Food Chemistry 124 (2011) 132140

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Food Chemistry
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Physicochemical and antioxidative properties of red and black rice

varieties from Thailand, China and Sri Lanka
R. Sompong a,b, S. Siebenhandl-Ehn a,*, G. Linsberger-Martin a, E. Berghofer a
a
Department of Food Science and Technology, Division of Food Technology, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
b
Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Technology and Community Development, Thaksin University, 222 Moo 2 Tambon Ban Praow Pa Phayom District,
Phatthalung 93110, Thailand

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Nine red and three black rice varieties from Thailand, China and Sri Lanka were analysed to determine
Received 23 November 2009 their proximate composition and their physicochemical and antioxidant properties. Four groups of rice
Received in revised form 9 April 2010 varieties with different amylose contents were identied. Cyanidin 3-glucoside and peonoidin 3-gluco-
Accepted 26 May 2010
side were conrmed as the dominant anthocyanins in black rice varieties with contents ranging from
19.4 to 140.8 mg/100 g DM and 11.112.8 mg/100 g DM, respectively. Total phenolic content (TPC) dif-
fered signicantly between the varieties, but not between the colours. Highest TPC was found in the
Keywords:
red Thai rice Bahng Gawk (BG) with 691 FA equivalent mg/100 g DM, which showed as well the highest
Coloured rice
Black rice
antioxidant properties. In red varieties, the major phenolic acids in the free form were ferulic, proto-
Red rice catechuic and vanillic acid, whereas in black varieties protocatechuic acid was dominant followed by
Physicochemical properties vanillic and ferulic acid. In the bound form, ferulic acid was predominant in both colours, where contents
Anthocyanins differed signicantly, followed by p-coumaric and vanillic acid. The antioxidative capacity did not differ
Phenolic compounds signicantly between both colours but amongst genotypes. Antioxidant capacity of rice varieties ranged
Antioxidant capacity within 0.98.1 mmol Fe(II)/100 g DM for FRAP and 2.112.3 mmol TEAC/100 g DM. DPPH scavenging
ability ranged from 13.0% to 76.4% remaining DPPH.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Rice is a major cereal crop in the developing world. It is con-
sumed as a staple food by over one-half of the worlds population
with approximately 95% of production in Asia (Bhattacharjee, Sing-
hal, & Kulkarni, 2002). Although widely consumed as white rice,
there are many special cultivars of rice that contain colour pig-
ments, such as black rice, red rice and brown rice. Their name refer
to the kernel colour (black, red or purple) which is formed by
deposits of anthocyanins in different layers of the pericarp, seed
coat and aleurone (Chaudhary, 2003).
According to FAOSTAT (2009), in 2008 China was the major rice
producer with 187.4 Mio tonnes, followed by Thailand with
32.1 Mio tonnes and Sri Lanka with 3.1 Mio tonnes. The latest agro-
nomic data from Thailand indicate an increasing rice export
(10.2 Mio tonnes) in 2008 compared to 2007 (9.2 Mio tonnes), of
which white non-glutinous rice yielded 40.8%, followed by par-
boiled rice (26.4%) and Jasmine rice (24.4%). According to agricul-
tural statistics from the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
in Thailand, in 2008 the categories glutinous rice and husked rice
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +43 1 47654 6250; fax: +43 1 47654 6251.
E-mail address: susanne.siebenhandl@boku.ac.at (S. Siebenhandl-Ehn).
accounted together for 4.9% and contain as well coloured rice cul-
tivars. Specic data for coloured rice date back to 2003, where
Chaudhary (2003) quoted China as the richest country in black rice
resources (62%) followed by Sri Lanka (8.6%), Indonesia (7.2%), In-
dia (5.1%), the Philippines (4.3%), Bangladesh (4.1%), and few in
Malaysia, Thailand and Myanmar.
Coloured rices are reported as potent sources of antioxidants
and encouragements as viable sources of antioxidants for func-
tional foods were made (Yawadio, Tanimori, & Morita, 2007). Of
these, red rice gained popularity in Japan as a functional food be-
cause of its high polyphenols and anthocyanin content (Itani &
Ogawa, 2004). Before the health benecial effects of pigmented
rice emerged, Chaudhary (2003) saw an upcoming demand of black
rice as an organic food colouring agent which has been at least
partly possible due to the increased production of black rice.
Black rice has a number of nutritional advantages over common
rice, such as a higher content of protein, vitamins and minerals,
although the latter varies with cultivar and production location
(Suzuki, Kimura, Yamagishi, Shinmoto, & Yamaki, 2004). Anthocy-
anin pigments have been reported to be highly effective in reduc-
ing cholesterol levels in the human body (Lee, Kim, Hsieh, & Eun,
2008). Inhibitory effects of extracts of pigmented rice bran on
in vitro allergic reactions were determined by Choi, Kang, Koh,

0308-8146/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.05.115
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Nam, and Friedman (2007). Effects of peonidin, peonidin 3-gluco-
side and cyanidin 3-glucoside, major anthocyanins extracted from
black rice, also exerted an inhibitory effect of cell invasion on var-
ious cancer cells (Chen et al., 2006).
Several works were done on rice to either determine the antho-
cyanin prole (Ichikawa et al., 2001; Ryu, Park, & Ho, 1998; Yawa-
dio et al., 2007), the antioxidant activity of rice (Choi, Jeong, & Lee,
2007; Shen, Jin, Xiao, Lu, & Bao, 2009) or more recently with se-
lected fractions thereof e.g. rice bran (Chotimarkorn, Benjakul,
& Silalai, 2008; Lai, Li, Lu, & Chen, 2009).
However, characterisation of the rice cultivars in terms of com-
position of nutrients and phytochemicals, as well as rheological as-
pects is rather seldom taken into consideration. This work covers
these aspects in terms of technological and nutritional sense by
elucidating the composition of thirteen different rice cultivars
and the relationship between antioxidant activities.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Grain samples and preparation
Thirteen coloured rice varieties were evaluated whereof eight
varieties were donated from the Phatthalung Rice Research Centre,
Thailand. The red Thai varieties used in this study were Bahng
Gawk (BG), Haek Yah (HY), Niaw Look Pueng (LP), Sung Yod Phat-
thalung (SY), Niaw Dawk Yong (DY), Niaw Lan Tan (LT) and the
black Thai varieties were Niaw Dam Pleuak Khao (PK), Niaw Dam
Pleuak Dam (PD). Two unknown varieties were purchased from a
supermarket in China and termed as Chinese Black Rice (CNB)
and Chinese Red Rice (CNR). Another three unknown varieties were
purchased from a local market in Sri Lanka and hereafter termed as
Sri Lanka Red Rice 1 (SRI1), Sri Lanka Red Rice 2 (SRI2) and Sri Lan-
ka Red Rice 3 (SRI3).
Preparation of rice our for analysis was done shortly before
analysis by using an Ultra Centrifugal Mill (Retsch GmbH, Haan,
Germany) with a 0.25 mm sieve. The whole grain and the rice our
samples were kept at 4 C prior to analysis in screw-capped plastic
containers. All experiments were done at least in triplicate and
analytical results were expressed on a dry matter basis.
2.1.2. Chemicals and reagents
The 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid
(Trolox), 2,20 -azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid)
diammonium salt (ABTS), and 2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine (TPTZ),
triuoroacetic acid, potassium persulfate, sodium hydroxide, Fo-
linCiocalteus reagent and phenolic acid standards (gallic acid,
protocatechuic acid, 4-OH-benzoic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid,
p-coumaric acid, o-coumaric acid and trans-ferulic acid) were pur-
chased from SigmaAldrich (Vienna, Austria) and anthocyanin
standards (cyanidin 3-glucoside, cyanidin 3-galactoside, peonidin
3-glucoside, pelargonidin, peonidin and cyanidin) were from Extra-
synthese (Genay, France). Acetonitrile was obtained from VWR
(Vienna, Austria). Methanol was purchased from Roth (Graz,
Austria). All chemicals and solvents used in the study were of
HPLC-grade.
2.2. Proximate analysis
Moisture and ash contents of rice ours were determined
according to AOAC approved standard methods 940.56 and
920.153, respectively (AOAC, 1995). Crude protein was determined
according to the ICC standard method 105/2 (ICC, 2001) using the
factor 5.95 N for conversion. Total lipids were analysed gravi-
metrically by extraction with petroleum ether as described by
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Matissek, Schnepel, and Steiner (1992). Total dietary bre content
was measured with the enzymaticgravimetric method using the
Megazyme kit (K-TDFR). The carbohydrate content (estimated total
carbohydrate content) was determined by difference from the
analysis of moisture, protein, ash and lipids.
2.3. Amylose content (AC)
One millilitre of ethanol (95%) and 9 ml 1 N NaOH were added
to 100 mg of our. After mixing, the samples were heated for
10 min in a boiling water bath to gelatinise the starch. Samples
were cooled down and transferred to a 100 ml volumetric ask
and 5 ml of starch solution and 1 ml 1 N acetic acid were added.
After addition of 2 ml iodine solution the volume was adjusted to
100 ml with distilled water, mixed, and allowed to stand for
20 min. The absorbance was measured at 620 nm using a spectro-
photometer (U-1100, Hitachi, Japan). The amylose content was
determined from a previous standard curve of potato amylose
(Juliano, 1985).
Rice varieties were classied into ve groups according to their
amylose content: waxy (12%), very low (29%), low (1020%),
intermediate (2025%), and high (2533%) (IRRI, 2009).
2.4. Pasting properties
The pasting behaviour was studied with a Micro Visco-Amylo-
Graph (803200 series, Brabender OHG, Duisburg, Germany)
using rice our slurries with a concentration of 10% on dry matter
basis. The temperaturetime conditions included a heating step
from 30 to 95 C at a rate of 7.5 C/min, a holding period of
5 min at 95 C followed by a cooling step to 30 C at the same rate
and a holding period of 1 min at 30 C. The bowl speed was
75 rpm and the measuring range 250 cm g. Pasting temperature
( C), peak time (min, time at which peak viscosity was reached),
peak viscosity (Brabender Units (BU), maximum viscosity during
heating or holding at 95 C), trough viscosity (BU, minimum vis-
cosity during holding period at 95 C), nal viscosity (BU), break-
down viscosity (BU, difference between peak and trough
viscosity) and setback viscosity (BU, difference between nal
and trough viscosity) were recorded and analysed with the Brab-
ender Viscograph Data Correlation (version 1.10.17, Brabender
OHG, Duisburg, Germany) software.
2.5. Determination of total anthocyanin content
Determination of the total amount of anthocyanins (TAC) was
done using the reported spectrophotometric method (Abdel-Aal
& Hucl, 1999). Anthocyanins were extracted with acidied metha-
nol (methanol and 1 M HCl, 85:15, v/v) with a solvent to sample ra-
tio of 1:10. Absorbance was measured after centrifugation at
525 nm against a reagent blank. Cyanidin 3-glucoside-chloride
was used as standard pigment, and TAC was expressed as mg
cyanidin 3-glucoside equivalent per 100 g our.
2.6. Extraction procedure to determine the antioxidant properties
Each rice our (1.5 g) was weighed accurately and extracted at
room temperature with 85% aqueous methanol under agitation
using a magnetic stirrer for 30 min. The mixtures were centrifuged
at 2500g for 10 min and the supernatants were collected. The res-
idues were re-extracted twice under the same conditions, resulting
nally in 50 ml crude extract. All extracts were used as they were
after centrifugation to determine TPC and antioxidant capacity.
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2.7. Determination of total phenolic content (TPC)
The TPC of extracts was determined using the FolinCiocalteu
reagent (Singleton, Orthofer, & Lamuela-Raventos, 1999). Extract
(120 ll) was added to 600 ll of freshly diluted 10-fold FolinCio-
calteu reagent. Nine hundred and sixty microlitres of sodium car-
bonate solution (75 g/l) was added to the mixture after 2 min
reaction time. The absorbance of the resulting blue colour was
measured at 760 nm against a blank after 5 min of reaction at
50 C. Ferulic acid was used as standard and TPC was expressed
as mg ferulic acid (FA) equivalent per 100 g our.
2.8. Determination of ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP)
The FRAP assay is based on the reduction of the Fe(III)TPTZ
complex to the ferrous form at low pH. This reduction is monitored
by measuring the absorption change at 595 nm (Benzie & Strain,
1999). Briey, 200 ll of rice extract was mixed with 1.3 ml of the
FRAP reagent. Absorption was measured at 595 nm using a spec-
trophotometer (U-1100, Hitachi, Japan) after 30 min incubation
at 37 C. FRAP reagent was prepared daily and consisted of 0.3 M
acetate buffer (pH 3.6), 10 mM TPTZ in 40 mM HCl and 20 mM
FeCl3 in a ratio of 10:1:1 (v/v/v). FRAP values were obtained by
comparing the absorption change in the test mixture with doses
obtained from increasing concentrations of Fe(III) and expressed
as mmol of Fe(II) equivalents per 100 g our.
2.9. Determination of 2,20 -diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-
scavenging ability
DPPH radical-scavenging ability of rice extracts was evaluated
according to the procedure reported by Brand-Williams, Cuvelier,
and Berset (1995). The reaction mixture contained 1.5 ml DPPH
working solution (4.73 mg of DPPH in 100 ml ethanol HPLC-grade)
and 300 ll rice extract. The mixture was shaken and incubated for
40 min in the dark at room temperature. The absorbance was read
at 515 nm relative to the control (as 100%) using a spectrophotom-
eter (U-1100, Hitachi, Japan). The percentage of radical-scavenging
ability was calculated by using the formula:
Scavenging ability% Absorbance 515 nm of control
Absorbance515 nm of sample =Absorbance515 nm of control
100:
2.10. Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) assay
The ABTS radical cation scavenging assay was analysed follow-
ing a modied method of Pellegrini, Del Rio, Colombi, Bianchi, and
Brighenti (2003), and Moore et al. (2005). A stable stock solution of
ABTS radical cation was produced by reacting a 7 mM aqueous
solution of ABTS with potassium persulfate in the dark at room
temperature for 1216 h before use. Rice extract (120 ll) was al-
lowed to react with 1.5 ml of a diluted ABTS radical cation solution
(absorbance of 0.70 0.02 AU at 734 nm). The absorbance at
734 nm of the mixture was measured after 1 min reaction time.
Results were expressed as Trolox equivalents antioxidant capacity
(TEAC) in mmol of Trolox per 100 g of our.
2.11. Extraction of free and bound phenolic compounds
Free and bound phenolic acids were extracted according to the
methods of Adom, Sorrells, and Liu (2003) and Mattila, Pihlava, and
Hellstrm (2005) with minor modications. Briey, 0.15 g of rice
our was extracted twice with 80% aqueous methanol for
30 min. Supernatants were pooled after centrifugation at 2500g
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for 10 min. Crude extracts of free phenolics were stored at
20 C until HPLC analysis and ltered prior to injection into the
HPLC. To extract bound phenolic compounds the above obtained
residues were blended with sodium hydroxide to reach a nal con-
centration of 2 M NaOH. Samples were vortex mixed and incubated
in the dark on a shaker (Rotator, VWR, Austria) overnight (16 h).
The mixture was brought to pH 3 with hydrochloric acid. After cen-
trifugation, supernatants and residues were extracted separately
three times with ethyl acetate. The combined ethyl acetate frac-
tions were evaporated to dryness and stored at 20 C until anal-
ysis. Before quantication, bound phenolic compounds were
dissolved in 50% methanol.
2.12. Extraction of anthocyanins
The black rice varieties PK, PD and CNB and were chosen for fur-
ther studies to investigate the anthocyanin prole. Selected rice
ours were extracted at room temperature with 10 ml of 0.1 M
HCl/methanol (85:15, (v/v)) for 30 min on a magnetic stirrer and
then separated by centrifugation and the supernatants were col-
lected and kept in the dark and cold (+4 C) until required. The res-
idues were twice re-extracted under the same conditions, and
supernatants of all three cycles were combined. Supernatants were
kept at 30 C overnight and the precipitates were separated via
centrifugation at 2500g thereafter. The solvent was removed at
40 C using a rotary evaporator and the resulting anthocyanin con-
centrates were re-suspended in methanol prior to HPLC analysis.
2.13. HPLC analysis
The prole of phenolic compounds and anthocyanins was deter-
mined using a HPLC system (Shimadzu, Korneuburg, Austria) con-
sisting of a SPD-M10AVP photodiodearray detector, chromatogram
integrator, LC-10ADVP pump and online degasser. Data signals
were acquired and processed on a PC running the LC Solution Multi
software (Shimadzu, Korneuburg, Austria). Analytical separation of
phenolic acids and anthocyanins was carried out employing a Phe-
nomenex Luna 250 4.6 mm, 5 lm (HPLC Services, Breitenfurt,
Austria) column.
For phenolic compounds, 20 ll of sample volume were intro-
duced onto the column and eluted under gradient conditions per-
formed with 0.05% triuoroacetic acid in water (A) and 0.05%
triuoroacetic acid in acetonitrile (B) (Siebenhandl et al., 2007).
The solvent gradient was programmed as follows: 10% B at
0 min, increasing from 3 to 15 min to 15% B, 25 min 20% B,
30 min 40% B, 3640 min 80%, decreasing thereafter to 10% B with-
in the next 4 min and equilibrated before the next injection. The
solvent ow rate was 1.0 ml/min and the chromatogram was
recorded at 260 nm for protocatechuic, 4-OH-benzoic and vanillic
acid, 270 nm for gallic and o-coumaric acid and at 280 nm for
caffeic, p-coumaric and trans-ferulic acid. DAD response was linear
for all phenolic acids within the calibration range of 0.06125.0 lg/
ml, with correlation coefcients exceeding 0.999. Phenolic acids in
the samples were identied by comparing their relative retention
times and UV spectra with authentic compounds and coefcients
of variation for sample replicates were consistently below 10%.
Elution of anthocyanins was executed under gradient condi-
tions with 4.5% formic acid in water (A) and acetonitrile (B).
The solvent gradient was programmed as follows: 10% B at
0 min, increasing to 12% within 9 min, to 13% within the next
7.5 min, to 25% within the next 13.5 min, to 90% within the next
15 min, holding at 90% for 5 min and decreasing to 10% within
the next 5 min, before equilibration at 10%. Dissolved anthocya-
nin concentrates were passed through a 0.45 lm PTFE-lter and
a 20 ll aliquot of the sample solution was injected. The solvent
ow rate was set at 0.8 ml/min and the column temperature at
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35 C. Anthocyanins were detected at 520 nm and peak areas
were used for all calculations. Identication of anthocyanins
was done by comparing the retention time and the UV spectra
with those of pure substances. DAD response was linear for all
anthocyanins within the calibration range of 0.0540.0 lg/ml,
with correlation coefcients exceeding 0.999 and coefcients of
variation for sample replicates were consistently below 10%.
2.14. Statistical analysis
Data were reported as mean standard deviation for at least
triplicate analyses of the same extract. All statistical analyses were
carried out using the SPSS software package (version 16). Analysis
of variance was performed by the general linear model (GLM) pro-
cedure. Linear models of the regression analysis were used to de-
scribe the relationship between attributes. Multiple mean
comparisons within the sample set were carried out at the 5% sig-
nicance level using the Duncans multiple range test. Statistical
signicance was considered for p < 0.05.
3.2. Amylose content
The amylose content of rice is one of the most important criteria
of rice quality in terms of cooking and pasting properties (Adu-
Kwarteng, Ellis, Oduro, & Manful, 2003). Signicant differences
within the tested rice varieties were found, of which SRI3, LP and
SRI1 had the highest and LT the lowest content (Table 2). According
to the classication of IRRI (2009) low amylose rices (1020%) are
moist and sticky after cooking. One Thai variety HY was classied
as intermediate amylose rice (2025%), which would according to
Adu-Kwarteng et al. (2003) cook dry and uffy and retain its soft
texture upon cooling. Therefore, intermediate amylose rice varie-
ties are the most preferred ones. All Chinese and Sri Lankan varie-
ties (CNB, CNR, SRI1, SRI2 and SRI3) as well as the Thai varieties BG
and LP are classied as high amylose types (>25%). These varieties
also cook dry and uffy but become hard upon cooling due to ret-
rogradation of the amylose molecules (Adu-Kwarteng et al., 2003).
3.3. Pasting properties

The pasting temperature of all varieties ranged between 56.2

3. Results and discussion
3.1. Proximate composition
The proximate composition of thirteen coloured rice varieties
from different countries is presented in Table 1. The moisture con-
tent varied between 9.3% and 13.1%. Ash values were signicantly
different amongst the varieties where black varieties tend to have
higher ash contents and were highest for the black Chinese (CNB)
and two Thai (LP and PD) varieties with 1.7%, 1.5% and 1.5%,
respectively. Lowest contents were found for two red Sri Lankan
varieties (0.8% and 1.0%). Fat values were signicantly different
amongst the varieties and highest in Thai varieties especially in
PK and PD, which were black glutinous rice varieties.
Protein inuences the nutritional quality of rice. In this study
the protein content was appreciably high (>7%) for all tested vari-
eties. Especially the Thai varieties PD and SY showed the highest
protein values (10.9% and 10.4%), and thus are interesting for food
products. The total dietary bre content of most varieties was be-
tween 3% and 4.5%, except in the red rices CNR and all Sri Lankan
varieties (2.52.9%) and no difference was found between both col-
ours. The total carbohydrate content of all varieties was higher
than 70%, and thus all of them are considered as good source of
carbohydrates.
and 79.0 C (Table 3) and showed a signicant positive relationship
(r = 0.70) with amylose content. Apart from variety SY, which is
classied as a low amylose variety, pasting temperature was low
for varieties with low amylose content and was signicantly low-
est in variety LT (Table 2), whilst the highest pasting temperatures
were found in Sri Lankan red rice varieties (SRI1, SRI2 and SRI3)
with high amylose contents. In addition to the lowest pasting tem-
perature, variety LT also had the lowest peak time of 5.8 min. Peak
time was low for all low and very low amylose varieties and ex-
ceeded 8 min in high amylose varieties. A highly signicant posi-
tive relationship (p = 0.0001, r = 0.87) was found for peak time
and amylose content. In low and very low amylose varieties amy-
lopectin is predominating which causes granules to be swollen
more easily (Li, Shoemaker, Ma, Kim, & Zhong, 2008).
Furthermore, all very low amylose rice varieties showed a low
peak viscosity, low trough viscosity, low nal viscosity and low set-
back values, thus the starch granules of these rice varieties have a
lower ability to hold water. Signicantly higher values for peak vis-
cosity were found in SRI1 followed by LP, varieties with high amy-
lose contents, whereas the peak viscosity of SRI3, which also had a
high amylose content, behaved similar to the very low amylose
varieties. Therefore, the amylose content was not a good predictor
for peak viscosity, as no signicant relationship (p = 0.054, r = 0.55)
between these two variables was found.

Table 1
Proximate composition of coloured rice varieties (g/100 g DM basis).

Samples (colour/rice varieties) Origin Composition

Moisture Ash Fat Protein Total dietary bre Total carbohydrate Calories

Red
Bahng Gawk (BG) Thailand 11.55 0.04d 1.33 0.01bc 2.86 0.02d 9.21 0.13d 3.63 1.30abc 75.04 0.15g 362.78 0.24c
Haek Yah (HY) Thailand 12.38 0.03b 1.40 0.01bc 2.91 0.05d 7.40 0.11h 4.18 0.14ab 75.92 0.11cd 359.43 0.30d
Niaw Look Pueng (LP) Thailand 11.45 0.03de 1.50 0.07ab 2.37 0.06f 7.16 0.01h 3.17 0.84abc 77.53 0.01b 360.06 0.49d
Sung Yod Phatthalung (SY) Thailand 9.28 0.06h 1.42 0.12b 2.67 0.06e 10.36 0.04b 4.51 1.60a 76.27 0.13c 370.53 0.95a
Niaw Dawk Yong (DY) Thailand 12.01 0.01c 1.45 0.06b 3.19 0.06b 9.62 0.16c 3.75 0.79abc 73.73 0.10i 362.10 0.26c
Niaw Lan Tan (LT) Thailand 13.12 0.16a 1.26 0.05bc 3.08 0.08c 7.35 0.06h 3.27 1.20abc 75.20 0.16fg 357.86 0.37e
Sri Lanka Red Rice 1 (SRI1) Sri Lanka 12.94 0.03a 0.82 0.14e 1.15 0.03h 9.63 0.04c 2.82 0.55bc 75.45 0.09ef 350.72 0.42f
Sri Lanka Red Rice 2 (SRI2) Sri Lanka 11.12 0.06f 1.12 0.44cd 2.19 0.10g 9.52 0.12c 2.87 0.59bc 76.05 0.27cd 362.01 2.03c
Sri Lanka Red Rice 3 (SRI3) Sri Lanka 9.85 0.15g 0.98 0.19de 1.17 0.05h 8.72 0.06e 2.88 0.55bc 79.27 0.26a 362.51 0.65c
China Red Rice (CNR) China 11.90 0.20c 1.37 0.02bc 2.35 0.03f 9.72 0.04c 2.52 0.24c 74.66 0.17h 358.72 0.82de

Black
Niaw Dam Pleuak Khao (PK) Thailand 12.59 0.16b 1.42 0.01b 3.72 0.06a 8.17 0.41g 4.01 0.58abc 74.09 0.48i 362.55 0.85c
Niaw Dam Pleuak Dam (PD) Thailand 12.03 0.13c 1.48 0.02ab 3.65 0.05a 10.85 0.09a 3.41 0.24abc 71.99 0.08j 364.22 0.79b
China Black Rice (CNB) China 11.26 0.28ef 1.74 0.02a 2.85 0.09d 8.44 0.02f 4.08 0.54abc 75.71 0.37de 362.25 0.96c
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Mean values within a column superscripted by the same letter are not signicantly different at p < 0.05.
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Table 2 showed medium setback values. A signicant positive relationship

Amylose content and amylose classication of coloured rice varieties. (r = 0.67) of setback and amylose content was found, conrming

Samples (colour/rice Amylose content Amylose the ndings of Li et al. (2008).

varieties) (%) classication

Red

Bahng Gawk (BG) 35.63 0.89c High amylose 3.4. Content of anthocyanins and their identication
Haek Yah (HY) 24.73 0.94 d Intermediate
amylose Black coloured genotypes are well known from other cereals, for
a
Niaw Look Pueng (LP) 41.95 0.82 High amylose
example barley and sorghum (Abdel-Aal, Young, & Rabalski, 2006;
Sung Yod Phatthalung (SY) 18.58 0.91e Low amylose
Niaw Dawk Yong (DY) 8.87 0.72f Very low amylose Siebenhandl et al., 2007), although the origin of pigment may be
Niaw Lan Tan (LT) 7.47 0.11g Very low amylose different. However, in rice, the black colour arises mainly from
Sri Lanka Red Rice 1 (SRI1) 41.85 0.85a High amylose cyanidin 3-glucoside and peonidin 3-glucoside, giving the kernels
Sri Lanka Red Rice 2 (SRI2) 39.49 0.99b High amylose their dark purple shade and thus the name black rice is somewhat
a

Sri Lanka Red Rice 3 (SRI3) 42.02 0.55 High amylose

China Red Rice (CNR) 25.53 0.47d High amylose
Black
Niaw Dam Pleuak Khao (PK) 8.90 0.73 f
Very low amylose
Niaw Dam Pleuak Dam (PD) 9.66 0.39f Very low amylose
China Black Rice (CNB) 25.49 0.06d High amylose
Amylose content is based on DM. Mean values within a column superscripted by
the same letter are not signicantly different at p < 0.05.
Varieties with the highest amylose contents of around 40%
(SRI1, SRI2, SRI3 and LP) showed the highest trough viscosities,
demonstrating a signicant positive relationship (r = 0.71) for
trough viscosity and amylose content. Final viscosity also showed
a signicant positive relationship (r = 0.84) with amylose content;
it was highest in LP and SRI1.
During the holding period at 95 C the high temperature and the
mechanical shear inuence the samples by causing disruption of
starch granules, amylose leaching and thereby a breakdown of vis-
cosity. For many processes in the food industry it is important that
starches tolerate high temperatures and stirring (Ragaee & Abdel-
Aal, 2006). Within the analysed samples the breakdown was low-
est in variety SRI3 with the highest amylose content, i.e. in this
sample almost no shear thinning occurred during the holding per-
iod at 95 C.
When a starch suspension is cooled, a gel structure is formed
and viscosity increases, which is caused by re-association or retro-
gradation of starch molecules, especially of amylose (Ragaee & Ab-
del-Aal, 2006). In this study the high amylose variety LP had a
signicantly high setback value of 801 BU, i.e. the increase of vis-
cosity during cooling and the degree of retrogradation were high.
The other varieties with amylose contents of more than 40%
misleading.
Total anthocyanin content (TAC) ranged from 0.3 to 1.4 and
109.5256.6 mg/100 g in red and black rice varieties, respectively
(Table 4), showing that black rices have the potential to be used
as natural colourants. Amongst a group of coloured cereals, highest
anthocyanin contents have been previously found in black rice,
with an average of 327.6 mg/100 g, which was 35 times higher
than that of red rice (9.4 mg/100 g) (Abdel-Aal et al., 2006).
Although both contents are higher than the ones in this study,
the ndings are within the possible wide range of phytochemicals
present in cereals.
It is known from previous investigations (Abdel-Aal et al., 2006;
Ryu et al., 1998) that black and red rices contain a limited number
of pigments, which have been identied as cyanidin 3,5-di-gluco-
side, cynidin 3-glucoside and peonidin 3-glucoside. PK and CNB
contained high levels of cyanidin 3-glucoside (137 and 141 mg/
100 g, respectively) (Table 5) but were far behind (only one third)
previously detected concentrations in a dark purple rice grain such
as Suwon#415 (Ryu et al., 1998). However, the contribution of
cyanidin 3-glucoside as the main anthocyanin in CNB and PK
(93% of the quantied anthocyanins) is in agreement with ndings
of Ichikawa et al. (2001), where cyanidin 3-glucoside comprises
approximately 94% of the total anthocyanins and with Yawadio
et al. (2007) who found cyanidin 3-glucoside as the rst peak
(86%) and peonidin 3-glucoside as the second in Japanese black
rice. Nevertheless, only 60% of the colourimetric detected anthocy-
anins, which are expressed as cyanidin 3-equivalents, could have
been identied via HPLC. Previously, Abdel-Aal et al. (2008) com-
pared the average TAC concentration of blue wheat products and
the identied anthocyanins accounted for 6179% of the colouri-
metric detected ones, conrming that colourimetric assays lead

Table 3
Pasting properties of coloured rice varieties.

Samples (colour/rice Pasting temperature Peak viscosity Peak time Trough Final viscosity Breakdown Setback
varieties) ( C) (BU) (min) (BU) (BU)
(BU) %* (BU) %**
Red
Bahng Gawk (BG) 72.8 0.6d 642 18.2d 7.9 0.1e 245 4.5h 859 31.1d 397 14.0ab 62 614 26.8b 72
Haek Yah (HY) 73.0 0.2cd 697 5.5c 7.6 0.1f 329 5.0e 918 2.6c 368 3.2c 53 589 2.6b 64
Niaw Look Pueng (LP) 73.9 0.3c 760 8.6b 8.1 0.1d 381 1.0c 1182 21.7a 379 8.3bc 50 801 20.7a 68
Sung Yod Phatthalung (SY) 76.0 0.2b 721 14.4c 7.9 0.0e 305 3.5f 890 13.9cd 416 12.0a 58 585 11.0b 66
Niaw Dawk Yong (DY) 63.9 1.1f 419 3.0fg 6.4 0.1h 251 5.2h 538 4.0f 168 3.0g 40 287 8.7f 53
Niaw Lan Tan (LT) 56.2 0.1g 565 8.2e 5.8 0.0j 250 3.0h 557 9.7f 315 5.3d 56 307 6.8f 55
China Red Rice (CNR) 67.5 0.2e 592 3.5e 8.3 0.0d 283 4.6g 886 4.9cd 310 2.1d 52 603 5.2b 68
Sri Lanka Red Rice 1 (SRI1) 76.0 1.0b 872 51.6a 9.7 0.3a 629 14.5a 1199 41.6b 243 37.8e 28 490 29.7c 44
Sri Lanka Red Rice 2 (SRI2) 79.0 1.0a 717 15.0c 8.6 0.1c 505 8.1b 867 54.1d 212 22.9f 30 362 57.7e 42
Sri Lanka Red Rice 3 (SRI3) 78.5 0.4a 374 10.7hi 9.4 0.1b 367 11.5d 868 34.5d 7 1.0i 2 502 23.1c 58
138 R. Sompong
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Black
China Black Rice (CNB) 63.8 0.3f 444 0.6f 8.2 0.1d 195 0.6j 645 3.8e 248 0.6e 56 449 3.2d 70
Niaw Dam Pleuak Khao (PK) 73.2 0.0cd 365 2.6i 7.3 0.0g 221 1.0i 432 3.1g 144 2.0h 39 211 2.1g 49
Niaw Dam Pleuak Dam (PD) 64.1 0.3f 396 8.3gh 6.1 0.1i 150 5.1k 334 9.9h 245 3.2e 62 183 5.5g 55

Mean values within a column superscripted by the same letter are not signicantly different at p < 0.05.
*
Values are expressed as percentage of breakdown to peak viscosity.
**
Values are expressed as percentage of setback to nal viscosity.
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Table 4
Total anthocyanin content, total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of coloured rice varieties.*

Samples (colour/rice varieties) TAC (mg/100 g) TPC (mg/100 g) FRAP (mmol Fe(II)/100 g) DPPH (% remaining) TEAC (mmol/100 g)
Red
Bahng Gawk (BG) 1.25 0.07d 691.37 28.06a 8.08 0.23a 12.99 0.31g 12.29 0.43a
Haek Yah (HY) 1.05 0.06d 340.38 6.74e 3.77 0.01f 15.04 0.48efg 5.16 0.04de
Niaw Look Pueng (LP) 1.38 0.07d 611.63 2.82b 6.76 0.24c 13.73 0.36fg 11.78 0.09b
Sung Yod Phatthalung (SY) 0.60 0.03d 341.70 10.83e 3.66 0.03f 14.56 0.07efg 4.84 0.02e
Niaw Dawk Yong (DY) 1.39 0.03d 417.80 2.39d 4.56 0.04e 13.91 0.36fg 5.42 0.07cd
Niaw Lan Tan (LT) 1.01 0.04d 585.48 12.24b 6.62 0.24c 13.51 0.06g 12.05 0.24ab
Sri Lanka Red Rice 1 (SRI1) 0.35 0.02d 118.47 11.52h 1.13 0.08h 62.76 1.17b 2.38 0.10g
Sri Lanka Red Rice 2 (SRI2) 0.91 0.02d 208.42 9.06g 2.34 0.13g 38.01 0.31c 4.39 0.11f
Sri Lanka Red Rice 3 (SRI3) 0.33 0.02d 79.18 5.09i 0.85 0.01h 76.38 2.47a 2.08 0.00g
China Red Rice (CNR) 1.00 0.01d 253.34 5.14f 2.62 0.05g 36.27 0.30c 5.64 0.07c

Black
Niaw Dam Pleuak Khao (PK) 256.61 7.66a 665.16 22.05a 7.58 0.06b 16.43 0.47f 12.03 0.18ab
Niaw Dam Pleuak Dam (PD) 109.52 0.32c 336.69 0.72e 3.65 0.03f 30.25 1.95d 4.98 0.01e
China Black Rice (CNB) 244.83 2.13b 475.87 19.22c 5.50 0.21d 16.04 0.41ef 5.40 0.01cd

Mean values in a column superscripted by the same letter are not signicantly different at p < 0.05.
*
Results are presented on DM basis. TAC total anthocyanin content, TPC total phenolic content, FRAP in mmol Fe2+/100 g, DPPH in % remaining DPPH, TEAC in mmol Trolox/
100 g.

Table 5
Anthocyanin prole in black rice varieties.*
Thailand
Niaw Dam Pleuak Niaw Dam Pleuak
Khao (PK) Dam (PD)
Anthocyanins
Cyanidin 137.41 16.66 19.39 0.09
3-glucoside
Peonidin 11.07 0.97 12.75 0.51
3-glucoside
*
Expressed as mg anthocyanin/100 g DM.
to higher numbers, which could be partly due to different molar
absorption coefcients of the present anthocyanins.
3.5. Total phenolic content
TPC of the investigated rice varieties grown at different loca-
tions and of different colours are presented in Table 4. There were
signicant differences between the varieties, but no signicant dif-
ference was found between the two colours. Red rice varieties
(n = 10) ranged between 79.2 and 691.4 mg FA equivalent/100 g
with a mean TPC of 364.8 mg FA equivalent/100 g. Even though
the black rices (n = 3) had a higher mean TPC of 492.8 mg FA equiv-
alent/100 g than the red ones, TPC was highest for BG, a red rice
variety from Thailand and lowest for the Sri Lankan red rice SRI3.
These results lie between ndings of Shen et al. (2009), who ob-
served for red and black rice varieties mean phenolic contents of
470.1 and 1055.7 mg/100 g, respectively and Choi, Jeong, et al.
(2007), who found as well lower total phenolic contents for black
rice (313 vs. 266.3 mg/100 g in this study; both expressed as gallic
acid on wet weight basis in methanolic extracts). In general, the Sri
Lankan rice varieties contained less TPC than the Chinese and the
Thai varieties, with mean TPC of 135.4, 364.6 and 498.8 mg FA
equivalents/100 g, respectively.
The TPC measured by the FolinCiocalteu method does not re-
ect the full picture of the quality and quantity of phenolic acids
present in the food. Thus, the phenolic composition was deter-
mined as free phenolic acids after extraction with aqueous metha-
nol and after digestion with NaOH to release the bound forms.
Typical HPLC chromatograms of standard phenolic acids and of
one red and black rice variety (BG and CNB) are given in Fig. 1,
showing that the phenolic acids are well separated under the cho-
sen conditions. The huge peak at 16 min in the chromatogram of
the free phenolics of CNB (Fig. 1b) has its maxima at 515 nm, indi-
cating that one of the anthocyanins is coeluted. The distribution of
China
phenolic acids in free and bound form of all rice varieties is pre-
China Black sented in Fig. 2. The phenolic acid content of red rice varieties in
Rice (CNB)
the free form ranged from 1.4 to 3.4 mg/100 g and differed signif-
icantly from the black rice varieties, which contained in average a
140.83 2.0
4-fold amount (7.410.5 mg/100 g). Ferulic acid followed by proto-
11.1 0.16 catechuic acid were the main phenolic acids of red rices (0.41.6
and 0.31.4 mg/100 g), whereas in black rices protocatechuic and
vanillic acid were predominant, ranging from 2.7 to 4.5 and 2.9
3.9 mg/100 g, respectively.
The most abundant bound phenolic acid found in red rice vari-
eties was ferulic acid followed by p-coumaric and vanillic acid,
ranging from 12.3 to 32.9, 1.615.9 and 0.10.3 g/100 g, respec-
tively. In the black varieties, phenolic acids followed the order feru-
lic > vanillic > p-coumaric acid, with concentrations ranging from
24.7 to 39.5, 6.517.7 and 3.86.7 mg/100 g, respectively. A signif-
icant difference for ferulic and vanillic acid was observed between
the two colours, whereas no signicant difference was detected for
p-coumaric acid. Protocatechuic acid was only found in the black
varieties and was together with 4-OH-benzoic acid and caffeic acid
a minor constituent.
3.6. Antioxidant properties
The evaluation of the total antioxidant capacity of cereals is get-
ting more importance, since it has been found that phenolic com-
pounds are one of the most effective antioxidants. The concept of
the total antioxidant capacity, which describes the ability of differ-
ent food antioxidants in scavenging preformed free radicals, has
been suggested as a tool for investigating the health effects of anti-
oxidant-rich foods.
The antioxidant capacities of the red and black rice varieties are
given in Table 4. Amongst the red rices, the mean FRAP value was
4.0 mmol Fe(II)/100 g, ranging from 0.9 to 8.1 mmol Fe(II)/100 g,
whereas amongst the black rices it averaged 5.6 mmol Fe(II)/
100 g with a range of 3.77.6 mmol Fe(II)/100 g. The highest FRAP
value was observed for the red rice BG followed by PK (black), LP
(red) and LT (red), with 8.1, 7.6, 6.8 and 6.6 mmol Fe(II)/100 g, indi-
cating the fact that colour showed no signicant effect on the ferric
reducing ability. Thai rices had in general higher reducing abilities
than Chinese or Sri Lankan ones. A high signicant positive corre-
lation was obtained for TPC with FRAP (r = 1.00).
140 R. Sompong
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mAU(x100) mAU(x100) mAU(x100)

0.325 0.575

260nm4nm (1.00) 0.55 0

270nm4nm (1.00) 0.550
280nm4nm (1.00)
3
0.525
0.300
0.525

0.500

0.50 0
0.275
0.475 8
0.475

0.450
0.450
0.250
0.425
0.425

0.225 4 0.400
0.400

0.375
0.375

0.200 0.350
0.350

0.325
6
0.325

(a)
0.175
0.300
0.300

0.275
0.275
0.150

0.250
0.250

0.225 7
0.125 0.225
5
0.200
0.200

0.100 0.175
1
0.175

0.150
0.150
0.075
0.125
0.125

0.100
0.100
0.050

0.075 0.075

0.025 0.050 0.050

0.025 0.025

0.000
0.000 0.000

2.5 5.0 7. 5 10. 0 12.5 15. 0 17. 5 20. 0 22. 5 25. 0 27.5 30. 0 3 2.5 2.5 5. 0 7.5 10 .0 12. 5 15. 0 1 7.5 2 0.0 22 .5 2 5.0 2 7.5 3 0.0 32. 5 0.0 2 .5 5. 0 7.5 10 .0 12. 5 15 .0 17.5 2 0.0 22 .5 25.0 2 7.5 30.0 32 .5

min min min

mAU(x100) mAU(x100) mAU(x100)
1.6

260nm4nm (1.00) 2.2

270nm4nm (1.00) 2.5 0 280nm4nm (1.00)
1.5
Anthocyanin 2.1

2.0
1.4 2.2 5

1.9

1.3
1.8

2.0 0
1.7
1.2

1.6

1.1
1.7 5
1.5

1.0 1.4

1.3 1.5 0
0.9

1.2

0.8

(b)
1.1
1.2 5

1.0
0.7

0.9

1.0 0
0.6
0.8

0.5 0.7

0.7 5

0.6
0.4

0.5

0.3 0.5 0
0.4

0.2
2 4 0.3

0.2 0.2 5

0.1
0.1 7

0.0 0.0 0.0 0

- 0.1
-0.1

- 0.2
-0.25

-0.2
- 0.3

0.0 2 .5 5. 0 7 .5 10. 0 12 .5 15. 0 1 7.5 20 .0 22.5 2 5.0 27. 5 3 0.0 32. 5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7. 5 10. 0 12 .5 1 5.0 1 7.5 20 .0 2 2.5 2 5.0 27.5 3 0.0 3 2.5

min min min

mAU(x10) mAU(x10) 10.0
mAU(x10)
10.0

9.5
260nm,4nm (1.00) 9.5
270nm,4nm (1.00) 9.5
280nm,4nm (1.00)
9.0
9.0 9.0

8.5
8.5 8.5

8.0 8.0
8.0

7.5 7.5
7.5

7.0 7.0
7.0

6.5 6.5
6.5

6.0 6.0
6.0

5.5 5.5 5.5

5.0 5.0 5.0

4.5

4.0
4.5

4.0
4.5

4.0
(c)
3.5 3.5 3.5

3.0 3.0 3.0

2.5 2.5 2.5

2.0 2.0 2.0

1.5 1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0 1.0 5 6 7

0.5 2 3 4 0.5
0.5

0.0 0.0
0.0
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-0.5 -0.5

-0.5

-1.0 -1.0
-1.0

-1.5 -1.5
-1.5

2.5 5.0 7.5 1 0.0 12. 5 15 .0 17.5 20.0 22. 5 25.0 27.5 30. 0 3 2.5 2.5 5. 0 7.5 10 .0 12. 5 15 .0 17.5 2 0. 0 22. 5 2 5.0 2 7.5 30. 0 3 2.5 0.0 2 .5 5. 0 7. 5 1 0.0 1 2.5 1 5.0 17. 5 20. 0 22 .5 25.0 2 7. 5 3 0.0 32. 5

min min min

mAU(x100) mAU(x10) mAU(x100)

0.600 8.5

0.575
260nm4nm (1.00) 270nm4nm (1.00) 280nm4nm (1.00)
0.550
8.0
1.3
7

7.5
0.525
1.2

0.500
7.0

0.475 1.1
6.5
0.450

1.0
0.425 6.0

0.400
5.5 0.9
0.375
4
5.0
0.350
0.8

0.325
4.5

0.300 0.7

(d)
4.0
0.275

0.6
0.250
3.5

0.225

0.200
3.0 0.5
6
0.175 2.5
0.4

0.150
2.0

0.125 0.3

0.100
2 1.5
5
0.075
3 0.2

1.0

0.050
0.1
0.5
0.025

0.000 0.0 0.0

- 0.025
-0.5
-0.1
- 0.050

- 0.075 -1.0

-0.2
- 0.100

0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 3 0.0 32.5
0.0 2.5 5.0 7. 5 10 .0 12.5 15 .0 17.5 2 0.0 22. 5 2 5.0 27 .5 30.0 32 .5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7. 5 10 .0 12.5 15 .0 17.5 2 0.0 22. 5 2 5.0 27 .5 30.0 32 .5

min min min

mAU(x10) mAU(x10) mAU(x100)

260nm4nm (1.00) 270nm4nm (1.00) 280nm4nm (1.00)
6.0
8.5 1.4
7
8.0
1.3
5.5

7.5

5.0
1.2 6
7.0

1.1

4.5 6.5

1.0
6.0

4.0

5.5 0.9

3.5 5.0
0.8

4.5

3.0 0.7

4.0
(e)
0.6
2.5
3.5

0.5
3.0
2.0

2.5 0.4

1.5
2.0
0.3

1.0 1.5

0.2

1.0
0.5

3 4 0.5
0.1
5

0.0 0.0
0.0

-0.5 -0.1
-0.5

-1.0
-0.2
-1.0

0.0 2 .5 5. 0 7.5 10 .0 1 2.5 15 .0 1 7.5 20.0 2 2.5 2 5.0 27 .5 30. 0 32. 5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7. 5 1 0.0 12. 5 1 5.0 17.5 2 0.0 22. 5 25.0 27 .5 3 0.0 32. 5
0.0 2 .5 5.0 7.5 10. 0 1 2.5 15.0 17. 5 20 .0 2 2.5 25. 0 27. 5 3 0.0 3 2.5

min min min

Fig. 1. Typical chromatograms and peak identications at 260, 270, 280 nm. (a) Standard phenolic acids, (b) CNB free phenolic acids, (c) BG free phenolic acids, (d) CNB bound
phenolic acids, and (e) BG bound phenolic acids.
The stable DPPH radical is frequently used to investigate free in many plant materials. No signicant difference between both
radical-scavenging activities of hydrogen donating antioxidants colours was observed, where red rice varieties ranged from 13.0%
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4
(a)
Phenolic acid concentration (mg/100 g DM)

protocatechuic acid
4-OH-benzoic acid
2 vanillic acid
caffeic acid
p-coumaric aicd
ferulic acid

0
BG HY LP SY DY LT SRI1 SRI2 SRI3 CNR PK PD CNB
rice variety

40

(b)

30
Phenolic acid concentration (mg/100g)

protocatechuic acid
20 4-OH-benzoic acid
vanillic acid
caffeic acid
p-coumaric aicd
ferulic acid

10

0
BG HY LP SY DY LT SRI1 SRI2 SRI3 CNR PK PD CNB
rice variety

Fig. 2. Distribution of phenolic acids in red and black rice varieties, based on DM. (a) Free phenolic acids, and (b) bound phenolic acids.

to 76.4% remaining DPPH and black varieties from 16.0% to 30.3% capacity (TEAC) assay has become routine practice in evaluating
remaining DPPH. Scavenging ability followed the order Thai plant materials. All fractions showed ABTS + scavenging activity
rice > Chinese rice > Sri Lankan rice, where the highest ability to (Table 4) and signicant differences were detected amongst geno-
scavenge DPPH radical was found for BG, a red Thai rice variety types, but not between both colour groups. In detail, variations
(13.0% remaining DPPH). A high signicant negative correlation found within the red rice and black rice varieties ranged from 2.1
(p < 0.0001, r = 0.82) between TPC and DPPH radical-scavenging to 12.6 mmol TEAC/100 g and from 5.0 to 12.1 mmol TEAC/100 g
ability was found. for red and black varieties, respectively. The greatest ABTS + scav-
Due to the simplicity of the assay and the fact that it can be used enging activity was again found for the red Thai variety BG, fol-
in aqueous and lipid phases the Trolox equivalent antioxidant lowed by LT (red), PK (black) and LP (red) with 12.3, 12.1, 12.0
143 R. Sompong
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and 11.8 mmol TEAC/100 g DM, respectively. These varieties
showed more than a 2-fold activity than the rest of tested rice vari-
eties. The lowest activity was found for the red Sri Lankan varieties
SR1 and SR3 with 2 mmol/100 g. The phenolic contents were
highly positive correlated with the TEAC (r = 0.93) amongst all rice
varieties, which is consistent with other studies (Choi, Jeong, et al.,
2007; Shen et al., 2009).
Pair-wise correlations between the different assays to measure
the antioxidative ability were highly signicant. ABTS + scavenging
activity showed a high positive correlation with FRAP (r = 0.93) and
high negative correlation coefcients were obtained between
DPPH and FRAP (r = 0.81) and between TEAC and DPPH
(r = 0.66).
In summary, amongst the group of red rices, BG extracts were
the most effective in antioxidative reactions, contrary to the Sri
Lankan rice variety SRI3, which showed weak antioxidant abilities.
Amongst the group of black varieties, PK exhibited the strongest
antioxidant abilities, followed by CNB. Even though PD showed
only half of the activity of PK in the assays, it still reached activities
comparable to the mean values of red varieties. However, due to
the smaller number of investigated rice varieties in this study,
the effect of colour or pigmentation was not as pronounced as that
found by Shen et al. (2009), who reported mean phenolic contents
and antioxidant activities against ABTS + which indicated that TPC
and TEAC increase with pigmentation.
4. Conclusions
Plant pigments as well as other phytochemicals in grains have
lately been attributed to positive nutritional properties, such as
prevention of cardiovascular diseases and cancer. In this context,
the phytochemical content and total antioxidant properties of
red and black rice varieties were investigated. Our results highlight
the possible range of phytochemicals in red and black rice varieties
and the smooth transition between both groups. Within the set,
signicant differences in the content of anthocyanins and phenolic
acids, and antioxidant properties were observed, representing the
one or the other good source of phytochemicals.
The results could help rice producers or food technologists to
promote the consumption of rice products by increasing consumer
awareness of the health benets of grains. In this respect, further
research will be addressed to the alteration of functional properties
through food processing and will consequently help to nd recom-
mended areas for their application in food.
Acknowledgements
This study was nancially supported by University of Natural
Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna and Royal Thai Gov-
ernment, Thailand. We thank Samroeng Saetan from the Phattha-
lung Rice Research Centre, Thailand for the kind donation of rice
varieties and Michael Prueckler for his technical assistance.
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