THE EFFECT OF IRRIGATION METHODS ON

GROWTH AND YIELD OF FIBER SORGHUM IN

CENTRAL GREECE

M. Sakellariou Makrantonaki, D. Papalexis and N. Danalatos

University of Thessaly, School of Agricultural Sciences,
Dept. of Agriculture, Crop Production and Rural Environment,
Agricultural Hydraulics Laboratory, Volos.
E-mail: msak@uth.gr

ABSTRACT

Growth and yield of the fiber Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.)] variety FS-5
were studied under two different irrigation methods, gun sprinkler and
subsurface drip irrigation. A field experiment was carried out in the
experimental farm of the University of Thessaly during 2002, comprising a
completely randomized block design with three irrigation treatments in four
blocks, including control (non-irrigated). Irrigation was fully automated, and
application depths were determined using a class A evaporation pan for fully
matching the evapotranspiration needs. In the treatments of the gun sprinkler
method 280 mm of water were totally applied, by 17 application depths, while
in the treatments of subsurface drip irrigation method 238 mm of water were
applied, decreased in percentage of 15%. The growth of the crop was
measured by means of plant height and leaf area index (L.A.I.), which were
recorded in periodical samplings throughout the growing period. Total and
dry biomass productions were measured in six harvests covering entire the
growing and productive process of culture. A clear superiority of subsurface
versus the gun sprinkler method was found (LSDP=0,05) as reflected by much
higher plants heights, L.A.I., total and dry biomass production and also by
greater soil water conservation. Such results demonstrate the great potentiality
of fiber Sorghum as alternative commodity for biomass production in future
rotations according to the focus of the sustainable, low-input alternative
agriculture.
Key words: gun sprinkler, subsurface drip irrigation, plant heights, L.A.I.,
biomass, water conservation, energy crops.
2 M. Sakellariou-Makrantonaki

INTRODUCTION

Following the increasing interest for renewable raw materials included in a

new course of EU agricultural policy (Agenda 2000), a particular attention
was given to biomass crops in the last decade. Sorghum, a C4 annual crop of
typical origin, performing high photosynthetic efficiency and biomass yields,
has received considerable attention during the last years as an alternative
source for biomass production.
Previous research has stressed that the crop is well adapted to the warm
southern EU regions, and especially at diverse geographic locations
throughout Greece [1-2]. Sorghum, compared to other crops is more
environment-friendly from the agronomic point of view [2], especially due to
its relatively low nitrogen and fertilizing needs [3] and water requirements [4].
So considering Sorghum as an alternative energy crop in the near future that
requires supplemental irrigation under Greek weather conditions, the crop
could be irrigated using the existing irrigation methods and systems. The most
common of those systems, used to irrigate traditional commodities in Greek
lowlands, is overhead irrigation method with traveling guns (gun sprinkler).
Until 1988 more than 4.500 systems of gun sprinkler were recorded all over
the country, irrigating roughly 60.000 ha of Greek land [5]. The most
important problem of this method is the unevenness of irrigation concerning
the wind direction. Also the scarcity and cost of the water forced Greek
farmers to use modern irrigation methods like surface drip irrigation in many
fields with orchards, vineyards and cotton [6-7].
A variation of the conventional surface drip irrigation method is the
subsurface drip irrigation that is gaining place nowadays in many irrigated
areas [8-9]. According to this method, the laterals are buried in a depth below
the soil surface depending mostly on crop type and tillage practices. Many
advantages of this method are reported from the literature. Firstly, since the
drip system is buried, irrigation system performance is unaffected by surface
infiltration characteristics. Moreover, the upper soil has lower moisture
content so that evaporation is practically eliminated. A relatively dry soil
surface permits farm equipment access and movement during the whole
irrigation period and eliminates weed growth; it restricts root rot and other soil
diseases and prevents crust formation that inhibits soil aeration and rainfall
water infiltration into the soil causing surface runoff [10]. The subsurface
irrigation system is not exposed to sun and extreme weather conditions that
mean longer material life from 7 to 10 years. Using such systems, irrigation
water and injected fertilizers are delivered directly to the crops rooting zone;
this is particularly advantageous for nutrients with low mobility, like
The Effect of Irrigation Methods on Growth and Yield of Fiber Sorghum in Central Greece 3

Potassium, in the soil [11]. Another important advantage of the permanent

installation of this system below the plough layer is the appreciable reduce of
the labor cost. Disadvantages of this method may consider the high
installation cost, the difficulty of inspecting and repairing the system, and the
capability of the system to provide adequate moisture conditions for
germination [10].
Based on the above, and considering fiber Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.)
Moench] as a possible alternative crop for biomass production in Greece in
the near future, the present work focuses on the growth and biomass
productivity of this crop affected by the existing overhead irrigation method
and by the newly introduced subsurface irrigation method, under full and
supplemental (85%) irrigation schemes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The yield and biomass productivity of the fiber Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor
(L.) Moench] variety FS-5 were studied under field conditions in Central
Greece (experimental farm of the University of Thessaly, in Velestino),
during 2002 using a randomized block design with three irrigation treatments
in four replicates, including control (non-irrigated).
The treatments comprise two different irrigation methods, overhead irrigation
method with gun sprinkler and subsurface drip irrigation method. The crop
was sown on May 28th 2002 at distances of 0.8 m between the lines and 14.3
cm between the plants (total plant density 8.75 plants m-2).
Overhead irrigation was applied via a gun sprinkler recharging 34 m3h-1
(operating pressure 4.5 Atm). The fully automatic subsurface irrigation
system was placed at a depth of 0.45 m below the soil surface. The laterals of
subsurface drip irrigation were of 20 mm polyethylene pipe with in-line RAM
self regulated emitters discharging at a constant low rate of 3.6 l h-1. The
irrigation control valves were connected to an irrigation controller
(microcomputer miracle) for making irrigation fully automated.
Subsurface drip irrigation was applied in rows of 1.6 m apart and 0.6 m
between the self-regulated emitters, recharging 3.75 m3h-1 (operating pressure
3.5 Atm). It was additionally equipped with a vacuum breaker valve to
prevent any water suction and consequently emitter clogging when irrigation
pauses, and also with a disk filter enriched with triflouralin-5, which was
injected during irrigation for preventing root intrusion.
The treatments of gun sprinkler received at regular intervals the same
irrigation amount for matching the total evapotranspiration needs (100%),
while in the treatments of subsurface drip irrigation the 85% of the
4 M. Sakellariou-Makrantonaki

evapotranspiration needs, using the class-A evaporation pan, were only

applied.
Fertilization was not applied, in line with the general consideration of
introducing biomass crops and particularly Sorghum in low-input farming
system in Central Greece.
During the total irrigation period (first decade of July to first decade of
October) 17 applications were accomplished with a total water input of 280
mm in the treatments of gun sprinkler, and 238 mm in the treatments of
subsurface drip irrigation method, according to evapotranspiration needs.
Considering the amount of rain falling during the growing period of 2002,
which was 300 mm (see Fig. 1), the total water inputs for the treatments of the
gun sprinkler and the treatments of the subsurface drip irrigation were 580 and
538 mm respectively.

100 30
95 28
90
85 26
80 24
75 22
70
Precipitation (mm)

Temperature (0C)
65 20
60 Precipitation of 2002 18
55 16
50 Precipitation of an average year
45 14
Mean Temperature of 2002
40 12
35 Mean Temperature of an average year 10
30
25 8
20 6
15 4
10
5 2
0 0
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT
Decade

Figure 1. Temperature and Precipitation (10-days mean values) occurring in the study area
during the growing period of Sorghum in 2002 and in a typical year.

The growth of the crop was measured by means of plant height and leaf area
index, which were recorded in periodical samplings throughout the growing
period. The leaf area index was measured using a LAI-COR detector of
Gambell Scientific. During the growing period, biomass production was
measured in six harvests that took place on 15/7, 16/8, 4/9, 22/9, 8/10 and
The Effect of Irrigation Methods on Growth and Yield of Fiber Sorghum in Central Greece 5

4/11/2002. Leaf, blades and stalks were harvested separately. All samples
were dried at 90 0C until constant weight.
Meteorological data (daily maximum and minimum air temperature,
precipitation and class-A pan evaporation rates) were recorded in a fully
automatic meteorological station, which was installed in a distance of
approximately 30 m from the center of the experimental field.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Weather Data

The study area is characterized by a typical Mediterranean climate with hot

and dry summer and cool-humid winter. The air temperature and precipitation
(10-day average values) prevailing at the experimental site during the growing
period of 2002 an in a typical year is schematically presented in figure 1.

Crop Growth

Plant Height

The growth of Sorghum as reflected by plant heights for the two irrigation
methods, overhead and subsurface drip irrigation method is illustrated in
Figure 2. It can be observed that all treatments performed initially similar
growth rates (about 2 to 3 cm d-1) to reach a height of about 120 cm by mid-
July. This is apparently due to the initial use of the water stored in the soil
before the onset of irrigation differentiations.
After the initiation of the drip irrigation, the fully irrigated plants exhibited
remarkable growth rates, e.g. 5.4 and 5.9 cm d-1 for overhead and subsurface
drip irrigation, respectively, in the period between 20 July-and of August.
Smaller growth rates were observed in September (2.6 and 3.6 cm d-1,
respectively), to reach by the end of September particularly great heights of
420 and 450 cm for overhead and subsurface drip irrigation, respectively.
Although the great difference in final heights (30 cm), statistical significant
differences (LSDP=0.05) in growth rates calculated only for the periods between
25/7-20/8 and 20/9 to the end of growth. Deductively, this superiority of the
subsurface versus the overhead irrigation method, is owed to the direct access
of water to the root zone and the maintenance of high rates of soil moisture
for 3 to 5 days after the irrigation ends in the treatments of subsurface drip
irrigation.
6 M. Sakellariou-Makrantonaki

500
Subsurface drip irrigation

400
Gun sprinkler
Control LSDP=0.05
Plant heights (cm)

300

200

100

0
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290
Days since 1/1/2002 (d)

Figure 2. Plant height evolution of fiber Sorghum irrigated with overhead and subsurface drip
irrigation systems (plus non-irrigated) in Central Greece under full and supplemental (85%)
irrigation.

Leaf Area Index (L.A.I.)

Leaf area expansion is of great importance for light interception and for
photosynthesis; it varies with the quantity of assimilates allocated to the
production of leaves and the ratio of the leaf area produced per unit of leaf dry
matter.
The growth of fiber Sorghum as reflected by Leaf Area Index for both
irrigation methods, plus non-irrigated (control) is illustrated in figure 3. Only
15 days after the initiation of the subsurface drip irrigation there was
statistical significant difference (L.S.D.P=0.05) between the two methods in
L.A.I. rates, demonstrating the clear superiority of the subsurface drip
irrigation method on the growth of the crop versus the gun sprinkler method.
This difference lasts until the end of the growing period of the crop. In 2002,
the canopy was closed (L.A.I. > 6) already by mid-August, so it might be
interested to focus on how long those rates of L.A.I. were higher than rate 5
for the irrigation methods. So, the total time for subsurface treatments was 85
The Effect of Irrigation Methods on Growth and Yield of Fiber Sorghum in Central Greece 7

days, 76 days for gun sprinkler and 15 days for the control treatments. That
difference gave the opportunity to the plants that were irrigated with the
subsurface drip method to achieve greatest productive rates against the other
two methods.

10
Subsurface drip irrigation
9
Gun sprinkler L.S.D.P=0.05
8
Control
Leaf Area Index (L.A.I.)

0
160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320
Days since 1/1/2002 (d)

Figure 3. Leaf Area Index evolution of fiber Sorghum irrigated with overhead and
subsurface drip irrigation systems (plus non-irrigated) in Central Greece under full and
supplemental (85%) irrigation.

Many studies consider maximum assimilation when leaf area index (L.A.I.)
take values above 4-5, whereas L.A.I. values rather lower than 3 characterize
open leaf canopies and considerable loss in photo-synthetically active
radiation. It should be noted that unpublished results on sweet Sorghum (cv.
Keller) by CRES justify maximum L.A.I. values of about 4.5 under conditions
of moderate water inputs using drip irrigation and no fertilization.
It might be concluded that further depression in water inputs would enhance
the risk of an open canopy and thus an appreciable greater loss in assimilation
and productivity, and should be seriously taken into consideration under the
xerothermic conditions of this study.
8 M. Sakellariou-Makrantonaki

Biomass Production

The evolutions of dry biomass yield of fiber Sorghum in 2002 under the two
irrigation methods pus non-irrigated is illustrated in figure 4. It can be
observed that plants which received subsurface irrigation exhibited
considerably higher growth rates than those received water with the gun
sprinkler method (L.S.D.P=0.05), demonstrating the clear superiority of the
subsurface irrigation on the growth and productivity of the crop.

4,5
Subsurface drip irrigation
4
Gun sprinkler
3,5 Control
LSDP=0.05
3
Dry biomass (t/str)

2,5

1,5

0,5

0
190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310
Days since 1/1/2002

Figure 4. The evolution of the dry biomass production of fiber Sorghum irrigated with
overhead and subsurface drip irrigation systems (plus non-irrigated) in Central Greece
under full and supplemental (85%) irrigation.

As discussed earlier, this should be attributed both to the supply of the water
directly to the rooting zone and to the effectiveness of the irrigation with
respect to the minimization of evaporation losses from the soil surface, which
remains dry in the case of subsurface irrigation.
Particularly during the period between 17/8 and 4/9/2002, the following
growth rates were reached: 430 kg ha-1 d-1 for subsurface and 385 kg ha-1 d-1
for overhead irrigation (gun sprinkler).
Maximum biomass production was attained by the end of September and was
38.6 and 29.6 t ha-1 for subsurface and overhead irrigation, respectively. Such
The Effect of Irrigation Methods on Growth and Yield of Fiber Sorghum in Central Greece 9

productivity values are particularly high. Estimating that thermal values of

Sorghum biomass are about 17 MJkg-1 [12], maximum biomass production
corresponds to15.4-11.8 tons oil equivalent (TOE) per hectare.
This irrigation method seems very promising and should be considered
seriously in future feasibility studies of farming systems with low inputs such
as those including bio-energy crops.
Considering that the attained maximum yield of fiber Sorghum for subsurface
drip and overhead irrigation corresponds roughly to 15.4 and 11.8 TOE
without fertilization inputs, this crop seems to be a very promising alternative
commodity for biomass production in Greece in the near future.

0,05
Subsurface drip irrigation

0,04
Gun sprinkler
Dry biomass productivity (kg/d/str

Control (non-irrigated)

0,03

0,02

0,01

0,00

-0,01
28/5-15/7 16/7-16/8 17/7-4/9 5/9-22/9 23/9-8/10 9/10-4/11
Harvest periods

Figure 5. Dry biomass productivity of fiber Sorghum irrigated with overhead and
subsurface drip irrigation systems (plus non-irrigated) in Central Greece under full and
supplemental (85%) irrigation.

The dry mass biomass productivity of fiber Sorghum in 2002 under the two
irrigation methods, plus non-irrigated (control) is illustrated in figure 5.
It can be observed that the plants, which received subsurface drip irrigation,
exhibited considerably higher production rates than those that received water
with the gun sprinkler method, with the exception of the last two samplings.
10 M. Sakellariou-Makrantonaki

During the last three weeks of September, water-limited biomass production

decreased with appreciable rates, especially for the crops that received
overhead irrigation. Considerable yield loss was also observed in the crop that
received subsurface drip irrigation but somewhat later, during the period
between mid-September and mid-October (negative rates of 120 kg ha-1 d-1). It
can be seen that the final yield dropped to 22.8 and 33.5 t ha-1 for overhead
and subsurface drip irrigation, respectively. That is about 6.8 and 5.1 t ha-1
lower than the peak attained 1.5 month earlier.
Such negative growth rates and considerable yield decreases at late crop
growth stages were reported from previous studies on sweet Sorghum cv.
Keller (CRES, unpublished data) and were attributed to leaf senescence as
well as to the increased respiration losses which could not be matched by crop
assimilation late in the season. Obviously, the time that maximum yield of
Sorghum is attained should be taken into consideration for choosing the best
harvesting time of the crop.

CONCLUSION

From the aforementioned results it is obvious the great superiority of the

modern subsurface irrigation method on total and dry biomass production of
fiber Sorghum, in comparison with the traditional overhead irrigation method
(gun sprinkler), due to the minimal evaporation losses and the better water
distribution in the rooting zone.
In the subsurface drip irrigation method 48.4 l of water was used for the
production of 1 kg dry biomass, whereas in the overhead irrigation 74.3 l of
water was used for proportionally equal values of total dry weights. Finally,
according to the total equal dry weights, the conservation of water was even
higher (than 15% that it was initially estimated) when it is compared with the
amount of water used for the overhead irrigation (approximately 30.9-34.8 %
through the duration of whole cultivating period).
This irrigation method seems to be very promising and should be considered
seriously in future feasibility studies of farming systems with low inputs such
as those including bio-energy crops. Moreover, considering the attained
maximum yield of fiber Sorghum under supplemental irrigation (85% with
subsurface drip irrigation method), reaching 38.6 t ha-1, (15.4 TOE) this crop
seems to be very promising alternative commodity for biomass production in
Greece, in the near future.
The Effect of Irrigation Methods on Growth and Yield of Fiber Sorghum in Central Greece 11

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