provided by a w ide ra nge of in stru m e n ts and discuss
th e ir application to practical problem s.
Two accelerom eter c o n fig u ra tio n s are in com m on use, th e com pression
and the shear types w hich are show n in the schem atic d ra w in g s in F ig. 6 .2.
100
Weight Charge Mounted
A ccelero m eter (gram) S e n sitivity Resonance Im portant A p p licatio n
Type (pC/m s- 2 )* Frequency Characteristics Areas
(kHz)
4366 28 ~ 4,5 27
A 1 D elta Shear
C o n stru c tio n having
g ood all-round
4367 A J | 13 ~ 2 32 characteristics and G eneral shock and
p a rtic u la rly low v ib ra tio n measurements.
se n sitiv ity to V ib ra tio n testing
4368 A ||J 30 ~ 4,5 27
tem perature
tran sients and
and control.
base strains
4369 a n 14 ~ 2 32
2 M in ia tu re size, low
60 w eigh t D elta Shear type. High level and high freq.
4375 A C excl. ~ 0,3
High resonance frequency vibr. measurements. Ideal
cable
fo r delicate structures,
0,7 Su bm ia tu re size, low panels etc. and in
4374 A excl. -0 ,1 75 w e igh t shear type. V e ry con fine d spaces
cable high resonant frequency
V e ry High Uni-Gain
U ltra low-level (down to
1 kH z se n sitiv ity . B uilt-in
0 ,0 0 0 002 g) and lo w freq.
8306 500 1000 LP filte r Pream p and L P filter.
v ib ra tio n measurements
b uilt in Requires 2 8 V 2 m A DC
on large structures
s p o w e r supply
R obust-con stru ction.
Balanced Uni-Gain Perm anent vibration
8308 100 1 2% 30 o u tp u t. M ax. Temp. m onitoring. High tem p,
40 0 C vib r. measurements.
A e ro n au tica l, industrical
100 A s T y p e 8308 but w ith and nuclear use.
excl. 30 integral high temp (800C) Used w ith preamp.
8310 1 20%
cable cable T y p e 2634
Multiply by 9.81 for sensitivity in pC/g A Shear Types Compression Types 791117
Fig. 6 .3 . M a in ch aracte ristics and a p p lica tio n areas fo r B & K accelerom eters
in general, it can be said th a t the shear co n figuration gives the best a ll-ro u n d
results fo r general purpose accelerom eters and the com pression design is
used fo r accelerom eters w h ich are aim ed at particular applications.
101
The table in F ig. 6 .3 in d ica tes the a p p lica tio n and main characteristics of
the B & K accelerom eter range. A t firs t glance there may seem to be a c o n fu
singly large range of accelerom eters available. But it w ill be seen, a fte r
closer inspection, that th e y can be divided in to tw o main groups. A group of
general purpose types, w ith various s e n sitiv itie s and a choice of top or side
connectors, w h ic h w ill s a tis fy most needs, and a range of accelerom eters
w h ic h have th e ir cha ra cte ristics slanted to w a rd s a particular application.
102
is sig n ifica n tly higher, i.e. to 1 / 2 or 2 / 3 of its resonant fre q u e n cy, w here for
exam ple 3 dB line arity is acceptable. This m ay be the case w h e re vibration
m easurem ents are being used to m onitor th e in te rn a l condition o f machines
because repeatability is there m ore im portant th a n linearity.
(6 . 1)
w here:
103
W h e n it is w ish e d to measure a b n o rm a lly low or h igh acceleration levels,
the dynam ic range o f th e accelerom eter should be considered. T h e o re tica lly
the o u tp u t of a piezoelectric accelerom eter is linear d o w n to zero acceleration
but in practice the lo w e r dynamic lim it is determ ined by electrical noise fro m
Fig. 6 .5 . M e a su rin g range nom ogram fo r B & K accelerom eters under the s p e
c ific conditions sta te d
104
connecting cables and a m p lifie r circu itry. This lim it is n o rm a lly below
0,01 m s 2 w ith general purpose in stru m e n ts m easuring over a w ide band.
S ig n ifica n tly lo w e r levels may be measured w h e n using a filte r fo r frequency
analysis.
A typical exam ple of how th e various factors lim it the o p erating range of
B & K accelerom eter types under specific co n d ition s is show n in the nom o
gram , Fig. 6 .5.
Transverse Response: The tra n sve rse se n s itiv ity of an accelerom eter is its
sensitivity to accelerations in a plane perpendicular to the m ain accelerom e
te r axis as show n in Fig. 6 . 6 . It is norm ally expressed in percent of the main
axis sensitivity and should be as low as possible. The transverse se nsitivity
varies according to w hich d ire ctio n is considered, the dire ctio n of m inim um
sensitivity is marked on m ost B & K accelerom eter types w ith a red paint
spot. M easurem ent of the m axim um transverse se n sitivity is part of the indi-
A x is o f
m axim um
sensitivity
A x is o f m ax im u m
Transverse
sensitivity
A x is of m in im u m ^
Transverse se n sitivity
(ideally zero
sensitivity at the
calibration frequency) 780732
105
Fig. 6. 7. The relative response o f an accelerom eter to m a in axis and tra n s
verse axis vibration
vidual calibration procedure fo r m any accelerom eter types and is a lw ays less
th a n 3 to 4% according to type. It sh o u ld be noted th a t th e transverse s e n s i
tiv ity is typically less th a n 1 % of th e m a in axis se n sitivity.
The overall lin e a rity of the m easuring system can be lim ite d at lo w and
high frequencies by phenom ena kn o w n as Zero S h ift and Ringing respec
tive ly. These effects are show n g ra p h ica lly in Fig. 6 . 8 .
' Zero S h ift" is caused both by phase n o n -lin e a ritie s in th e p re a m p lifie r and
by th e piezoelectric e le m e n t of the accelerom eter re ta in in g charge after being
subjected to very high level shocks.
1 06
Fig. 6 .8 . V ibration m easu re m e n t system response to h a lf sine wave p u ls e o f
le n g th T.
a) "Zero S h ift" lim its the lo w -fre q u e n c y response o f the system.
b) " R ing in g" lim its the high fre q u e n c y response o f the system
107
To avoid sig n ific a n t m easuring errors due to these effects, th e frequency re
sponse of th e measuring system should be lim ite d as show n in F ig . 6 .9 w h ich
is based on m easuring errors o f less than 5% or 1 0%.
Tem perature: Typical general purpose accelerom eters can to le ra te tem pera
tures up to 2 5 0 C . A t h ig h e r tem peratures th e piezoelectric ceram ic w ill be
gin to depolarise causing a perm anent loss in sensitivity. Up to tem perature
excesses of 5 0 C above th e specified lim it th e loss is gradual so th a t after re
calibration th e accelerom eter is still usable. A t even higher tem peratures the
Curie point is reached w h ic h results in com plete destruction of th e piezoelec
tric elem ent. Special high te m p e ra tu re accelerom eters can be used in tem per
atures up to 4 0 0 C .
10 8
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________750890/3
Fig. 6.1 1. The use o f a m ica washer and h e a t sink w ill e nable accelerom eter
to be used on su rfa ce s at te m p e ra tu re s ra th e r h ig h e r than the a c
celerom eter's d e sig n m axim um
Electrom agnetic noise can be a problem w hen the accelerom eter cable lies
in the vic in ity of runn in g electrical m achinery. Double shielded cable helps to
reduce th is problem but in severe cases a balanced accelerom eter and d iffe r
109
ential prea m plifie r should be used. The la tte r is standard practice w ith p e rm a
nent vibration m onitoring e quipm ent on in d u s tria l m achinery.
Hum idity: M ost accelerom eters are sealed, either by epoxy bonding or
w elding and are therefore im pervious to m o isture . However, cable connectors
only o ffe r superficial p ro te ctio n . For sh o rt term exposure th e transducer
socket and cable plug can be dipped in s ilic o n e grease before the connector
is assem bled. For exposure to high h u m id ity or direct im m e rsio n the w hole
assembled connector should be encapsulated in an acid-free RTV silicone ru b
ber com pound. In w et e n viro n m e n ts standard Teflon insulated accelerom eter
cables should always be used.
Acoustic Noise: The noise levels present in m achinery are not norm ally
su fficie n t to cause any s ig n ific a n t error in vib ra tio n m easurem ents. It may be
expected th a t the a coustically induced vib ra tio n in the s tru c tu re on w hich the
accelerom eter is m ounted w ill be far g reater than the a irb o rn e excitation of
the accelerom eter.
11 0
Weight:* C o nfig ura tion : M axim um Positive o r Negative Shock:
54 grams D elta Shear (along main axis)
50 k m s " 2 (5 000 g)
Charge Se nsitivity:* T y p ic a l Base Strain Sen sitivity:** **
10 pC/m s- 2 2% (in base plane at 250 n strain) M axim um C o n tin u o u s Sinusoidal
(~ 100 pC/g) 0,0 0 3 ms- 2 / n strain A cceleration:
(0,0 00 3 g//i strain) 20 kms- 2 peak (2 000 g)
T y p ical Voltage S e n sitivity :*
8,5 m V/m s 2 T y p ic a l Tem perature Transient M axim um A c ce le ra tio n with
(~ 85 mV/g) S en sitivity :* * * * M ounting Magnet:
(3 H z L L F ) 500 ms~2 (50 g)
M ounted Resonant Freq uency:* 0,08 ms- 2 /C (0,008 g/C)
18 kH z Base & Housing M aterial:
T y p ic a l M agnetic Sensitivity: Stainless Steel A IS I 316
(50 Hz - 0,03 T)
Frequency Range:*
5% 0,2+ to 3 5 0 0 Hz 1,2 ms_ 2 /T (0,012 g/k Gauss)
10% 0,2+ to 6 0 0 0 Hz
T y p ic a l A c o u stic Sensitivity:
Capacitance Including Cable:** (E q uiv. A c c'n . at 154 dB S P L ,
1200 pF 2 - 100 Hz)
0,001 ms~2 (0,0001 g)
M ax Transverse S e n sitivity :* * *
<4% M in im u m Leakage Resistance:
(at 20C)
Piezoelectric M aterial:
PZ 23
20 Gn
M ax im u m A m b ie n t Tem perature:
T y p ic a l Tem perature Response 25 0 C (500 F)
a O b je c t:______________ B r e l Si K j r
791132
111
6 .3 . SELECTION OF A C C E L E R O M E T E R P R E A M P LIFIE R S
791121
112
Fig. 6 .1 4 . E quivalent diagram fo r an a cce le ro m e te r plu s cable p lu s charge a m
p lifie r
Q a'A = e, A
u Ca + Cc + Cj - C f (A - 1)
113
From this is obtained
Sg a_________ ___________Cg
e, =
Ca + Cc + C, - Cf (A - 1) Ca + Cc + C, - Cf (A - 1 ) a
( 6 . 2)
C, A Cf A
114
2635 2626 2651 2634 2650
*
1 Sm all, robust, V-o ?O .o-
Pream plifier t e i Ud
adjustable gain,
Type 3 digi sen sitivity 3 d igi sen sitivity 3-Uni-C a n sensi- charge am p lifie r. 4 diejit sensit vity
tiv ity s(tt ings.
con d i ion ng, low c o n d il ion ng, low Charge a r np lifier. Excellent e le c conc itioning Lo w
noise char ge noise char ge V e ry lo w frequen- trom agnetic noisi charge and
am pli ier a m p li ier. cy mea su rement radiation im VOltc ge ampl fier
capabil tv munity
A cceleration
Measurement A c ce le ra tio n
V e lo c ity A cce lera tion A cceleration A cceleration
Modes V e lo c ity
Displacem ent
0,1 m V to 0,1 m V /p C to 100
0,9 to 10 m V /p C
Acceleration 10 V /p C 0,1 m V to 1 V /pC 0 , 1 - 1 - 1 0 m V /p C m V /p C . 100 m V /V
internally a d ju st
S e n sitivity ( - 2 0 to ( - 2 0 to + 60 dB) ( - 2 0 to + 2 0 dB) to 100 V / V
+ 80 dB) able (0 to 2 0 dB) ( - 2 0 to + 40 dB)
Frequency 0,00 3 H z to
0,1 Hz to 200 k H z 0 ,3 H z to 100 kH z 1 Hz to 2 00 k H z 0,3 Hz to 200 k H z
Range 2 00 k H z
The table in Fig .6 1 5 has been prepared to dem onstrate th e various fa c ili
ties available on p rea m p lifie rs and assist in th e ir selection.
6 .4 . C A L IB R A T IO N A N D S Y S T E M P E R F O R M A N C E C H E C K S
W here accelerom eters are stored and operated w ith in th e ir e nvironm ental
lim its, i.e. not subjected to excessive shocks, tem peratures, radiation doses
115
Fig. 6 .1 6 . A ty p ic a l accelerom eter ca libration c h a rt
116
Acceleration V e lo city Displacement
ms- 2 mm s~1 Idm
Peak 10 20 40
Peak-to-
20 40 80
Peak
fore to make a periodic check of the se n s itiv ity ca lib ra tio n , th is being n o r
m ally s u ffic ie n t to confirm th a t the accelerom eter is not dam aged.
The m ost convenient m eans of perform ing a periodic ca lib ra tio n check is by
using a calibrated vibration source as s h o w n in Fig.6 .1 7 . This has a sm all
b u ilt-in shaker table and ge n e ra to r w h ich can be adjusted to vibrate at p re
cisely 10 m / s 2 (1 , 0 2 g) peak. As the signal is a w e ll defined 7 9 ,6 Hz s in u
soid it can also be used fo r checking out system s m easuring velocity and d is
placem ent, RMS or Peak. The table in Fig 6.1 8 shows the values obtained in
these term s.
1 17
Fig. 6. 19. C alibration E xcite r Type 4 2 9 0
Electrical or M echanical
Frequency Sweep C o n tro l U nknow n Signal
" i
M easuring A m p lifie r
Level Recorder
2610
2309 o r 2307
Unknow n
Charge
Accelerom eter
A m p lifie r
2634
l_ .
: ===
331? * ODD<
)
Sine Random Generator Calibration E x c ite r M easuring A m p lifie r
1027 4290 2610
Drive Compressor
Fig. 6 .2 0 . In stru m e n ta tio n se t-u p for p lo ttin g the frequency response o f a ccel
erom eters
many accelerom eters. C a libration levels are rather low , th a t is, in the order
of 1 ms 2 .
118
Fig. 6.21 .(a) A transducer c a lib ra tio n exciter capable o l e x c itin g accelerom e
te rs a t 1 00 0 m / s 2 (B & K Type 4 8 0 1 T + 4 8 1 5 )
(b) Close-up view o f the Exciter H e a d Type 4 8 1 5 s h o w in g an accel
e ro m e te r to be c a lib ra te d m o u n te d on the Reference Standard A c
ce le ro m e ter Type 8 3 0 5
Sensitivity
Com parator
D ifference or Unknow n Signal fo r
2970
Compression Frequency response plotting
U nkn ow n Signal
C ontrol & "U n k n o w n " A ccelero
Balance meter to be calibrated
1047 E xciter C o n tro l
-Unknown
Accelerom eter Reference Standard
Signal A ccelerom eter 8305
Standard------ *
(B u ilt in to 4815)
Accelerom eter Signal
-C o n d itio n e d
Control Signal
Conditioned Unknow n Signal
Standard Signal
Ca lib ratio n
Head 4815
2626 2926
C o nd itio nin g C onditioning
A m p lifie r A m p lifier V ib ra tio n
2707 Power A m p lifie r ! 23 07 Level Recorder
D rive Signal E x c ite r B o dy 4805
740313
119
F ig .6.21 (a) m ounted on the system e xcite r body. A reference standard a c c e l
e rom eter is b u ilt into th e exciter head fo r back-to-back calibration purposes
as sh ow n in F ig .6.21 .(b).
A n in stru m e n ta tio n arrangem ent e m p lo yin g the ca lib ra tio n head m ounted
on a perm anent m agnet exciter body is show n in F ig .6 .2 2 . The s e n s itiv ity
com parator used in th is arrangem ent is p a rticularly valuable w here m any
tra nsducers are to be calibrated to a h ig h degree of accuracy (better th a n
0,5 % can be achieved).
6 .5 . FORCE A N D IM P E D A N C E T R A N S D U C E R S
Like the accelerom eter, the force tra n s d u c e r also uses a piezoelectric e le
m e nt w h ic h , w hen com pressed, produces an electrical o u tp u t proportional to
th e force transm itte d th ro u g h it. For d yn a m ic force s ig n a ls the same sig n a l
co n d ition in g and m easuring in s tru m e n ta tio n as for piezoelectric a ccelerom e
te rs can be used. For lo w frequency and sem i-static forces, p re a m p lifie rs
w ith very long tim e constants are necessary.
120
pressive forces as its piezoelectric elem ent is preloaded. A h ig h overall s tiff
ness ensures th a t it has a h ig h resonant fre q u e n cy and th a t w h e n introduced
into a m echanical system it has m inim al d istu rb in g effect due to deform ation.
A typical co nstruction and fre q u e n c y response are shown in F ig .6 .2 3 .
Mass
Piezoelectric
Element
Acceleration Force Output
Output
Piezoelectric
Element
Co nd itio n in g
A m p lifie r Accelerometer
2626 Force Transducer 4370
8200
Force C ontrol
Signal
:
Power A m p lifie r
2712 V ib ra tio n E x c ite r
4808 nN
Response Signal
A cc'n .,V e l. or Disp Co nd itio n in g
3~!(S) -
A m p lifie r
Measuring A m p lifie r 2635
2610
780269/1
121
The construction of a typ ica l im pedance head is s h o w n schem atically in
F ig .6 .2 4 An im portant fe a tu re of the co n stru ctio n is th a t th e force tra n s d u
cer elem e nt is located ve ry close to th e driving point to obtain a s tiff, lo w
mass coupling to the te s t point. It should be noted th a t th e impedance head
is dim ensioned for re la tiv e ly light loading and is th e re fo re suitable fo r in
vestigating a w ide range o f light stru c tu re s , machine e le m e n ts and m aterial
sam ples. In the medical fie ld the im pedance head can be used for m easure
m ents on soft samples and th e human body.
6 .6 . P R A C TIC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S IN M O U N T IN G A C C E L E R O M E T E R S
The reason for m easuring vibration w ill norm ally d icta te th e accelerom eter
m o unting position. It sh o u ld be chosen so as to obtain a s h o rt rigid m e ch a n i
cal path from the vib ra tio n source avoiding gaskets etc., fo r example w ith ro
tating m achinery, bearing housings are ideal. Valuable in fo rm a tio n can be ob
tained fro m m easurem ents both in the axial direction and e ith e r the h o rizo n
tal or vertical radial d ire c tio n , w hichever is expected to have the lowest s tiff
ness.
122
nant fre quen cy, w hich can severely lim it th e useful fre q u e n cy range of th e a c
celerom eter. The ideal m o u n tin g is by a th re a d e d stud o n to a fla t, smooth s u r
face as show n in Fig.6 .2 6 (a). A th in la ye r of grease a pplied to the m o u n tin g
surface before tighte nin g dow n the accelerom eter w ill usu a lly improve th e
m ounting stiffness. The tapped hole in th e machine p a rt should be s u ffic
iently deep so that the s tu d is not forced in to the base of th e accelerom eter.
The d ra w in g shows a typ ica l response c u rv e of a general purpose accelerom e
ter m ounted w ith a fixed stud on a fla t surface. The re so n a n t frequency a t
tained is alm ost as high as the 32 kHz m ounted resonant frequency a tta in e d
under ca lib ra tio n w here th e mounting s u rfa c e is dead fla t and smooth.
A com m only used a lte rn a tive m ounting m ethod is the use of a thin layer of
bees-w ax fo r sticking th e accelerom eter in to place. As can be seen from the
response curve. Fig.6 .2 6 (b) the resonant frequency is o n ly slightly reduced.
Because bees-w ax becom es soft at h ig h e r tem peratures, th e method is re s
tricted to about 40C . W ith clean surfaces, bees-wax fix in g is usable up to ac
celeration levels of about 1 0 0 m /s 2
123
124
Double sided
Adhesive Disc
M agnet
Max. Temp.
150C(300F)
100 10k 20 k 50 k 100k
Frequency Hz
Pointed Tip A /
100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10 k 20 k 50 k 100 k
Frequency Hz_____ 791120
Fig. 6 .2 6 . M ethods o f m o u n tin g B & K pie zo ele ctric accelerom eters and e xa m
ples o f typical fre q u e n cy responses obtained
size of th e accelerom eter. Note th a t the use of the m agnet does not ensure
absolute repeatability of positio nin g .
125
Fig. 6 .2 7 . M e ch a n ica l F ilte r UA 0 5 5 9
126
F ig .6 .2 9 . Typical frequency response o f various B & K g e n e ra l purpose a cce l
erom eters w he n m o u n te d on the m e chanical filte r
The filte r is in effect a butyl-rubber b u ffe r between the accelerom eter and
the vib ra tin g surface. Its c u t-o ff frequency depends upon th e mass of the ac
celerom eter mounted on it as can be seen fro m the fre q u e n cy response plots
in Fig.6 .2 9 . The upper c u t-o ff frequency o f any accelerom eter can be fu rth e r
reduced by adding addition a l mass in accordance w ith F ig .6 .3 0 .
127
The cable sho uld leave the specimen at the po int of lowest v ib ra tio n
____________________ __________________ _____________________ ___________________________ 800458
Fig 6.31. Accelerometer cables should be fastened down to avoid cable whip
and thus, interference from triboelectric noise
Measuring A m p lifie r
or Frequency A n a ly z e r
A cce lero m e te r
Pre a m p lifier .
Accelerom eter
a) Incorrect grounding w ith con v e n tio n a l charge or voltage p ream p lifier having non-isolated input.
Measuring A m p lifie r
or Frequency A n a ly z e r
T
A ccelero m eter
Pre a m p lifier
Accelerom eter
A
Isolation Mains
/T7v7777/
V7777mn "7 Ground
b) C orrect grounding of con ve ntio na l charge or voltage p re a m p lifie r having non-isolated input.
Measuring A m p lifie r
or Frequency A n a ly z e r
A cce lero m e te r
Floating p reampMfier
Accelerom eter " I s o la tio n 'L ____
2634
77777.;77777
Mains
Ground
c) Co rrect grounding of charge p re a m p lifie rs having flo a tin g in p u t isolated from ground.
A system for m easuring shock and vib ra tio n consists b a sica lly of tw o parts.
(1) A transducer w hich is m ounted on th e point of m e asurem ent to convert
the m echanical vibrations in to an electrical signal, and (2), a measuring and
indicating device
The m easuring and in d ic a tin g device, a vib ra tio n m eter, consists of one or
more in stru m e n ts w h ic h a m p lifie s and co n d ition s the s ig n a l. Facilities p ro
vided should include s w itc h a b le filte rs to lim it the frequency range at the u p
per and lo w e r ends, so as to avoid the m easurem ent o f un w a nte d signals,
noise etc., an integrator to enable acceleration, velocity and displacem ent p a r
am eters to be measured, and a signal detector and in d ica tin g m eter to in d i
cate the RMS or peak va lu e of the signal. Facilities should also be provided
fo r connecting a sw itch a b le or tunable filte r to enable fre q u e n cy analysis to
be perform ed and this w ill in tu rn require th a t a graphical recorder can be
connected to plot a pe rm a n en t record of vibration spectra. F ig .6 .3 3 show s
129
Fig. 6 .3 3 . G e n e ra l Purpose V ibration M e te r Type 2 5 1 1
130
A c ce le ra tio n
d B/O ctave
1 kH z
Frequency
Frequency
Displacement
- g
ro r*
O <u
Frequency
273046
level recorder, "on the sp o t" hard-copy frequency analyses may be obtained
sem i-au tom a tically. This co m p le te ly self contained system is s h o w n in use in
F ig .6 .3 6 .
The Portable V ibration A n a lyze r's ve rsa tility can be fu rth e r increased by ad
ding a photo-electric pickup and Trigger Unit / Phase M eter, w h ic h can also
131
Fig. 6 .3 6 . The P ortable Vibration A n a ly z e r together w ith a Portable L e ve l Re
corder Type 2 3 0 6 produces "o n the s p o t" h a rd copy fre q u e n cy ana
lysis p lo ts
be contained in th e same carrying case. The set can then be used fo r static
and dynam ic balancing of m achine rotors in-situ. This application is described
fu lly in Chapter 1 1.
M oving back n o w to the tunable filte r w hich gives th e vibration m eter its
freq uency analysis capability, the in s tru m e n t contains a single bandpass filte r
w h ic h may be s w itc h e d to either 3% or 23% (~ 1 / 3 octave) b a ndw idth and
w h ic h may be tun e d over the frequency range 0 ,2 Hz to 2 0 kHz in fiv e sub
ranges. Tuning is e ith e r m anually co n tro lle d by m eans of the knob on the
fro n t panel or sw ept autom atically th ro u g h each fre q u e n cy sub-range w hen
used in co n junctio n w ith the Portable Graphic Level Recorder s h o w n in
1 32
, QO
M easuring Object:
V e lo city
0 mm/s Small gearbox/m otor
3% B/W_____________
20-1 mm/s
o _ 0 ,1 m m /s t i t
2 Hi 6 10 50 100 200 50 0 lOOO 20 0 0 50 00 10000 20000 50 00 0 100000
Q P Q 1 4 3 Pot Ranga:_ Ractifiar.: R M S Low ar Lim. Frag : j Hi W ritin g Spaad: m m /w c Papar Spaad: 0.1 m m /M C . 78 0 236
1 33
F ig .6 .3 9 . Tracking F ilte r Type 1 6 2 3 co m b in e s w ith V ibration M eter Type
2 5 1 1 to form a versatile tra ckin g analyzer
lysis
The tracking filte r also provides syn ch ro n isa tio n signals fo r the portable le-
134
F ig.6 .4 1 . A n order analysis p lo tte d on the X -Y Recorder Type 2 3 0 8 using the
in stru m e n ts s h o w n in Fig. 6 .4 0
vel recorder or X-Y recorder (m ains operated) enabling vib ra tio n level versus
m achine speed plots to be made a utom atically. Typical recordings are show n
in Figs.6.41 and 6 .4 2 .
135
Precision S o u n d L e ve l M e te r Type
2 2 0 9 fitte d w ith in te g ra to r adaptor
ZR 0 0 2 0 , 1 /3 O ctave F ilte r Set
Type 161 6 a n d an accelerom eter
136
A A A
Sound
fe w
Level fSW-. *
Meter ;
Type ea s
w o T ft
RMS RM S
R M S,
Impulse RMS
Detector Impulse
Peak Im pulse
Modes Peak H old
A ll w ith o r w ith Peak Hold
Impulse H old
o u t m ax. Hold
Averaging ''F a s t''
"F a s t", " S lo w " , "Im pulse"
Tim es "S lo w "
Provision fo r
Connecting Yes
External
Filters
A C Lin
O utputs A C Lin A C Lin, DC Log
D C Lin
fits on the m eter in place of the m icrophone, ve lo c ity and d isplacem ent meas
urem ents can be made.
The main lim ita tio n s associated w ith using S L M 's for vib ra tio n m easure
m ent are in freque ncy range, and in dynam ic range w hen using th e integra
tor for velocity and displacem ent m easurem ents. S LM 's also have a voltage
p ream plifier in p u t w hich means th a t the m easuring sensitivity is dependent
on the length of cable betw een pickup and m e te r. W hen using S LM 's for
w ide band vibration m easurem ents it is im p o rta n t to lim it the h igh frequency
response of th e in stru m e n t to th e linear p o rtio n of the accelerom eter re
sponse curve. This is m ost sim ply achieved by using the p re vio u sly-m e n
tioned m echanical filte r UA 0 5 5 9 to g e th e r w ith th e accelerom eter.
137
For convenience in fie ld use the S L M 's are a va ila b le in carrying cases con
ta in in g the accessories necessary fo r sound and v ib ra tio n m easurem ents.
Two recording p rin cip le s are in com m on use, d ire c t recording (DR) and fre
quency m odulation (FM). Their relative m erits are s h o w n in Fig.6 .4 6 .
DR FM
138
F ig .6 .4 7 . P ortable FM Tape Recorder Type 7 0 0 3
supply adaptor enabling operation d ire c tly from the AC mains, or a lte rn a
tively, th e pow er supply may be connected by cable fo r sim ultaneous c h a rg
ing and operation.
139
Fig. 6 .4 8 . The Portable tape recorder being u s e d to sim u lta n e o u sly record v i
b ra tio n in the v e rtic a l and tw o h o riz o n ta l planes on the p illa r o f a
ra ilw a y bridge fo r subsequent a n a lysis in the laboratory. The separ
ate carrying case (KA 2 0 0 0 ) co n ta in s three P re a m p lifie rs Type
2 6 3 5 and a Portable C alibrator Type 4 2 9 1 . a ll o f w h ic h are battery
operated
Fig. 6 .4 9 . Back in the lab o ra to ry taped sig n a ls are examined, h e re using the
N a rro w Band A n a lyze r Type 2 0 3 1 a n d X -Y Recorder Type 2 3 0 8
140
choice of high and low-pass filte rs can be selected so th a t unw anted signals,
noise, etc. can be prevented from in flu e ncin g the m easurem ents.
141
/
F ig .6 .5 1 . Stroboscopic M o tio n A n a lyze r Type 491 1
142
6 .7.5. Waveform Studies
IB R H H IIH IW -jjj _ .
, 9 ts t # * W
143
Fig. 6 .5 4 . B a tte ry operated in s tru m e n ta tio n s e t-u p for recording the tim e h is
to ry o f periodic w aveform s
144
Fig. 6 .5 5 . B um p Recorder Type 2 5 0 3 to g e th e r w ith a ty p ic a l bu m p readout
p rin te d on a 6 m m wide paper strip
145
6 .7 .7 . Portable Level Recorders
146
or the vibration level at tw o d iffe re n t locations on a m a ch in e as a fu n c tio n of
rotation speed.
6 .8 . LA B O R A TO R Y O R IE N T E D M A IN S -O P E R A T E D IN S T R U M E N T A
T IO N
The instru m e nts described in the previous section are powered fro m in te r
nal batteries and can th e re fo re be ru n independently o f AC m ains pow er.
M ost of them can, how e ver, be run fro m the mains in laboratory s itu a tio n s
via one of the battery chargers or pow er supplies available fo r th is purpose.
6 .8 .1 . Measuring A m plifiers
147
Fig. 6 .5 9 . M a in data fo r m e a s u rin g am plifiers su ita b le for vib ra tio n m easure
m ent
in addition to RMS is required and w hether long tim e constants are required,
as is often the case w hen a n a lyzin g w ith n a rro w -b a n d filte rs . A typical mea
su rin g am p lifier suitable fo r vib ra tio n m easurem ent is show n in Fig.6 .5 8 .
The main data of th is and s im ila r instrum ents is s h o w n in F ig.6 .5 9 .
6 .8 .2 . Separate Filters
148
B B #
* | mm m... * - :-j ^
6 .8 .3 . Frequency Analyzers
149
Frequency Analyzer Type 21 2 0
H eterodyne Analyzer
Type 2 0 1 0
N arrow Band
S pectrum A nalyzer
Type 2031
150
A n arrow constant b a n d w id th analysis m ay often be re q u ire d in develop
m ent, diagnostic and e xp e rim e n ta l w o rk. T h is is especially th e case w ith v i
bration problem s associated w ith ro ta tin g machines such as gearboxes
w h e re a fin e constant b a n d w id th is needed to identify m u ltip le harm onics
and sidebands due to m o d u la tio n w h ic h occur at co n sta n t frequency in te r
vals.
0 - 1 0 Hz A s 2031
Centre 1,6 H z to
10 H z to 2 Hz to 2 H z to 2 Hz 2 Hz to to plus x1 0
Frequency 20 k H z
160 k H z 2 0 kH z to 20 k H z 200 kH z 0 -2 0 kH z zoom
Range 2 0 kH z
in 11 ranges
A C M a in s
Power and A C M ains
A C M ains
S u pp ly Ext. D C 791116
151
F ig .6 .6 3 . A rra n g e m e n t fo r m e a su rin g the m e ch a n ica l im pedance o f a s tru c
tu re
6 .8 .4 . R eal-Tim e Analyzers
15 2
M F _ =1
153
Because the analyzer using d ig ita l filte rs is b a sica lly designed as a 1 /3
octave (~23%) analyzer its main ap p lica tio n s for v ib ra tio n m easurem ents are
fo r production te stin g and quality c o n tro l w ork as w e ll as efficie n t perm anent
m o n ito rin g of m a ch in e condition. It should be noted however, th a t w ith the
add itional use of an external c o n tro lle r it is possible to generate 1 / 1 2 octave
b a n d w id th (~6%) fre q u e n cy spectra by making fo u r passes and ch a n g in g the
d igital filte r coe ffic ie n ts each tim e . A complete 1 / 1 2 octave analysis cannot
be made in real tim e but the m ethod is still fast in com parison w ith stepped
or sw eeping filte r a nalysis. The m e th o d can be used on n o n -sta tio n a ry (e.g.
tra n sie n t) signals provided that th e y can be repeated exactly four tim e s .
The FFT analyzers (Types 2031 and 2 0 3 3 ) p e rfo rm narrow band analysis
and are therefore p a rtic u la rly s u ita b le fo r vibration w o rk . They are also able
to display the tim e fu n c tio n of th e sig n a l being analysed w hich is a p a rtic u
larly valuable fa c ility in the analysis o f transient sig n a ls. One can th u s be
sure of analysing v a lid data. The fa c t that the FFT analyzers are equipped
w ith tw o m em ories enables tw o spectra to be com pared w ith th e d iffe re n ce
displayed. For exam ple, in the e va lu a tio n of vib ra tio n isolators, th e e xcita tio n
spectrum can be com pared w ith th e response sp e ctru m and the tra n s m is s ib il-
ity of th e isolators displayed.
154
Accelerom eter Narrow Band S p e ctru m Analyzer
4368 20 33
Magnetic
9 i!
/Tj H
^ *
M achine Charge
A m p lifier 2 6 3 5
T ra ck in g Frequency
M u ltip lie r 1901
Desktop
programmable
Calculator
> or
Com puter
A ccelerom eter
g 5 j *
Digital Cassette Recorder
7400
h1 -
*- 1
- . .M lies
-v.* aoBsIBB*
X - Y Recorder
D igital 23 08
Frequency
An a ly ze r
2031
2033
2131
Level R e co rd e r
2307
155
s a m p lin g fre q u e n c y .lt is at all tim es possible, however, to select an o p tim a l
in te rn a l low-pass filte r, based on the c u rre n t m achine speed, so that at least
60% of the total spectrum (i.e. 2 4 0 lines) w ould a lw a ys be valid. U sing
"z o o m " and concentrating on the firs t 10% of the baseband spectrum it is
even possible to obtain 4 0 0 -lin e order analyses w ith o u t th e influence of a lia
sing over a very w ide speed range, but th e spectrum update tim e is th e n a
m in im u m of 1 s, and th e procedure can o n ly be used for s lo w ly changing s ig
nals.
Data analyzed by the th re e real-tim e analyzers can be tra n sfe rre d to X-Y or
level recorders, or via th e b u ilt-in IEC in te rfa ce to d ig ita l data peripherals
such as tape recorder, tape punch, p rin te r or desk-top c a lcu la tor. The in te rfa c
ing of a real-tim e analyzer to a su ita b ly program m ed c a lcu la to r or com puter
th u s fa cilita te s the rapid a utom atic processing of analysed data. Some o u tp u t
options are show n in F ig .6 .6 6 .
156
In connection w ith the High R esolution Signal A n a lyze r it is possible to
tra n s fe r tim e records consisting of 1 0 K samples (or 1 K) to and fro m th e re
corder. From one such record it is possible to ge n e ra te a large n u m b e r of
zoomed and non-zoom ed spectra, including an average spectrum over the
w h o le record.
157
plots may be m ade on frequency graduated recording paper in con ju nctio n
w ith these in stru m e n ts .
6 .9 . A S U M M A R Y
1 . D eterm ine c a re fu lly where to p la ce the vib ra tio n transducer, a n d its po ssi
ble m ass-loa d in g effects (Section 6.2).
7. M ake a sketch o f the in s tru m e n ta tio n system w ith all type n u m b e rs and
serial num bers included.
158
tion levels, frequency range, electrical in s u la tio n problems and ground
loops. See section 6.6.
9. M o u n t the accelerom eter o nto the structure, c a rry out the m easurem ents
and record th e result.
6 .1 0 . B IB LIO G R A P H Y
B & K PUBLICATIONS:
(M iscellaneous) A cce le ro m e te r C alibration fo r accurate V ibration
M easurem ents. P ublication BR 0 1 7 3
159
7. FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF VIBRATION
A N D SHOCK
7 .1 . IN T R O D U C T IO N
The other digital fre q u e n cy analysis technique in com m on use, viz. FFT ana
lysis, involves a qu ite d iffe re n t approach, a direct n u m e ric a l evaluation o f e sti
m ates of the Fourier T ra n sfo rm , and th is w ill thus be discussed separately.
160
or bnR ^ 1 (7.2)
w h ere b is the relative b andw idth (= B/10 ), nR is th e num ber of periods of fre
quency f0 in tim e TR (= fQ Tr ) and f0 is the centre frequency of th e filte r. This
form is more applicable to constant percentage b a n d w id th filte rs.
F ig.7.2 also illu stra te s th a t th e "e ffe c tiv e le n g th of the im p u lse (TE ) is
also approxim ately 1/ B , w h ile to integrate all of th e energy c o n ta in e d in the
filte r im pulse response it is necessary to integrate o ver at least 3 Tp .
There is no e ffe ctive delay in th e squaring s e ctio n , but errors can occur if a
tru e squaring is not achieved. In some in s tru m e n ts th e parabola correspond
ing to squaring is approxim ated by piecewise lin e a r sections, and th e result
w ill only be valid fo r crest fa cto rs up to a specified value, e.g. 5. So-called
LMS (log mean square) detectors achieve true sq u a rin g by lo g a rith m ic conver-
161
sion follow ed by a m p lific a tio n by a fa c to r of 2, and are not likely to have crest
fa cto r lim itations w ith in th e ir d yn a m ic range. In b oth digital filte r and FFT in
stru m e n ts, squaring is perform ed n um erically and is thus v irtu a lly perfect
w ith in the dynam ic range lim ita tio n s .
(a) Linear averaging w ith u n ifo rm w eighting over given tim e periods of
length TA , w h e re the result is o n ly available at th e end of each period,
and is usually held until so m e th in g is done w ith th e result. T h is means
th a t a result is not available at all tim es, and th a t new data m ay be lost
w h ile a result is being held.
17 13 4 0 /1
162
F ig .7 .3 illu stra te s the tw o w e ig h tin g fu n c tio n s (effectively the averager im
pulse response functions reversed in tim e) scaled so as to give e q u ivale n t av
eraging on sta tion ary signals. This is fo u n d to be the case w h e n TA = 2RC
(w here RC is th e tim e constant of the exponential decay) and w h e re the peak
o u tp u t of the exponential c irc u it is tw ice th a t of th e lin e a r circu it (i.e. + 3 dB).
7 .1 .2 . Digital Filters
There are tw o ways of changing the pro p e rties of a given d ig ita l filte r c ir
cu it such as th a t shown in F ig .7.4:
163
(b) For a given sam pling frequency th e ch a ra cte ristics can be changed by
changing the co e fficie n ts used in th e calculations.
Thus, the three 1/3 -o c ta v e ch a ra cte ristics w ith in each octave are generat-
ted by changing co e fficie n ts, w h ile th e various octaves are covered by re p e tit
ively halving the sam pling frequency. Every tim e th e sam pling fre q u e n c y is
halved, it means th a t only half the num ber of sam ples m ust be processed in
a given tim e, and it w ill be seen th a t th e total nu m b e r of samples fo r all oc
taves low er than th e highest is ( 1 / 2 + 1 / 4 + 1 / 8 + ....) w hich in th e lim it
is the same as th e num ber in the h ig h est octave. T h is means th a t by being
able to calculate tw ic e as fast as is necessary for th e upper octave a lo n e , it is
possible to cover any num ber of lo w e r octaves in re a l-tim e , and th is is the
o th e r reason w h y d ig ita l filte rs are so w e ll adapted to real-tim e c o n sta n t per
centage bandw idth analysis over a w id e frequency range.
7 .1 .3 . FFT Analysis
The FFT algorithm is an extrem ely e ffic ie n t way of calculating the so-called
D iscrete Fourier T ransform (DFT) w h ic h is a discrete, fin ite approxim ation to
th e Fourier T ransform given in C hapter 2. The a ctu a l equation fo r th e fo r
w a rd transform is:
N_j 2nkn
G (k ) = - L 2 g (n ) e " (7 .3 )
N n=0
164
and for t he inverse t r ansf or m is
g (n ) = 2 G (k)e N (7 .4 )
k=0
W hereas the Fourier tra n sfo rm e q u a tio n s are in fin ite integrals of c o n tin u
ous fu n c tio n s , the above equations are fin ite sums, b u t o th e rw ise th e y w ill
be seen to have s im ila r properties. The fu n ctio n being transform ed is m u lti
plied by a rotating u n it vector w h ic h rotates (in discrete ju m p s fo r
each increm ent of th e tim e param eter n) at a speed proportional to th e fr e
quency param eter k.
There are three " p itfa lls " introduced by the fin ite , discrete nature of the
DFT.
(a) A lia s in g caused by sam pling of th e tim e signal, and m eaning th a t high
frequencies after sam pling can appear as lower ones (as w ith a stro b o
scope). This is e lim in a te d by low pass filte rin g the signal before sam pling
to ensure that it co n ta in s no fre q u e n cie s above h a lf the sam pling fr e
quency. (This is also necessary w ith digital filte rin g ).
(b) T im e w indow e ffe c t, resulting fro m the fin ite length of the record. Be
cause the resulting spectrum is ca lculated at discre te frequencies se p a r
ated by 7 /7 , w h e re T is the record length, the tim e record is treated im
p lic itly by the analyzer as one period of a periodic signal of period T. The
tim e record can be considered to be firs t m u ltip lie d by a "tim e w in d o w
fu n c tio n " of length T and the re s u ltin g segment th e n joined into a loop. If
th e tim e w in d o w is rectangular (or "fla t" ) and th e original signal w as
longer than T, an unknow n d is c o n tin u ity can arise at the loop ju n c tio n ,
w h ic h gives rise to spurious com ponents not present in the o rig in a l s ig
nal. A ctually, the m u ltip lica tio n in tim e corresponds to a co n vo lutio n in
frequency w ith th e Fourier tra n s fo rm of the tim e w in d o w , w hich th u s ac
qu ire s the role o f a filte r ch a ra cte ristic. The s o lu tio n is to use o th e r
sm ooth w in d o w fu n c tio n s having zero value and slope at the ends of the
record in order to e lim in a te the d is c o n tin u ity . One com m on choice is the
so-called H a n ning w in d o w (one period of a cosine squared fu n c tio n )
w hose filte r cha ra cte ristic is com pared w ith a fla t w e ig h tin g in F ig .7 .5 . It
is seen that the sidelobes of th e H anning ch a ra cte ristic fall o ff m uch
m ore rapidly, and th u s the overall characteristic is better, even th o u g h
th e bandw idth is increased by 50% .
165
Fig. 7.5. Comparison o f F lat and H a n n in g w in d o w fu n c tio n s
(c) Picket fence effect, re s u ltin g from the discre te sam pling of th e spectrum
in the frequ ency dom ain. It is as though th e spectrum is vie w e d through
the slits in a picket fence, and thus for exam ple peak values are not ne
cessarily seen. The possible erro r resulting fro m th is depends on the over
lapping of adjacent filte r characteristics as s h o w n in F ig.7 .6 , and is not a
unique fe a tu re of FFT analysis. It occurs w henever discrete filte rs are
used such as in typical 1/3 -o c ta v e analysis. It is eased by having a grea
ter overlap of adjacent filte rs , and w ith H a n n in g w e ig h tin g fo r example, it
is a m axim um of 1,4 dB (com pared w ith 3 ,9 dB for fla t w e ig h tin g ). The e r
ror can be com pensated fo r w h e re it is k n o w n that there is only one fre
quency com ponent w h ic h fa lls between tw o spectral lines (e.g. w ith a cal
ibration signal). One special case of the picket fence e ffect is w here the
spectrum sam ples fall at th e zeros betw een th e sidelobes m entioned in
(b), and th e tim e w in d o w e ffe ct becomes invisible (Fig.7.7). This corre
sponds w ith an exact in te g e r num ber of periods in the record length T,
but seldom occurs in practice because th e frequencies in question must
166
a) Flat w in d o w :
i k A m p litu d e Power
mm. fWVW\
0 dB to
- 3 , 9 dB
0 1 2 3 4 5 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 rT
b) H an n in g w in do w :
^ A m p litu d e k Pow er
0 dB to
- 1 , 4 dB
0 1 2 3 4 5 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
800065
167
be accurate to 1 in 1 0 6 or so. W ith an integer num ber o f periods in the
record length, of course, a periodic re p e titio n does not give any d isco n ti
nuity, and th is is an o th e r explanation of th e lack of sidelobes.
A t th is stage it can be seen th a t the FFT process gives very d iffe re n t results
to digital filte rin g . The u n ifo rm spacing (A f or 1/ T ) of th e spectral lines
means th a t th e frequency scale is in trin s ic a lly linear. A lso, th e filte r charac
te ristic is th e same for all lin e s and is th u s con sta n t b a n d w id th . A nother m a
jor differe nce is that a com plete tim e record (of N samples) m u st firs t be c o l
lected before it can be tra n sfo rm e d , w h e re a s w ith digital filte rin g each sam
ple is processed fu lly before th e next one arrives, and the tim e signal does
not need to be stored.
* T h e S h a p e F a c t o r o f a f ilt e r is t h e r a t io o f t h e w id t h o f t h e c h a r a c t e r is t ic a t 6 0 d B to t h a t a t
3 d B ( its 3 d B b a n d w id th ).
168
scale w ould often be most appropriate. S om etim es it is necessary fo r p ra cti
cal reasons to choose c o n sta n t bandw idth in order to achieve a su ffic ie n tly
sm all percentage bandw idth in part of th e spectrum , since 1% is about the
m in im u m co nstant percentage bandw idth a va ila b le in practice and 6% ( 1 /1 2 -
octave) the usual m inim um fo r digital filte rs .
169
Bruel & Kjaer
>. of Spectre: _ 2 _
F re q ue ncy (Hz)
170
tory. A logarithm ic fre q u e n c y scale m ay, however, o cca sio na lly be chosen in
co n ju nctio n w ith c o n s ta n t bandwidth (though over a lim ite d frequency range)
in order to dem onstrate a relationship w h ic h is linear on log-log scales (e.g.
conversions between acceleration, v e lo c ity and d isplacem ent, see F ig.6 .1 ).
7 .2 . S ER IA L A N A L Y S IS OF S T A T IO N A R Y SIG NALS
2. D eterm inistic S ign a l (p e rio d ic o r quasi-periodic): R ea d T 0 based on filte r response tim e fro m appropriate lin e fo r B T D = 4 (or 2 where
bandwidth < 1%). Read also m in im um averagin g tim e T A based on 1/4 d B r ip p le fr o m lin e f T A = 3 (in depen den t o f bandw idth).
In all cases w h ere sweep speed is governed b y filt e r response tim e, increase T A t o th e highest value w h ich does n o t a ffe c t sweep speed,
(i.e. T q /4 fo r D C recording)
Note (1) Averaging tim e s w ill n o rm a lly be con sta n t ov er a t least a h alf decade, whereas filt e r response tim es change a u to m a t ic a lly w ith frequency.
N o te (2) S w ill be in H z /s fo r B in Hz, but w ill be d ire c t ly in m m /s fo r B expressed as e q u iv a le n t recorder paper length in m m .
(3) A b o ve ap p lies t o 100 m m paper w id th . F o r 5 0 m m paper substitute 2W fo r W. 2722t
172
to achieve an acceptable accuracy of th e result. The re la tiv e standard d e v ia
tion of th e error (in RMS values) is given by the form ula.
(7 .5 )
Table 7.1 gives values of e (in dB) fo r various values o f th e product BTA
bta 10 20 30 40 50 80 1 20
e (dB) 1,5 1 ,0 0 ,8 0 ,7 0 ,6 0 ,5 0 ,4
F ig.7.1 0 can be used to select values o f TA for various bandw idths and c e n
tre frequencies for a BTA product of 1 0 . This value of TA can then be m o d i
fied p roportionally fo r o th e r BTA products.
(a) Filter Response T im e This w ill o n ly be the lim ita tio n for d e te rm in is tic
signals w here a sm a ll averaging tim e is required and w h e re the recorder
w ritin g speed does not dom inate. The tim e taken to sweep one b a n d
w id th (Td ) is m ade greater than 4 filte r response tim e s (i.e. BTD S* 4 ) in
order that the fre q u e n c y error (delay) of the recorded spectrum w ill be
less than on e-q uarte r bandw idth.
(b) Averaging Time This w ill only be th e lim ita tio n fo r DC recording and
is th u s not norm a lly th e lim itin g fa c to r w ith portable analyzers.
(c) Recorder W riting Speed This w ill always be th e lim ita tio n for AC re
cording of analyses of random s ig n a ls , and may a lso dom inate over filte r
response tim e for d e te rm in istic (discrete frequency) signals.
173
For analysis w ith a typical portable set having bandw idths 3% and 23%, a
logarithm ic frequ e n cy axis w ith 5 0 mm per decade, and 5 0 m m paper w id th
representing 5 0 dB, the options are m uch m ore lim ited. A ssu m in g , as fo r
m ost m achine vibration sig n a ls, that the lo w e s t frequency com ponents (e.g.
from shaft ro tatio n ) are stable and d e te rm in is tic . Table 7 .2 has been drawn
up to a llow th e selection of both pen w ritin g speed and recorder paper speed
as a fun ction of th e low est fre q u e n cy to be analyzed.
Table 7.2. W ritin g Speed (W ) a n d Paper S peed (PJ vs. m in im u m valid fre
q uency fo r discrete frequency s ig n a ls using P o rta b le Analyzer
Type 3 5 1 3 and L e v e l Recorder Type 2 3 0 6 (AC R ecording)
Table 7.3. W ritin g Speed (W) a n d Paper S p eed (P) vs. m in im u m valid fre
que ncy fo r random signals u sin g Portable A n a lyze r Type 3 5 1 3
a n d Le ve l Recorder Type 2 3 0 6 (AC Recording)
174
It w ill be seen th a t w ith the AC recording assumed, th e m inim um valid fre
quencies fo r random com ponents are re la tive ly high. In order to make valid
analyses at low er frequ e n cie s it w ould be necessary to use the 1 s or 10 s av
eraging tim e of the V ib ra tio n M eter Type 2511 and DC recording. Note th a t
in th is case the dynam ic range is lim ite d to 4 0 dB. S w eep speeds can be d e
te rm in e d using the general procedure o f F ig .7 .1 0 , w ith th e m odification th a t
d w ell tim e T0 can be made equal to TA (instead of 2TA ) taking into account
the filte r characteristic o f the portable equipm ent.
7 .3 . R E A L-TIM E A N A L Y S IS OF S T A T IO N A R Y A N D T R A N S IE N T S IG
NALS
* In f r e q u e n c y a n a ly s is , r e a l- t im e o p e ra tio n m e a n s t h a t th e e n t ir e in p u t s ig n a l is a n a ly z e d , in a ll
fr e q u e n c y b a n d s (of in t e r e s t ) a ll of th e tim e , e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e m a y b e a t im e d e la y b e t w e e n in
p u t a n d o u tp u t.
175
Fig. 7. 11. In te r-h a rm o n ic com ponents re s u ltin g fro m in s u ffic ie n tly tig h t a s
sem bly o f jo u rn a l b e a rin g com ponents
A typical FFT analyzer has a tra n sfo rm size (N in Eqn. (7.3)) o f 1 0 2 4 data
sam ples, and in theory gives 1 0 2 4 fre q u e n cy values. H ow ever, since the
data values are real, the second h a lf of th e calculated spectrum (representing
th e negative frequencies less th a n the N yquist frequency* because of the im
p licit p e riodicity of the sp e ctru m ) is d eterm ined by the firs t h a lf (the corre
sponding positive frequencies). For th is reason, only the 5 1 2 positive fre
* H a lf t h e s a m p lin g fr e q u e n c y .
176
quency values are ca lcula ted , a lthough because each fre q u e n c y com ponent is
com plex, th is represents the same a m o u n t of data (and occupies th e same
m em ory space) as th e o rig in a l 1 0 2 4 real-valued tim e sam ples. Not all o f the
5 1 2 values can be used; to e lim in a te th e problem of a lia s in g (Section 7 .1 .3 )
a low -pass filte r is applied w ith a c u t-o ff frequency less th a n the N yquist fre
quency to a llo w for its fin ite slope. For the B & K analyzers it is ty p ic a l to
place th e filte r c u t-o ff so th a t the firs t 4 0 0 lines are v a lid , and are displayed,
w h ile th e last 11 2 lin e s are affected by th e filte r and are not operated on fu r
th e r (w hen the com plex spectrum is converted to a p o w e r spectrum etc.).
Thus, B = Af = (7 .6 )
From Eqn. (7.6) it can be seen th a t each spectrum ca lcu la ted by an FFT a n a l
yzer has a BT product of 1. Even w h e re for example H a n n in g w e ig h tin g is
used, and the ba ndw idth is increased by 50%
15
i.e. B = 1,5 A f = - y (7 .7 )
T = _ L = 4 0 0 (7 .8 )
Af f,f.S.
177
Station ary D e te rm in istic Signal
a )"In s ta n ta n e o u s " Spectrum (B T = 1
300 500
Frequency (Hz) 800076
300
Frequency (Hz)
800077
178
(w ith BT product = 1) should fu lly describe all stable, discrete fre q u e n cy co m
ponents. In practice, an average over, say, 8 spectra w o u ld norm ally be used
to average out m in o r flu ctu a tio n s. F ig .7 .1 2 illu s tra te s a typical case, w h e re
the "in sta n ta n e o u s spectrum gives v irtu a lly the sam e result as an average
over 8 spectra for th e discrete h a rm o n ic com ponents, b u t the averaged spec
tru m has smoothed o u t the low level noise (presum ably coming from tape re
cording) at around 6 0 dB.
179
S ta tio n a ry Random Signal
180
m achine speed and load re m a in constant. T he same applies to stationary ra n
dom signals such as arise fro m flu id flo w (tu rb u le nce , c a vita tio n ) provided the
physical co n d ition s rem ain constant. The v ib ra tio n signals fro m slow-speed ro
tating and reciprocating m achines have a n o th e r character, however. Even
though th e y may be considered stationary over tim e periods including several
m achine cycles, the signal w ith in each cycle may be quite non-stationary, o f
ten consisting of a series o f d iffe re n t im p u lsive events.
181
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- ---------------------------------------- 800068
quency (5 0 th harm onic) w e ll w ith in its range. The sideband spacing w ould be
equal to the shaft speed, and th u s h a rm o n ics 4 9 and 51 w o u ld represent
m odulation by th is frequency, 4 8 and 5 2 m odulation by th e 2nd harm onic
and so on. In a 4 0 0 -lin e spectrum , the sidebands w ould be separated by 5
lines and th is should be adequate to id e n tify them . If it w e re desired to in
clude h igh er harm onics of th e to o th m e sh in g frequency, h ow ever, or gears
w ith larger num bers of te e th , it can be seen that the 4 0 0 -lin e resolution
w o u ld not be adequate. A zoom factor o f 1 0 on the o th e r hand, gives th e
e q uivalent resolution of a 4 0 0 0 line sp e ctru m , and w ould th u s cover the vast
m a jo rity of practical cases. There is a lim it in the other d ire c tio n as to h o w
m uch zoom is practicable, since for a 4 0 0 0 -lin e spectrum to be useful the fr e
quencies involved m ust be stable to 1 in 4 0 0 0 .
182
Range of zoomed
spectrum (b)
Gearbox
Before Repair
a) Baseband Spectrum
b) Zoom ed Spectrum
Gearbox
Before Repai
183
pinion speed) is also now apparent. On the o th e r hand, because o f speed flu c
tuations, the m a jo r peaks have spread over a num ber of lin e s , and thus a
higher zoom fa c to r w ould not give any benefit.
184
Fig. 7. 16 BTa prod uct vs. ave ra g in g tim e fo r the D ig ita l F ilte r A n a ly z e r Type
2131
W hen it com es to the analysis of shocks and tra n sie n ts (single impulses) it
is no longer so clear w h e th e r constant b a n d w id th (FFT) or co n s ta n t percen
tage bandw idth (digital filte rs) is preferable. It depends partly on th e propert
ies of the signal itself, and p a rtly on the application to w h ich th e results w ill
be applied. Table 7 5 com pares th e main fe a tu re s of the tw o approaches.
1 85
Bruel & Kjasr
186
pendent of the analysis param eters (for example ch a n g in g to frequency range
10 kHz w ould give th e same results fo r the frequencies up to 10 kHz). Since
as m entioned previously, the FFT c a lc u la tio n assumes th e signal to be a p e ri
odic repetition of the m em ory c o n te n ts, th e resulting p o w e r spectrum values
(obtained as described in Section 7 .3 .1 fo r sta tio n a ry random signals) m ust
be m u ltip lie d by the record length T (Table 7.4) to co n ve rt them to energy
(contained in one record length). F in a lly, th e values o f energy (per b a n d w id th )
m ust be divided by th e bandw idth (Eqn. (7.6)) to co n ve rt them to energy spec
tra l density. In th is case the conversion w ould a lw ays be valid; provided the
tra n s ie n t fits into record length T, its o w n in trin sic b a n d w id th must a lw a y s be
> //r.
(1) Zoom FFT. Using zoom (and fla t w e ig h tin g ) it is possible to o b ta in the
com plete 4 0 0 0 -lin e spectrum o f th e 1 0 K tra n s ie n t in 10 passes, each
tim e calculating 4 0 0 lines (F ig .7 .1 9 a). The 10 tim e s sm aller b a n d w id th
187
(for the sam e fu ll-sca le fre q u e n cy) must be ta ke n into account w h e n con
verting to ESD, and in c id e n ta lly results in a 1 0 dB loss of d yn a m ic range.
188
800071
For the na rro w -b a n d filte r, TR 7, and the filte r o u tp u t resem bles its im
pulse response. For th e broad-band filte r, TR T, and the filte r o u tp u t con
sists of tw o s h o rt bursts of le n g th ~ TR and separated by T T hus, the
averaging tim e m u st everyw here be given by
189
Fig. 7.21. Passage o f a tra n s ie n t through filte r, squarer and a ve ra g e r
190
W here 1/3 -o c ta v e analysis is to be carried o u t in real-tim e on random ly oc
curring im pulses it is possible to use e xp o n e n tia l averaging fo llo w e d by
"M a x. H old", b u t there is no w the added co m p lica tio n th a t th e averager
"le a k s " energy at a (max.) rate of 8 ,7 dB per averaging tim e, and th u s the to
tal im pulse leng th m ust be s h o rt w ith respect to TA . If the ratio TA /T E > 10
w he re TE is th e effective total length of the filte r ou tp u t signal, th e detector
output resem bles its im pulse response and th e error w ill be < 0 ,5 d B
(e in Fig.7.21 ). For th is purpose, TE can be o b tained from
Te = T , + Tr (7.10)
191
T his means that even w h e re TR T t , TA m ust alw ays be such th a t TA > 1 0 T r
or in oth e r w ords BTA > 1 0 . The fre q u e n cie s for w h ic h th is applies can be ob
ta in e d from Fig.7.1 6 as fo r stationary random signals.
7 .4 . A N A L Y S IS OF N O N -S T A T IO N A R Y S IG N A LS
192
(a) A nalysis along a single record, such as a m a ch in e run-up or ru n -d o w n .
(b) Cyclic signals, such as obtained from low -speed reciprocating machines,
w h ere th e signal w ith in each cycle co n sists of a series o f impulsive
events, but w h e re the results fo r each w in d o w position can be averaged
over a nu m ber of sim ila r cycles. (Fig.7.1 4).
M any considera tion s are com m on to both cases, since case (a) can be con
sidered a special case of (b) w ith an average over one cycle o n ly. Conse
quently, it is p rim a rily case (b) w h ic h w ill be discussed in d e ta il, though any
special considerations applicable to case (a) w ill be discussed w h e re appropri-
193
Gauss Impulse Digital Frequency Level Recorder
M u ltip lie r A n a lyze r 2307
5623 2131
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 790429
7 .4 .2 . E xam ple
In order to illu stra te th e general procedure, the exam ple w ill be taken of v i
bration signals (velocity) measured on th e cylinder head of a 4 -c y lin d e r, 4-
stroke diesel engine ru n n in g at 1 5 0 0 r.p .m . (7 5 0 cpm or 8 0 ms cycle tim e).
The m easurem ent and recording system w e re linear up to 10 kHz, but th e s ig
nals contained in fo rm a tio n up to 2 0 kHz. The s ig n a ls w ere recorded at
1 5 i.p.s. on an FM recorder, in p a rallel w ith a once-per-cycle tacho signal ob
tained w ith a p h o to -e le ctric pickup fro m the ca m sh a ft. The analyses w e re
made w ith the FFT analyzer Type 2 0 3 1 .
194
length 4 ms w ith H anning w eighting). T his could not be achieved d ire c tly , as
the shorte st w in d o w length available (in 2 0 kHz range) is 2 0 ms (Table 7 .4 ),
but by slow ing dow n th e tape recorder 10:1 on playback it was possible to
achieve the desired param eters in th e 5 kHz range ( T = 8 0 ms). This m eant
th a t th e effective fu ll-s c a le frequency w a s now 5 0 kHz, but only the firs t 1 6 0
lines ( < 2 0 kHz) w ere u tilise d in d isp la yin g the results. The total cycle tim e of
8 0 m s could be covered by varying the "R e co rd s-A fte r-T rig g e r" s e ttin g
(Fig.7 .1 4 ) between 0 ,0 and 9,8 m em ory lengths w ith increm ents of 0 ,2 (i.e.
e ffe ctive ly 1,6 ms steps or 40% of th e h a lf-a m p litu d e length). An average
over 6 4 cycles w as fo u n d to be necessary, partly because of a slight " jit t e r "
of th e tacho pulses w h ic h could have been e lim in a te d by a more elaborate
set-up.
195
plot them on a digital plotter. The results as p lotted have a lin e a r frequency
scale, but th e calculator could be used to c o n ve rt them to c o n sta n t percen
tage ba ndw idth on a logarithm ic frequency scale.
7 .5 . B IB LIO G R A P H Y
196
8. VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS FOR M ACHINE
HEALTH MONITORING
8 .1 . BASIC C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
As long as th e process is co n sta n t or only varying w ith in certain lim its the
vibration m easured w ill be p ra ctica lly constant. Furtherm ore, it is fo u n d for
m ost m achines th a t the vib ra tio n frequency sp e ctru m has a ch a ra cte ristic
shape w hen th e m achine is in good condition. W h e n faults begin to develop
in the m achine some of the d ynam ic processes in th e machine are changed
and some of th e forces acting on parts - or the m echanical pro p e rties of the
parts them selves - are changed, thereby in flu e n c in g the vibration spectrum .
This is the basis for using vib ra tio n m easurem ents and analysis in machine
health m on itoring.
8 .2 . THE R E L A T IO N S H IP FORCE - V IB R A T IO N
197
Force
Level
^ V ib ./ F o rc e k V ib. Level
Ay^ v/ N
Frequency
w F re q ue ncy
A A
Freq uency
For the relative m o tio n of the ro to r journal in its bearing, the m o b ility is
dom inated by the oil film properties, w hereas for th e absolute bearing hous
ing vibration the m o b ility is made up of com ponents from both oil film and
bearing support m o b ilitie s . The m o b ility can change considerably fro m m a
chin e to machine so it is often recom m ended that one measures it in o rder to
co rrelate the actual vib ra tio n level w ith th e internal forces.
In a journal bearing the forces are tra n sm itte d through an oil wedge
pum ped in by the h igh relative speed of the jo u rn a l to the bearing sh e ll. As
th e m ob ility of the oil film is n o rm a lly rather high, it is possible to get a good
198
m easurem ent of the re la tiv e vibration b e tw e e n journal and bearing: the so-
called S haft V ibration. Due to the lim ita tio n s in dynam ic range of relative d is
placem ent transducers (ty p ic a lly 100:1) o n e seldom o b ta in s m uch in fo rm a
tion above 3 x the run nin g speed, but fo r phenom ena m a n ife s tin g them selves
w ith in th a t range relative displacem ent m easurem ents are fin d in g a w id e
spread use (see B ibliography VDI 2 0 5 9 , API 6 7 0 ). See F ig.8 .3 .
Note th a t any vibratory fo rce s not a c tu a lly being absorbed in exciting the ro
to r m ust be transm itted to th e bearing h o u sin g . Should bearing loading be in
creased, th e oil film gets th in n e r (and s tiffe r) so that the re la tive vibration dec
reases. The decreased ro to r motion m e a n s th a t more fo rce is tra n sm itte d to
the bearing housing, w h o s e vibration th u s increases (as o ve ra ll m obility, d o m
inated by bearing supp o rts, remains p ra c tic a lly constant). A s higher loading
199
____ ________________________ _____________________ ______________________________________ ______________________________________________________7 9 1 0 2 9
F g. 8 .4 . R olling e le m e n t bearing
In a ro llin g elem ent bearing the oil film is extrem ely th in as there is no re la
tive ve locity between th e surfaces at th e points of contact. The rolling e le
m ents are s tiff so the in n e r m obility and o u te r m obility are v irtu a lly the sam e.
Relative vibration betw een shaft and h o u sing is usually negligible even fo r
large vib ra tio n forces, so here the bearing housing vib ra tio n is quite d o m i
nant. A ccelerom eters w ill clearly give th e largest dyn a m ic range and fr e
quency range (Fig.8.3):
8 .3 . F R E Q U E N C Y R A N G E - D Y N A M IC R A N G E - P A R A M E T E R S
The vib ra tio n level of m ost machines u su a lly varies w ith frequency. The
range in w h ic h the in stru m e n ta tio n m ust be able to present th e values w ith
an acceptable accuracy (the dynam ic range) m ust include all values w ith in
the freque ncy range (Fig.8 .5 ).
200
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 791030
It is not enough th a t only the h ighest peaks are measured, fo r som e of the
im portant indicators may have a lo w level. For exam ple, the force signal from
th e blade-passing frequency in a tu rb in e has to be transm itted th ro u g h the
heavy rotor, th ro u g h the bearing and bearing housing to the accelerom eter
and in this tra n sm issio n the signal is attenuated by a large factor. However,
should the forces acting in th is area double, the a ttenuation re m a in s largely
th e same and th e measured v ib ra tio n doubles. T h is change by a given factor
represents a change by a corresponding num ber o f decibels (e.g. a doubling
w o u ld give 6d B ) and this is one o f the reasons w h y a logarithm ic am plitude
(or decibel) axis should always be used when representing vibration levels for
m achine m o n ito rin g . This is also reflected in th e fa c t that all com m on vibra
tio n criteria are expressed on lo g a rith m ic am plitude axes, meaning th a t equal
changes in vib ra tio n severity represent changes by a certain num ber o f dB.
791031
201
d raw n through the bottom of each spectrum it can be seen that th e relative
h eights of the peaks are the sam e. If th e vibration fo rce at any fre q u e n c y dou
bles th e n the m agnitude of the v ib ra tio n component doubles, in both param e
te rs, so both are useable for m a intenance purposes. However, P aram eter I
happens to give a ho rizo n ta lly a ligned spectrum w h e re b y the dyn a m ic range
requirem ents become th e sm allest. T his is therefore called the "B e s t Param e
te r " fo r such m easurem ents.
It can be fu rth e r noted that no sin g le com ponent in the spectrum o f Par
am eter I needs to increase by m ore than Range I to give a m easurable
change in the overall vibration level. For Parameter II the change o f some
com ponents must be equal to th e m uch larger Range II. Therefore if one a t
tem pts to use overall vibration levels for indication of m achine co n d ition ,
rath er than frequency analysis, it is imperative th a t one uses th e B est Par
am eter for such m easurem ents.
For m any m achines th e Best P aram eter is velocity and this is one reason
w h y m any standards (e.g. VDI 2 0 5 6 ) specify th is param eter. S tandards such
as VDI 2 0 5 9 relying on relative d isplacem ent m e asurem ent put m ain em p h a
sis on unbalance and m isa lig n m e n t and are forced to disregard large parts of
th e spectrum .
202
fore m aintenance is necessary. W ith o u t th is periodic spectrum analysis the
prediction capability is se rio u sly impaired.
a) Lin. b) Log.
10 0 a
i
10x
11
10
10x
}'
1 ;
10x
10x
' i
30 10x
it
f
10 10x
i
io x ! f |
1 .n n m
1 A ll lower values
T 791033
F ig.8 .8 illu stra te s an in s tru m e n t having a scale w ith an accuracy and reso
lutio n of 1% of Full Scale, so th a t there are 1 0 0 know n d iffe re n t values possi
ble. Fig.8 .8 .(a) gives a lin e a r presentation 0 - 100% of Full S cale. Accepting
a m axim um error in the re s u lts of 10% of the reading, the scale can be used
dow n to 10% of fu ll scale as 1 step in 10 gives 10% accuracy. This means
th a t a dynam ic range of 10:1 (2 0 dB) is covered on th is scale. V ery often th is
is not enough to cover the vib ra tio n spectrum of a m achine even if the Best
Parameter is used. A no th e r po in t is that con sta n t factor changes give d iffe r
ent deflection in different pa rts of the scale. A fa cto r 10 is 9 0 steps in the up
per end and less than 1 step in the low er end.
A ssum ing th e same in s tru m e n t but letting each of the 1 0 0 steps represent
an 11 % (1 dB) change from th e previous step (Fig .8 .8 (b)), th e n 2 0 steps dow n
gives a fa cto r 10, 20 more an o th e r factor 10, and so on. The 1 0 0 steps w ill
in this w ay cover a range of 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 :1 (1 0 0 d B ) w ith the desired accuracy.
This dynam ic range ensures th a t all parts of th e spectrum are w ith in range,
and it can be seen that c o n sta n t factors represent a constant nu m b e r of steps
203
on th e scale. This g re a tly eases the w o rk of the m ain te n a n ce engineer as he
can q uickly locate th e com ponents w ith th e highest changes in force levels
even if th e m obility involved is very sm all.
8 .4 . USE OF V IB R A T IO N M E A S U R E M E N T S FOR M A IN T E N A N C E
8 .4 .1 . M aintenance System s
A. R un-to-B reak M a in te n a n c e
In in dustries ru n n in g m any inexpensive machines and having all im p o rta n t
processes duplicated, m achines are u s u a lly run u n til th e y break dow n. Loss
of production is in s ig n ific a n t and the spare m achines can take over in th e us-
uallly b rie f repair period. There is little advantage in k n o w in g when m achines
w ill break dow n, so vib ra tio n m easurem ents are ju s t used to check th e q u a l
ity of the repair.
In some industries (e.g. chemical plants) the product o fte n has such a high
value th a t there is a tendency to som etim es let even large unduplicated m a
chines run to break. In th is case it is valuable to k n o w w h a t is going w ro n g
and w h e n the fin a l breakdow n can be expected. This in fo rm a tio n can be ob
tained by analyzing spectrum trends fro m regular m easurem ents. H ow ever,
the consequential dam age resulting fro m such breakdow ns often greatly in
creases both the cost of repair and th e production loss du rin g the extended
sh u t-d o w n period. U sing th e condition m onitoring te ch n iq u e s described in
Section 8.4 .1 .C these extra costs can be considerably reduced, w h ile the p e ri
ods betw een shutd o w n s can still be kept to the m axim um .
204
statistically as the period in w h ic h no more th a n 2% of the m achines w ill fa il
from being in new or fu lly serviced condition. By having 98% of th e m achines
statistically surviving the m aintenance periods, the m achines are believed to
have been "p re ven ted fro m fa ilu re .
8 .4 .2 . M aintenance S taff
W hen vib ra tio n m easurem ents are introduced into a m aintenance system it
is most com m on to use personnel already in th e system. This is possible be
cause the skills required are easily learned and developed fro m experience,
and good in stru ctio n m aterial is available.
Two types of personnel are usually em ployed. One is the ope ra to r w h o w ill
perform th e actual m easurem ents fo llo w in g a fixed m easurem ent procedure.
In a fu lly developed scheme he has only to record the vibration signals w ith
preset in stru m e n ts and tu rn over the data in th e form of taped signals or
graphs of spectra to the m ain te n a n ce engineer at the end of th e day for later
analysis or evaluation. The m aintenance e n g ine e r is responsible fo r preparing
205
the m easurem ent procedure and often p e rfo rm s analysis and evaluation h im
self, p a rticu la rly during th e developm ent period.
Looking over the in s tru m e n t systems in use today w e fin d that they can be
grouped in 3 classes:
G e n e ra l Purpose
V ib ra tio n Meter
2511
A cce lero m e te r
F r l?
.. ' *
r
8 0 0 434
206
General Purpose
V ib ra tio n Meter
2511
Accelerom eter h r
p ..
j_
N arrow Band Spectrum
A n a ly ze r 2031
c
Accelerom eter
EsE t
1
Accelerom eter
u >Ov W
Level Recorder
P ortable V ib ra tio n A n a lyze r
23 06
3513
Class I: means fu ll analysis and com parison w ith reference spectra each
tim e . This gives fu ll in fo rm a tio n on th e condition of a m achine to g e th e r w ith
the best predictive capability. The cost per m easurem ent need not be higher
than for the other classes thanks to the new e ffic ie n t in stru m e n ta tio n avail
able today. N arrow band analyzers able to provide a hard copy of measured
spectra are found in tw o versions. One is a portable battery operated serial
analyzer w ith all fa cilitie s, w h ic h plots out a vibration spectrum in any par
am eter (acceleration, velocity, displacem ent) on the spot fo r each measuring
point (Fig 8.1 1). Com parisons may be done vis u a lly using a tra n sp a re n t re fe r
ence spectrum .
W hen large num bers of m achines are to be m onitored the operator uses a
tape recorder to record a sh o rt sam ple of the vib ra tio n signal at each m easur
ing point. Typically, 4 sam ples can be recorded in less than a m in u te . The
207
Accelerom eter
l<H f 'NI %
a .. >
1
P ortable V ib ra tio n A n a ly z e r Level Recorder
3513 2306
Tape Recorder
A ccelerom eters Charge A m p lifie rs 70 03
4369 26 35
This approach b e n e fits from the speed and s o p h isticatio n of laboratory type
in s tru m e n ts, gives im proved detection and diagnosis, and reduces th e cost
per m easurem ent.
T he m easurem ents described u n til n o w have all been periodic. The usual
m ean operating tim e betw een fa ilu re s dictates the m easurem ent intervals. A t
least 6 m easurem ents should be planned fo r th is period to give reasonable
prediction capabilities.
8 .4 .4 . Permanent M onitoring
208
In the basic system , a single vibration m o n ito r co n tin u o u s ly measures th e
best param eter in a sin g le frequency range or a parallel set of 3 frequency
bands. If lim its are exceeded alarm relays can activate sh u td o w n , or give a
w a rn in g indication (Figs.8.1 3 and 8 .14).
The continuo us m e asurem ent w ill u s u a lly begin to s h o w high levels hours
M o n ito r
rH
D ata Cable
Q *
---- Recorder O utp uts
5674
Ju n ctio n B ox 2505
791037
209
J u n c tio n Box
A ccelerom eter
Accelerom eter
5674
i t~ i
~
Accelerom eter
Narrow Band Spectrum
A n a ly z e r 2031
X Y Recorder
2308
Accelerom eter
5674
=
Ju n c tio n Box
8 .4 .5 . C ost Effectiveness
Equipm ent for vibration m easurem ent sh o u ld only be bought if it can be ex-
210
pected to yield a clear p ro fit, so th e question o fte n arises as to h o w th e econ
om ic gain can be assessed.
The savings arise m ainly fro m th e higher a v a ila b ility fa cto r o f the ma
chines, giving fe w e r production losses.
8 .5 . B IB LIO G R A PH Y
NEALE, M .J. & "A G uide to the C ondition M o n ito rin g o f M a ch in e ry".
Associates: H M SO , London, 1 9 7 9
211
9. ACOUSTIC EMISSION
9 .1 . IN T R O D U C T IO N
9 .2 . D E F IN IT IO N
AE (som etim es called Stress W ave E m ission SWE) can be defined as:
A lth o u g h this d e fin itio n includes m any kinds of w aves, (e.g. earthquakes and
21 2
m icroseism ic phenomena) A E-system s are designed to handle only a sm all
part of the fu ll spectrum . M echanical shocks and clicks are not included, a l
though A E -system s are used in some cases to detect loose parts in m icroelec
tronic devices.
9 .3 . AE S O U R C E S
The energy released by a single dislo ca tio n m ovem ent (displacem ent of a
particula r type of line im perfection th ro u g h the crystal lattice) is norm ally too
sm all to be detected by AE equipm ent. H ow ever, many d islocations often co m
bine to fo rm an avalanche of m ovem ents giving rise to a co n tin u o u s A E-sig-
nal w h ic h can be detected. A typical phase tra n sfo rm a tio n source is m arten-
213
site fo rm a tio n in carbon steel; a single b u rs t signal can be detected for every
grain transform ed.
9 .4 . P R O P A G A T IO N
It can be seen that the dispersion re la tio n sh ip s are com plicated, making it
d iffic u lt to predict the exact group velocity involved. F u rth e rm o re , dispersion
changes the w aveform w h ic h introduces am b ig u itie s w h e n tim e differences
have to be m easured fo r localization.
214
770 555
9 .5 . AE T R A N S D U C E R P R IN C IP L E S A N D C A L IB R A T IO N
W hen the em itted stress waves reach the tra n sd u ce r position via a propaga
tio n path as show n in Fig.9.3 (a to e) the s tre ss-stra in condition is converted
in to an electrical signal w hich can be treated by e le c tro n ic means.
Piezoelectric (PZ) transducers are by far the m o st w idely used. They are
m ostly undam ped, having very hig h se nsitivities at resonance. A sim p le pie
zoelectric disc w ith electrodes m o u n te d on its faces, perpendicular to th e pola
rization direction is often used fo r AE and ultrasonic transducers. For a plane
in fin ite disc adjo ining a stru ctu re and coupling (dam ping) m a te ria l, th e re
sponse to an incom ing plane w a ve w ith normal incidence can be calculated.
It m ust be stressed th a t this is a typ ica l situation fo r ultrasonic applications,
but n o t for AE signals w hich are in most cases m a in ly surface w a ve s, (Ray
leigh or Lamb).
215
Fig. 9 .3 . Propagation o f a stress wave in a specimen
216
give any o u tp u t as seen fro m the sym m etric deform ation s h o w n in the fig u re ,
w hereas a w ave corresponding to h / 2 = 9 m m , (f = 1 6 7 kHz) w ill couple
strongly.
To overcom e this problem th e disc can be made small; h o w e ver the capacit
ance of th e disc is then reduced considerably resulting in a m uch lower s e n s i
tiv ity w h e n loaded w ith e xte rn a l capacitances from cable etc. If a large w e a r
plate is used fo r coupling to the structure, it is d iffic u lt to e n su re coupling at
the point opposite the piezoelectric disc. If a sm all plate is used tiltin g may be
come a problem .
The tra nsd uce r co n stru ctio n shown in F ig .9 .5 (a) overcom es these p ro b
lems and therefore can be used over a broad range of frequencies. The in te
gral p re a m p lifie r ensures a small ca p a citive loading, th e mem brane suspen
sion gives an appropriate coupling force and the slig h tly spherical w ear plate
ensures adequate co u p lin g regardless o f tiltin g . This transducer, to g e th e r
w ith tw o others, w hich are of the sim ple resonance type and intended to de-
217
teet AE over a narrow fre q u e n cy band aro u n d th e ir resonance, are show n in
the photograph in Fig.9 .5 (b).
If these "s o u rc e s " have a su ffic ie n tly broad frequency sp e ctru m and if th e
tra n s m ittin g structure p e rm its tra n sm issio n o f the w hole spectrum w ith o u t
d isto rtio n , th e y may be used fo r se n sitivity com parison and re la tive frequency
response determ in atio n of AE transducers. If an absolute ca lib ra tio n is d e
sired a detailed know ledge o f th e source and stru ctu re is necessary.
F ig.9 .6 show s the se t-u p used for th e reciprocity c a lib ra tio n . A w arbled
tone signal is applied to a tra n s m ittin g tra n sd u ce r w hich e xcites Rayleigh
waves in the m edium . These surface w aves are detected by the receiving
tra nsd uce r norm ally positioned 2 0 0 mm fro m th e tra n sm itte r. The output sig-
218
Fig. 9 .6 . S e t-u p fo r R eciprocity C alibration
219
9 .6 . S IG N A L A M P L IF IC A T IO N
9 AE Preamplifier %
Type 2637
9 .7 . D A T A A N A L Y S IS A N D P R E S E N T A T IO N
2 20
7 9 10 9 6
221
M ethods of A E pulse assesment
4429 " 4-ch m ode
1 2 3 4 5
79 10 2 0
A lin e a rity comparison betw een actual pulse area and th e analyzer " c o u n t"
is show n in F ig.9 1 3. The curves are typ ic a l and may depend upon the shape
222
A rea under A E Curve ( d B ) ----- 780722
of the AE signal. For the AE pulse analyzed the rin g -d o w n count m ethod (d)
is approxim ately linear over a 1 5 dB range and th e one-threshold tim e-based
m ethod (c), over a 2 0 dB range. By using 4 th re s h o ld s (b), the lin e a rity range
of the tim e-based method can be im proved to 3 0 dB.
The tra n sie n t recorder is useful w hen single pulses have to be analysed.
The stored signal can be played back at d iffe re n t rates either to an oscillo
scope, or a level recorder and it can be fre q u e n cy analysed. D ynam ic range
and memory size are lim ite d (e g 8 bits re s o lu tio n ~ 48 dB and 1 - 2 K
words).
A peak detector w ith a sh o rt rise tim e (0 ,5 ps) and a com paratively slow de
cay tim e p e rm its interco n n e ctio n w ith level recorders and sim ila r equipm ent.
In th is way a level recorder can give a tim e p ictu re of the peaks o f AE activity
w h ic h is useful to assess tre n d s. The c o n d itio n in g a m p lifie r show n in Fig.9.9
is equipped w ith a suitable peak detector. An exam ple of an AE a c tiv ity ver
sus tim e plot m ade using th is set-up is show n in th e upper half of F ig .9 .1 8 .
223
d iffe re n t am plitude w in d o w s. A loudspeaker connected via the peak detector
co nve rts the AE b u rsts to audible "c ra c k s ".
9 .8 . A C O U S T IC E M IS S IO N S O U R C E LOCATIO N
224
9 .9 . FIELDS OF A P P L IC A T IO N
The study of plastic deform ation and crack form ation and extension are tw o
of th e freque ntly reported application areas of AE m easurem ent. F ig .9 .1 5
show s sketches of tw o typical results fro m plastic d e fo rm a tio n of test pieces.
225
Fig. 9 .1 6 . Im p u lse Rate as a fu n c tio n o f lo a d cycles for a fa tig u e test on a
n o tch e d specimen
used, the unique detection and localization capabilities of AE m o n ito rin g are
generally recognized.
M ethods and in stru m e n ta tio n developed fo r AE can also be used for other
applications. Faults in bearings, w h ich often cause expensive breakdow ns in
industry, re su lt in m echanical noise dependent on the type o f fa u lt and may
be detected on the outside of th e bearings and analysed as AE sig n a ls. Other
examples of related applications are loose p a rticle detection and leak testing.
A list of in d u stria l application areas is show n in Table 9.1.
D uration C ontinuous
Final te st Proof testing
Fabrication m o n ito rin g
W elding Pressure te s tin g of V essels and V essels and
vessels and pipelines p ip e lin e s p ip e lin e s
226
9 .9 .1 . Advantages and Limitations
Some of th e advantages and lim ita tio n s m en tio ne d are sum m arized and
listed in Tables 9 .2 and 9 .3 . On account of the lo w a ttenuation o f AE signals
in the 10 0 kHz range in m e ta llic s tru ctu re s, fla w s may be detected several
m eters from th e transducer. For concrete and m asonry stru c tu re s low fre
quencies should be used or higher a tte n u a tio n has to be accepted.
Table 9 .2 . A dvantages
Some exam ples are given to indicate the a p p lica tio n of AE m easurem ents
and the in te rp re ta tio n of the results.
227
9 .1 0 .1 . Tensile Test on a Brass Specimen
In th e second run th e load was raised fro m 0 until fra c tu re w hich occurred
at about 1 6 kN as com pared to an expected value of 1 7 k N . The specim en
w as q u ie t below the yield point. This phenom enon, th a t the acoustic e m is
sion, once taken out of the m aterial, is not repeated, is com m only know n as
the K aiser effect. Above the yield p o in t th e Kaiser e ffe ct no longer applies.
The level of acoustic em ission is again h igh after the yield point but m oderate
during th e plastic deform ation.
229
F ig.9 .2 0 . Load, peak o utput a n d "w e ig h te d s u m " as a fu n c tio n o f tim e for
c a rb o n -fib re braid
The curves s h o w that w h ile th e tensile load is increased lin e a rly , AE activ
ity increases at an even "e x p o n e n tia l" rate w h ic h reflects the pattern as f i
bres break leaving fe w e r in ta ct fib re s to support an ever increasing load.
2 30
a linear scale w as used in the previous example. It can be seen th a t a c tiv ity
decreases w hen the pressure is kept con sta n t.
231
9 .1 0 .4 . AE Source Location on a Pressure Vessel
The same vessel as used in th e previous exam ple was m o n ito re d by the
eight-channel system shown in F ig .9 .2 2 in an a tte m p t to locate fa u lts during
a proof test. C alculations on AE pulse arrival tim e s were ca rrie d out by a
desk top ca lcu la to r. The calculated AE 's o u rc e s '' are plotted on a folded out
plan of the tw o vessel ends in F ig .9 .2 3 . S ig n ific a n t AE activity w a s found in
the vicinity of a w e lded seam near transducer 5 (T5 ), this enabled fu rth e r e f
fo rts to be concentrated here.
Fig. 9 .2 3 . Locations o f the sources o f em issions on the two ends o f the pres
sure vessel I folded out)
232
tio n , and at the crack tip. To be able to distin g uish between the tw o sources
of acoustic em ission, a theoretical analysis was firs t carried out to determ ine
the relative tim e of arrival at th e transducers, fo r signals o rig in a tin g at any
part of the test piece.
F ig.9 .2 5 (a) show s th e o re tica lly calculated regions w ith diffe re n t band n u m
bers corresponding to the various tim e differences. For practical m easure
m ents a pencil lead w as broken at various locations on the specim en to gen
erate an a rtificia l source and th e tim e differences fo r the signals to arrive at
the tw o transducer positions w e re measured. The results are s h o w n in
F ig,9 .2 5 (b) and are found to be in good agreem ent w ith the th e o re tic a l val
ues. The in stru m e n ta tio n set-up s h o w n in Fig.9 .2 6 w as used to sto re and dis
play the tim e differences.
The te st piece w as then clam ped and loaded above the expected fracture
load. The acoustic em ission w as m easured and fo u n d to be m ostly in channel
num bers 1 3 as show n in Fig 9 .2 7 (a) confirm ing th a t the activity w a s gener
ated at the loading points. To ensure th a t no defo rm a tio n and fric tio n occurred
at the loading points w hen the cla m p w as rem oved, the specimen w a s loaded
once again above the expected fra c tu re load w ith th e clamp on. F ig .9 .2 7 (b)
show s again the acoustic em ission in channels 13 and some in ch a n n e l 9.
The clam p was n o w removed and th e test perform ed by applying a suitable
load. The acoustic em ission m easured is show n in Fig.9 .2 7 (c). It can be
seen th a t most of it lies in ch annel 0 indicating th a t the activity is generated
at the crack tip.
233
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 790456
234
Num ber
o f Signals
-5 0
-1 3 + 13
Channel Number
N um ber
I k o f Signals
-10
D u rin g 2 n<^ Preload
-1 3
l.m .........
+ 13
n
Channel Number
Num ber
j ^ o f Signals
70
60 D urin g Test
50
40
30
20
-10
-1 3 + 13
Channel Number
236
10. VIBRATION A N D SHOCK TESTING
1 0 .1 . V IB R A T IO N TES TIN G
One of the e arliest w orkers to use a system atic fo rm of vib ra tio n testing
w a s W ohler, w h o used special apparatus for his experim ents on th e fatigue
o f m etals over 1 0 0 years ago. H ow ever, most m odern vibration te s tin g te c h
n iques have been developed since th e start of W orld W a r II.
1. Production C ontrol
2. Frequency Response / D ynam ic Performance Testing
3. E nvironm ental Tests
237
se lf. F urtherm ore voltage analogues of frequency and vibration variables and
m echanical para m e te rs can be used readily to p rovide hard copies o f test re
su lts using a n c illa ry recorder or p lo tte r equipm ents.
1 0 .1 .1 . The Exciter
238
M ovin g table Upper
790502
The w ork table o f any exciter should be rigid, such th a t all points move in
phase, and the m oving elem ent m u st be suspended so as to a llo w m otion
along one axis only.
239
Fre q u e n cy Hz 7g0s04
2 Hz 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 20000 50000 100000
Q P 1 1 4 3 Po< R w fla :--------- dB R actjfia r. DC Lower Lim . Frag.: _H i W riting Speed m m /ie c . Paper Soaeri: m m /i* < 7 6 0 5 4 5 /t
Fig. 10.4. Exam ple o f the a cce le ra tio n ch a ra cte ristic o f a p ra c tic a l excite r re
corded as a fu n ctio n o f frequency fo r c o n s ta n t drive voltage
240
tro lle d , the acceleration level available a w ill be lim ite d by the rated fo rce of
th e exciter F (N), th e mass of the te s t object M (kg), and the mass of th e m ov
ing elem ent M e (kg), such that:
F
ms 2 (1 0 .1 )
M + Me
The nom inal force rating for a given exciter design w ill be d ependent on
th e m axim um c u rre n t capability o f th e m oving co il. T h is is seen fro m th e ba
sic relationship
F = [B L ]I (1 0 .2 )
w h e re
F = force in N
B = m agnetic flu x d ensity in air gap in W b m 2
/ = c u rre n t in m oving coil in A
L = length of conductor in air gap in m
Eb a c k = [ B L ] v (1 0 .3 )
w h e re
eB A C K~ back e m -f- across m oving coil in V
v = velocity of conductor in air gap in m s1
The ultim ate low -freq u e n cy p erform ance w ill be lim ite d by the physical d is
placem ent travel available for th e m oving elem ent. It is usual to in c lu d e me
chanical bump stops in th e design to a llo w occasional maximum tra v e l e xcu r
sions w ith o u t perm anent damage.
Since these constrain ts are fu n c tio n s of the m oving elem ent c o n s tru c tio n ,
additional v e rsa tility may be achieved by the p ro visio n of interchangeable
m oving elem ents. In th is w ay th e m oving mass / w o rk table / fle x u re charac
te ris tic s can be optim ised to s u it p a rticu la r re q u ire m e n ts for high accelera
tio n , large te st objects, long stroke, etc. by in te rch a n g in g exciter heads w h ils t
reta in in g the same basic body (F ig .1 0 .5 and 1 0 .6 ). G eneral-purpose vib ra tio n
exciters w ith fixed heads offer com prom ise sp e cifica tion s for perform ance par
am eters, based on th e ir force ratings.
241
Frequency
242
1 0 .1 .3 . The Influences of the Rsonances on the Vibration Signal
F re q u e n cy (Hz)
264479
243
signal is fed to th e exciter the e le ctrica l drive re q u ire d to m aintain a constant
vibration a m p litu d e w ill not be c o n sta n t, but w ill be a function of th e drive fre
quency. This e ffe ct arises because of the in te ra c tio n s between resonances in
the test specim en, and in the excite r itself. It can be dem onstrated by using a
sinusoidal signal of diffe re n t fre q u e n cie s (F ig .1 0 .7 ) or by using a w ide-band
random signal of u n ifo rm power spectral d e n sity (Fig. 10.8). In all fo rm s of v i
bration testing it is im portant to include some m ethod of e n su rin g th a t the
characteristics of th e test signal can be reproduced at the w ork ta b le .
1 0 .1 .4 . Sinusoidal Excitation
Fig. 10.9. Exam ple o f a se rvo -co n tro lle d sw e p t-fre q u e n c y test a rra n g em e n t
244
In such testin g, it is com m on to include an a u to m a tic fre q u e n cy sweep
fa c ility in the control oscillator. T hen th e regulation speed in the co n tro l loop
m ust be greater than the speed w ith w h ich resonances are b u ilt up, fo r any
selected frequency sweep rate.
The upper lim it to the re g ulation speed in an u n filte re d loop is set by its in
te ra ctio n w ith the vibration fre q u e n cy. A t low vib ra tio n frequencies th e com
pressor m ust not react so quickly th a t it attem pts to regulate the in s ta n ta n e
ous m otion of th e test object, since th is tendency d isto rts the e x cita tio n sin u s
oid.
245
very selective filte rin g of the co n tro l signal reduces th e effective regulation
speed and the s ta b ility of the servo loop.
The most co n ve n ie n t vibration sensors for both co n tro l and response meas
urem ent are piezoelectric accelerom eters. This type of device generates an
e lectrical output signal proportional to instantaneous acceleration. If th is sig
nal (suitably am p lifie d by a c o n d ition in g a m p lifie r) is fed to the com pressor,
th e n it is the m ean acceleration level of the te st object w hich is kept con
sta n t. However, th e signal may, if required, be integrated w ith respect to
tim e , using an e le ctro n ic in te g ra to r. One stage of inte g ra tio n gives a signal
proportional to instantaneous velocity; a second gives a signal proportional to
instantaneous displacem ent. Thus th e incorporation o f one or tw o integrators
in th e com pressor loop perm its re g u la tio n of ve lo city or displacem ent respec
tive ly. If the effects o f m echanical or electrical noise cause the signal to be
n o n -lin e a r, filte rin g m ay be required.
F re q ue ncy
Fixture
C o n d itio n in g
A m p lifie r
V ib ra tio n
Program mers 2626
Z H 0100
I I I I
11 * 1 ^ 1 ? ?
Drive *' '
* *
- 1 " ' Signal
E xcite r C ontrol 1047 Pow er A m p lifie r V ib ra tio n E xcite r
2707 4801 + Head
246
^Accelerometers
e.g. 4371
V ib ra tio n Programmers
Z H 0100
C o n tro l
Signals
EB: * :E3
E x c ite r C o n tro l
C o ntrol 1047
Charge A m p lifiers
Signal
2651 2307
nm
7
T w o Channel
Level Recorder
Records actual
Tracking Filte rs test level
5716
______ ^ _________ Control Signal Selector
*
Pow er
S u pp ly
2805
W hen large, com plex test specim ens are bolted to the w ork ta b le , control
from one point may not be s u ffic ie n t, ow ing to irre g u la r m otion in diffe re n t
parts of the test object. It is desirable in such cases to be able to select the
control point required, or to average over a nu m b e r of points, in order to
avoid over-testing (Fig.10.1 2).
W here it is required to perform vib ra tio n tests up to high fre q u e n cie s, and
a very low exciting-force is acceptable, it is in some situ a tio n s advantageous
to use a piezoelectric accelerom eter as an exciter (Fig. 1 0.1 3). This is feasible
because the accelerom eter is a passive device obeying the re cip ro city th e o
rem . The u n ifo rm ity of its fre q u e n cy response as a sensor can be exploited
w h e n it is used, in reverse, as an exciter, to achieve excitation w ith o u t a re-
24 7
2713
Pow er A m p lifier
g u la tio n loop. The vib ra tio n level can be predicted fro m the values o f applied
voltage, accelerom eter capacitance, and mass.
248
1000
80%
100
O'
0
A
4 A .
I < * 0 0
o$
* a<*
A*
Fig. 1 0 .1 4 . Exam ple o f the d e riv a tio n o f vib ra tio n test level specifications
from e n viro n m e n ta l data
249
P iezoelectric
A cccle ro m e te r 4 3 7 0
P ie zo e le ctric
A cce lero m e te r
P iezoelectric 4370
V ib ra tio n Meter
2511
Frequency
synchro nization X -Y R e co rd e r
2308
250
generation and co n tro l of w ide band random test s ig n a l, w h ils t re ta in in g the
statistical character of a random signal, is sw eep random vib ra tio n testing
(F ig .1 0.1 6). The n a rro w band n a tu re of the signal m eans that the sam e regu
lation and program m ing fa c ilitie s can be used fo r th e sweep sine w a v e test.
Sweep random te st specifications can be w ritte n as fo r sweep sine tests, di
rectly from the m easured or estim a te d vibration e n v iro n m e n t.
w h e re F is the com plex force vector, and i/ the com plex velocity vector. Fur
th e r definition s apply to tra n s fe r m obility, w hen th e response is m easured at
a different point to th e applied fo rce .
0
800374/1
F = ma = jw m v
251
since a - jt j v for vib ra tio n at fixed frequency co.
Zm = j w m (10.6)
= - 1
(10.7)
/ tom '
F = kd = ~ v
JO)
M m = J^ (10.9)
k
w he re :
F - cv
Thus m echanical im pedance
Zc = c (1 0 .1 0 )
and m echanical m o b ility
Mc= (1 0 .1 1 )
252
(+) +i (+) +j
c
i^
1I 1 k i kjwm
X X
< <
> 1/c > c
_c c Real Axis (+)
Real Axis (+) 05
E E
(-) -j (-) -j
(a) 271634
For practical force and structural response testing, a vib ra tio n exciter drives
253
Charge
Am plifier 2651
Force
Input
O u tp u t
m
Acc. Input
Measuring
Mass
Amplifier
Compensation
w 2609
Unit
Charge
5565
Amp.
2651 Velocity
Output
FI
J ii
Power Supply Measurinq Am plifier
2805 2609
Compressor
Frequency synchronization
Input
| Sine Generator Power Am plifier
1023 2706
m
Level Recorder
2307
F ig . 1 0 . 2 1 . P o i n t i m p e d a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s o n t h e c u t t in g t o o l o f a la t h e :
(a) T o o l in n o r m a l p o s i t io n (b) T o o l in o u t e r p o s i t i o n
254
the object through an im pedance head (F ig.6 .24). This device incorporates
tw o sensors, one d e live rin g a signal p ro portion to the fo rce being applied to
the test object, and th e second m easuring the m otion o f th e point at w h ic h
the force is being applied. W here larger forces are re q u ire d to be tra n sm itte d
it is best to separate th e fu n ctio n s by using separate fo rce and m otion s e n
sors. S ince the m otion tra n sd u ce r is u s u a lly an accelerom eter, th e signal o u t
put m ust be integrated e le c tric a lly to produce a velocity s ig n a l.
The phase difference betw een force and velocity sig n a ls can be m easured
by m eans of a phase m e te r. W here sig n a l harm onics or extraneous noise in
terfere w ith m easurem ents, tracking filte rs can be used (F ig .1 0 .2 2 ).
A = Response signal
B = Fo rce co n tro l signal
i
m .
A cce lero m e te r
Charge T w o C hann el V oltm e te r
4370 T racking F ilte r
A m p lifie r 2425
Force \ J 57 16
2635
A d d itio n a l Transducer
measuring Frequency
Response
Accelerom eter tracking
Signal
p osition s signal
Phase Meter
2971
F ig . 1 0 .2 2 . E x a m p le o f a rra n g e m e n t f o r m a k in g m o b i l i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s o n
t h e r u d d e r o f a s h ip
255
10.2. SHOCK TESTING
1 0 .2 .1 . Laboratory Testing
256
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2 7 1 5 3 5
169094
257
2 6 90 66
258
25 kH z
Fre q u e n cy
271534
259
In practice, a shock-testing arrangem ent can be realised using an electrody
nam ic vib ra tio n exciter connected to sp e cia lly-ta ilo re d e le ctro n ic excitation
sources (Fig. 1 0 .2 8 ). Typically, a short d u ra tio n impulse, or " u n it impulse,
from a pulse generator, excites a bank of p a ra lle l filte rs (e.g. 1/3 -o c ta v e set).
The tim e fu n c tio n of the sum m ed output fro m th e filte rs is te rm e d a synthes
ized shock.
260
plex in operation. A s in the case o f broad band v ib ra tio n test system s, anal
ogue signal generators have la rg e ly been superseded by digital system s in
th is field.
O scillatory shock m otio n s, such as those described above, are o fte n term ed
com plex shocks. W h ile the p o ssib ility of producing a large variety o f complex
shocks is offered by a shock syn th e sis system, som e "s im p le r m achines do
exist w h ich produce specific com plex shocks. These are in general designed
according to the p e n dulum p rin cip le (F ig .1 0.30).
1 0 .2 .2 . Service Testing
261
tra n sp o rt of high capital cost e q u ip m e n t such as la rg e electrical tra n sfo rm e rs
or tu rb in e assem blies produced to fin e tolerances. A lte rn a tive ly, it m ay be ne
cessary to m o nito r th e shocks induced in the e q u ip m e n t at sp ecific handling
p oin ts (e.g. dock loading) or by sp e cific transport m edia (e.g. belts and convey
ors).
790779
262
Fig. 1 0 .3 2 . Exam ple o f application o f an electronic B u m p Recorder
assem bly may be packaged together. The recorder may m o n ito r the progress
of the cargo over several w eeks, p rin tin g o u t on an in te g ra l p rin te r the tim e
and shock value on each occasion the preset threshold level is exceeded
(Fig.1 0 .3 3 ). The inclusion of an integrator in the device enables the shock v e
locity values to be obtained fo r use in th o se cases w h e re th e consignm ent is
pa rticu la rly sensitive to im pact velocity. A m uch more precise assessm ent of
the m axim um shocks o ccu rrin g in service and th e ir tim e of occurrence can
thus be obtained using an apparatus of th is kind.
|
I
n
7 6 0 6 1 4 /1
263
1 0 .3 . S ELECTED B IB LIO G R A P H Y
264
DAVIS, A.G . and "From Theory to Field E xperience w ith the N on-D es
DUNN, C.S.: tructive Testing o f P iles". Proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs.
Part 2, 5 7 , Dec. 1 9 7 4 , pp. 5 7 1 -5 7 3
JACOBSEN, L.S. and "A C om parative Study o f P u lse and Step-Type Loads
AYRE, R.S.: on a S im p le Vibratory S y s te m ". Technical R eport 16,
S tructural Dynamics, C o n tra ct N6 0R I 1 5 4 , Task
1, S tanford U niversity, 1 9 5 2
JACOBSEN, L.S. and " E n g in e e rin g V ib ra tio n s". M cG ra w -H ill Book Com
AYRE, R.S.: pany, Inc. 1 9 5 8
JORDAN, J.C.: "Shock R esponse Spectrum S ynthesis a n d A n a ly s is ".
Proc. of th e Inst, of E n vironm ental Sciences 1 9 6 7
KEEFFE, R E. and "Shock P u lse Shaping U sing Drop Test Techniques".
BATHKE, E.A.: Shock and V ib r. Bull. N o.41 . Part 5. 1 9 7 0
KITTELSEN, K.E.: "M e a s u re m e n t and D e s c rip tio n o f S hock". Brel &
Kjr Tech. Rev. No.3-1 9 6 6
LEVENSON, M. and "The Response o f a S ystem w ith a S ingle Degree o f
SUSSHOLZ, B.: Freedom to a Blast L o a d ". T aylor Model B asin Report
No. 5 7 2 . 1 9 4 7
M ASSO UD, M . and "Im pedance M ethods fo r M a c h in e A n a ly s is ", Shock
PASTOREL, H.: and V ib ra tio n Digest, Sept. 1 9 7 8
265
METZGAR, K.J.: "Test O rie n te d A p praisal o f Shock S p e ctru m A nalysis
a nd S y n th e s is ". Proc. o f th e Inst, of E nvironm ental
Sciences 1 9 6 7
MONROE, J.: "A P roblem o f S in u so id a l vs. Random V ibration".
Proc. Inst. Env. Sci. A p ril 196 1
MORROW, C.T. and "S h o rtc o m in g s o f Present M e th o d s o f M e a s u rin g and
MUCHMORE, R.B.: S im u la tin g Vibration E n v iro n m e n ts ". J. A p p l. Mech.
1955
266
SPANG, K.: "The A dvantages o f U sing In itia l S aw tooth Pulse
Shapes in S hock Testing". E nvironm ental E n g in e e r
ing N o.23 1 9 6 6
267
11. BALANCING OF ROTATING MACHINES
1 1 .1 . IN T R O D U C T IO N
1 1 .2 . U N B A L A N C E OF R IG ID R O TO R S
The sim plest case of unbalance can be considered for a u n ifo rm th in disc
268
of mass M (kg), ro ta tio n a lly sym m etrical about its axis o f rotation. W hen a
small m ass m (g) is fix e d to the disc at a distance r (m m) fro m that axis, th e
disc is said to be in a s ta te of "u n b a la n c e . This type of unbalance can be d e
tected by supporting th e axle on a p a ir of knife edges to fin d the "h e a vy
spot": fo r th is reason it is often called static (or sin g le -p la n e ) unbalance
F ig .1 1 .1(a)). The c e n trifu g a l force F generated by the uncom pensated mass,
w hen the disc rotates a speed 10
(ra d /s), is given by
F = mra>2* H 1-1)
F = M ew 2 (1 1 .2 )
u = mr (1 1 3 )
It is also possible to e lim in a te F betw een (1 1.1) and (1 1 .2) to see that the e c
centricity term e in m a ls o represents th e specific unbalance of the rotor in
g -m m /kg :
* F, r have a d e fin ite line of a c tio n w ith respect to th e geo m e try of th e ro to r, a nd are th u s d en o te d
as vector q u a n titie s , cj = 2 n n / 6 0 * n /1 0 , w h e re n is ro ta tio n speed in r / m i n .
269
the procedure of balancing involves an a d ju stm e n t of the m ass d istrib u tio n of
the rotor, so th a t the re s u ltin g geom etrical and inertial axes m ore nearly c o in
cide w ith one another. The ta sk is to m inim ise
F =
/= 1
The general condition w h e n both static and couple unb a la n ce are present
is called dynam ic unbalance (F ig . 1 1.1(c)). The principal in e rtia axis is now in
clined to th e geom etric s h a ft axis, but th e re is also an e c c e n tric ity at the c e n
tre of mass. This unbalance condition can be resolved by s u ita b le in s tru m e n
tation for correction in tw o planes. C orrection is made by m ass addition (w e ld
ing, rivets, etc.) or mass rem oval (boring, p laning etc.), using a n cilla ry eq u ip
m ent.
1 1 .3 . R O TO R SUPPO R T S Y S T E M
M x + c x + kx = m r w 2 sin cot (1 1 .5 )
270
Relative R o ta tio n Speed/
n = ro ta tio n speed in r / m in
Unbalance 2
Unbalance 1
'L 'R
Fig. 1 1.3. Unbalance of a rotating body vibrating with two degrees of freedom
w he re [a] is called th e influence coefficient matrix and
*L 1 (XL2
a
_a /?7 a/?2
1 1 .4 . S E TTIN G THE S T A N D A R D S
G 4000 4000 Chrankshaft-drives o f rig id ly m oun ted slow m arine diesel engines w ith uneven num ber
o f cy lin d e rs (4).
G 100 100 Crankshaft-drives-of fast diesel engines w ith six and m ore c y lin d e rs <4>. C o m p le te engines
(gasoline o r diesel) fo r cars, tru c k s and locom otives <5>.
G 40 40 Car w heels, wheel rims, w heel sets, d rive shafts. Crankshaft-drives o f ela stically m oun ted
fast fo u r-cy c le engines (gasoline o r diesel) w ith six and m ore cylinders*4). C ran ksha ft-
drives fo r engines o f cars, tru c k s and locom otives.
G 16 16 Drive shafts (propeller shafts, card a n shafts) w ith special requirem ents. Parts o f cru shin g
m achinery. Parts of agricultu ra l m achinery. Individual com p on e nts o f engines (gasoline
or diesel, fo r cars, trucks and lo com otiv e s. Crankshaft-drives o f engines w ith six and
more c y lin d e rs under special requirem ents.
G 6.3 6.3 Parts o f process plant m achines. M a rin e main turbine gears (merchant service).
C e ntrifug e drums. Fans. A sse m b le d aircra ft gas turb in e rotors.
F ly wheels. Pump im pellers. M a c h in e -to o l and general m achin ery parts. N orm al
e lectrical armatures. Ind ivid ual com p on ents o f engines u n d e r special requirem ents.
G 2.5 2.5 Gas and steam turbines, in c lu d in g m arine main turbines (m erchant service). R ig id
tu rb o generator rotors. Ro to rs. Turbo-com pressors. M ach ine -too l drives. M e d iu m and
large ele ctrica l armatures w ith sp ecial requirements. Sm all e lectrical armatures.
T u rb ine-d riven punps.
G 1 1 Tape recorder and phonograph (gram ophone) drives. G rin din g -m ach ine drives.
Sm all e lectrical armatures w ith special requirements.
G 0.4 0.4 Sp in dles, discs, and arm atures o f p re cisio n grinders. Gyroscopes.
Notes:
2. In general, for rigid roto rs w ith tw o co rre ctio n planes, one half of the recom m ended residual unbalance
is to be taken fo r each plane; these values a p p ly usu a lly for any tw o a rb itra rily chosen planes, b u t the
state o f unbalance m ay be im proved upon at the bearings. For disc-shaped rotors the fu ll recom m ended
value holds for one plane.
3. A crankshaft-drive is an assembly w hich in clu d e s the crankshaft, a fly w h e e l, clutch, p ulley, v ib ra tio n
damper, rotating p o rtio n o f connecting rod, etc.
4. F o r the present purposes, slow diesel engines are those w ith a piston v e lo c ity o f less than 9 m/s; fast
diesel engines are those w ith a piston v e lo c ity o f greater than 9 m/s.
5. In com plete engines the ro to r mass com prises th e sum o f all masses b elonging to the cranksh aft-d rive
described in fo o tn o te 3 above.
800624
274
displacement e in pm
per unit of rotor mass in ------------------------ or centre-of-gravity
residual unbalance
Acceptable
275
by the physical c h a ra cte ristics of the bearings and base. Consequently it is
m ost convenient to assess the run q u a lity of the m achine using vibration le
vels as recom m ended in standards such as VDI 2 0 5 6 , "B e u rte ilu n g s
m astbe f r m echanische S chw in g u n g e n von M a s c h in e n , adopted in te rn a
tio n a lly as ISO 2 3 7 2 , "M e ch a n ica l V ib ra tio n of M a ch in e s w ith Operating
Speeds from 10 to 2 0 0 r e v /s " . These standards give guidance as to w h e n
m aintenance m ight be required on a m achine in service (Fig. 11.6). W here
the m ajor source of v ib ra tio n is unbalance the Standard can be used as a ba
sis fo r specifying the acceptable residual vibration level.
45
I
0)
11'2
N o t perm issible
Just tolerable
0,71 Good
1 1 .5 . B A LA N C IN G M A C H IN E S
A dynam ic balancing m achine consists o f a bed assem bly (Fig. 1 1.7) and an
associated m easurem ent u n it (F ig.1 1 .8 ). Instrum ented support pedestals
carry th e rotor to be balanced, w hich is driven at co n sta n t speed by a m otor
276
F ig .1 1.7. A n example o f a so ft-b e a rin g universal b a la n cin g m achine, the
B & K Type 3 9 0 5
;a * r
m,
99
S i l l
Fig 1 7 8 A n example o f the console fo r a dynamic b a la n cin g m achine, B & K
Type 2 5 0 4
and drive system. M ost tw o -p la n e m achines operate w ith the rotor axis h o riz
o n ta l, and are described as ''u n iv e rs a l". Typically, d rive to the rotor is p ro
vided via an axial cardan shaft or a c irc u m fe re n tia l belt arrangem ent, de p e n d
ing on th e size and specification of th e balancing re q u ire m e n t. The support
pedestals can be set at any co nvenient position along th e bed to suit d iffe re n t
roto r geom etries w ith in the mass ra nge of the m achine, w h ils t the m e a s u re
m ent head, or console, is designed to accomm odate an y likely co m bination of
m easuring and correction planes presented to it. The electrical signals
sensed at the supports are analysed in the console to display d ire c tly the
am o unt and angle of unbalance to be corrected on th e tw o correction planes
selected for the rotor. The balancing bench and the console com plem ent one
another; if they are used correctly, an unbalance re d u ctio n ratio of 8 0
90% m ight be typical fo r a single ru n .
277
Balancing m achines may be designed w ith so ft bearings or w ith h a rd
bearings. These descriptions re fe r to the ch a ra cte ristics of th e support sys
tem s as discussed in Section 1 1.3. In a so ft-b e a rin g m achine, sensors are
used to m easure the vibratory m otion at th e jo u rn a ls . The m oving elem ent,
operating above resonance, is decoupled fro m external vib ra tio n effects, e n
abling the bed and support posts to be of re la tiv e ly lig h t-w e ig h t construction,
to give a tran sp orta b le m achine offering high se n s itiv ity over its mass range.
Hard-bearing m achines m easure force at the bearings. To re s tra in the rotor
adequately, a stro n g e r, heavier form of c o n s tru c tio n is necessary to give the
high m echanical impedance required at the bearings. This fo rm o f construc
tio n has the disadvantage of g re a te r se n sitivity to extraneous vib ra tio n s.
1 1 .6 . FIELD B A L A N C IN G
278
Fig. 11.9. Three-point m e th o d for single-phase b a la n cin g - S iebert's C o n stru c
tion
279
single plane is to use a sim ple vib ra tio n meter connected to an accelerom eter
m ounted on the bearing. First th e in itia l unbalance is measured. Then a trial
mass is used to introduce a k n o w n unbalance by attaching it to th e rotor at
th e same radius to be used fo r th e fin a l co rre ctio n mass. Three te s t runs are
carried out w ith th e tria l mass placed at 0 , 1 2 0 , 2 4 0 on th e ro to r. Geom
e trica lly, S ie b e rt's co n stru ctio n (F ig . 1 1.9) can be used to evaluate th e correc
tio n values. Three vectors of eq u a l length, corresponding to in itia l unbalance
V0 , at 0 , 1 2 0 , 2 4 0 respectively, are draw n o u t from the o rig in . Vectors
corresponding to V j (0), V j (1 2 0 ), V j (2 4 0 ) are constructed by centring a
com pass point on each of th e V0 vectors in tu rn : th e point o f in te rse ctio n of
these arcs enables the vectors corresponding to the trial m ass alone to be
constructed. The correction m ass can be calculated directly.
280
Fig. 1 1 .1 1 . Example o f a portable fie ld b alancing set, g iv in g direct d ig ita l in
dication o f ph a se by the use o f a n o n -co n ta ctin g probe
point on the rotor) are obtained (Fig. 1 1 .1 2 ). The m achine is then stopped and
a tria l mass M T is fixe d to the rotor at some a rbitrary p osition. R unning the
m achine at the same speed as before yields a new v ib ra tio n am plitude, \ V i\ ,
and phase angle, a^ , enabling a vector diagram to be constructed dire ctly.
281
Plane 1 Plane 2
V 2.0
V 1.1 V 1.0 V ,0
^2.1 V 2.0
V2.2 - V2.0
_<l
o
282
Mc = , , Mr (11 .8)
\V ,~ V j
283
rY U D A L '
L I ST
1C DIM CC 2 )/D C 2 , c< r, ) , C2 / 1(2/ / J C2 /
D IM K C 2 /2 )/L C /2 )/ j2(2> ) / PC 2 / / CC / J*( 2,
D IM SC2 , 2 ) / TC2 , 2 ) ,
F0P Y= 1 T0 C
READ A (Y )jL (Y )
LET BC Y>=EC Y)*A TM (
NEXT Y
LET C( 1 1 ) = AC I )*C 0SC B C 1) )
LET C( 1 2 ) =AC 1 )*S IM C B C 1) )
I )=
QP
LET EC 2 ) = AC 3 > *S IM C B C 3) )
100 LET EC 2/ 1) = -E C 1/ 2)
6100
105 LET EC 2/ 2 ) =EC 1/ 1)
1 10 LET FC W 1 ) =AC 4>*C 0C bC 4) )
1 15 LET FC 1/ 2 ) = AC 4 > * S IM C bC 4) )
120 LET FC 2/ 1) = - F C 1/ 2)
125 LET FC 2* 2>=FC 1/ 1)
130 LET GC 1/ 1 ) = AC 5 ) * C0 S Cb C 5) )
135 LET GC 1/ 2 ) =A C 5 ) * S I M CbC 5) )
140 LET GC 2 1) =- G C 1/ 2 )
145 LET GC 2, 2 ) =G C 1/ 1)
QP
215 MAT L=F-D
220 MAT M=H- D
6100
225 MAT N =E- C
230 MAT 0 = D* I
235 MAT P=C *J
240 MAT 0=K *L
245 MAT R=M *N
250 MAT S= 0 - P
255 MAT T = Q-R
260 MAT U =11JV CT >
265 MAT v=s*u
BrOel & K j r
270 MAT I = C *M
275 MAT J =D *K
280 MAT K= I - J
285 MAT X=K*U
290 LET Y 1 = S CP CV C 1/ 1) 2+VC 1/
300 LET Y2=SGRCXC 1/ l) t 2+XC 1/
3 10 IF VC 1/ I X C TH EIJ 340
QP
330
340 LET Y3= 18C
350 IF XC 2 f 2) < 0 THEM 330
360 LET Y4= 0
370 G0T0 390
380 LF.T Y 4 = ISC
390 LET Y 5 = Y 3 + C AT fJ Cv C 1/ 2)/V C 1# l)) ) /A T r i( 1) +
400 LF.T Y 6 - Y 4 + C A T N C XC 1/ 2 )/X C 1, 1 ) ) ) / ATiJ C 1)*
4 10 P R IN T "M O D U LI : AIJ2 A P G U ! 1 EM T dF r i * , Y2 *Y t
420 P R ItJT "M 0DULUS AMD APGME TJ T 3F
B r sl & Kjao
W hen a phase meter and an accurate num erical c a lcu la tio n technique are
used, the residual unbalance is often reduced to acceptable levels after th e
firs t ru n . W here d iffic u ltie s are experienced, it may be necessary to verify th e
lin e a rity and phase re produceability betw e e n trial unbalance placed on th e
correction planes and vib ra tio n m easurem ents in the m easuring planes. In
th is case, some experim ents w ith p o sitio nin g of the sensors, or selection of
correction planes, may enable a technique to be evolved to give more sa tisfa c
tory results.
1 1 .7 . D IFFIC U LT B A L A N C IN G TASKS
1 1 .7 .1 . Fine Balancing
S im ple support ro lle rs, or prism atic blocks w hich are used to support th e
rotor jo u rn a ls for general-purpose tasks on industrial b alancing m achines, are
inadequate in these cases. For grades b e tte r than G1 th e rotor should be
m ounted in its own su p p o rt bearings on the balancing m achine; for grade
GO,4 the rotor should be driven as it w o u ld in service, so th a t the actual s e r
vice en viron m en t in te rm s of electrical and aerodynamic e ffe cts may be re p ro
duced. Examples are gyroscopes excited by a half-stator assem bly, and tu rb o
chargers driven by com pressed air.
1 1 .7 .2 . Flexible Rotors
A t high rotational speeds, the rotor can no longer be regarded as rigid. For
ro tational speeds greater th a n 50% of th e firs t critical speed it may be said to
be fle xib le (Fig. 1 1.15). The axial d is trib u tio n of unbalance along the rotor w ill
tend to excite the various mode shapes o f the rotor, depending on its speed
285
_________________________________ C c r ' t________________________ _______________________________________________ 790521
For exam ple, to correct th e firs t (V-) p rin cip a l mode, a co rre ctio n mass M
w ill be located at the c e n tre , w ith tw o m asses each of M / 2 at 1 8 0 posi
tioned adjacent to the su p p o rt bearings in o rder not to e ffe ct th e rigid balance
condition. Corresponding m ass sets a llo w com pensation o f higher modes.
286
Fig. 1 1 .1 6 . D ynam ic stra ig h te n in g o f firs t and second p rin c ip a l modes
1 1 .7 .3 . Crankshaft Balancing
287
B ig-End
P in Counterbalance
shaft, o w ing to the com plex m otion of th e connecting rods, can be unaccept
able. In these cases, balance can be achieved by provision of a contra-rotat-
ing balance shaft driven at tw ic e engine speed. These s h a fts are fabricated
w ith specially calculated counterbalance w ebs.
1 1 .7 .4 . M ultiple-Span S hafts
288
For a rigid rotor, m easured values w ill depend not only on rotor unbalance,
but also on th e accuracy of the alig n m e n t of the bearings and on the ru n -o u t
at the jo u rn a ls . In contrast to unbalance fo rce s, the latter effects are p re d o m i
nantly speed-independent, causing a co n s ta n t centre-of-m ass eccentricity. Re
building of th e m achine (e.g. for lin e -b o rin g of the bearing housings and ro to r
balancing) w ould be necessary to correct su ch a fa u lt. For fle xib le rotors, it is
extrem ely d iffic u lt if not im possible to p re d ict how the bearing systems w ill a f
fect the mode shapes and vibration response at the critic a l speeds. It is c o m
mon to consider the roto r spans in tu rn , as separate sim ply-supported sys
tem s. The sh a ft-stiffn e ss is often such th a t interm ediate bearing assem blies
are assum ed to decouple separate rotor spans. A lte rn a tiv e ly , where lin e a rity
and phase fid e lity is observed betw een unbalance added on any co rrection
plane and the vibration m easurem ents on every support bearing, then th e in
fluence coe fficie n t m ethod may be used. In general, one extra co rrection
plane is required for every extra bearing m easurem ent. Portable m easuring
e quipm ent may be used fo r th is w ork, w ith sw itches to a llo w connection of
extra vib ra tio n sensors: b u t, as the n u m b e r of bearings increases, the s o lu
tion of th e re sulting m a trix equations becom es increasingly complex and ca lls
for su b sta n tia l com puting fa cilitie s.
1 1 .8 . S ELECTED B IB LIO G R A PH Y
289
FEDERN, K.: "G ru n dla g e n e in e r system atischen S c h w in g u n g s e n t
s t ru n g w e lle n e la s tis c h e r R otoren". VDI B erichte,
Band 2 4 , 1 9 5 7
290
RIEGER, N.F.: "R o to r B earing D ynam ics State o f the A rt". M e
ch a n ism and M achine Theory, Pergam on 1 9 7 7 .
V ol. 1 2 p p .2 6 1 2 7 0
291
12. FUNDAMENTALS OF SHOCK A ND VIBRATION
CONTROL
1 2 .1 . IS O LA TIO N OF V IB R A T IO N A N D S H O C K
Even th ough ideally all undesirable v ib ra tio n s should be e lim inated at the
source it is obvious from th e above " lis t" o f sources th a t th is may be possible
only in very fe w cases. In o th e r cases, how ever, it may be possible to " is o
la te " the source by m eans o f shock and vib ra tio n isolators, or to reduce the
shock and vibration effects by means of effe ctive ly designed vibration absorb
ers, or the use of dam ping treatm ents.
1 2 .1 .1 . Vibration Isolation
Fig. 12.1 show s the " u n iv e rs a l" so lution to isolation problem s, i.e. the
proper m ounting of the source (machine), Fig. 12.1 a), or the equipm ent,
Fig. 1 2.1 b), on springs and dam pers. (If th e springs consist o f cork or ru bber
like m aterials dam ping is a u to m a tica lly b u ilt-in to the spring in the form of in
ternal m aterial damping).
Consider firs t the vib ra tio n iso la tio n o f the source, Fig. 1 2.1 a).
The equation of m otion fo r th e mass, m, in the system, Fig. 1 2.1 a), was fo r-
292
M achine m Equipm ent m
-[*) - J * (
j , ClX 271506
F f = k x + c -d T
a) b)
Fig. 1 2 .1 . Illu stra tio n o f th e basic p rin c ip le s involved in vib ra tio n isolation, i.e.
The m o u n tin g o f the m achine p ro d u c in g the vib ra tio n , or the e q u ip
m e n t to be iso la te d from the vib ra tio n , m, on sp rin g s and dam pers
x { f ) = H {f)F 0 e i2*ft
1
, 4 n 2f02m
w h e re H [f) = ------------
In th e case of vibration isolation, one is not norm ally interested in x(f) but
in the force tra n sm itte d to the fo u n d a tio n . This force is the vector sum of
the force transm itte d thro u g h the sp rin g elem ent and that tra n s m itte d
th rough th e damper, i.e.:
w hereby:
293
where T is the force tra n sm issib ility. M a n ip u la tio n of this equation results in
Fig. 1 2 .2 show s a graphical representation of the form ula given for 17"| fo r
various d am ping ratios.
W ith regard to the choice of dam ping ra tio th is should be selected w ith a
view both to give a relatively lo w tra n s m is s ib ility am plification at the spring-
mass resonant frequency, a n d to give s a tisfa cto ry isolation (lo w tra n s m is s ib il
ity) at fre q u e n cie s w ell above resonance.
294
U ndam ped natural fre qu e n cy, f0
2 7 1 5 0 7 /1
295
Fig. 12.3. Sketch o f a m achine m o u n te d on four s p rin g s
I I 111 1 1
1
1
w
\ \
%
-
Hevea
(N atural ru bber)-------- V v \
I C5R-S---------- fh
GR- A i\
Massless iso a t o r --------------\ \ :l
\ A
\ i
m
f o = f0 |A ~ 4 (12.3)
~B
296
w h e re f0 is the " o rig in a l" resonant frequency of th e system w ith mass, m,
and stiffness k (B = ). If the fo u n d a tio n is best represented by a p la te , a th e
o retical tre a tm e n t of the situ a tio n involves the th e o ry of stru ctu re s (chapter
3, section 3.6) and may become e xtrem ely com plicated.
M achine m
1
Fo un d atio n, B
Fig. 12.5. Illu s tra tio n o f the approxim ation o f th e m achine fo u n d a tio n by a
mass, B
k 3 9 ,2 P f02 N /m (12.4)
29 7
Fig. 12.6. V ibration frequency s p e c tru m produced by a ro ta tin g e le c tric a l m a
chine
791021
k = 3 9 , 2 - 2 -1 0 2 = 7840 N /m
From the m a n u fa ctu re r's catalogue it w as found, how ever, th a t he did not
supply a vibration isolator w ith e xactly th is stiffness, and use th e re fo re had to
be made of isolators w ith a stiffness o f 1 1 8 0 0 N /m .
298
A ctually, it should be m e n tio n e d here th a t m ost vibration isolator m anufac
tu re rs do not publish th e ir data in term s of stiffn e s s but rather in te rm s of the
static deflection corresponding to a certain (m axim um ) static load. If it is as
sumed th a t th e isolator in q u e stio n behaves lin e a rly the stiffness can, on the
o ther hand, be readily estim a te d from the m a n u fa ctu re r's data by means of
the sim ple relationship.
, _ P (m ax)
K
d [m ax)
W here P is th e w eight of th e m achine per isolator and d is the sta tic deflec
tion produced by this load. In th e above exam ple th e m axim um w e ig h t per iso
lator was given by the m a n u fa ctu re r to be 3 ,6 kgf, and the corresponding def
lection 3 mm th u s
. / ^ . / 1 1800
fn = V --------- = V ---------- = 12,3 Hz
0 V 39 2 P y 39,2 2
M a c h in e V ib r a t io n
50000 0000
299
C onsidering th a t th e m ajor frequency com ponents to be isolated are c o n sid
erably higher than 1 2 ,3 Hz this change in resonant frequency is quite accept
able. The resulting iso la tio n can be seen from the curves, F ig .1 2 .8 . Here the
curve a) corresponds to th a t shown in F ig .1 2 .6 , w h ile th e curve b) w as m ea
sured on the fo u n d a tio n after isolation of the m achine.
F irstly, it is im p o rta n t th a t the vib ra tio n isolators are placed correctly w ith
respect to the m otion of the center o f gravity of th e m achine, see F ig s.12.1 1
and 1 2 .9 .
1 -------------- 1 ^
M achine
I 1
| Center o f g ravity |
^ V ib ra tio n < |
< isolators >
/ / / / , F o u n d atio n V / / /
V / / / / / / / / / / / / / / Z / / / / / / / , ^// / / / / / / /
271510
300
Fig. 1 2 .1 0 . S ketch sh o w in g the center o f g ra v ity o f a m a c h in e can be " a r t if i
c ia lly " lo w e re d by adding m a s s (w eight) d ire c tly onto the m a
chine
a) M achine
b) M a ch in e w ith properly a d d e d m ass (w eight)
301
ances th a n does the "s im p le " system d iscussed above, see Fig. 1 2 .1 3 . The
design of such compound system s is, on th e other hand, m ore com plicated
and critica l th a n the design o f a "s im p le " v ib ra tio n isolator.
For readers w ho are fa m ilia r w ith e le c tric a l filte r theory and ele ctro -m e -
chanical analogies the design problem s in vo lve d may, how ever, not seem to o
form idable.
Fig. 1 2 .1 3 . Transm issibility curves illu s tra tin g th e difference in tra n s m is s ib il-
ity betw een the s im p le and the com pound system
R eturning n o w to the second "ca se o f vib ra tio n isolation, i.e. the case
w he re e q u ipm e n t is to be isolated from a vib ra tin g fou n d a tio n , Fig 12 1 b),
th e equation o f m otion for th e mass, m, is:
(1 2 .5 )
302
jf_
Qfo y
1 2nfc\
+
4n*f* m + 1 m
-, 1 If
1 + \ To
= \T\ ( 12.6)
2 1 If
+ o A fa
The tra n sm issib ility fo rm u la (and the curves show n in Fig. 1 2 .2 ) are th e re
fore generally valid in vib ra tio n isolation problem s. This again m eans that the
same procedures as o u tlin e d in the foregoing are involved in designing a v i
bration isolation system w h e th e r it is the source or equipm ent th a t has to be
isolated.
There is, how ever, one s ig n ific a n t d ifference w h ic h should be borne in mind.
In determ ining the vibration frequency spectrum of the source, F ig .12.1 a)
and F ig .1 2 .6 , the effects of in te rn a l resonances in the m achine are a u to m a ti
cally taken into account. A s th e foundation on w h ic h the m a ch in e (and isola
tor) is placed is assumed to e x h ib it no d is tu rb in g resonance th e isolation prob
lem consists here sim ply in selecting an is o la to r/m a c h in e c o n fig u ra tio n w ith
a resonant frequency, f0 , w h ic h is low enough to ensure s u ffic ie n t isolation
of the forcing frequency com ponents.
W hen the vibrations o rig in a te in the fo u n d a tio n and are tra n sm itte d to
equipm ent F ig .12.1 b), it is not only im p o rta n t to know the fo rc in g vibration
frequency spectrum , but also the internal resonances in th e equipm ent.
These may be excited and could cause se rio u s damage, even if the exciting
frequency com ponents are heavily attenuated by the vib ra tio n isolation sys
tem . This is due to resonance am plification effects w ith in th e equipm ent it
self. It is th e re fo re necessary w hen an e ffe ctive vibration iso la tio n system is
to be designed also to take s u ch in te rn a l e q u ip m e n t resonances in to account.
303
resonances and th e ir effects can be detected e xp e rim e n ta lly, and corre sp o nd
ing iso latio n criteria established.
1 2 .1 .2 . Shock Isolation
Even though the p rin c ip le s involved in shock iso la tio n are very s im ila r to
those involved in vib ra tio n isolation som e differences e x is t due to th e tra n
sien t na ture of a shock. The re d u ctio n in shock severity, w hich m ay be ob
ta in e d by the use o f isolators, results fro m the storage o f the shock energy
w ith in the isolators a n d its subsequent release in a " s m o o th e r" form i.e. over
a m u ch lon ger p e rio d o f tim e. H ow ever, the energy storage can o nly take
place by deflection of th e isolators.
304
A s a shock pulse may co n ta in frequency com ponents ranging fro m 0 to it
is, generally speaking, not possible to avoid e xcita tio n of the is o la to r/m a s s re
sonance. On th e other hand, i f the d u ra tio n o f the shock p u ls e is sh o rt in
com parison w ith one h a lf p e rio d o f the is o la tio n system re s o n a n t frequency
(f0 ), the response o f the syste m m ay not have serious consequences. This
may be best illustrated by m eans of Fig.3.1 3, section 3 .5 , and th e shock re
sponse spectrum type of d e scrip tio n , also o u tlin e d in section 3 .5 .
s w /fJ V m *.
The m axim um force a ctin g on the fo u n d a tio n Fr, can n o w be found from
Fig 12 18 b) and Fig.1 2 .1 5 , provided th a t th e resonant fre q u e n cy, f0 , of the
system F ig . 1 2 .1 7 is know n. A ssum ing th a t th is is f0 =1 / 1 0 T th e m axim um
force acting on the fo u n d a tio n is found fro m Fig. 1 2.1 5 to be approxim ate
0 ,6 tim es th e "e ffe ctive fo rce , Fig. 1 2 .1 8 b), i.e.:
= Fl _ 0 ,6 Fp
*' k k
305
271516
Fig. 1 2 .1 5 . The firs t p a rt o f the m axim ax to d iffe re n t scales. The spectra are
here n o rm a liz e d to pulses o f the same " e ffe c tiv e " height
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2 7 1 5 1 7
Fig. 1 2 .1 6 . Illu s tra tio n o f the concept o f "e ffe c tiv e " p u lse height
306
Fig. 1 2 .1 7 . S ketch o f basic sp ring-m ass system s fw ith o u t d a m p in g
Fig. 1 2 .1 8 . Shock force pulse a c tin g upon the system show n in Fig. 1 2 .1 7
a) A c tu a l shock pulse
b) "E ffe c tiv e " shock p u lse
vr = dxdt = 2 n f0 x r = 2 n f0 ~ = 1, 2 n f F
d 2x
and ar = = (2 n f0)2x r = 4 n 2 f 2 = 2 ,4 k 2 f 2 ^
d t2
307
T T T T
Resonance fre q u e n c y ------
271520
c c 1
w h e re
cc 2 \/k m 2Q
*) In e ffe ct th is d iffe re n c e in re sonant fre q u e n c y betw een d am p e d and undam ped re s o n a n c e s also
a pp lies to vib ra tio n is o la tio n .s y s te m s . H o w e v e r, th e dam p in g in c lu d e d in these s y s te m s in p rac
tice is often so s m a ll ( f 1) th a t th e re so n a n ce s h ift is n o rm a lly neglected.
308
Taking these factors into account the m axim um displacem ent, xr , o f the
mass, m , becomes:
x = ----- (1 2 7)
r k\/1 + {2^y
V / - i 2 F,
+ k
1-Z2 Fr (1oo,
and a' _ v / i W i
W hen the shock pulse d u ra tio n is no longer short com pared w ith one half
period of the isolation system m otion, u tiliza tio n of th e shock spectrum te c h
nique becomes som ew hat m ore com plicated.
It seems, how ever, that u tiliza tio n of th e "s p e c tru m ' show n in F ig .1 2 .1 9
and the method of e stim a tio n described above for dam ped systems m ay re
s u lt in reasonably good approxim ations to actual practical problems.
In some cases isolators are, on purpose, designed to be non -lin e a r. If, for
instance, space lim ita tio n s do not a llo w fo r the re q u ire d (linear) m o tio n of
equipm ent one may be tem ped to em ploy non -lin e a r isolators of the "h a rd e n
30 9
in g spring type (see also C hapter 3, section 3 .2 ). This kind o f isolator w ill,
w h en deflecting into the n o n -lin e a r region, firs tly change the resonant fre
quency of the isolation system (f0 increases w ith increasing is o la to r deflec
tion), and secondly produce a num ber of h a rm o n ic force com ponents w hich
may excite in te rn a l resonances in th e isolated equipm ent. A lso th e peak ac
celeration of the equipm ent m ay be considerably increased by th e use of
"h a rd e n in g " spring type isolators.
M etal Springs: A ll (th eo retica lly) L o w freq uen cies V e ry lo w R e a d ily transm it W id e ly u sed and easy
H elical Com pression (w ith high sta tic 0.1% o f high frequencies to p ro d u c e w ith
Sprin gs d eflectio ns) critic a l req u ired c h aracteristics
H elical T ension S prin gs A ll (th eo retica lly) L o w freq uen cies V e ry low - L it t le used
Lea f Springs Low Low F a irly good
- L im ite d t o s pecific
(due to fr ic tio n ) a p p lic a tio n s
B elleville Washers Hig h w ith S u b je c t to fatigue: C o m p a c t. S tiffn e s s
parallel m o re com plicated depends o n m eth o d o f
stackin g assem bly s tack in g . C o n tr o lle d
n o n -lin e a r stiffness
Rubber:
(i) In Shear depends on High Increases I lim ite d (i) S m a ll energy storage
(ii) In Com pression com position I w ith rub ber > lo ad-carrying (ii) N o c h a n g e in volum e
(iii) Shear-Com pression and hardness | hardness | capacity ( iii) H a s secon dary
s n u b b in g action
C o rk Depends on den sity H igh L o w (6% o f Pra c tic a l lim it to H ig h ly com p ressib le
critical) m in im u m natural w ith o u t lateral
fre q u e n c y attainable ex pan sion
F elt Depends on density H ig h (u su a lly above High Pra c tic a l lim it to 1 /2 " t o 1" thickn ess
& thickn ess. Exten ds 4 0 Hz m in im u m natural n o rm a lly used
in t o au dio -frequ en cy fre q u e n c y dependent
range o n load & thickness
Sponge Rubber Low Fair L o w stiffness with Used in th e fo rm of
h igh com p ressib ility m o u ld ed pads or
c u t slabs
Steel Mesh Low Fa ir t o high
~ L im ite d load-carrying Used in fo r m o f pads;
c a p a c ity also as in serts
Pneum atic (Cushions, F re q u e n c y con tro lle d Low R e la tiv e ly u ndeveloped
A ir Bellows) b y a ir volum e
R ubber Com posites Depends on design & H ig h Depends on M o u ld e d ru b b e r mounting
rub ber hardness design pads w ith m e ta llic casings
a n d/o r in serts
Sprin g and R ubb er W id e range depends D ep end s o n desig n Low B a s ic a lly m etal springs
Com posites o n design encased in rub ber. M ay
in c o rp o ra te dam ping
Rubberised F a b ric 10 12 H z typical 6 8% ty p ic a l P ro p e rtie s in term ediate
betw een ru b b e r and
steel sprin gs
Cork -R ub ber High Low - A lte r n a tiv e t o rubber
or c o r k
Stu dded o r R ibbed M o d e ra te ly lo w depends P ro p e rtie s s im ila r to
Rubb er Mats on rubber s o lid r u b b e r b u t w ith
hardness increased s ta tic
de fle c tio n s
Steel-Bound C o rk D ep end s on density Hig h U p to 6% o f C o r k c o m p o s itio n w ith
critica l bo nde d m e ta l faces.
P a r tic u la r ly ap p licab le
fo r is o la tio n o f concrete
m o u n tin g b lo c k s
..
Table 12 1
310
A n o th e r type of n o n lin e a r shock iso la to r is that w ith "s o fte n in g spring
ch a racteristics. These are fou n d less fre q u e n tly in practice, b u t th e ir main ad
vantage is th a t they very e ffectively reduce th e tra n sm itte d force via large d e f
lections. In cases w h e re equipm ent is to be protected against one severe
shock o nly, use may p ro fita b ly be made of "s o fte n in g or collapsing spring is
olators. The landing system of the am erican Lunar Excursion M odule (1 9 6 9 )
is a good exam ple of the use of this type o f isolator.
1 2 .2 . D Y N A M IC V IB R A T IO N C O N TR O L A N D V IB R A T IO N D A M P IN G
31 1
A b so rb e r system m"
x 2 = X 2 sin(27r ft)
x 1 = X t sin(27r ft)
Isolator K
TV ^77
/ / r oFoun
u n adation
a iio n
////////
271521
Fig. 1 2 .2 0 . Illu s tra tio n o f the p rin c ip le o f th e dynamic vib ra tio n absorber
rJ2x .
M ~^2 + Kx^ - k [x 2 - x, ) = P0 sin (2 n ft)
( 12. 10)
A ssum ing th a t the sta tio n a ry solutions to these equations can be w ritte n
(w here X j and X 2 can be e ith e r positive or negative)
* i = X , sin (2 n f t )
and x 2 - X 2 sin ( 2 n f t )
then
and (12 1 1 )
By setting
312
the m otion, X J , of the m a ch in e w ill be zero, i.e. the m a c h in e w ill not vibrate
at all. The m axim um a m p litu d e of the mass, m , is in this case:
A ctu a lly, in practical cases the "d is tu rb in g " frequency re g io n often covers
the resonant frequency o f th e m a ch in e -iso la to r system , and both the ab
sorber and th e isolation system contain som e mechanical dam ping. The e q u a
tions of m o tio n for the co m p le te system th e n become considerably more co m
plex, and so do th e ir s o lu tio n s .
269109
3 13
Frequency ratio (r )
To
269082
27152 2
314
high, tra n sm issib ility "p e a k s " are found. The shape of the curve is caused by
th e dynam ic coupling betw een th e m a c h in e /is o la to r system and th e absorber
system . C oupling effects of th is sort are quite com m on in m any branches of
physics.
If the absorber damping is in fin ite , the absorber mass is v irtu a lly clamped
to the m achine and the absorber system does not fu n ctio n at a ll. Fig. 1 2 .2 2 .
In practice, w h e n a damped vib ra tio n absorber is applied to a m a c h in e /is o la
to r system th e tra n s m is s ib ility curve m ust lie betw een th e tw o extrem es
sketched in F ig .1 2 .2 2 . This is illu stra te d in F ig .1 2 .2 3 for va rio u s values of
absorber dam ping ratio.
269076
Fig. 1 2 .2 4 . Curve sh o w in g " o p tim u m " viscous dam ping fa cto r as a function
o f the mass ra tio ~ (Snowdon)
*) " O p tim u m " co n d itio n s are a s s u m e d to be th o se w h ic h e n su re a m a x im a lly " f l a t pea k-n o tch re-
gion of th e tra n s m is s ib ility c u rv e . Fig. 1 2 .2 3 , to be o b ta in e d .
315
From th is equation it is noted th a t w h e n m / M is sm a ll the d ifference be
tw e en the tw o re so n a n t frequencies is negligible, w h ile for an increasing
316
m ass-ratio th e "d e -tu n in g " o f th e absorber m ay become very sig n ifica n t. A lso
the "o p tim u m viscous d a m p in g factor depends upon th e m ass-ratio, see
F ig .1 2 .2 4 . Finally, F ig .1 2 .2 5 shows some theoretical tra n s m is s ib ility curves
calculated fo r various m a ss-ra tio s and "o p tim u m dam ping. Note the dec
rease in resonant a m p lific a tio n w ith increasing m ass-ratios.
Vibration of
specimen mass
afija:__
v 25 mm/sec
10000
V ib r a t io n o f
specim en mass
w ith absorber
attached_______
!5 mm/sec
1 mm/sec
10000 269121
QP1123
317
of the vib ra tio n tra n s m is s ib ility from a vib ra tin g fo u n d a tio n to a m ounted
equipm ent is more or less identical. This, of course, also applies w ith respect
to the use of dynam ic v ib ra tio n absorbers see, F ig. 1 2 .2 6 .
318
m ight be excited and th e application of separate dynam ic vibration absorbers
becomes im practical. Because most e n gineering m a te ria ls like steel, a lu m i
niu m , copper etc. conta in little in h e re n t dam ping, re so n a n t vibrations m u st
be reduced by some "e x te rn a l" means. In the case of plates, use is so m e
tim es made of some sort of "s tiffe n in g " arrangem ents. These arrangem ents
do, how ever, not dam p th e resonances, they m erely s h ift them to w a rd s
higher frequencies. If th e resonances can be shifted to frequencies w h ic h
w ill not be excited d urin g norm al operation of the e q u ip m e n t th is solution to
the problem of reducing plate vibrations m ay be acceptable.*)
External dam ping can be applied in several ways: (1) By means of in te rfa ce
dam ping (friction), (2) by spraying a layer of material w ith high internal losses
over the surface of the vib ra tin g e lem ent or (3) by de sig nin g the critica l e le
m ents as "s a n d w ic h " stru ctu re s.
*) A c tu a lly because in te rn a l m a te ria l d am ping o fte n increases w ith fre q u e n c y a certain " d a m p in g "
e ffe c t m ay also be a chie ve d by s h iftin g th e re s o n a n t frequencies.
319
Fig. 12.29. Exam ple o f in te rfa c e damping
a) Sketch s h o w in g a physical syste m producing d ry frictio n type
o f interface d a m p in g
b) Force versus displacem ent re la tio n s h ip fo r th is type o f dam p
in g
Other types of ''d e a d e n in g '' materials are at present co m m e rcia lly avail
able. Common to all of th e m are that they are made from hig h polym er m ate
rials possessing optim um d a m p in g properties over certain fre q u e n c y and te m
perature regions. These re g io n s may, how ever, fo r some m astic m aterials, be
fa irly wide.
An approxim ate form ula governing the dam ping properties of a treated
panel in practice is given by th e expression:
320
= Loss factor of th e com bination s tru c tu re e lem ent (panel)
+ dam ping m aterial
2
tj = Loss factor of th e dam ping m a te ria l
E 1 = M odulus of e la s tic ity (Youngs m odulus) of th e s tru c tu
ral elem ent
E2 = M odulus of e la sticity of the dam ping material
d j = Thickness of th e stru ctu ra l e le m e n t (panel)
2
d = Thickness of th e layer of dam ping material
One fact, w h ich is im m ediately obvious from the above form ula, is th a t the
relative thickness of th e layer of dam ping m aterial, (d 2 / d j ) , plays a ve ry im
portant role in the re su lta n t dam ping. In practice th e ra tio is norm ally chosen
to be of the order of th re e to one. A ls o , it can be seen th a t it is g e n e ra lly ad
vantageous to apply one (thick) layer of damping m a te ria l rather than dividing
the layer in tw o by using doublesided coating.
A th ird method of applying dam ping to stru ctu ra l elem ents is th e use of
sandw ich stru ctu re s, F ig .1 2 .3 1 . S everal types of su ch con stru ctio n s exist:
The original stru ctu re may be supplied w ith a co n stra in e d viscoelastic layer,
i.e. the dam ping m ateria l is covered w ith a thin m etal sheet, F ig .1 2 .3 1 a): a
th in visco-elastic layer is placed b e tw een tw o e q u a lly th ick plates (adhesive
separator), Fig 12.3 1 b); or fin a lly use may be m ade of a thick visco-elastic
layer betw een the tw o plates, F ig. 1 2 .3 1 c).
E 2 ;r)2
V iscoe la stic
d2
layer
:
Panel
Ej 2 7 15 25
a) b) c)
The m easurem ent of m aterial dam ping pro p e rties is norm ally ca rrie d out by
one of tw o basic m easurem ent methods:
322
Fig. 1 2 .3 3 . Com plete frequency response curve o b tained from m e a su re
m ents on a sample bar d a m p e d at one e n d
the sample bar at one end, or both ends, and e x c itin g it into b e n ding vibra
tio n s w ith a variable frequency, sinusoidal force.
The am plitude o f the response vib ra tio n s is then p lotted as a fu n c tio n of fre
quency, see Fig. 1 2 .3 3 . From such a curve, at a resonance peak, th e loss fac
tor can be calculated as
r, = A fn t f n (1 2 .1 4 )
E = 48n2 Q ^ j 2 N /m 2 (1 2 .1 5 )
3 23
both ends free or clam ped:
K, = 4 ,7 3 ; K 2 = 7 ,8 5 3 ; K3 = 1 0 ,9 9 6
n>3
K, = 1,875; K 2 = 4 ,6 9 4 ; K 3 = 7 ,8 5 5
n>3
For the second m ethod m entioned above, i.e. th e decay rate m ethod, the
external exciting fo rce is tuned to a resonant fre q u e n c y of the sam ple w hich
w ill start a forced oscilla tio n w ith steady a m p litu d e when e q u ilib riu m is
reached. If the e xcitin g force is stopped instantly, th e vibration a m p litu d e de
cays exponentially w ith tim e. (Thus lin e a rly w ith tim e if plotted o u t lo g a rith m i
cally.) The loss fa c to r rj is found fro m
D
1 = (1 2 .1 6 )
In th e decay rate m ethod, the upper lim it for m ea su rin g the loss fa c to r de
pends on the m easu rin g in stru m e n ts. There is no th e o re tic a l low er lim it.
A type of decay-rate m easurem ent w h ich has been extensively used in the
past, especially in th e U .S .A ., is th e so-called G eiger thick-plate te st. The ba
sic principle of th is te s t is the sam e as already o u tlin e d for c u t-o u t sample
bars, only that the sam ple in th is case consists o f a suspended plate, see
F ig .1 2 .3 4 .
N orm ally decay m easurem ents according to th e G eiger test are made at
one frequency only. A s th is test has been used m a in ly in co n ju nctio n w ith au
to m o tive panels the frequency has com m only been chosen around 1 6 0 Hz.
324
Fig. 1 2 .3 4 . M e a s u rin g arra n g em e n t suitable fo r use in co n ju n c tio n w ith the
G eiger thick-p la te test
So far the decay-rate type of te sts discussed have been based on the inter
ruption of a steady state norm al mode (resonant) vib ra tio n , i.e. tim e decay
m easurem ents. O ther types of decay-rate m easurem ents are sometim es
used: the de te rm in atio n of the decay-rate of progressive w aves. T h is is based
on decay-rate d e term in atio n s in space rather th a n in tim e, as described be
low. W hen a long strip of m aterial is excited in transverse vib ra tio n at one
end, and te rm in a te d at the o th e r end in such a w a y th a t pra ctica lly no reflec
tio n takes place. F ig .1 2 .3 5 , one-dim ensional m echanical w aves progress
325
along the strip. The a tte n u a tio n of th e se waves m ay th e n be used a m easure
o f th e damping pro p e rties of the m a te ria l strip:
7 = 2 7 ,3 (1 2 .1 7 )
1 2 .3 . SELECTED B IB LIO G R A P H Y
A P P E N D IX A
,. Hm P(x)P(x+Ax)
P(*) = j...
x >o Ax------- L
(A. 1 )
P (x ) P ( x + A x) = P ( x ; x + Ax) = J p (x )d x
fx+ Ax
P (x ; x + A x) =
X
OC
x 2 p (x )d x (A .2)
X
th is m ay be expressed as follow s.
f* Hm x
(T2 = x 2 p (x) dx Yj X2 P {x , x + Ax)
J oc Ax*0 oo
( A . 3)
328
Fig.A. 1. Example o f a s ta tio n a ry random tim e fu n ctio n (vib ra tio n )
( j 2 is, in the literature on sta tistics, com m only term ed variance and the
square-root of the variance is called the sta n d a rd deviation, a . However,
w h en the statistical phenom enon being studied is a sta tio n a ry tim e -fu n c tio n
as show n in Fig.A. 1, then
329
(A. 4)
A P P E N D IX B
7
H (f) = (B.2)
330
Fig.B. 1. M odels o f a single degree-of-freedom system
a) S ystem excited by a fo rc e a cting upon th e m ass
b) S ystem excited by m o tio n o f the fo u n d a tio n
from w h ich
l ( 0 l (B.3)
/ Q 2Vo
1
d>(f) = tan 1 (B.4)
Q \j
If th e e xcita tion of the system is not a fo rc e , but a m o tio n o f the foun d a tio n
Fig.B. 1 b) a large num ber of response ve rsu s excitation fu n c tio n s can be fo r
m ulated. The response o f interest may, fo r instance, be th e absolute m otion
of the m ass, m , or it m ay be the relative m otion betw een th e mass and th e -
foundation (the loading on th e spring elem ent).
331
F ig.B .2. C urves sh o w in g th e displacem ent, velocity a n d acceleration r e
sponse o f a fo rce -e xcite d single degree-of-freedom system . Note th a t
th e curves fo r ve lo city and a cce le ra tio n response can be fo u n d s im
p ly by adding re sp e ctive ly 6 a n d 12 d B /octave to th e displacem ent
response
- 4 n 2f 2
A cceleration of mass, m ,
' 'a y >
Fig. B. 1a) k
'- ( 0 ] *b(f)
8 0 0 12 9
332
Response versus e xcita tio n functions fo r th e absolute m o tio n o f the m ass
are ta bulated in the second table.
Displacement
\H ( f) \ - %
x ft) = 2 n fD 2 |WW| - J p D ,
V e locity
vx (t) \H (f)\ =
lH W l * 2 M ,
Acceleration
\H {f)\ - 4 n l 2D' \m n \ = ^ L ! ( /)! -
800130
w here
and
Relative
V elocity \H (f)\ = \H {f)\ - fL
0 2 J0 U 2
' 2 , 'H D 2
vx M - Vx o (t)
Relative
A cceleration \H {f)\ = \H ( f) \ - [
0 2 '0 2 J0 U 2
aJ t ) ~ ax o (^
800131
333
By studying the three ta b le s it is readily noticed that when one of the de
sired response versus excitation functions, \H (/)|, has been formulated the
other follows immediately by manipulating with the quantity 2 nf, see also
the curves, F ig.B .2. That th is m ust be so fo llo w s im m ediately fro m the m a th e
m atical rela tion sh ip s betw e e n the displacem ent, velocity and a cceleration.*)
A P P E N D IX C
W h ile a line ar resonance system may act as a signal "w a v e filte r" s u p
pressing possible harm onic d isto rtio n a non-linear resonance system actually
produces waveform distortion. The degree o f distortion depends on the typ e
of n o n -lin e a rity and upon th e excitation of th e system.
271546
---------------------- D<
*) For th e sp ecia l case | W(/)l = = , see also F ig .1 2 .2 o f th e text.
2
334
Fig.C.2. Typical resonance wave shapes fo r th e m otion o f th e m ass in a
single degree-of-freedom system c o n ta in in g a h a rd e n in g sp rin g type
s tiffn e ss elem ent
a) D isplacem ent
b) V elocity
c) A ccele ration
By d iffe re n tia tio n of the d isplacem ent signal w ith respect to tim e one finds
th a t the corresponding velocity of th e mass w ill have a w ave-shape as in d i
cated in Fig.C.2 b). Finally, a second d iffe re n tia tio n yields the acceleration
w ave-shape show n in Fig.C.2 c).
335
A s a second exam ple of n o n -lin e a r resonance d is to rtio n , assume th a t the
system , F ig.C .1, is of th e softening spring type. U nder th e same excitation
con d ition s as stated above the m o tio n of the m ass th e n produces w a ve
shapes as show n in Fig.C .3. A lth o u g h th e w ave-shape disto rtio n is here not
n e arly as heavy as in th e hardening sp rin g case it can be cle a rly noticed.
Bm.1 8, C,OK Brtil 4 K|<w Bftid&Klw
Fig C. 5. Frequency response curves for the motion of the second mass in the
system sketched in Fig.C.4. Curves are shown for different levels of
excitation of the foundation
336
W ave-shape d is to rtio n w ill also be produced w hen th e n o n -lin e a rity is s itu
ated in the damping elem e n t of the syste m . It seems, h o w e ver, that th e m o st
p ro n o u n ce d d isto rtio n effects are p ro d u c e d by the h a rd e n in g spring type re s o
n a n t no n -lin e a ritie s. This is im portant to rem ember as th e use of h a rd e n in g
springs in practice is not at all uncom m on (Chapter 1 2 , section 12.1).
A P P E N D IX D
Fig.D. 1. Example o f a shock excitation w aveform illu s tra tin g the p rin c ip le o f
superposition in the tim e d o m a in
337
Fig.D.1 sh o w s an a rbitrary acceleration shock am plitude as a fun ctio n of
tim e .
A ssum ing a lin e a r resonance system , its response to such a shock can be
calculated as th e superposition of the responses to a num ber o f step fu n c
tio n s approxim ating the shock pulse.
A v = a (x) Ax
The partial ve lo c ity response at some tim e t a fte r the step has occurred is
A vr = h ( t T )a (r) Ax
vR = L h ( t - x )a { x )A x
thus:
I't
vr = V cos{2nf(t x)}]a(x)dx
. X
ff I7
a(x)dx\ cos{2nf(t x))a(x)dx
X J - X
rt
= a(x) cos\2 n f ( t - x) }dx
338
Letting f (residual spectrum ) th e n v(t) = Const, (see Fig.D.1) and
For each frequ ency com ponent in th e response "s p e c tru m " the re lationship
aR =2 n fv Ris valid, w hereby
A P P E N D IX E
There are, how ever, certain p ra ctica l re strictio n s im posed upon th e s e state
m ents.
339
If an arbitrary Fourier com ponent, a = A0 e i 2 nft , o f an a cceleration signal
spectrum is integrated the re su lt w ill be the corresponding Fourier com po
ne n t of the corresponding velocity sig n a l spectrum:
Thus:
K) (E.1)
j2 n f
Thus:
Y - K> _ ^0 /c O)
X j2 n f (.2nf)2
7
e.
j2 n fR C a
RC j2 n f (E 3)
340
o- -o
i I a
k 7
(E.4)
7 + j2 n fR C
ec 1
Fig.E.2. G ra phical illu s tra tio n o f th e fun ctio n 1 + j2 n fR C
ea
in d ic a tin g the frequency region w here tru e in te g ra tio n o f th e input
signal, ea , takes place
341
The low frequency lim it fo r " tr u e " integration, f T , is in the in te g ra to rs pro
duced by B riiel & Kj r taken to be th e frequency at w h ich an in te g ra tio n e r
ro r of 1 ,5 d B (= 1 5 % ) exists. To e n su re true in te g ra tio n of the signal it m ust
th e re fo re not conta in frequencies b e lo w f j .
A s an illu s tra tio n of general p rin cip le s, the exam ple w ill be ta ke n of a
single "p e rio d " sine pulse as th e acceleration signal w h ic h is to be integrated
to both velocity and displacem ent.
= 0, o th e rw is e
v ( t) = | a ( f ) c f r = A 0 sin ( 2 n fx )d x
~ - ^ c o s (2 n fx ) (E.6)
'0 = 1 7 f [ - cos ( 2 H
fo r 0 < t < T
342
a) Acceleration:
V/
b) V elocity:
i k 2A
v(t)
v (t) = (1 - cos 27rft)
27rf
c) Displacement:
T t
800465
1 cos (2 n fx ) d r
x -r^.sin (2 n fx ) ( 7 )
2nf 2 n f t - ~2^fsm ( ^ n f t)
Fig.E.4 show s the re s u lts of some a ctu a l m easurem ents made w ith th e in
tegrator Type ZR 0 0 2 0 w ith single period sine pulses o f 1 0 ms (1 0 0 Hz) and
1 ms (1 kHz) duration respectively, w h e re th e main fre q u e n c y in the pulse is
respectively a factor of 1 0 and 1 0 0 above the nom inal c u t-o ff frequency of
the in tegrato r. The re su lts are norm alised so as to com pare directly w ith th e
th e oretical result in each case. It is seen that both re s u lts fo r peak ve lo city
are acceptable (max. e rro r 8% for the 1 0 ms pulse), b u t th a t the 16% e rro r
on double integration o f th e 10 ms pulse may not be acceptable. It is em pha-
343
800440
344
sized th a t it is only m e a n in g fu l to ta lk o f peak d isplacem ent w hen the "D C "
com ponent of the a cce le ra tio n tra n s ie n t is zero, so th a t th e fin a l velocity is
zero.
A P P E N D IX F
(F. 1)
345
dB = 7 0 /o ^ 10( ^ | ) = 2 0 lo g ,
where F and Fa are the RMS (root mean square) values of th e forces.
2 0 /w , 0( ^ ) - 2 0 to s , 0( ^ ) - - 2 0 / w , 0 )
i.e. by fin d in g the decibel va lu e for the in ve rse ratio (X0/ X ) and assigning to
it a negative value.
Exam ple
346
From the table the corresponding decibel value is found to be 6,0 2 1 dB,
and because of the inverting operation the actual decibel value is 6 ,0 2 1 .
E xam ples
E xam ples
Y
Ao- = 3 2 ' 5
Either: from Table F.2 the dB value is approx.
30.103 + 30.370 = 3 0 2 3 7 dB
2
68 = 8 + (3 x 20)
Ratio = 2,5 1 x 10 3
347
Table F. 7. Table o f (A m plitude) R atio-to-D ecibe! Conversion
.00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
(ir )
1.0 .000 .086 .172 .257 .341 .424 .506 .588 .668 .749
1.1 .828 .906 .984 1.062 1.138 1.214 1.289 1.364 1.438 1.511
1.2 1.584 1.656 1.727 1.798 1.868 1.938 2.007 2.076 2.144 2.212
1.3 2.279 2.345 2.411 2.477 2.542 2.607 2.671 2.734 2.798 2.860
1.4 2.923 2.984 3.046 3.107 3.167 3.227 3.287 3.346 3.405 3.464
1.5 3.522 3.580 3.637 3.694 3.750 3.807 3.862 3.918 3.973 4.028
1.6 4.082 4.137 4.190 4.244 4.297 4.350 4.402 4.454 4.506 4.558
1.7 4.609 4.660 4.711 4.761 4.811 4.861 4.910 4.959 5.008 5.057
1.8 5.105 5.154 5.201 5.249 5.296 5.343 5.390 5.437 5.483 5.529
1.9 5.575 5.621 5.666 5.711 5.756 5.801 5.845 5.889 5.933 5.977
2.0 6.021 6.064 6.107 6.150 6.193 6.235 6.277 6.319 6.361 6.403
2.1 6.444 6.486 6.527 6.568 6.608 6.649 6.689 6.729 6.769 6.809
2.2 6.848 6.888 6.927 6.966 7.008 7.044 7.082 7.121 7.159 7.197
2.3 7.235 7.272 7.310 7.347 7.384 7.421 7.458 7.495 7.532 7.568
2.4 7.604 7.640 7.676 7.712 7.748 7.783 7.819 7.854 7.889 7.924
2.5 7.959 7.993 8.028 8.062 8.097 8.131 8.165 8.199 8.232 8.266
2.6 8.299 8.333 8.366 8.399 8.432 8.465 8.498 8.530 8.563 8.595
2.7 8.627 8.659 8.691 8.723 8.755 8.787 8.818 8.850 8.881 8.912
2.8 8.943 8.974 9.005 9.036 9.066 9.097 9.127 9.158 9.188 9.218
2.9 9.248 9.278 9.308 9.337 9.367 9.396 9.426 9.455 9.484 9.513
3.0 9.542 9.571 9.600 9.629 9.657 9.686 9.714 9.743 9.771 9.799
3.1 9.827 9.855 9.883 9.911 9.939 9.966 9.994 10.021 10.049 10.076
3.2 10.103 10.130 10.157 10.184 10.211 10.238 10.264 10.291 10.317 10.344
3.3 10.370 10.397 10.423 10.449 10.475 10.501 10.527 10.553 10.578 10.604
3.4 10.630 10.655 10.681 10.706 10.731 10.756 10.782 10.807 10.832 10.857
3.5 10.881 10.906 10.931 10.955 10.980 11.005 11.029 11.053 11.078 11.102
3.6 11.126 11.150 11.174 11.198 11.222 11.246 11.270 11.293 11.317 11.341
3.7 11.364 11.387 11.411 11.434 11.457 11.481 11.504 11.527 11.550 11.573
3.8 11.596 11.618 11.641 11.664 11.687 11.709 11.732 11.754 11.777 11.799
3.9 11.821 11.844 11.866 11.888 11.910 11.932 11.954 11.976 11.998 12.019
4.0 12.041 12.063 12.085 12.106 12.128 12.149 12.171 12.192 12.213 12.234
4.1 12.256 12.277 12.298 12.319 12.340 12.361 12.382 12.403 12.424 12.444
4.2 12.465 12.486 12.506 12.527 12.547 12.568 12.588 12.609 12.629 12.649
4.3 12.669 12.690 12.710 12.730 12.750 12.770 12.790 12.810 12.829 12.849
4.4 12.869 12.889 12.908 12.928 12.948 12.967 12.987 13.006 13.026 13.045
4.5 13.064 13.084 13.103 13.122 13.141 13.160 13.179 13.198 13.217 13.236
4.6 13.255 13.274 13.293 13.312 13.330 13.349 13.368 13.386 13.405 13.423
4.7 13.442 13.460 13.479 13.497 13.516 13.534 13.552 13.570 13.589 13.607
4.8 13.625 13.643 13 661 13.679 13.697 13.715 13.733 13.751 13.768 13.786
4.9 13.804 13.822 13.839 13.857 13.875 13.892 13.910 13.927 13.945 13.962
5.0 13.979 13.997 14.014 14.031 14.049 14.066 14.083 14.100 14.117 14.134
5.1 14.151 14.168 14.185 14.202 14.219 14.236 14.253 14.270 14.287 14.303
5.2 14.320 14.337 14.553 14.370 14.387 14.403 14.420 14.436 14.453 14.469
5.3 14.486 14.502 14.518 14.535 14.551 14.567 14.583 14.599 14.616 14.632
5.4 14.648 i 14.664 14.680 14.696 14.712 14.728 14.744 14.760 14.776 14.791
5.5 14.807 14.823 14.839 14.855 14.870 14.886 14.902 14.917 14.933 14.948
5.6 14.964 14.979 14.995 15.010 15.026 15.041 15.056 15.072 15.087 15.102
5.7 15.117 15.133 15.148 15.163 15.178 15.193 15.208 15.224 15.239 15.254
5.8 15.269 15.284 15.298 15.313 15.328 15.343 15.358 15.373 15.388 15.402
5.9 15.417 15.432 15.446 15.461 15.476 15.490 15.505 15.519 15.534 15.549
6.0 15.563 15.577 15.592 15.606 15.621 15.635 15.649 15.664 15.678 15.692
6.1 15.707 15.721 15.735 15.749 15.763 15.778 15.792 15.806 15.820 15.834
6.2 15.848 15.862 15.876 15.890 15.904 15.918 15.931 15.945 15.959 15.973
6.3 15.987 16.001 16.014 16.028 16.042 16.055 16.069 16.083 16.096 16.110
6.4 16.124 16.137 16.151 16.164 16.178 16.191 16.205 16.218 16.232 16.245
348
Table F. 1 . (continued)
R a tio
.00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
( )
V xo 1
6.5 16.258 16.272 16.285 16.298 16.312 16.325 16.338 16.351 16.365 16.378
6.6 16.391 16.404 16.417 16.430 16.443 16.456 16.469 16.483 16.496 16.509
6.7 16.521 16.534 16.547 16.560 16.573 16.586 16.599 16.612 16.625 16.637
6.8 16.650 16.663 16.676 16.688 16.701 16.714 16.726 16.739 16.752 16.764
6.9 16.777 16.790 16.802 16.815 16.827 16.840 16.852 16.865 16.877 16.890
7.0 16.902 16.914 16.927 16.939 16.951 16.964 16.976 16.988 17.001 17.013
7.1 17.025 17.037 17.050 17.062 17.074 17.086 17.098 17.110 17.122 17.135
7.2 17.147 17.159 17.171 17.183 17.195 17.207 17.219 17.231 17.243 17.255
7.3 17.266 17.278 17.290 17.302 17.314 17.326 17.338 17.349 17.361 17.373
7.4 17.385 17.396 17.408 17.420 17.431 17.443 17.455 17.466 17.478 17.490
7.5 17.501 17.513 17.524 17.536 17.547 17.559 17.570 17.582 17.593 17.605
7.6 17.616 17.628 17.639 17.650 17.662 17.673 17.685 17.696 17.707 17.719
7.7 17.730 17.741 17.752 17.764 17.775 17.786 17.797 17.808 17.820 17.831
7.8 17.842 17.853 17.864 17.875 17.886 17.897 17.908 17.919 17.931 17.942
7.9 17.953 17.964 17.975 17.985 17.996 18.007 18.018 18.029 18.040 18.051
8.0 18.062 18.073 18.083 18.094 18.105 18.116 18.127 18.137 18.148 18.159
8.1 18.170 18.180 18.191 18.202 18.212 18.223 18.234 18.244 18.255 18.266
8.2 18.276 18.287 18.297 18.308 18.319 18.329 18.340 18.350 18.361 18.371
8.3 18.382 18.392 18.402 18.413 18.423 18.434 18.444 18.455 18.465 18.475
8.4 18.486 18.496 18.506 18.517 18.527 18.537 18.547 18.558 18.568 18.578
8.5 18.588 18.599 18.609 18.619 18.629 18.639 18.649 18.660 18.670 18.680
8.6 18.690 18.700 18.710 18.720 18.730 18.740 18.750 18.760 18.770 18.780
8.7 18.790 18.800 18.810 18.820 18.830 18.840 18.850 18.860 18.870 18.880
8 8 18.890 18.900 18.909 18.919 18.929 18.939 18.949 18.958 18.968 18.978
8.9 18.988 18.998 19.007 19.017 19.027 19.036 19.046 19.056 19.066 19.075
9.0 19.085 19.094 19.104 19.114 19.123 19.133 19.143 19.152 19.162 19.171
9.1 19.181 19.190 19.200 19.209 19.219 19.228 19.238 19.247 19.257 19.266
9.2 19.276 19.285 19.295 19.304 19.313 19.323 19.332 19.342 19.351 19.360
9.3 19.370 19.379 19.388 19.398 19.407 19.416 19.426 19.435 19.444 19.453
9.4 19.463 19.472 19.481 19.490 19.499 19.509 19.518 19.527 19.536 19.545
9.5 19.554 19.564 19.573 19.582 19.591 19.600 19.609 19.618 19.627 19.636
9.6 19.645 19.654 19.664 19.673 19.682 19.691 19.700 19.709 19.718 19.726
9.7 19.735 19.744 19.753 19.762 19.771 19.780 19.789 19.798 19.807 19.816
9.8 19.825 19.833 19.842 19.851 19.860 19.869 19.878 19.886 19.895 19.904
9.9 19.913 19.921 19.930 19.939 19.948 19.956 19.965 19.974 19.983 19.991
R atio
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(=)
10 20.000 20.828 21.584 22.279 22.923 23.522 24.082 24.609 25.105 25.575
20 26.021 26.444 26.848 27.235 27.604 27.959 28.299 28.627 28.943 29.248
30 29.542 29.827 30.103 30.370 30.630 30.881 31.126 31.364 31.596 31.821
40 32.041 32.256 32.465 32.669 32.869 33.064 33.255 33.442 33.625 33.804
50 33.979 34.151 34.320 34.486 34.648 34.807 34.964 35.117 35.269 35.417
60 35.563 35.707 35.848 35.987 36.124 36.258 36.391 36.521 36.650 36.777
70 36.902 37.025 37.147 37.266 37.385 37.501 37.616 37.730 37.842 37.953
80 38.062 38.170 38.276 38.382 38.486 38.588 38.690 33.790 38.890 38.988
90 39.085 39.181 39.276 39.370 39.463 39.554 39.645 39.735 39.825 39.913
100 40.000 - - - - - - - - -
349
A P P E N D IX G
C O N V E R S IO N C H A R T S , TABLES etc.
Conversion of Length
m cm mm ft in
Conversion of Velocity
0,4470 1,6093 88 1
8 0 0 18 5
Conversion of Acceleration
9 m/s2 cm / s2 ft/s 2 in /s 2
350
Conversion of Area
m2 cm 2 ft2 in 2 yd2
Conversion of V olum e
Conversion of Mass
kg tekma g lb oz
kg/m 3 lb / f t 3
1 6 ,2 4 3 x 10-2
16,0185 1
8 0 0 18 1
351
Conversion of Force
Conversion of Pressure
Conversion of P ow er
352
Tem perature:
F = - C + 32 C = - ( F - 32)
5 9
m = mass (kg)
k = S tiffness (N /m )
Resonant frequency
w he re
g = g ravitationa l acceleration
A st = static d eflection of the mass
1 o ,
- 2 n fv 0 sin 2 n ft v0 cos 2 n ft -v n sin 2 n ft
2nf 0
353
Frequency, acceleration, velocity, displacement nomograph
(SI Units)
i 10 too 1k Hz 10 k
354
A P P E N D IX H
Standards Related to
Vibration and Shock M easurem ents
H . 1. G e n e ra l
ste rre ich isch e s N o rm u n g s in s titu t TGL 2 2 3 1 2 / 0 3 A rb eitsh ygien e ; W irk u n g m e c h a n i
A u s tr ia 1 97 1 scher S c h w in g u n g e n a u f den M e n
L eopoldsg 4
1 0 2 0 W ien schen; M e m e th o d ik f r G anzkrper
S 9 00 1 M e ch a n is c h e S c h w in g u n g e n ; E rs c h tte sch w in g u n g e n
ru n g e n TGL 2 2 3 1 2 / 0 4 A rb e itsh yg ie n e ; W irk u n g m e c h a n i
S 9100 S c h w in g u n g s le h re ; K in e m a tis c h e B e 1972 scher S c h w in g u n g e n a uf den
g riffe M enschen; G re n z w e rte f r T e ilk rp e r
s c h w in g u n g e n
C .S .S .R . O ffic e fo r S tandards and
M e a su re m e n ts, TGL 2 2 3 1 2 / 0 5 A rb eitsh ygien e ; W irk u n g m e c h a n i
1 1 3 4 7 Praha 1, 1972 scher S c h w in g u n g e n a u f den M e n
V clavsk N m sti 1 9 schen; M e m e th o d ik f r T e ilk rp er
s c h w in g u n g e n
S N 01 1 3 1 2 Q u a n titie s and u n its p e rta in in g to
1975 m e c h a n ic a l vib ra tio n a n d shocks TGL 2 2 3 1 2 / 0 6 A rb eitsh ygien e ; W irk u n g m e c h a n i
1974 scher S c h w in g u n g e n auf den
SN 01 1 3 9 0 M e th o d s of M e a s u re m e n ts of M e n sche n; B e w e rtu n g s filte r f r Ganz-
m e c h a n ic a l vib ra tion s und T e ilk rp e rs c h w in g u n g e n
S N 01 1391 M e c h a n ic a l vib ra tio n m e a s u rin g
e q u ip m e n t. G en e ra l te rm in o lo g y G r e a t B r ita in British S ta n d a rd s In s titu tio n ,
2, Park S tre e t,
SN 01 1 4 0 0 M e c h a n ic a l vib ra tio n s a nd shocks. London W . 1
1975 T e rm in o lo g y BS 3 0 1 5 G lossary o f te rm s used in vib ra tion
S N 01 1401 B a la n c in g of ro ta tin g m a c h in e 1958 and shock te s tin g
e le m e n ts . T e rm ino lo gy
H i in n a r v M agyar S za b v ng g yi Hivatal,
SN 02 8 9 0 2 C h a ra c te ris tic data fo r d e s ig n o f elastic " Y Budapest 1X,
b ea rin g e lem en ts llu l u t.2 5
SN 12 3 0 6 2 M e a s u re m e n t of noise a n d vib ra tio n M .S z 4 9 0 0 / 2 Fizikai m e n n yis g e k neve s je le . Rez-
fro m ve n tila to rs -7 8 gsek
L 'A s s o c ia tio n Franaise de N e t h e r la n d s Nederlands N o rm a lis a tie -In s titu u t,
F ra n c e N o rm a lisa tio n (AFNOR) Polakweg 5,
T o u r E urope, 9 2 C o urb e vo ie R ijs w ijk (Z-H)
NF E 9 0 -0 0 1 V ib ra tio n s et chocs m c a n iq u e s NEN- ISO 1 9 2 5 Sam e as (ISO 1 9 2 5 - 1 9 7 4 )
1972 v o ca b u la ire
M th o d e s d 'essais Essais g n rau x NEN- ISO 2 0 4 1 Sam e as (ISO 2 0 4 1 - 1 9 7 5 )
C 20408
Ja n . 1 9 7 4 c lim a tiq u e s et m ca n iq u e s. G uide pour NEN 1 0 0 5 0 ( 2 0 ) Sam e as (IEC 5 0 ( 2 0 )-1 9 5 8 )
l essai de chocs sp ectre s de chocs et
a u tre s c a ra ct ristiq u e s des fo rm e s de P n la n H Polski K o m ite t N o rm a liza cji i M ia r,
ch ocs ul. Ele kt0 ra ln a 2,
B e u th V erlag G mbH 0 0 - 1 3 9 W a rs z a w a
G e rm a n y
B u rg g ra fe n s tr 4 10 PN 7 5 In s tru m e n ts fo r m e c h a n ica l vib ra tion
(BR D ) 1 0 0 0 B erlin 3 0 M -5 3 5 2 7 m e a sure m e n ts. T e rm s and d e fin itio n s
DIN 131 1 S c h w in g u n g s le h re Sw eden S veriges S ta n d a rd ise rin g sko m m issio n ,
Teil 1 K in em a tisch e B e g riffe Box 3 2 9 5 ,
Teil 2 E infache S c h w in g e r 1 0 3 6 6 S to ckh o lm
Teil 3: S chw ing system e
Teil 4 S chw ing e nd e K o n tin u a SS 4 0 1 1 4 0 1 | O rd lista , V ib ra tio n e r och Stot
DIN 41 5 0 T 1 E rs c h tte ru n g e n im B a u w e s e n , G ru n d M C A A m e rica n N a tio n a l S tandards In s titu te ,
stze 1 4 3 0 B ro ad w a y,
K la ssie rve rfa h re n f r das E rfassen N e w York, NY 1 0 0 1 8
DIN 4 5 6 6 7
re g e llo s e r S c h w in g u n g e n S1 1 - 1 9 6 0 A cou stic T e rm in o lo g y (inclu d ing M e
A m t f r S ta n d a rd is ie ru n g , M e w e sen (R 1 9 7 6 ) ch an ica l Shock a n d V ib ratio n )
G e rm a n y
u nd W a re n p r fu n g der D e u tsch e n De A N S I S 2 .6 - N o m e nclatu re a n d S ym bols fo r S p e cif
(D D R ) m o kra tis c h e n R epublik 1 9 6 3 (R 1 9 7 6 ) ying the M e c h a n ic a l Impedance of
1 0 2 6 B erlin S tructu re s
W a lls tra e 1 6 Te rm ino lo gy fo r B a la n cin g Rotating M a
A N S I S 2 .7 -
TG L 0 - 1 3 1 1 / 0 1 S c h w in g u n g s le h re ; B e n e n n u n g e n 1 9 6 4 (R 1 9 7 6 ) ch in e ry
1963
A N S I S 2 .1 0 - M e tho d s fo r A n a ly s is and P resentation
TGL 0 -1 3 1 1 /0 2 S c h w in g u n g s le h re ; E in fa c h e S c h w in 1 9 7 1 (R 1 9 7 6 ) of Shock and V ib ra tio n Data
1963 ger
ANSI S 3 - W 3 9 The E ffects of S h o ck and V ib ra tio n on
TGL 0 -1 3 1 1 /0 3 S c h w in g u n g s le h re ; S c h w in g u n g s s y
ste m e m it e nd lich vie le n F re ih e itsg ra - 1960 M an
1963
den 11 ^ c; R K o m ite t S ta n d a rto v ,
TG L 2 2 3 1 2 / 0 1 A rb e its h y g ie n e ; W irk u n g m e ch a n i L en in sky P ro sp e kt 9 b,
1 971 s c h e r S c h w in g u n g e n a u f den M e n 1 1 7 0 4 9 M o skva M - 4 9
sch en ; B egriffe G ost 1 3 7 3 1 - 6 8 M e ch a n ica l v ib ra tio n . G eneral
TGL 2 2 3 1 2 / 0 2 A rb e its h y g ie n e ; W irk u n g m e ch a n i re q u ire m e n ts fo r m e a su re m e n t
1971 s c h e r S c h w in g u n g e n a u f den M e n perfo rm an ces
sch en ; G re nzw erte f r G an zk rp er G ost 1 6 8 1 9 -7 1 V ib rom ete rs.
sch w in g u n g e n Term s and d e fin itio n s
355
In te r n a tio n a l In te rn a tio n a l O rg a n iz a tio n fo r E 9 0 -6 0 0 E qu ilib ra g e et m a ch ine q u ilib re r
r- ~ , S tandardization. 1970 q u a lit d ' q u ilib ra g e des ro to rs rig id e s
( l.b .L .) 1. Rue de V a re m b ^ ,
G eneva. S w itz e rla n d E 9 0 -6 0 1 D e s c rip tio n , c a ra ct ristiq u e s et
1973 p o s s ib ilit s des m a ch ine s q u ilib re r
50 Inte rn a tio n a l E le c tro te c h n ic a l
V ocabulary G e rm a n y B eu th V e rla g G mbH
/O D i-M B u rg g ra fe n s tr 4 10
5 0 (2 0 ) (1 9 5 8 ) S cie n tific and in d u s tria l m e a suring (b n U ) 1 0 0 0 B e rlin 3 0
in stru m e n ts
DIN 4 1 5 0 E rs c h tte ru n g e n im B au w e sen
5 0 (4 1 1) ( 1 9 7 3 ) R otating m a chines T 2: E in w irk u n g a u f M e n sch e n
I n t e r n a t io n a l In te rn a tio n a l O rg a n iz a tio n for T 3: E in w irk u n g e n a uf b a u lic h e A n la
S tanda rd iza tion , gen
(I S O .) 1' Rue de V a rem be , VDI 2 0 5 6 B e u rte ilu n g s m a s t b e f r m e c h a n is c h e
G eneva. S w itz e rla n d S c h w in g u n g e n von M a sch in e n
R .1 9 2 5 -1 9 7 4 B alancing V o c a b u la ry VD I 2 0 5 7 B e u rte ilu n g der E in w irku ng
m e c h a n is c h e r S ch w in g u n g e n a u f den
R 2 0 4 1 -1 9 7 5 V ib ra tio n and shock V oca b ula ry
M e n sch e n
DP 4 8 6 3 Flexible co u p lin g s G u id e fo r + N e u e n tw u rf
specifica tio ns, s e le c tio n and
a pplica tio n B la tt 1 G ru n d la g e n . G lie d e ru n g ,
B e g riffe
DP 4 8 6 5 A n a lo g analysis a n d p re s e n ta tio n of B latt 2: S c h w in g u n g s e in w irk u n g a u f
vib ra tio n and shock d ata d e n m e n sch lich e n K rpe r
DP 4 8 6 6 E valua tion and m e a s u re m e n t of B la tt 3: S c h w in g u n g s b e a n s p ru c h u n g
v ib ra tio n in b u ild in g s de s M e n sche n
356
GOST 2 3 5 5 2 C ivil a eroplanes. A cce p ta b le levels of E 9 0 -2 1 0 C a ra ct ristiq u e s d es ensem bles
-7 9 so u n d shock in te n s ity on th e g round 1970 gn ra te u rs le ctro d yn a m iq u e s de
and m e a su rin g m ethods vib ra tio n s (Exp.)
In te r n a tio n a l In te rn a tio n a l O rg a n iz a tio n fo r E 9 0 -2 1 1 C a ra ct ristiq u e s des gnrateurs
S ta n d a rd iza tio n , 1970 le c tro d y n a m iq u e s de vib ra tion s (Exp.)
(I.S .O .) 1, Rue de V arem b6, E 9 0 -2 1 3 C a ra ct ristiq u e s des a m p lifica te u rs de
G en e va, S w itze rla n d
1970 puissa n ce p o u r g n ra te u rs
R .1 9 4 0 -1 9 7 3 B a la n ce q u a lity of ro ta tin g rig id bodies le c tro d y n a m iq u e s de vib ra tion s (Exp.)
357
A N S I S 2 .4 - M e th o d o f S pe cifyin g th e C h a ra cte ri DIS 5 3 4 4 E le ctro d yn a m ic te st e q u ip m e n t fo r
1976 stics of A u x ilia ry E q u ip m e n t fo r Shock g e n e ra tin g v ib ra tio n M e th o d s of
and V ib ratio n M e a s u re m e n ts d e scrib in g th e c h a ra cte ristics o f th e
R ecom m e nd a tion s fo r S pecifyin g th e e q u ip m e n t
A N S I S 2 .5 -
1 9 6 2 (R 1 9 7 6 ) P erform ance o f V ib ra tin g M a ch ine s DP 5 3 4 7 S ta n da rd m e th o d s fo r th e c a lib ra tio n
of v ib ra tio n and shock pickups
A N S I S 2 .1 1 S electio n of C a lib ra tio n s and Tests fo r
1 9 6 9 (R 1 9 7 8 ) E le ctrical T ra n sdu cers used for DP 5 3 4 8 M e c h a n ic a l m o u n tin g o f vib ra tio n
M e a su rin g S hock a nd V ib ra tio n tra n s d u c e rs (pickups)
ANSI S 2 .1 4 M e tho d s for S pe cifyin g the DIS 6 0 7 0 C h a ra c te ris tic s o f a u x ilia ry ta b le s fo r
1 9 7 3 (R 1 9 7 8 ) P erform ance of S ho ck M a ch in e s v ib ra tio n g e n e ra to rs
A N S I S 2 .1 5 - S p e cifica tion s fo r th e D esign, C o n s tru c
1 9 7 2 (R 1 9 7 7 ) tio n and O pe ra tio n o f Class HI Shock-
Te sting M a ch in e s fo r L ig h t-W e ig h t
E quipm ent
A N S I Z 2 4 .2 1 - M e tho d s for S pe cifyin g th e C h a ra cte ri H .4 . M e a s u r e m e n t of Vibration of M a c h i n e s
1957 stics of P ick-Ups fo r S hock and V ib ra
(R 1 9 7 8 ) tio n M e a sure m e n ts Austria s te rre ic h is c h e r A rb e its rin g f r
L rm b e k m p fu n g ,
In stru m e n t S ociety o f A m e rica R e gierun gsg e b u de ,
4 0 0 S ta n w ix S tree t 1 0 1 2 W ie n
P ittsb u rg , PA 1 5 2 2 2
O A L -R ic h tlin ie K rp e rsch a llg e d m m te A u fs te llu n g
IS A S 3 7 .2 G uide fo r S p e c ific a tio n s and Tests fo r N r. 4 von M a s c h in e n
1964 P iezoelectric A c c e le ra tio n T ransducers
fo r Aerospace Te sting O A L -R ic h tlin ie S ch w in g u n g s g e d m m te M a s c h in e n a u f
Nr 7 ste llu n g
U.S.S.R. K o m ite t S ta n da rto v,
L en in sky Prospekt 9 b, Bulgaria In s titu t de N o rm a lisa tio n ,
1 1 7 0 4 9 M oskva M - 4 9 8, ru e S veta S ofia,
S ofia
G ost 5 .2 9 5 - 6 9 E le ctro m e ch a n ica l v ib ra to r type L V -2 2
(p o w e r 0 ,8 kw ) fo r g e n e ra l use B DS 5 6 2 6 - 6 5 M e a s u re m e n t of vib ra tio n on e le c tric a l
ro ta tin g m a c h in e s
G ost 5 .3 0 4 - 6 9 E le ctro m e ch a n ica l v ib ra to r type IV -1 9
(p o w e r 0 ,2 7 kw ) fo r g e n e ra l use C.S.S.R. O ffice fo r S ta n da rd s and
M e a s u re m e n ts ,
G o st 1 5 9 3 9 - 7 0 V ib ra tio n m e a su rin g e q u ip m e n t w ith
1 1 3 4 7 P raha 1,
p iezo e le ctric tra n s d u c e rs
V clavsk N a m sti 19
G ost 1 6 8 2 6 -7 1 V ib ro m e te rs
B asic param e ters S N 0 2 8 9 0 2 E lastic fo u n d a tio n ch a ra c te ris tic s o f
1 97 1 e lastic m o u n tin g and iso la to rs
International In te rn a tio n a l O rg a n iz a tio n fo r CSN 12 3 0 6 2 M e a s u re m e n t of noise and v ib ra tio n
S ta n da rd iza tion ,
1 96 1 fro m v e n tila to rs
(I.E.C.) 1, Rue de V arem b6 ,
G eneva, S w itz e rla n d S N 12 3 0 6 3 Fans. P re s c rip tio n fo r m e a s u re m e n t o f
1971 vib ra tio n
1 8 4 (1 9 6 5 ) M e th o d s fo r sp e cifyin g th e
ch a ra cte ristics o f e le c tro -m e c h a n ic a l France L 'A s s o c ia tio n Franaise de
tra n sd u ce rs fo r sh ock and vib ra tio n N o rm a lis a tio n (AFNOR),
m e a sure m e n ts To ur E u ro p e , 9 2 Courbevoie
2 1 7 (1 9 6 7 ) E le ctro n ic vo ltm e te rs E 9 0 -3 0 0 V ib ra tio n s m ca n iq u e s des m a c h in e s
1973 ayant u ne vite sse de fo n c tio n n e m e n t
2 2 2 (1 9 6 6 ) M e th o d s fo r sp e cifyin g the
co m p rise e n tre 1 0 et 2 0 0 to u rs par
c h a ra cte ristics of a u x ilia ry e q u ip m e n t seconde v a lu a tio n de l'in te n s it
fo r shock and v ib ra tio n m e a su re m e n t vib ra to ire
2 2 5 (1 9 6 6 ) O ctave, h a lf-o cta ve and th ird -o cta ve
b and filte rs in te n d e d fo r th e ana lysis E 9 0 -3 1 0 V ib ra tio n s m ca n iq u e s des m a ch in e s
o f sounds and v ib ra tio n s 1973 le c triq u e s to u rn a n te s de h a u te u r
d'axe c o m p ris e s e n tre 8 0 et 4 0 0 m m
3 4 8 (1 9 7 8 ) S afe ty re q u ire m e n ts fo r e le ctro n ic v a lu a tio n de l'in te n s it v ib ra to ire
m e a su rin g a p p aratu s
H 0 0 -0 4 2 Essais de c h o c v e rtica l par c h u te lib re
International In te rn a tio n a l O rg a n iz a tio n fo r 1971
S ta n da rd iza tion ,
H 0 0 -0 4 3 Essai de v ib ra tio n
(I.S.O.) 1 ' Rue de V a re m b e , 1971
G eneva, S w itz e rla n d
NFC 2 0 6 1 6 M th o d e s d 'e ssa is app lica b les aux
R 2 3 7 1 -1 9 7 4 Field bala n cin g e q u ip m e n t
AVR 1 9 7 3 co m p osa nts. Essais gn rau x
d e sc rip tio n and e v a lu a tio n clim a tiq u e s e t m ca niq u es. V ib ra tio n s
R .2 9 5 3 - 1 9 7 5 B alancing m a ch in e s d e sc rip tio n and Beuth V e rla g G mbH
e va lu a tio n Germ any
B u rg g ra fe n s tr. 4 10
R 2 9 5 4 -1 9 7 5 M e c h a n ica l v ib ra tio n o f ro ta tin g and (BRD) 1 0 0 0 B e rlin 3 0
re cip ro ca tin g m a c h in e ry
R e q u irem e n ts fo r in s tru m e n ts fo r DIN 4 5 6 6 5 S c h w in g s t rk e von ro tie re n d e n e le k tr i
m e a su rin g v ib ra tio n se ve rity schen M a s c h in e n der B au g r e n 8 0
bis 3 1 5 . M e v e rfa h re n und G re n
DIS 3 7 1 9 2 B alan cin g m a ch ine s S ym bols fo r
zw e rte
fro n t panels
358
DIN 4 5 6 6 8 A n k o p p lu n g f r S c h w in g u n g s a u fn e h R 1 9 4 0 -1 9 7 3 B alance q u a lity o f ro ta tin g rig id bodies
m er zu r b erw a chu ng von G ro m a
R 2 3 7 2 -1 9 7 4 M e ch a n ica l v ib ra tio n o f m a ch in e s w ith
sch ine n
o p e ra ting speeds fro m 1 0 to
DIN ISO 2 3 7 3 M e c h a n isch e S ch w in g u n g e n vo n 2 0 0 re v /s B a sis fo r sp e cifyin g
u m la u fe n d e n e le ktrische n M a s c h in e n e valu a tion stan d a rd s
m it A c h s h h e n von 8 0 4 0 0 m m
R .2 3 7 3 - 1 9 7 4 M e ch a n ica l v ib ra tio n o f c e rta in
VDI 2 0 5 9 W e lle n s c h w in g u n g e n von T u rb o s tze n ro ta tin g e le ctrica l m a c h in e ry w ith
E n tw u rf Bl l : G ru n d la g e n f r die M e s s u n g und s h a ft h eig h ts b e tw e e n 8 0 and
B e u rte ilu n g
4 0 0 mm M e a s u re m e n t and
Bl 2: D am p ftu rb os tze f r K ra ftw e rk e e valu a tion o f th e v ib ra tio n se verity
B l.3: Ind u strie tu rb os tze
Bl 4 G asturbostze R 3 0 8 0 -1 9 7 4 G uide for th e m e c h a n ic a l b a la n cin g of
m a rin e m ain ste a m tu r b in e m a ch ine ry
VD I 2 0 6 0 B e u rte ilu n g sm a st b e f r d e n A u s
fo r m e rch an t se rvice
w u c h tz u s ta n d ro tie re n d e r s ta r re r K r
per 3945 - 1977 M e ch an ica l v ib ra tio n o f la rg e ro tatin g
m a chines w ith speed ra n g e fro m 10 to
G r e a t Britain B ritis h S tandards In s titu tio n ,
2 Park S tree t, 2 0 0 re v /s
Lon do n W . 1 M e a sure m e n t a nd e v a lu a tio n of
vib ra tio n se ve rity in s itu
B S .4 6 7 5 : 1971 R e co m m e nd a tion s fo r a b a sis fo r DIS 5 4 0 6 The m ech an ica l b a la n c in g o f fle xible
co m p a ra tive e valu a tion o f v ib ra tio n in ro tors
m a ch in e ry
BS 4 9 9 9 : 1 9 7 2 P art 5 0: M e ch a n ica l p e rfo rm a n c e -
v ib ra tio n
Netherlands N e de rlan ds N o rm a lis a tie -ln s titu u t, I.B .N . (In s titu t Belge de N o rm a lis a tio n ) ASBL
P olakw e g 5, A ven u e de la B ra b a n o n n e 2 9
R ijs w ijk (Z-H) 1 0 4 0 B ru xe lle s T e l.: 0 2 / 7 3 4 . 9 2 . 0 5
NEN - ISO 3 0 8 0 S am e as (ISO 3 0 8 0 1 9 7 4 ) C 0 6 -2 0 6 Fu nd a m n tele k lim a to lo g is c h e en
m echanische b e p ro e vin g sm e th o d e n :
NEN - ISO 3 9 4 5 S am e as (ISO 3 9 4 5 1 9 7 7 ) Deel II: Proeven; P ro ef Fc:
P olski K o m ite t N o rm a liza cji i M ia r, (S in usvo rm ige ) t rillin g e n
Poland
u l. E le kto ra ln a 2, Essais fo n d a m e n ta u x c lim a tiq u e s et de
0 0 -1 3 9 - W arszaw a robustesse m ca n iq u e : P a rtie II:
PN 7 3 E le ctrica l ro ta tin g m a ch ine s. Essais; Essai Fc: V ib ra tio n s
E 04255 M e a s u re m e n t of vib ra tion s (sinusoidales)
U.S.A.
A n ti-F ric tio n B earing M a n u fa c tu re rs UTE C 2 0 - 4 0 8 G uide pour l e ssai de ch o c s
A sso c ia tio n 1974 S pectres de ch ocs e t a u tre s
6 0 East 4 2 n d S treet ca ra ct ristiq u e s d es fo rm e s de chocs
N e w Y ork. NY 1 0 0 1 7 (11 pages)
A F B M A S ta n d a rc R o llin g bea rin g v ib ra tio n and n o is e
NF C 2 0 - 5 0 8 Essai 8: Chocs (E n r.) ( 1 0 pages)
No. 1 3 ( 1 9 6 8 )
1975
U.S.S.R. K o m ite t S tandartov,
L e n in sky P rospekt 9 b, NF C 2 0 - 5 2 3 Essai 2 3: A c c l ra tio n co nsta nte
M oskva M - 4 9 1975 (E nr.) (8 pages)
359
NF C 2 0 - 6 1 6 Essai 1 6 B: V ib ra tio n s (Enr.) (1 0 Japan J a p a n e s e S tandards A s s o c ia tio n
1973 pages) 1 -2 4 , A kasaka 4 ch m e, M in a to -k u
Essai 2 3 A : A c c l ra tio n co nsta nte T okyo
NF C 2 0 - 6 2 3
1973 (Enr.) (6 pages) JIS C 0 91 1 V ib ra tio n te s tin g pro ced ures fo r
NF C 2 0 - 6 2 4 Essai 2 4 A : S e co u sses (Enr.) (7 (1 9 6 0 ) e le c tr ic m a ch in e s and e q u ip m e n t
1973 pages) JIS C 0 9 1 2 S h o ck te s tin g procedures fo r e le c tric
NF C 9 0 - 1 6 3 Essai N r. 1 6 3 : Essai de vib ra tio n s (1 9 6 0 ) m a c h in e s and e qu ip m e nt
1967 (Enr.) (1 0 pages) JIS 1601 V ib ra tile te s tin g m ethods fo r
E 9 0 -2 0 0 M a ch ine s p o u r e ssa is de vib ra tio n s et (1 9 6 7 ) a u to m o b ile parts
1970 de chocs a b a q u e d e stin au trac JIS B 6 0 0 3 M e th o d s of vib ra tio n te s tin g fo r
des c a ra c t ris tiq u e s des ensem bles (1 9 6 2 ) m a c h in e to o ls
g n rate urs de v ib ra tio n s
JIS W 6 05 1 V ib ra tio n te s tin g m ethod fo r
E 9 0 -2 1 0 M a ch ine s p o u r e ssa is de v ib ra tio n s et
(1 9 5 4 ) a e ro n a u tic a l in stru m e n ts
1978 de chocs c a ra c t ris tiq u e s des
ensem bles g n ra te u rs JIS W 6 0 5 3 S h o ck te s tin g m ethods fo r a e ro n a u tic a l
le c tro d y n a m iq u e s de vib ra tion s (1 9 5 5 ) in s tru m e n ts
H 0 0 -0 4 3 E m ballages d 'e x p d itio n com plets et JIS W 6 0 5 4 A c c e le ra tio n te stin g m e tho d fo r
1 97 1 pleins essai de v ib ra tio n (1 9 5 5 ) a e ro n a u tic a l in stru m e n ts
G erm any B euth V e rla g G m bH Poland P o lski K o m ite t N o rm a liza cji i M ia r,
/O D n \ B u rg g ra fe n s tr. 4 10 u l. E le kto ra ln a 2,
( M U ) 1 0 0 0 B e rlin 3 0 0 0 -1 3 9 - W arszaw a
DIN 4 0 0 4 6 K lim a tisch e u n d m e c h a n isch e P r fu n
P N -7 5 T ra n s p o rt packages. M e th o d s of
gen f r e le k tris c h e B au e lem en te und 0 -7 9 1 6 6 v ib ra tio n tests
G erte der N a c h ric h te n te c h n ik
Teil 7: P r fu n g E. S to e n Sw eden S v e rig e s S ta n d a rd ise rin g s
Teil 8: P r fu n g F. S ch w in g e n k o m m is s io n , Box 3 2 9 5 ,
1 0 3 6 6 S to ckh olm
DIN 5 0 1 0 0 D a u e rs c h w in g v e rs u c h e . B e g riffe , Z e i
chen. D u rc h f h ru n g . A u s w e rtu n g SEN 4 3 1 6 0 0 M ilj p ro v n k ig av
D a u e rs c h w in g p r fm a s c h in e n e le k tro n ik k o m p o n e n te r, a llm n t
DIN 5 1 2 2 8
SEN 4 3 1 6 0 5 M ilj p ro v n in g av
G r e a t Britain B ritish S ta n d a rd s In s titu tio n ,
e le k tro n ik k o m p o n e n te r, ska kprov
2 Park S tre e t,
London W . 1 SEN 4 3 1 6 0 6 M ilj p ro v n in g av
e le k tro n ik k o m p o n e n te r, v ib ra tio n
BS 3 0 1 5 : 1 9 5 8 G lossary o f te rm s used in vib ra tion
and shock te s tin g U S.A. N aval P u b lica tio n and F orm s C e n te r,
5 8 0 1 Ta bo r A venue,
B S .2 0 1 1: 1 9 8 0 Part 1.1 B asic E n v iro n m e n ta l Testing P h ila d e lp h ia , PA 1 9 1 2 0
P ro ce d u re s. GENERAL
Part 2.1 ea Test ea Shock M IL E n v iro n m e n ta l Test M e tho d s
Part 2 1 eb Test eb B um p STD 81 OC (E q u ip m e n t)
Part 2.1 fc Test fc V ib ra tio n
(s in u s o id a l) M IL E le c tro n ic E qu ip m e nt G ro un d ; G e n e ra l
Part 2 1 fd R a n d o m V ib ra tio n W id e E 4158 E R e q u ire m e n ts for
band G e n e ra l Req
M IL E n v iro n m e n ta l Testing. A e ro n a u tic a l
Part 2.1 fda R a n d o m V ib ra tio n
E 5272 C a nd A s s o c ia te d E quipm ent, G e n e ra l
W id e b a n d R e p ro d u cib ility h ig h
S p e c ific a tio n s
Part 2.1 fdb R a nd o m V ib ra tio n W id e
b and R e p ro d u c ib ility m e d ium M IL E le c tro n ic E quipm ent, A irb o rn e ;
Part 2.1 fd c R a nd o m V ib ra tio n W id e E 5400 P G e n e ra l S p e cifica tio n s fo r
b an d R e p ro d u c ib ility lo w
MIL T e s tin g , E n viro n m e n ta l. A irc ra ft,
BS 3 G 1 0 0 : Part 2: G e n e ra l re q u ire m e n t for T 5422 F E le c tro n ic E quipm ent
1969 eq u ip m e n t in a irc ra ft
M IL E le c tro n ic , In te rio r C o m m u n ic a tio n and
Hunoarv M agyar S zab v n g g yi Hivatal E 16400 G N a v ig a tio n E quipm ent, N aval S h ip and
a Budapest 1X S h o re , G e n e ra l S p e cifica tio n s fo r
ll l t.2 5
M IL Test E q u ip m e n t for use w ith E le c tro n ic
KGST 1 3 6 7 - 7 8 Forggpek re zg serossgnek vizsg- T 21200 L a nd E le c tric a l E quipm ent, G e n e ra l
lata s rt ke l se S p e c ific a tio n s for
KGST 1 3 6 8 - 7 8 Nagy fo rg g p e k rezgserssgnek M IL Test M e th o d s fo r E le ctron ic a nd
helyszini vizsg la ta s m in sitse STD 2 0 2 E E le c tric a l C om ponents
India Indian S ta n d a rd s In s titu tio n , NATO E n v iro n m e n ta l Test M e th o d s fo r
M anak B ha va n STAN AG 3 5 1 8 A ir c r a ft E q u ip m e nt and A sso cia te d
9 B ahadur S h a h , Z a fa r M arg, G ro u n d E qu ip m e nt
N ew D e lh i 1 1 0 0 0 2
International In te rn a tio n a l O rg an iza tion fo r
2106 E n viro n m e n ta l te s ts fo r e lectron ic and
S ta n d a rd iz a tio n ,
e le ctrica l e q u ip m e n t:
(I. E.C.) 1 R ue de V arem b^,
Part VII B um p T e st (1 9 6 4 )
G e n e va , S w itze rla nd
Part VIII Im p act o r sh ock test (1 9 6 4 )
Part IX D rop te s t (1 9 6 4 ) 68 B a sic e n v iro n m e n ta l te stin g
Part XIV C o n s ta n t a ccele ra tio n test p ro c e d u re s
(1 9 6 6 )
Part XVI V ib ra tio n te s t (1 9 7 1 ) 68 -1 (1 9 6 8 ) P a rt 1. G e n e ra l
360
6 8 -1 A (1 9 7 4 ) First s u p p le m e n t to p u b lica tio n 6 8 -1 G r e a t Britain B ritis h S tandards In s titu tio n ,
(1 9 6 8 ) 2 Park S treet,
London W . 1
6 8 -2 Part 2. T e sts
BS 1 8 8 1 : 1 9 7 0 P a rt 5: M e tho d s of te s tin g co n cre te .
6 8 - 2 - 6 (1 9 7 0 ) Test Fc: V ib ra tio n (sinusoidal) M e th o d s of testin g h a rd e n e d co ncrete
fo r o th e r tha n stre ng th
6 8 - 2 - 7 (1 9 6 8 ) Test Ga: A c c e le ra tio n , steady state
BS.AU 125: A u to m o b ile series s p e c ific a tio n fo r
6 8 - 2 - 2 7 (1 9 7 2 ) Test Ea: S ho ck m e th o d s of te st fo r p an el d a m p in g
1966
6 8 - 2 - 2 9 (1 9 6 8 ) Test Eb: B u m p m a te ria ls
DD 4 7 V ib ra tio n iso la tion of s tru c tu re s by
6 8 - 2 - 3 4 ( 1 9 7 3 ) Test Fd: R a nd o m vib ra tio n w id e band
G e n e ra l re q u ire m e n ts e la s to m e tric m o u n tin g s
6 8 - 2 - 3 5 (1 9 7 3 ) Test Fda: R a nd o m vib ra tio n w id e b an d Netherlands N e d e rla n d s N o rm a lis a tie -ln s titu u t,
R e p ro d u c ib ility h igh P olakw e g 5,
R ijs w ijk (Z-H)
6 8 - 2 - 3 6 (1 9 7 3 ) Test Fdb: R a nd o m v ib ra tio n w id e b an d
R e p ro d u c ib ility m edium NEN - ISO 2 01 7 | S a m e as (ISO 201 7-1 9 7 2 )
O fic iu l de stat p en tru S ta n d a rd e
6 8 - 2 - 3 7 (1 9 7 3 ) Test Fdc: R a ndom vib ra tio n w id e b and Roumania
R e p ro d u c ib ility lo w S tr. Edgar Q uine t 6,
B uca re st 1
STAS 8 0 4 8 - 6 7 M e a s u re m e n t of d yn a m ic s tiffn e s s of
v ib ra tio n absorbing m a te ria ls in
H .6. Measurement of
b u ild in g acoustics
U.S.A.
A m e ric a n Society fo r T e s tin g
Dynamic Properties of M aterials
a n d M a te ria ls,
F ra n rp L 'A s s o c ia tio n Franaise de 1 9 1 6 Race S t.,
N o rm a lis a tio n (AFNOR), P hila d e lp h ia , Pa. 1 9 1 0 3
To ur E urop e, 9 2 Courbevoie ASTM "S ta nd ard m ethod o f te s t fo r
NFS 3 1 0 4 9 M e su re du p o u v o ir d 'iso latio n C 2 1 5 -6 0 fu n d a m e n ta l tra n sve rse , lo n g itu d in a l
FEV. 1 9 7 9 a co u stiq u e des l m e n ts de a n d to rs io n a l fre q u e n cie s o f concrete
co n s tru c tio n et de l'iso le m e n t des s p e c im e n s ". A n n u a l A S T M S ta n da rd s
im m e u b le s, (fid lit ) P a rt 10
361
INDEX
362
background noise ...................................................................................................... 159
balancing ......................................................................................................... 2 6 8 291
balancing m achine ............................................................................. 2 7 6 2 7 8 , 285
balancing q uality ............................................................................................. 2 7 3 , 285
bandw idth ................................................................................................................... 177
bearing supports, bearing housing vib ra tio n ................................. 1 9 7 , 1 9 9 , 279
best param eter ................................................................................................ 2 0 2 , 209
broad-band com ponents ......................................................................................... 180
BT a product ........................................................................................... 1 7 3 , 1 7 9 , 184
bum p recorder ......................................................................... 1 4 4 1 4 5 , 2 6 2 263
cable noise .............................................................................................. 1 0 9 , 1 2 7 , 128
calibration .......................................................................................................... 1 1 5 , 218
calibrators (vibration) .................................................................................... 11 6 1 20
calculator ...................................................................................... 15 6 , 1 8 4 , 2 0 8 , 2 1 0
charge a m plifiers ...................................................................................................... 112
charge se n sitivity ............................................................................................ 1 12, 113
check-list (vibration m easurem ents) .................................................................... 158
coherence fu n c tio n .......................................................................................................... 5
com fort boundary ........................................................................................................... 91
com plex frequency response .................................................................. 4 3 , 5 5 , 33 0
com plex shock .................................................................................................... 3 3 ,2 6 1
com pliance ........................................................................................................ 2 5 1 , 252
compound system ............................................................................................... 302
com pressional vib ra tio n .............................................................................................. 65
compressor ....................................................................................................... 2 4 4 , 249
com puter program fo r balancing ............................................................... 2 8 3 , 284
constant % b a n dw idth analysis ....................... 1 6 1 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 8 , 1 6 9 , 1 8 6 , 196
constant % b a n d w id th analyzer .......................................... 1 3 2 1 3 3 , 1 4 9 151
constant bandw idth a n a ly s is ............................................................. 1 6 0 , 1 6 8 , 186
constant bandw idth analyzer .................................................................................. 151
continuous processes .................................................................................................. 27
continuous spectra .............................................................................. 2 5 , 2 6 , 3 3 , 34
convolution .......................................................................................................... 4 2 , 165
Coulomb dam ping ...................................................................................................... 319
Coulum b fric tio n ............................................................................................................ 53
couple unbalance ....................................................................................................... 27 0
coupling ................................................................................................................. 4 6 , 315
crack fo rm a tion , detection of ................................................................................. 225
crankshaft balancing ................................................................................................ 287
crest factor ............................................................................................................ 2 3 , 161
critica l speed ............................................................................................................... 285
cross correlation .............................................................................................................. 5
cross spectral density .................................................................................................... 5
dam ping m atrix .............................................................................................................. 67
DC recording ......................................................................................... 1 6 3 , 1 7 3 , 175
decay rate m ethod .......................................................................................... 3 2 2 , 3 2 4
363
decibels (dB) .................................................................................................................. 3 4 5
desktop calculator ..................................................................... 156, 1 8 4 , 2 0 8 , 2 1 0
d e te cto r ......................................................................................................................... 1 60
d e tecto r response ................................................................................. 1 6 1 , 1 6 3 , 191
d ig ita l cassette tape recorder .................................................................................. 156
d ig ita l filte r analyzer ..................................................... 1 6 2 , 1 6 3 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 4 193
d ig ita l filte rin g ........................................................ 3 3 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 5 , 1 8 9 192
d ig ita l processing ............................................................................................ 1 5 5 , 1 5 6
D iscrete Fourier Transform (DFT) ............................................................................. 164
d iscre te frequency com ponents ................................................................... 1 8 0 , 185
dislocations .......................................................................................................... 7 3 , 2 1 3
displacem ent ............................................................................................. 9 7 , 3 3 5 , 3 39
drop te st m achine ...................................................................................................... 257
d yn a m ic absorber ........................................................................................... 3 1 1 3 18
d yna m ic balancing ......................................................................................... 2 7 6 , 2 83
d yn a m ic range ....................................................... 1 7 3 , 1 7 5 , 1 9 0 , 1 9 9 , 2 0 0 , 345
d yna m ic stiffness ....................................................................................................... 252
d yna m ic strain ........................................................................................................ 5, 171
d yna m ic unbalance ................................................................................................... 2 7 0
effe ctive impulse length ........................................................................................... 161
effe ctive record length ............................................................. 177, 1 7 9 , 1 8 8 , 193
electrodynam ic vib ra to r ................................................................................ 2 3 9 24 2
electrohydraulic v ib ra to r ........................................................................................... 23 8
electrom agnetic noise .................................................................................... 1 0 9 , 129
ensem ble averaging ..................................................................................................... 37
enveloping .................................................................................................................... 24 8
e n vironm ental effects (accelerom eters) .................................................. 1 0 8 111
e n vironm ental te stin g ............................................................................................... 23 7
e q u a lize r/a n a lyze r system s .................................................................................... 24 9
e q u ivale n t averaging tim e ............................................................................ 1 8 8 , 192
e rro r, standard .................................................................................................. 1 7 3 , 179
e xcite r ........................................................................................................................... 2 3 8
e xcite r control ................................................................................................. 2 4 4 2 47
exponential averaging ............................................................... 184, 1 9 1 , 1 9 2 , 3 45
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) .............................. 3 2 , 1 6 0 , 164, 1 7 5 1 8 4 , 186
FFT analyzer ..................................................................... 1 5 0 , 154, 1 7 6 , 1 9 3 , 194
fa tig u e ......................................................................................................... 7 2 , 2 2 5 , 26 8
fatigue-decreased proficiency .................................................................................... 90
fie ld balancing ..................................................................................... 2 6 8 , 2 7 8 28 5
filte r ................................................................ 9 9 , 1 4 7 1 4 8 , 160, 1 8 9 , 1 9 0 , 28 0
filte r characteristic .............................................................................. 1 6 3 , 1 6 5 , 168
filte r response ................................................................ 1 6 0 161, 1 6 8 , 1 7 3 , 189
fin e balancing .............................................................................................................. 28 5
fin ite elem ent te chniques ................................................................................. 6 5 69
fix tu re , vibration te st ................................................................................................ 243
fle x ib le rotors ................................................................................................... 2 8 5 , 28 9
364
fle xu re resonance ...................................................................................................... 2 4 0
flo a tin g floor ................................................................................................................. 3 0 0
force testing ......................................................................................... 2 3 7 , 2 5 1 2 5 5
force tra nsd uce r ............................................................................................... 1 2 0 ,2 5 1
fo rm factor ....................................................................................................................... 23
found atio n reaction ................................................................................................... 2 9 5
Fourier frequency spectrum ........................................... 2 3 , 29, 3 6 , 5 7 , 5 9 , 3 3 7
Fourier integral ..................................................................................................... 2 9 , 34
Fourier tra n sfo rm .............................................................................. 3 4 , 4 3 , 5 5 , 164
frequency analysis ....................................................................................... 2 3 , 3 1 , 9 9
frequency analysis, shock ................................................................ 1 7 6 , 1 8 5 192
frequency analyzer ............................................................. 3 1 , 9 9 , 1 4 9 1 5 6 , 2 1 0
frequency analyzer, analogue ............................................................ 3 1 , 1 4 9 152
frequency analyzer, digital ........................................................................... 1 5 2 156
frequency dom ain ......................................................................................................... 25
frequency range ............................................................................................... 1 0 2 , 2 0 0
frequency resolution ...................................................................................... 1 7 7 , 193
frequency response ....................................... 4 3 , 5 5 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 6 , 1 2 7 , 2 3 7 , 331
frequency spectrum (continuous) ..................................................... 2 5 , 2 6 , 3 3 , 34
frequency sw eep test ................................................................................................. 2 45
gamma fun ctio n ............................................................................................................. 77
Gaussian curve .................................................................................................... 2 8 , 3 3 0
Gaussian random process ............................................................................... 5 5 , 3 3 0
gearbox vibrations .......................................................................................... 1 7 1 , 181
Geiger test .................................................................................................................... 3 2 4
ground loops .................................................................................................... 1 0 9 , 129
half-pow er points ............................................................................................... 4 4 , 3 23
hand-arm vibration .......................................................................... 8 8 , 9 1 9 4 , 132
hardening spring ........................................................................... 4 7 , 3 0 9 , 3 3 4 , 3 3 7
harm onic m otion ........................................................................................................... 20
harm onics ............................................................................................................. 5 2 , 1 75
Hanning w e ig h tin g ................................... 1 6 4 , 1 6 5 , 1 6 6 , 179, 1 8 0 , 1 8 8 , 193
head constant ............................................................................................................... 241
heterodyne analyzer ................................................................................................... 151
heterodyne slave filte r .............................................................................................. 148
histogram ......................................................................................................................... 74
IEC/IEEE Interface ..................................................................................................... 156
impedance head .......................................................................................................... 2 55
impedance transducer .............................................................................................. 120
im pulse analysis ................................................................................. 1 7 6 , 1 8 5 192
inertance ...................................................................................................................... 2 52
in fin ite degrees of freedom ................................................................................ 6 0 , 63
influence coe fficie n t method (balancing) ........................... 2 7 3 , 2 8 3 , 2 8 7 , 289
integration (electronic) ..................................................... 9 7 , 114, 1 3 6 , 2 4 6 , 3 39
in tegration, of continuous signals ........................................................... 3 3 9 3 4 2
in tegration, of tra n sien ts ............................................................................. 3 4 2 345
365
in te r-h a rm o n ics .......................................................................................................... 175
interchangeable heads ............................................................................................. 241
interface dam ping ...................................................................................................... 3 1 9
iso la tio n ............................................................................................................ 2 9 2 311
iso la tio n , vibration ......................................................................................... 2 9 2 3 0 3
iso la tio n , shock ............................................................................................... 3 0 4 311
iso la to r table ............................................................................................................... 3 1 0
ja w -s k u ll system ............................................................................................................ 86
jo u rn a l bearings .......................................................................................................... 1 98
Kaiser effect ...................................................................................................... 2 2 9 , 2 3 0
kinetosis (m otion sickness) .............................................................................. 8 8 , 132
lateral stability ............................................................................................................. 2 9 4
level recorder ........................................................ 1 3 1 , 1 4 6 , 1 5 7 , 1 6 3 , 1 7 3 , 2 4 4
lin e a r am plitude scale .................................................................................... 2 0 3 , 3 4 5
lin e a r averaging .............................................................. 1 6 2 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 4 , 1 9 0 , 192
lin e a r frequency scale ............................................................. 1 6 8 1 7 1 , 1 8 6 , 196
LM S detector ................................................................................................................. 161
lo g a rith m ic am plitude scale .................................................. 1 6 8 1 7 1 , 2 0 3 , 3 4 5
lo g a rith m ic frequency scale .................................................. 1 6 8 1 7 1 , 1 8 6 , 196
long transients, an a lysis o f ......................................................................... 1 8 7 1 89
loss factor ...................................................................................................................... 3 2 2
m achine health m o n ito rin g , condition m onitoring ........... 1 7 6 , 1 9 4 , 1 9 7 , 2 0 5
m achine run-up or ru n -d o w n ................................................................................... 193
m ains-operated in s tru m e n ts ...................................................................... 1 4 7 158
mass m atrix ........................................................................................................... 6 7 , 68
m astic deadeners ........................................................................................................ 3 1 9
m axim ax spectrum ................................................................................ 5 8 , 3 0 4 3 0 6
m ean square spectral density .................................................................. 2 6 , 2 9 , 55
m ean stress effects (on fatigue) ....................................................................... 7 8 , 79
m easuring a m p lifie rs .................................................................................... 1 4 7 148
m echanical im pedance ..................................................................... 1 2 1 ,2 5 1 2 5 5
m echanical im pedance transducer ........................................................................ 12 0
m o b ility ................................................................................................... 2 5 1 2 5 5 , 198
modal balancing ........................................................................................................... 2 8 7
modal density .................................................................................................................. 69
mode ........................................................................................................................ 6 0 64
m o m e n t of inertia .......................................................................................................... 53
m otion analyzer ............................................................................................................ 141
m oving elem ent ........................................................................................................... 2 4 0
m ulti-degree of freedom ....................................................... 4 6 , 5 2 , 5 8 , 2 9 4 , 3 3 7
m ultiple-span shafts ................................................................................................... 2 8 8
N -w ave (sonic boom) ..................................................................................... 1 8 9 , 190
negative damping ............................................................................................................ 53
negative frequency .............................................................................................. 3 0 , 176
noise flo o r ...................................................................................................................... 159
non-destructive te s tin g (N D T )................................................................................... 2 1 2
366
n on-linear isolators ................................................................................................... 3 0 9
non -lin e a r stiffn e ss ..................................................................... 4 7 5 2 , 3 3 4 3 3 6
non -lin e a r system s ................................................................ 4 6 5 3 , 5 8 , 2 4 5 , 3 3 4
non -station ary signals ................................................................. 3 6 3 8 , 1 8 1 , 184
non -station ary signal analysis .................................................................... 1 9 2 196
norm alized Gaussian curve ........................................................................................ 28
Nyquist freq uency ....................................................................................................... 176
o il-film properties ............................................................................................. 1 9 8 ,1 9 9
on-condition m aintenance .................................................................. 2 0 5 , 2 0 6 , 211
o rb it plots ...................................................................................................................... 144
order analysis .................................................................................................... 1 5 4 , 155
oscillator ....................................................................................................................... 245
peak probability d e n s ity ................................................................................................ 75
periodic signals ...................................................................................... 2 0 , 1 6 8 , 177
perm anent m onitoring ............................................................................................... 2 0 8
phase m eter ............................................................................................ 2 5 5 , 2 8 0 , 2 8 5
picket fence e ffect ............................................................................................ 1 6 6 , 194
piezoelectric accelerom eters .............................................................. 1 0 0 , 2 4 6 , 24 7
plastic deform ation, detection o f .......................................................................... 22 5
point im pedance ........................................................................................................ 251
point m obility ............................................................................................................... 251
portable battery-operated e q u ipm e n t ....................................................... 1 2 9 147
pow er a m p lifie r .......................................................................... 2 3 9 , 2 4 4 2 4 8 , 2 5 0
pream plifiers ...................................................... 1 1 2 1 1 5 ,1 3 8 1 4 1 , 2 1 7 , 2 2 0
pream plifier table ....................................................................................................... 115
predictive m aintenance ............................................................................................ 205
preventive m aintenance ............................................................................................ 2 0 4
probability density .................................................................................... 2 6 2 8 , 32 8
production co n tro l, quality c o n tro l ........................................................................ 23 7
pulse height, effective ................................................................................. 3 0 5 30 7
pulse shape .................................................................................................................. 25 6
pulse-area m easurem ents ......................................................................................... 221
q u a lity control ............................................................................................................... 176
q u a lity factor, Q-factor .......................................................................... 4 4 , 1 6 8 , 186
R .M .S. value .............................................................................................. 2 2 , 3 3 , 328
random testing ................................................................................... 2 3 7 , 2 4 8 251
random signals .................................................................. 26, 1 7 4 , 1 8 4 , 2 4 4 , 32 8
Rayleigh d istrib u tio n ...................................................................................................... 75
Raynaud's disease (w hite fin g e r, "dead hand ) .................................................... 94
real-tim e analysis .......................................................................................... 1 7 5 196
Real-Time Analyzer (RTA) ............................................ 1 5 2 1 5 6 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 5 , 249
real-tim e frequency ..................................................................................................... 181
receptance ..................................................................................................................... 252
reciprocating m achines ................................................................................... 1 8 1 , 193
recorder ........................................................................................................................ 1 60
reduced com fort boundary ............................................................................................ 91
367
re gulation speed ........................................................................................................ 2 4 5
relative vibration, d is p la c e m e n t............................................. 1 9 7 , 1 99, 2 0 0 , 201
residual shock spe ctru m ................................................................................. 5 8 , 3 3 7
resonant frequency ...................................................................................................... 4 4
response, acceleration ..................................................................................... 4 1 ,3 3 1
response, displacem ent .................................................................................. 4 1 , 3 3 0
response, force ............................................................................................................. 3 0 5
response, shock .............................................................................................................. 5 8
response, velocity ................................................................................... 4 1 , 3 3 1 , 3 3 8
rin g -d o w n counting ..................................................................................................... 221
rocking effects .............................................................................................................. 3 0 0
ro llin g elem ent bearings .............................................................................. 2 0 0 , 2 2 6
rota tio n a l vibrations ....................................................................................................... 53
ru n -to -b re a k m aintenance ........................................................................................ 2 0 4
ru n n in g exponential average ...................................................................... 1 6 2 , 1 9 0
ru n n in g linear average ........................................................................ 1 62, 1 8 9 , 1 9 0
S-N curve ............................................................................................... 7 4 , 7 5 , 7 7 79
sam pling frequency ........................................................................................ 1 6 5 , 1 7 7
sandw ich structures ......................................................................................... 3 2 1 , 3 2 2
scan analysis ...................................................................................................... 1 8 1 , 1 8 8
scan average ................................................................................................................. 1 8 8
serial analysis (swept fre q u e n cy analysis) .................................. 1 7 1 1 7 5 ,2 0 7
shape factor, filte r ...................................................................................................... 1 6 8
shock ............................................................................................................. 3 3 , 1 8 5 , 3 3 7
shock isolation ................................................................................................ 3 0 4 311
shock m achine ................................................................................................ 2 5 7 261
shock response ...................................................................................................... 5 7 , 58
shock spectra ......................................................................................................... 5 7 6 0
shock synthesis ........................................................................................................... 2 6 0
shock testing ................................................................................................... 2 5 6 261
sh o rt-te rm frequency spectrum ............................................................................... 19 2
sidebands ........................................................................................................... 1 7 5 , 181
sidelobes ............................................................................................................ 1 6 5 , 1 66
S iebert's construction .................................................................................... 2 7 9 , 2 8 0
single degree of freedom .............................................................. 4 1 , 45 , 3 3 0 , 3 3 4
sinusoidal testing ................................................................................ 2 3 7 , 2 4 4 2 4 8
six degree of freedom ................................................................................................. 2 9 4
slave filte r ...................................................................................................................... 14 8
slip bands ......................................................................................................................... 73
softening spring ......................................................................................... 47 , 31 1, 3 3 6
sonic boom, see N -wave
Sound Level M eter ........................................................................................ 1 3 5 13 8
specific unbalance ........................................................................................................ 2 6 9
spectral density, pow er .................................................................... 2 6 , 29, 3 4 , 17 9
spectral density, energy .................................................................................... 3 4 , 18 6
spectrum equalization ................................................................................................. 2 4 9
368
spectral line ..................................................................................................................... 36
spectrum averaging ................................................................................................... 178
spectrum shaper ............................................................................................... 2 4 9 , 259
squaring c irc u it ..................................................................................... 1 6 1 , 1 8 9 , 190
standing w ave ................................................................................................................. 61
static unbalance .......................................................................................................... 2 6 9
stationary process .................................................................. 2 6 , 2 7 , 3 0 , 1 8 0 , 32 9
stationary signals ..................................................................... 1 6 6 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 1 185
statistical energy analysis ........................................................................................... 69
stiffness m atrix ...................................................................................................... 66, 67
stress concentrations .................................................................................................... 73
stress ratio .............................................................................................................. 7 8 , 79
stress reversals .................................................................................................... 7 3 77
stress-w ave em ission (SWE) ................................................................................... 212
stroboscope ................................................................................... 1 4 1 , 1 4 2 , 2 4 4 , 28 0
structural response testing ......................................................................... 2 5 1 255
subharm onics ......................................................................................................... 5 0 , 52
superharm onics .............................................................................................................. 52
superposition p rinciple ............................................................................. 4 1 , 4 7 , 338
suspension resonance .............................................................................................. 24 0
sw ept frequency analysis ........................................................................................ 163
tachom eter .............................................................................................. 1 8 1 , 1 9 4 , 28 0
tape recorder ................................................................................ 1 3 8 , 1 7 5 , 2 0 7 , 249
tem perature tra n s ie n ts ............................................................................................ 109
thorax-abdom en system ............................................................................................... 85
tim e averaging ................................................................................................................ 37
tim e history ...................................................................................................................... 28
tim e w in d o w , fla t .......................................................... 1 6 4 1 6 5 , 1 7 7 , 1 8 6 , 187
tim e w in d o w , H anning ...................................................................... 1 6 4 1 6 5 , 177
tim e w in d o w , tim e w eig h tin g fu n ctio n .......................................... 1 6 5 , 1 9 2 , 193
torque ................................................................................................................................ 53
torsional vibrations ........................................................................................................ 53
tracking filte r .......................................................................................... 1 3 4 , 2 4 5 , 255
tra n sfe r im pedance ................................................................................................... 251
tra n sfe r m obility .......................................................................................................... 251
transform size .............................................................................................................. 176
tra n sie n t analysis ........................................................... 1 6 6 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 5 , 1 7 6 , 185
tra n sie n t phenom enon ................................................................. 3 3 3 6 , 1 8 7 ,3 4 2
tra n sie n t response .................................................................................................... 106
tra n sm issib ility, displacem ent ................................................................................ 303
tra n sm issib ility, force ............................................................................................... 2 9 4
transverse s e n sitivity (accelerometer) ................................................................. 105
transverse vib ra tio n s (beams) .................................................................................... 61
transverse vib ra tio n s (plates) ..................................................................................... 63
tria l mass ...................................................................................................................... 280
trib o -e lectric effects ......................................................................................... 1 0 9 , 127
3 69
tu n a b le f i l t e r .................................................................................................................. 1 3 0
tu n in g , absorber .......................................................................................................... 3 1 5
unbalance ...................................................................................................................... 2 7 3
ve lo c ity ....................................................................................................... 9 7 , 3 3 5 , 3 3 9
vib ra tio n absorber .......................................................................................... 3 1 1 3 1 8
vib ra tio n calibrator ........................................................................................ 1 1 6 1 2 0
v ib ra tio n exposure c rite ria ......................................................................... 9 0 , 9 1 , 93
vib ra tio n m easurem ent scheme (s u m m a ry )......................................................... 15 8
v ib ra tio n meter .............................................................. 1 2 9 13 5, 1 7 5 , 2 0 6 , 2 8 0
vib ra tio n testing .............................................................................................. 2 3 7 2 5 5
v ib ra to r, e lectrohydraulic ........................................................................................... 2 3 8
vib ra to r, electrodynam ic .............................................................................. 2 3 9 2 4 2
viscoelastic m aterials .................................................................................... 3 1 9 3 2 2
voltage am plifier .......................................................................................................... 112
voltage sensitivity ......................................................................................................... 112
w ave effects .................................................................................................................. 2 9 5
w ave-shape ............................................................................................... 5 1 , 3 3 4 , 3 3 5
w ave-shape d isto rtio n ................................................................................................ 3 3 4
w a ve fo rm analysis ........................................................................................ 1 4 3 14 4
w h ite fin g e r ...................................................................................................................... 94
w hole -b o d y vibration ......................................................................................... 8.8, 132
w id e band test .............................................................................................................. 2 4 8
W ie n e r-K h in ch in re la tio n s ........................................................................................... 3 0
W o h le r Kurve ....................................................................................................... 7 4 , 2 3 7
X-Y recorder ................................................................................................................... 157
zero s h ift ......................................................................................................................... 106
zoom analysis ................................................................................................... 1 8 1 , 1 87
370
Bruel & Kjr
DK-2850 NRUM, DENMARK Telephone: + 4 5 2 8 0 0 5 0 0 Telex: 37316 bruka dk
19-082