Chapter06 PDF

Chapter 6 155
Design of PE Piping Systems
Chapter 6

Introduction
Design of a PE piping system is essentially no different than the
design undertaken with any ductile and flexible piping material.
The design equations and relationships are well-established in the
literature, and they can be employed in concert with the distinct
performance properties of this material to create a piping system
which will provide very many years of durable and reliable service for
the intended application.
In the pages which follow, the basic design methods covering the use
of PE pipe in a variety of applications are discussed.
The material is divided into four distinct sections as follows:
Section 1 covers Design based on Working Pressure Requirements.

Procedures are included for dealing with the effects of temperature,
surge pressures, and the nature of the fluid being conveyed, on the
sustained pressure capacity of the PE pipe.
Section 2 deals with the hydraulic design of PE piping. It covers

flow considerations for both pressure and non-pressure pipe.
Section 3 focuses on burial design and flexible pipeline design

theory. From this discussion, the designer will develop a clear
understanding of the nature of pipe/soil interaction and the
relative importance of trench design as it relates to the use of a
flexible piping material.
Finally, Section 4 deals with the response of PE pipe to

temperature change. As with any construction material, PE
expands and contracts in response to changes in temperature.
Specific design methodologies will be presented in this section to
address this very important aspect of pipeline design as it relates
to the use of PE pipe.
154-264.indd 155 1/16/09 9:56:52 AM

156 Chapter 6
This chapter concludes with a fairly extensive appendix which

details the engineering and physical properties of the PE material
as well as pertinent pipe characteristics such as dimensions
of product produced in accordance with the various industry
standards.
154-264.indd 156 1/16/09 9:56:52 AM

Chapter 6 157
Section 1
Design Based on Required Pressure Capacity
Pressure Rating
The methodology for arriving at the standard pressure rating, PR, for PE pipe is
discussed in detail in Chapter 5. The terms pressure rating (PR), pressure class (PC),
are used in various consensus standards from ASTM, AWWA, CSA and others
to denote the pipes capacity for safely resisting sustained pressure, and typically
is inclusive of the capacity to resist momentary pressure increases from pressure
surges such as from sudden changes in water flow velocity. Consensus standards
may treat pressure surge capacity or allowances differently. That treatment may
vary from the information presented in this handbook. The reader is referred to the
standards for that specific information.
Equations 1-1 and 1-2 utilize the Hydrostatic Design Stress, HDS, at 73F (23C)
to establish the performance capability of the pipe at that temperature. HDSs for
various PE pipe materials are published in PPI TR-4, PPI Listing of Hydrostatic
Design Basis (HDB), Hydrostatic Design Stress (HDS), Strength Design Basis (SDB),
Pressure Design Basis (PDB) and Minimum Required Strength (MRS) Ratings for
Thermoplastic Piping Materials. Materials that are suitable for use at temperatures
above 100F (38C) will also have elevated temperature Hydrostatic Design Basis
ratings that are published in PPI TR-4.
The PR for a particular application can vary from the standard PR for water service.
PR is reduced for pipelines operating above the base design temperatures, for
pipelines transporting fluids that are known to have some adverse effect on PE,
for pipelines operating under Codes or Regulations, or for unusual conditions.
The PR may be reduced by application of a factor to the standard PR. For elevated
temperature applications the PR is multiplied by a temperature factor, FT. For special
fluids such as hydrocarbons, or regulated natural gas, an environmental application
factor, AF, is applied. See Tables 1-2 and Appendix, Chapter 3.
The reader is alerted to the fact that the form of the ISO equation presented in
Equations 1-1 and 1-2 has changed from the form of the ISO equation published
in the previous edition of the PPI PE Handbook. The change is to employ HDS
rather than HDB, and is necessitated by the additional ratings available for high
performance materials. In the earlier form of the ISO equation, PR is given as a
function of the HDB, not the HDS as in Equations 1-1 and 1-2. This difference is
significant and can result in considerable error if the reader uses the Environmental
Applications Factors given in Table 1-2 as the Design Factor in the HDB form of the
ISO equation.
154-264.indd 157 1/16/09 9:56:52 AM

7, ASTM D2447, ASTM D3035, ASTM F714, AWWA C901, AWWA
E.(3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10) The appendix provides specific dimensional
ide diameter controlled polyethylene pipe and tubing made in
158 Chapter 6
ected ASTM andDesign
AWWA standards.
of PE Piping Systems
e used to determine an average inside diameter for OD-controlled

ade to dimension ratio (DR) specifications in accordance with the
d standards. In(1-1)
these standards, pipe dimensions are specified as
2 HDS F T A F
ameter and, typically,PR =wall thickness is specified as a minimum
+12% tolerance is applied. (DR-1) Therefore, an average ID for flow
may be determined by deducting twice the average wall thickness
(1-2) 2 HDS F A F from the average outside
ness plus half the wall
PR =tolerance orT 6%)
(IDR+1)
WHERE
D
DPR
A DO 2rating,
= Pressure .12psi O Eq. 1-1
DRStress,
HDS = Hydrostatic Design psi (Table 1-1)
AF = Environmental Application Factor (Table 1-2)
NOTE: The environmental application factors given in Table 1-2 are not to be confused with the Design Factor, DF,
pipe average inside diameter, in
used in previous editions of the PPI Handbook and in older standards.
FT = Service Temperature Design Factor (See Appendix to Chapter 3)
pipe outside diameter, in
DR = OD -Controlled Pipe Dimension Ratio
dimension ratio
(1-3) DO
DR Eq. 1-2
t
pipe minimum wall thickness, in
DO = OD-Controlled Pipe Outside Diameter, in.
t = Pipe Minimum Wall Thickness, in.
5
IDR = ID -Controlled Pipe Dimension Ratio
Controlled Pipe(1-4)
D
IDR = I Eq. 1-6
t
diameter controlled pipes provide average dimensions for the pipe
are used for flow
ID-Controlled Pipecalculations.
Inside Diameter, ID-controlled
in. pipe standards include
DI = ID-Controlled Pipe Inside Diameter, in.
M D2239, ASTM F894 and AWWA C901. (11,12,13)
Table 1-1
nd IDR are used with outside diameter controlled and inside
Hydrostatic Design Stress and Service Temperatures
drostatic Design Basis
pipe respectively. CertainRatings
dimensionand Service
ratios thatTemperatures
meet an ASTM-
eries ASTM
are standardized dimension ratios, thatPEis2606,SDR orPE SIDR.
2708, PE 3608,
y Property PE 3408 Standard PE 2406
PE2706 PE 3708, PE 4608 PE 3710, PE 4710
Standard
Hydrostatic Design Stress, ASTM D2837 & 1000 psi
23C) D 2837 630 psi (4.6
psi MPa) 800 psi (5.5 MPa)
HDS at 73F(23C) 1600 psi (11.04PPIMPa)
TR-3 1250 (8.62 MPa) (6.9 MPa)
ed temperature Maximum recommended
temperature for140F
operating (60C)*- 140F
140F (60C)(60C)140F (60C) 140F (60C)
ervice
Pressure Service*
ed Temperature
recommended 180F (82C)
Maximum 180F (82C)
Service
operating temperature for - 180F (82C) 180F (82C) 180F (82C)
lene piping materials are stress rated at temperatures
Non-Pressure Service
as high as 180 F. For
n regarding these materials and their use, the reader is referred to PPI, TR-4
* Some PE piping materials are stress rated at temperatures as high as 180F. For more information regarding
these materials and their use, the reader is referred to PPI, TR-4.
gth of thermoplastic pipe is based on regression analysis of stress-

d in accordance with ASTM D2837. Analysis of the data obtained
s utilized to establish a stress intercept for the material under
0 hours. This intercept when obtained at 73 F is called the long-
ength or LTHS. The LTHS typically falls within one of several
hat are detailed in ASTM D2837. This categorization of the LTHS
154-264.indd 158 1/16/09 9:56:53 AM
erial establishes its hydrostatic design basis or HDB. The HDB is
Chapter 6 159
The Hydrostatic Design Stress, HDS, is the safe long-term circumferential stress that
PE pipe can withstand. It is derived by applying an appropriate design factor, DF,
to the Hydrostatic Design Basis, HDB. The method for establishing the Hydrostatic
Design Stress for PE pipe is described in Chapters 3 and 5.
At the time of this printing, AWWA is in the process of revising AWWA C906 to
incorporate PE4710 material and to use the HDS values in Table 1-1. The version in
effect at the time of this printing, AWWA C906-07, limits the maximum Hydrostatic
Design Stress to 800 psi for HDPE and to 630 psi for MDPE. AWWA C901-08 has been
revised to incorporate the materials listed in Table 1-1.
The Environmental Application Factor is used to adjust the pressure rating of

the pipe in environments where specific chemicals are known to have an effect
on PE and therefore require derating as described in Chapter 3. Table 1-2 gives
Environmental Applications Factors, AF, which should only be applied to pressure
equations (see Equations 1-1 and 1-2) based on the HDS, not the HDB.
Table 1-2
PE Pipe Environmental Application Factors (AF)*
Environmental Application
Pipe Environment
Factor (AF) at 73F (23C)
Water: Aqueous solutions of salts, acids and bases; Sewage; Wastewater;
1.0
Alcohols; Glycols (anti-freeze solutions)
Nitrogen; Carbon dioxide; Methane; Hydrogen sulfide; Non-Federally regulated
1.0
applications involving dry natural gas or other non-reactive gases
Fluids such as solvating/permeating chemicals in pipe or soil (typically
hydrocarbons) in 2% or greater concentration, natural or other fuel-gas liquids
condensates, crude oil, fuel oil, gasoline, diesel, kerosene, hydrocarbon fuels, wet 0.5
gas gathering, multiphase oilfield fluids, LVP liquid hydrocarbons, oilfield water
containing >2% hydrocarbons.
* Certain codes and standards include prohibitions and/or strength reduction factors relating to the presence
of certain constituents in the fluid being transported. In a code controlled application the designer
must ensure compliance with all code requirements.
When choosing the environmental applications factor (AF), consideration must

be given to Codes and Regulations, the fluid being transported, the external
environment, and the uncertainty associated with the design conditions of internal
pressure and external loads.
The pressure rating (PR) for PE pipe in water at 73F over the range of typical DRs is
given in Tables 1-3 A and 1-3 B in this chapter.
154-264.indd 159 1/16/09 9:56:53 AM

160 Chapter 6
Pressure Rating for Fuel Gas Pipe

Compared to other common thermoplastic pipes, PE pipe can be used over a broader
temperature range. For pressure applications, it has been successfully used from -40F
(-40C) to 140F (60C). In the case of buried non-pressure applications it has been
used for conveying fluids that are at temperatures as high as 180F (82C). See Table
1-1. For pressure applications above 80F (27C) the Service Temperature Design
Factor is applied to determine the pressure rating. See Table A.2 in the Appendix to
Chapter 3.
The pressure rating for gas distribution and transmission pipe in US federally
regulated applications is determined by Title 49, Transportation, of The Code of
Federal Regulations. Part 192 of this code, which covers the transportation of natural
and other gases, requires that the maximum pressure rating (PR) of a PE pipe be
determined based on an HDS that is equal to the materials HDB times a DF of 0.32.
(See Chapter 5 for a discussion of the Design Factor, DF.) This is the equivalent of
saying that for high density PE pipe meeting the requirements of ASTM D2513 the
HDS is 500 psi at 73F and for medium density PE pipe meeting D2513 the HDS is
400 psi at 73F. There are additional restrictions imposed by this Code, such as the
maximum pressure at which a PE pipe may be operated (which at the time of this
writing is 125 psi for pipe 12-in and smaller and 100 psi for pipe larger than 12-in
through 24-in.) and the acceptable range of operating temperatures. The temperature
design factors for federally regulated pipes are different than those given in Table
A.2 in the Appendix to Chapter 3. Consult with the Federal Regulations to obtain the
correct temperature design factor for gas distribution piping.
At the time of this writing, there is an effort underway to amend the US federal
code to reflect changes already incorporated in ASTM F714 and D3035. When
amended, these changes will increase the pressure rating (PR) of pipe made with
high performance PR resins - those that meet the higher performance criteria listed in
Chapter 5 (see Determining the Appropriate Value of HDS), to be 25% greater than
pressure ratings of pipe made with traditional resins.
In Canada gas distribution pipe is regulated per CSA Z662-07. CSA allows a design
factor of 0.4 to be applied to the HDB to obtain the HDS for gas distribution pipe.
PE pipe meeting the requirements of ASTM D2513 may be used for the regulated
distribution and transmission of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). NFPA/ANSI 58
recommends a maximum operating pressure of 30 psig for LPG gas applications
involving polyethylene pipe. This design limit is established in recognition of the
higher condensation temperature for LPG as compared to that of natural gas and,
thus, the maximum operating pressure is recommended to ensure that plastic pipe
is not subjected to excessive exposure to LPG condensates. The Environmental
Application Factor for LP Gas Vapors (propane, propylene, and butane) is 0.8 with
154-264.indd 160 1/16/09 9:56:53 AM

Chapter 6 161
a maximum HDS of 800 psi at 73F for HDPE and 630 psi for MDPE. For further
information the reader is referred to PPIs TR-22, Polyethylene Piping Distribution
Systems for Components of Liquid Petroleum Gases.
The pressure rating for PE gas gathering lines in the US may differ depending upon
the class location (population density) of the gathering line. Gas gathering lines
in Class 2, 3 and 4 locations are regulated applications and subject to US federal
codes the same as gas distribution and transmission lines. Gas gathering lines in
Class 1 locations are not regulated in accordance with US federal codes, and may
be operated at service pressures determined using Equation 1-1. Non-regulated gas
gathering lines may use PE pipe meeting ASTM F2619 or API 15LE, and may be
larger than 24 diameter. PE pipe meeting ASTM D2513 is not required for non-
regulated gas gathering lines.
In Canada, PE gas gathering lines are regulated in accordance with CSA Z662 Clause
13.3 and are required to meet API 15LE. PE gas gathering lines may be operated at
service pressures equivalent to those determined using Equation 1-1.
Pressure Rating for Liquid Flow Surge Pressure

Surge pressure events, which give rise to a rapid and temporary increase in
pressure in excess of the steady state condition, are the result of a very rapid
change in velocity of a flowing liquid. Generally, it is the fast closing of valves and
uncontrolled pump shutdowns that cause the most severe changes and oscillations
in fluid velocity and, consequently in temporary major pressure oscillations.
Sudden changes in demand can also lead to lesser but more frequent pressure
oscillations. For many pipe materials repeated and frequent pressure oscillations
can cause gradual and cumulative fatigue damage which necessitate specifying
higher pressure class pipes than determined solely based on sustained pressure
requirements. And, for those pipe materials a higher pressure class may also be
required for avoiding pipe rupture under the effect of occasional but more severe
high-pressure peaks. Two properties distinguish PE pipes from these other kinds
of pipes. The first is that because of their lower stiffness the peak value of a surge
pressures that is generated by a sudden change in velocity is significantly lower than
for higher stiffness pipes such as metallic pipes. And, the second is that a higher
pressure rating (PR), or pressure class (PC), is generally not required to cope with the
effects of pressure surges. Research, backed by extensive actual experience, indicates
that PE pipes can safely tolerate the commonly observed maximum peak temporary
surge pressure of twice the steady state condition. Furthermore, the long-term
strength of PE pipes is not adversely affected by repeated cyclic loading that is, PE
pipes are very fatigue resistant.
154-264.indd 161 1/16/09 9:56:53 AM

162 Chapter 6
In the design of PE pipe, pressure surges are generally classified as Occasional

pressure surges, Recurring pressure surges, and Negative pressures.
Occasional surge pressures are caused by emergency operations such as fire flow or
as a result of a malfunction, such as a power failure or system component failure,
which includes pump seize-up, valve stem failure and pressure relief valve failure.
Recurring surge pressures are inherent to the design and operation of a system.
Recurring surge pressures can be caused by normal pump start up or shut down,
normal valve opening and closing, and/or background pressure fluctuations
associated with normal pipe operation.
Negative pressure may be created by a surge event and cause a localized collapse
by buckling. (Negative pressure may also occur inside flowing pipelines due to
improper hydraulic design.)
In recognition of the performance behavior of PE pipes the following design
principles have been adopted by AWWA for all PE pressure class (PC) rated pipes.
These design principles, which are as follows, are also applicable to PE water pipes
that are pressure rated (PR) in accordance with ASTM and CSA standards:
1. Resistance to Occasional Pressure Surges:

The resultant total pressure sustained plus surge must not exceed 2.0 times the
pipes temperature compensated pressure rating (PR). See Tables 1-3 A and 1-3 B
for standard surge allowances when the pipe is operated at its full rated pressure.
In the rare case where the resultant total pressure exceeds 2.0 times the pipes
temperature adjusted PR, the pipe must be operated at a reduced pressure so that
the above criterion is satisfied. In this event the pipes reduced pressure rating is
sometimes referred to as the pipes working pressure rating (WPR), meaning
that for a specific set of operating conditions (temperature, velocity, and surge)
this is the pipes pressure rating. AWWA uses the term WPR not just for a reduced
pressure rating but for any pressure rating based on application specific conditions.
Where the total pressure during surge does not exceed the standard allowance of
2.0 (occasional) and 1.5 (recurring) the WPR equals the temperature adjusted PR.
The maximum sustained pressure must never exceed the pipes temperature
adjusted pressure rating (PR).
Example:
A PE pipe has a DR = 17 and is made from a PE4710 material. Accordingly, its
standard pressure rating (PR) for water, at 73F is 125 psi (See Table A.1 in Appendix
to Chapter 3). The maximum sustained water temperature shall remain below 73F.
Accordingly, no temperature compensation is required and therefore, the pipes
initial WPR is equal to its standard PR or, 125 psi.
154-264.indd 162 1/16/09 9:56:53 AM

Chapter 6 163
Let us first assume that the maximum occasional surge pressure shall never exceed
120 psi. Since a WPR of 125 psi plus a surge of 120 psi is less than 2 times 125 psi the
pipes initial WPR of 125 psi remains at that value.
Now let us assume a second case in which the maximum occasional surge pressure
can be as high as 150 psi. This pressure plus the pipes initial WPR of 125 psi result in
a total momentary pressure of 275 psi, which is 25 psi above the limit of 2 x 125 psi =
250 psi. To accommodate this 25 psi excess it is necessary to reduce the pipes initial
WPR of 125 to a final WPR of 100 psi.
2. Resistance to Recurring Pressure Surges:

The resultant total momentary pressure sustained plus surge must not exceed
1.5 times the pipes temperature adjusted pressure rating (PR). See Tables 1-3 A
and 1-3 B for standard surge allowance when the pipe is operated at its full rated
pressure.
In the rare case where the resultant total pressure exceeds 1.5 times the pipes
temperature adjusted PR the pressure rating must be reduced to the pipes WPR so
that the above criterion is satisfied.
The maximum sustained pressure must never exceed the pipes temperature
adjusted PR.
3. Resistance to Localized Buckling When Subjected to a Negative Pressure Generated

by a Surge Event
A buried pipes resistance to localized buckling while under the combined effect of
external pressure and a very temporary full vacuum should provide an adequate
margin of safety. The design for achieving this objective is discussed in a later
section of this chapter. It has been shown that a DR21 pipe can withstand a recurring
negative pressure surge equal to a full vacuum at 73F. Higher DR pipes may also
be able to withstand a recurring negative surge equal to full vacuum if they are
properly installed and have soil support. Their resistance may be calculated using
Luschers Equation presented later in this chapter.
Estimating the Magnitude of Pressure Surges

Regardless of the type of pipe being used surge or water hammer problems can
be complex especially in interconnected water networks and they are best evaluated
by conducting a formal surge analysis (See References 25 and 32). For all water
networks, rising mains, trunk mains and special pump/valve circumstances a
detailed surge analysis provides the best way of anticipating and designing for
surge.
154-264.indd 163 1/16/09 9:56:53 AM

surge pressures are caused by emergency operations. Occasional
ures are usually the result of a malfunction, such as power failure or
164 Chapter 6
mponent failure, Design
which of PEincludes
Piping Systems pump seize-up, valve stem failure and
ief valve failure.
WPR for a selected DR, the pressure surge must be calculated. The
s may be used to estimate the pressure surge created in pressure
ms. Absent a formal surge analysis, an estimate of the magnitude of a surge pressure can
be made by evaluating the surge pressure that results from an anticipated sudden
change in velocity in the water flowing inside a PE pipe.
in the velocity of a flowing liquid generates a pressure wave. The
e may be determined using
An abrupt Equation
change 1-21.of a flowing liquid in a pipe generates a pressure
in the velocity
wave. The velocity of the wave may be determined using Equation 1-5.
(1-5) 4660
a
K BULK Eq. 1-21
1 ( DR 2)
Ed
Where 16
Wave velocity a(celerity),
= Wave velocityft/sec
(celerity), ft/sec
Bulk modulus KofBULK
fluid at working
= Bulk modulus of fluid temperature
at working temperature (typically 300,000 psi for water at 73F)
ynamic instantaneous
(typically 300,000 psi effective
for water modulus
at 73oF)modulus
Ed = Dynamic instantaneous effective of pipe material
of pipe material
pically 150,000 psi(typically
for PE pipe)
150,000 psi for all PE pipe at 73F (23C)); see Appendix to Chapter 3
pe dimension ratio
DR = Pipe dimension ratio
The resultant transient surge pressure, Ps, may be calculated from the wave velocity,
t surge pressure, Ps,the
a, and may be change
sudden calculated from
in fluid the
velocity, wave
V. velocity, a,
d velocity, v. (1-6)
V Eq. 1-22
Ps = a
2.31g
Where
PS = Transient surge pressure, psig
ansient surge pressure, psig
a = Wave velocity (celerity), ft/sec
V = Sudden
ave velocity (celerity), ft/sec
velocity change, ft/sec
g = Constant of gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft/sec 2
dden velocity change, ft/sec
Figure 1-1acceleration,
nstant of gravitational represents the pressure surge2 curves for all PE pipes as calculated using
32.2 ft/sec
Equations 1-5 and 1-6 for Standard Dimension Ratios (SDRs).
e pressure surge curves for PE3408 as calculated using Equations 1-21

imension Ratios (DRs).
SDR 7.3
SDR 9
SDR 11
SDR 13.5
SDR 17
SDR 21
SDR 26
SDR 32.5
154-264.indd 164 1/16/09 9:56:53 AM

Chapter 6 165
Pressure Surge, psig
Sudden Changes in Flow Rate, fps

* A value of 150,000 psi and 300,000 psi were used for Ed and K, respectively.
** Calculated surge pressure values applicable to water at temperatures not exceeding 80F (27C).
Figure 1-1 Sudden Velocity Change vs. Pressure Surge for All PE Pipes
The surge pressure values in Figure 1-1 are based on a sudden change in velocity,
which may more often be the case for events like a sudden pump shut-down or a
rapid valve closure. A sudden shut-down or a rapid closure occurs faster than the
critical time (the time it takes a pressure wave initiated at the beginning of a valve
closing to return again to the valve). Under ordinary operations, during which
valve closings and pump shut-downs are slower than the critical time, the actual
pressure surge is smaller than that in Figure 1-1. The critical time is determined by
means of the following relationship:
(1-7) T CR = 2L/a
WHERE
TCR = critical time, seconds
L = distance within the pipeline that the pressure wave moves before it is reflected back by a boundary
condition, ft
a = wave velocity (celerity) of pressure wave for the particular pipe, ft/s. (See Equation 1-5)
Generally, PE pipes capacity for safely tolerating occasional and frequently occurring
surges is such that seldom are surge pressures large enough to require a de-rating of
the pipes static pressure rating. Tables 1-3 A and 1-3 B show the maximum allowable
sudden changes in water flow velocity (V) that are safely tolerated without the need
154-264.indd 165 1/16/09 9:56:54 AM

166 Chapter 6
to de-rate the pressure rating (PR) or, the pressure class (PC), of a PE pipe. If sudden
changes in velocity are expected to be greater than the values shown in these Tables,
they then must be accommodated by lowering the pipes static pressure rating. As
previously discussed, the new rating is called the working pressure rating (WPR).The
procedure for establishing a WPR has been discussed earlier in this Section.
Table 1-3A
Allowances for Momentary Surge Pressures Above PR or PC for Pipes Made From PE4710 and PE3710 Materials1.
Standard Allowance for Momentary Surge Pressure Above the

Pipes PR or PC
Standard Static
Pressure Rating Allowance for Recurring Surge Allowance for Occasional Surge
(PR) or, Standard Resultant Resultant
Pipe Standard Pressure Class Allowable Allowable
Diameter Ratio (PC) for water @ Allowable Surge Sudden Change Allowable Surge Sudden Change
(SDR) 73F, psig Pressure, psig in Velocity, fps Pressure, psig in Velocity, fps
32.5 63 32 4.0 63 8.0
26 80 40 4.5 80 9.0
21 100 50 5.0 100 10.0
17 125 63 5.6 125 11.2
13.5 160 80 6.2 160 12.4
11 200 100 7.0 200 14.0
9 250 125 7.7 250 15.4
7.3 320 160 8.7 320 17.4
1. AWWA C906-07 limits the maximum Pressure Class of PE pipe to the values shown in Table B. At the time of
this printing C906 is being revised to allow PC values in Table A to be used for PE3710 and PE4710 materials.
Check the latest version of C906
Table 1-3 B
Allowances for Momentary Surge Pressures Above PR or PC for Pipes Made from PE 2708, PE3408, PE3608,
PE3708 and PE4708 Materials.
Standard Allowance for Momentary Surge Pressure Above the

Pipes PR or PC
Standard Static
Pressure Rating Allowance for Recurring Surge Allowance for Occasional Surge
(PR) or, Standard Resultant Resultant
Pipe Standard Pressure Class Allowable Allowable
Diameter Ratio (PC), for Water @ Allowable Surge Sudden Change Allowable Surge Sudden Change
(SDR) 73F, psig Pressure, psig in Velocity, fps Pressure, psig in Velocity, fps
32.5 50 25 3.1 50 6.2
26 63 32 3.6 63 7.2
21 80 40 4.0 80 8.0
17 100 50 4.4 100 8.8
13.5 125 63 4.9 125 9.8
11 160 80 5.6 160 11.2
9 200 100 6.2 200 12.4
7.3 250 125 6.8 250 13.6
154-264.indd 166 1/16/09 9:56:54 AM

Chapter 6 167
The surge pressure allowance in Table 1-3 A and 1-3 B are not the maximum surge
limits that the pipe can safely withstand. Higher surge pressures can be tolerated in
pipe where the working pressure rating (WPR) of the pipe is limited to a pressure
less than the pressure rating (PR). This works because the combined total pressure for
surge and for pumping pressure is limited to 1.5 times the PR (or PC) for recurring
surge and 2.0 times the PR (or PC) for occasional surge. If the pumping pressure is
less than the PR (or PC) then a higher surge than the standard allowance given in
Table A and B is permitted. The maximum permitted surge pressure is equal to 1.5 x
PR WP for recurring surge and 2.0 x PR WP for occasional surge, where WP is the
pumping or working pressure of the pipeline. For example a DR21 PE4710 pipe with
an operating pressure of 80 psi can tolerate a recurring surge pressure of 1.5 x 100 psi
80 psi = 70 psi. Note that in all cases WP must be equal or less than PR.
Controlling Surge Pressure Reactions

Reducing the rate at which a change in flow velocity occurs is the major means by
which surge pressure rises can be minimized. Although PE pipe is very tolerant
of such rises, other non-PE components may not be as surge tolerant; therefore,
the prudent approach is to minimize the magnitude of surge pressures by taking
reasonable precautions to minimize shock. Hydrants, large valves, pumps, and all
other hydraulic appurtenances that may suddenly change the velocity of a column of
water should be operated slowly, particularly during the portion of travel near valve
closing which has the larger effect on rate of flow. If the cause of a major surge can be
attributable to pump performance especially, in the case of an emergency stoppage
then, proper pressure relief mechanisms should be included. These can include
traditional solutions such as by providing flywheels or by allowing the pumps to run
backwards.
In hilly regions, a liquid flow may separate at high points and cause surge pressures
when the flow is suddenly rejoined. In such cases measures should be taken to keep
the pipeline full at all times. These can consist of the reducing of the flow rate, of the
use at high points of vacuum breakers or, of air relief valve.
Also, potential surge pressure problems should be investigated in the design of

pumping station piping, force mains, and long transmission lines. Proven and
suitable means should be provided to reduce the effect of surges to a minimum
that is practicable and economical. Although PE pipe is much more tolerant of the
effect of sudden pressure increases traditional measures should be employed for the
minimizing of the occurrence of such increases.
154-264.indd 167 1/16/09 9:56:54 AM

168 Chapter 6
Section 2
Hydraulic Design of PE Pipe
This section provides design information for determining the required flow diameter
for PE pipe. It also covers the following topics: general fluid flows in pipe and
fittings, liquid (water and water slurry) flow under pressure, non-pressure(gravity)
liquid flow, and compressible gas flow under pressure. Network flow analysis and
design is not addressed.(1,2)
The procedure for piping system design is frequently an iterative process. For
pressure liquid flows, initial choice of pipe flow diameter and resultant combinations
of sustained internal pressure, surge pressure, and head loss pressure can affect pipe
selection. For non-pressure systems, piping design typically requires selecting a pipe
size that provides adequate reserve flow capacity and a wall thickness or profile
design that sufficiently resists anticipated static and dynamic earthloads. This trial
pipe is evaluated to determine if it is appropriate for the design requirements of the
application. Evaluation may show that a different size or external load capacity may
be required and, if so, a different pipe is selected then reevaluated. The Appendix to
Chapter 3 provides engineering data for PE pipes made to industry standards that are
discussed in this chapter and throughout this handbook.
Pipe ID for Flow Calculations

Thermoplastic pipes are generally produced in accordance with a dimension ratio
(DR) system. The dimension ratio, DR or IDR, is the ratio of the pipe diameter to the
respective minimum wall thickness, either OD or ID, respectively. As the diameter
changes, the pressure rating remains constant for the same material, dimension ratio
and application. The exception to this practice is production of thermoplastic pipe in
accordance with the industry established SCH 40 and SCH 80 dimensions such as
referenced in ASTM D 2447.
Flow Diameter for Outside Diameter Controlled Pipe

OD-controlled pipe is dimensioned by outside diameter and wall thickness. Several
sizing systems are used including IPS, which specifies the same ODs as iron pipe
sized (IPS) pipe: DIPS pipe which specifies the same ODs as ductile iron pipe; and
CTS, which specifies the same ODs as copper tubing sizes. For flow calculations,
inside diameter is calculated by deducting twice the average wall thickness from
the specified outside diameter. OD-controlled pipe standards include ASTM D2513,
ASTM D2737, ASTM D2447, ASTM D3035, ASTM F714, AWWA C901, AWWA C906
and API 15LE.(3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10) The Appendix to this chapter provides specific dimensional
information for outside diameter controlled PE pipe and tubing that is made to
154-264.indd 168 1/16/09 9:56:54 AM

in PPI TR-4. Two design factors, DF and FT, are used to relate
the outside
itions diameter.
and service OD-controlled
temperature pipeto standards
conditions include
the product. SeeASTM
D2737, ASTM D2447, ASTM D3035, ASTM F714, AWWA
If the HDB at an elevated temperature is known, that HDB value C901, AWWA
15LE.(3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10) The appendix provides specific dimensional
quation 1-3 or 1-4, and the service temperature design factor, FTDesign , Chapter 6 169
outside diameter controlled polyethylene pipe and tubing
he elevated HDB is not known, then FT should be used, but this will made in
hower
selected ASTM
or more and AWWA
conservative standards.
pressure rating.
may be used to determine an average inside diameter for OD-controlled

pe made to dimension ratio(DR)
dimension ratio (DR) specifications
requirements in accordance
in accordance with a numberwith the ASTM,
of different
renced standards.
AWWA, In
2 HDBCSAthese
x DF standards,
and API pipe
x FTstandards. dimensions are specified as
P
de diameter and, typically, wall thickness is specified as a minimum Eq. 1-3
d a +12% tolerance
DR
The average 1 diameter for such pipes has been calculated using Equation 2-1.
is inside
applied. Therefore, an average ID for flow
Typically, wall thickness is specified as a minimum dimension, and a plus 12%
poses may be determined by deducting twice the average wall thickness
tolerance
2 HDB is applied.
x In
FTthis equation,
DF tolerance the average ID is determined by deducting
thickness plus half
P twice the xwall or 6%) from the average Eq. 1-4outside
the average wall thickness (minimum wall thickness plus a tolerance of 6%)
IDR 1
from the average outside diameter.
(2-1)
DO
Pressure rating, psi D A
I = D O 2 . 12 Eq. 1-1
DR
Hydrostatic Design Basis, psi
Design Factor, Where
from Table 1-2
Service
= Temperature Design
DI = pipe average
pipe average inside Factor,
inside
diameter, infrom Table 1-3
diameter, in
1.0
= if the
pipeelevated
D
outsideO temperature HDB is outside
= specified average
diameter, in
value of pipe used.
diameter, in
OD
= -Controlled
dimension Pipe
ratio Dimension Ratio
DR = dimension ratio
(2-2) D D
DR DRO = O Eq. 1-2
Eq. 1-5
t t
= pipe minimum
OD-Controlled Pipe wall thickness,
t = pipe Outside
minimum thickness,in
wallDiameter, in in.
Pipe Minimum Wall Thickness, in.

Pipe Dimension
ID -Controlled Pipe Diameter for ID Controlled Pipe
Ratio
Standards for inside diameter controlled pipes provide average dimensions for
for ID Controlled
thePipe
pipe inside diameter that are used for flow calculations. ID-controlled pipe
standards include ASTM D2104, ASTM D2239, ASTM F894 and AWWA C901. (11,12,13)
nside diameter The
controlled pipes provide average dimensions for the pipe
terms DR and IDR identify the diameter to wall thickness dimension ratios
that are used for flow calculations. ID-controlled
for outside diameter controlled pipe standards
and inside diameter include
controlled pipe, respectively.
ASTM D2239, ASTM F894 and AWWA C901. (11,12,13)
When those ratios comply with standard values they are called standard dimension
ratios, that is SDR or SIDR. A discussion of standard dimension ratios is included in
R and IDR are used
Chapter 5. with outside diameter controlled and inside
olled pipe respectively. Certain dimension ratios that meet an ASTM-
ber series are Fluid
standardized
Flow in PEdimension
Piping ratios, that is SDR or SIDR.
Head Loss in Pipes Darcy-Weisbach/Colebrook/Moody

Viscous shear stresses within the liquid and friction along the pipe walls create
resistance to flow within a pipe. This resistance results in a pressure drop, or loss of
head in the piping system.
The Darcy-Weisbach formula, Equation 2-3., and the Colebrook formula, Equation
2-6, are generally accepted methods for calculating friction losses due to liquids
154-264.indd 169 1/16/09 9:56:54 AM

or Fanning
within a pipe. formula, Equation
This resistance 1-7,aand
within pipethe Colebrook
results formula,
in a pressure drop,
enerally
he pipingaccepted
stresses within
system. themethods
liquid and for calculating
friction alongfriction
the losses due to
pipe walls create
wpipes.(15,16)
within a pipe.These
This formulas recognize
resistance within a dependence
pipe results inon
a pipe boredrop,
pressure
acteristics,
nach
the or
piping liquid
system. viscosity and flow velocity.
170 Chapter 6
Fanning formula, Equation 1-7, and the Colebrook formula,
e generally accepted methods for calculating friction losses due to
formula
bach
ull or is:
FanningThese
pipes.(15,16) formula, Equation
formulas 1-7, and
recognize the Colebrook
dependence formula,
on pipe bore
are generally accepted methods for
haracteristics, liquid viscosity and flow velocity. calculating friction losses due to
full pipes.(15,16) TheseL formulas
V 2 recognize dependence on pipe bore
flowing
hliquid in full pipes.(15,16) These formulas recognize dependence
Eq. 1-7on pipe bore and
characteristics, f = fviscosity and flow velocity.
ach formula is: d ' 2 g
pipe surface characteristics, liquid viscosity and flow velocity.
The Darcy-Weisbach formula is:
bach formula is:(2-3)
LV 2
iction (head) loss, ft.h fof liquid f Eq. 1-7
ipeline length, ft. d ' 2 g 2
LV
ipe inside diameter, ft. hf f Eq. 1-7
Where d ' 2g
ow velocity, ft/sec.
friction (head)hf loss,= friction (head) loss, ft. of liquid
ft. of liquid
L = pipeline length, ft.
pipeline length, ft.0 . 4085 Q
friction
pipe inside Vd
(head) =loss,
= pipe inside diameter, ft.
diameter,
V = flow ft.
ft. 2of liquid Eq. 1-8
pipeline length, D
velocity, ft/sec.
ft. factor (dimensionless, but dependent upon pipe surface roughness and Reynolds number)
flow velocity, f ft/sec.
= friction l
pipe inside diameter,

g
onstant of gravitational acceleration ft.
= constant of gravitational
(32.2ft/sec2))
acceleration (32.2ft/sec
2
flow velocity,
ow rate, gpm Theft/sec. 0 . 4085 Q
Vflow velocity 2may be computed by means of the following Eq. 1-8
equation
ipe inside diameter, in D
(2-4)
iction factor (dimensionless, 0 . 4085 l
Q
but dependent upon pipe surface Eq. 1-8
V
constant of gravitational
oughness and Reynolds number) acceleration
Dl
2 (32.2ft/sec2)
flow rate, gpm
2
constant
pipe insideofdiameter,
gravitational
Where in acceleration (32.2ft/sec )
flow rate,
friction factor gpm
Q(dimensionless,
= flow rate, gpm but dependent upon pipe surface
pipe inside
willroughness
assume and
one diameter,
DI of insidein
=Reynolds
three
pipe flownumber)
diameter, regimes.
in The flow regime may be
friction factor
in transition Liquid (dimensionless,
between flow in laminar
pipes willand but dependent
assumeturbulent. upon
one of three Inflowpipe
laminarsurface
regimes. flow
The flow regime may be laminar,
roughness
e, below 2000), and theReynolds
turbulent pipes
or in surface number)
transition roughness
between laminar hasand noturbulent.
effect and is
In laminar flow (Reynolds number, Re,
As such, the below friction factor, f , is calculated using Equation 1-9.
2000), the pipes surface roughness has no effect and is considered negligible. As such, the
es will assume friction one offactor, three , isflow regimes.
calculated The flow
using Equation 2-5. regime may be
or in transition between laminar and turbulent. In laminar flow
pes will assume
(2-5)
one 64
r, Re, below 2000), fthe = pipes surface roughness has noregime
of three flow regimes. The flow effect
Eq. 1-9 may
and is be
nt
ble.or Asin such,
transition
the friction Re factor,
between laminar and turbulent.
f, is calculated In laminar
using Equation 1-9.flow
er, Re, below 2000), the pipes surface roughness has no effect and is
Reynolds
gible. number,
As such, Where Re, above
the friction factor,4000), the friction
f, is calculated usingfactor,
Equation is
f, 1-9.
Re = Reynolds number, 64 dimensionless = < 2000 for laminar flow, see Equation 2-7
actors, the Reynolds number f and pipe surface roughness. Eq. The 1-9
Re > 4000 for turbulent flow, see Figure 2-1
For turbulent 64
f flow (Reynolds number, Re, above 4000), the friction Eq. factor,
1-9 , is
w (Reynolds number, dependent on Re, twoRe above
factors, the 4000),
Reynolds thenumber
friction factor,
and pipe surface is
f, roughness. The
o factors, the resultant
Reynolds frictionnumber factor may andbepipe surface
determined fromroughness. The Diagram.
Figure 2-1, the Moody
ow (Reynolds This number,
factor appliesRe, to above
all kinds4000),
of PEs and theto all
friction factor,
pipe sizes (17)
. In the is
f, Moody Diagram,
wo factors, therelative Reynolds roughness, number /d (seeand Tablepipe ) is usedroughness.
2-1 forsurface which is the ratio The of absolute
roughness to the pipe inside diameter. The friction factor may also be determined
using the Colebrook formula. The friction factor can also be read from the Moody
diagram with enough accuracy for calculation.
154-264.indd 170 1/16/09 9:56:54 AM

ctor may1 be determined
1 1 H from 2Figure
.51H 2.51 2.51
1-1, the Moody Diagram, which can be
2 log
= 2
various fpipe f materials log 2 log
+ Eq. 1-10
Eq. 1-10
Eq. 1-10
f 3.7 dand dsizes.(17) Inf the Moody Diagram, relative
10 10 10
' 3.7Re ' 3.f7Re d ' fRe
s, /d (see Table 1-4 for ) is used. The friction factor may then be determined Chapter 6 171
Colebrook
1-10,
sand
1-91-10,
terms formula.
and 1-10,
terms
are as
terms
are The
previously
as are friction
previously
as previously
defined, factor
defined,
and: can
defined,
and: also be read from the
and: Moody
with enough accuracy for calculation.

esolute
roughness,
absolute
roughness,
roughness,
ft. ft. ft.
eynolds
ds number,
Reynolds
number,
dimensionless
number,
dimensionless
dimensionless
brook formula is:
Vd ' Vd
The Colebrook Vd '' U Vd
formula is: '' Vd ' U
Vd
Re Re = Re = Eq. 1-11
Eq. 1-11
Eq. 1-11
1 vP g v g P
(2-6) v
Hg 2.51
2 log10 Eq. 1-10
f 3.7 d ' Re f
3126 Q 3126 Q3126 Q
Re Re = Re Eq. 1-12
Eq. 1-12
Eq. 1-12
ulas 1-9 and 1-10, terms DI are
k Das k D
previously k defined, and:
For Formulas 2-5 and 2-6, terms are as previously defined, and:
I I
= absolute roughness, ft. ft. (see Table 2-1)

= absolute roughness,
= Reynolds2 Rnumber,
e = Reynolds
dimensionless
number, dimensionless (see Equation 2-5)
nematic
tic viscosity,
kinematic
viscosity, ft2/secft2/sec
ftviscosity,
/sec
Liquid flow
Vd ' Vd 'U
* g inRea pipe
g * occurs
g in one of three flow regimes. It can be laminar, turbulent
Eq. 1-11
Q transition
or in = between
Q v laminar P g and turbulent. The nature
Eq. 1-13
Eq.
of the1-13
Eq.depends
flow 1-13 on
U U
the pipe diameter, the density and viscosity of the flowing fluid, and the velocity
nsity,
id density,
fluid
lb/ft3
lb/ft lb/ft3 The numerical
density, 3of flow. value Q
3126 of a dimensionless combination of these parameters is
known
Re
aslb-sec/ft
the Reynolds number
Eq. 1-12
cnamic
viscosity,
dynamic
viscosity,
lb-sec/ft
viscosity, 2
lb-sec/ft 2 2
DI k and the resultant value of this number is a predictor
of the nature of the flow. One form of the equation for the computing of this number
nematic
tic viscosity,
kinematic
viscosity,
centistokes
viscosity,
centistokes
centistokes
is as follows:
= kinematic (2-7) z 3160

viscosity, 2 z Q z
kRe =k ft= /sec
k Eq. 1-14
Eq. 1-14
Eq. 1-14
s k Di s s
*g
cnamic
viscosity,
dynamic
viscosity,
centipoises
viscosity,
centipoises
centipoises Q Eq. 1-13
ensity,
uidliquid
density,
gm/cm 3 Where
density,
gm/cm 3
gm/cm 3 U
Q = rate of flow, gallons per minute
r,
=
r, Re,
fluid density, lb/ft3 viscosity, in centistokes (See Table 2-3 for values for water)
k = kinematic
2 in
,=the dynamic viscosity, lb-sec/ft
Di = internal diameter of pipe,
through
ction
loss kinematic
= through
lossone
through
size
one pipe
size
oneis
viscosity, pipe
size
known, is
pipe
known,
centistokes the
is known,
friction
the friction
the
lossfriction
through
loss through
lossanother
through
another
another
iameter
ent
er may
diameter
be
may found
be
may found
Whenby:
bethe
found
by:
friction by:
loss through one size pipe is known, the friction loss through
another pipe of different size z may be found by:
k Eq. 1-14
(2-8) 5 5 s 5
d ' d ' d '
h f 1 h ff 12 = h1f 12 h1f 2 1 Eq. 1-15Eq. 1-15
Eq. 1-15
= dynamic viscosity, dcentipoises
' 23 d ' 2 d ' 2
= liquid density, gm/cm
The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the known and unknown pipes. Both pipes must have
the same surface roughness, and the fluid must be the same viscosity and have the
friction loss through one
same flow size pipe is known, the friction loss through another
rate.
ferent diameter may be found by:
5
d'
hf1 h f 2 1 Eq. 1-15
d '2
154-264.indd 171 1/16/09 9:56:55 AM

172 Chapter 6
Table 2-1
Surface Roughness for Various New Pipes
Absolute Roughness of Surface, ft

Values for New Pipe and Recommended Design
Type of Pipe Values for New Values Reported by Reference(19)
Pipe Reported by
Reference(18) Recommended
Mean Value
Design Value
Riveted steel 0.03 - 0.003
Concrete 0.01 0.001
Wood stave 0.0003 0.0006
Cast Iron Uncoated 0.00085 0.00074 0.00083
Cast Iron Coated 0.00033 0.00042
Galvanized Iron 0.00050 0.00033 0.00042
Cast Iron Asphalt Dipped 0.0004
Commercial Steel or Wrought Iron 0.00015
0.000005 corresponds
Drawn Tubing
to smooth pipe
Uncoated Stee 0.00009 0.00013
Coated Steel 0.00018 0.00018
Uncoated Asbestos Cement
Cement Mortar Relined Pipes
0.00167 0.00167
(Tate Process)
Smooth Pipes smooth pipe smooth pipe
(PE and other thermoplastics, ( 0.000005 feet) (0.000005)
Brass, Glass and Lead) (See Note) (See Note)
Note: Pipes that have absolute roughness equal to or less than 0.000005 feet are considered to exhibit
smooth pipe characteristics.
Pipe Deflection Effects

Pipe flow formulas generally assume round pipe. Because of its flexibility, buried
PE pipe will deform slightly under earth and other loads to assume somewhat of an
elliptical shape having a slightly increased lateral diameter and a correspondingly
reduced vertical diameter. Elliptical deformation slightly reduces the pipes flow
area. Practically speaking, this phenomenon can be considered negligible as it
relates to pipe flow capacity. Calculations reveal that an elliptical deformation
which reduces the pipes vertical diameter by 7% results in a flow reduction of
approximately 1%.
154-264.indd 172 1/16/09 9:56:55 AM

Head Loss in Fittings
Fluids flowing through a fitting or valve will experience a friction loss that can be directly
Chapter 6 173
expressed using a resistance coefficient, K, for the particular Design
fitting.(20) As
of PE Piping shown in
Systems
the discussion that follows, head loss through a fitting can be conveniently added into
system flow calculations as an equivalent length of straight pipe having the same
diameter as system piping. Table 1-5 presents K factors for various fittings.
Wh
ere
a
pip
elin
e
con
tain
sa
lar
ge
nu
mb
er
of
fitti
ngs
in
clo
se
pro
xim
ity
Note for the Moody Diagram: D = pipe inside diameter, ft
to
each other, this simplified method of predicting flow loss may not be adequate due to
Figure 2-1 The Moody Diagram
the cumulative systems effect. Where this is a design consideration, the designer
Head Loss in Fittings

Fluids flowing through a fitting or valve will experience a friction loss that can
be directly expressed using a resistance coefficient, K, which represents the loss
in terms of an equivalent length of pipe of the same diameter.(20) As shown in the
discussion that follows, this allows the loss through a fitting to be conveniently
added into the system flow calculations. Table 2-2 presents K factors for various
fittings.
Where a pipeline contains a large number of fittings in close proximity to each

other, this simplified method of predicting flow loss may not be adequate due to the
cumulative systems effect. Where this is a design consideration, the designer should
consider an additional frictional loss allowance, or a more thorough treatment of the
fluid mechanics.
The equivalent length of pipe to be used to estimate the friction loss due to fittings
may be obtained by Eq. 2-9 where LEFF = Effective Pipeline length, ft; D is pipe bore
diameter in ft.; and K is obtained from Table 2-2.
(2-9) LEFF = KD
154-264.indd 173 1/16/09 9:56:55 AM

ping Component K
40
174 Chapter 6
Design of PE Piping Systems 21
6
ow 32
ow Table 2-2 27
Representative Fittings Factor, K, To Determine Equivalent Length of Pipe
ow 21
Piping Component K
ow 90 Molded Elbow 1640
45 Molded elbow 21
w 15 Molded Elbow
116
90 Fabricated Elbow (3 or more miters)
w 90 Fabricated Elbow (2 miters)
524
30
e 90 Fabricated Elbow (1 miters)

6060
60 Fabricated Elbow (2 or more miters) 25
Run/Branch 60 Fabricated Elbow (1 miters) 6016
Run/Run 45 Fabricated Elbow (1 miters) 2012
entional, Fully Open
30 Fabricated Elbow (1 miters) 340
8
15 Fabricated Elbow (1 miters) 6
entional, Fully Open
Equal Outlet Tee, Run/Branch
145
60
Equal Outlet Tee, Run/Run 20
in , Fully Open Globe Valve, Conventional, Fully Open
40
340
entional Swing Angle Valve, Conventional, Fully Open

135
145
Butterfly Valve, >8, Fully Open 40
Check Valve, Conventional Swing 135
- K values are based on Crane Technical Paper No 410-C

vation Change
- K value for Molded Elbows is based on a radius that is 1.5 times the diameter.
- K value for Fabricated Elbows is based on a radius that is approximately 3 times the diameter.
e lost or gained from a change in elevation. For liquids, the

Head Loss Due to Elevation Change
evation change is given by:
Line pressure may be lost or gained from a change in elevation. For liquids, the
pressure for a given elevation change is given by:
(2-10) hE = h2 h1 Eq. 1-17
E = Elevation head, ft of liquid
where
hE = Elevation head, ft of liquid
h1 = Pipeline elevation at point 1, ft
h2 = Pipeline elevation at point 2, ft
If a pipeline is subject to a uniform elevation rise or fall along its length, the two
points would be the elevations at each end of the line. However, some pipelines
may have several elevation changes as they traverse rolling or mountainous terrain.
These pipelines may be evaluated by choosing appropriate points where the pipeline
slope changes, then summing the individual elevation heads for an overall pipeline
elevation head.
154-264.indd 174 1/16/09 9:56:55 AM

vation changes as they traverse rolling or mountainous terrain. These
e conveying liquids and running full, pressure in the pipe due to elevation
may be evaluated by choosing appropriate points where the pipeline slope
her or not liquid is flowing. At any low point in the line, internal pressure will
hen summing the individual elevation heads for an overall pipeline elevationChapter 6 175
the height of the liquid above the point multiplied by the specific Design weight of Systems
of PE Piping
If liquid is flowing in the line, elevation head and head loss due to liquid flow
are added to determine the pressure in the pipe at a given point in the
e conveying liquids and running full, pressure in the pipe due to elevation
her or not liquid is flowing. At any low point in the line, internal pressure will
the height of the liquid above
In a pipeline theliquids
conveying pointandmultiplied by pressure
running full, the specific weight
in the pipe due to of
If liquid is flowing in the line, elevation head and head loss due to liquid flow
elevation exists whether or not liquid is flowing. At any low point in the line,
are of
low added
Watertointernal
determine thewill
pressure
Hazen-Williams pressure
be equal tointhe
the pipe
height at liquid
of the a given
abovepoint in multiplied
the point the
by the specific weight of the liquid. If liquid is flowing in the line, elevation head and
head loss due to liquid flow in the pipe are added to determine the pressure in the
Weisbach method of flow resistance calculation may be applied to liquid and
pipe at a given point in the pipeline.
its solution can be complex. For many applications, empirical formulas are
nd, when used within their limitations, reliable results are obtained with
low of Water Pressure
Hazen-Williams
Flow of and
Water Hazen-Williams
venience. For example, Hazen Williams developed Equation
an empirical formula
of water in pipesTheatDarcy-Weisbach
60 F. method of flow resistance calculation may be applied to liquid
Weisbach method of flow
and gases, butresistance calculation
its solution can be complex.may be applied
For many to liquid
applications, andformulas
empirical
its solution canarebeavailable
complex.and, For many applications, empirical formulas are
-Williams formula for water at when
60Fused within
(16C) their
can belimitations,
applied reliable
to waterresults
andare obtained
other
nd, when usedwith within
greatertheir limitations,
convenience. reliable
For example, results
Hazen are obtained
and Williams developed
2 with
an empirical
ng the same
venience. Forkinematic
example, viscosity
Hazen of
and 1.130 centistokes
Williams developed
formula for the flow of water in pipes at 60 F.
(0.00001211
an empiricalft /sec),
formulaor
The viscosity
of water of water
in pipes at 60varies
F. with temperature, so some error can occur at
es other than 60FThe Hazen-Williams
(16C). formula for water at 60 F (16C) can be applied to water
and other liquids having the same kinematic viscosity of 1.130 centistokes which
-Williams formula for 0.00001211
equals water at ft60F
2
/sec or (16C)
31.5 SSU can be applied
(Saybolt to waterThe
Second Universal). and other of
viscosity
2
ng the same kinematic
water varies viscosity of 1.130socentistokes
with temperature, some error can (0.00001211 ft /sec),
occur at temperatures or
other
ams viscosity
The formula for friction
ofthan
water (head)with
varies
60F (16C). loss temperature,
in feet: so some error can occur at
es other than 60F (16C).formula for friction (head) loss in feet of water head:
Hazen-Williams
(2-11) 1.85
0.002083 L 100 Q
hf Eq. 1-18
C
4.8655
DI
ams formula for friction (head) loss in feet:
ams formula forHazen-Williams
friction (head) loss
formula for in(head)
friction psi:loss in psi:
(2-12) 1.85
0.002083 L 100 Q
0.0009015L
hpf = 1.85 Eq. 1-18
0.0009015
DI
4.8655
L 100
C Q
pf Eq. 1-19
C
4.8655
DI
ams formula forTerms
friction (head)defined,
are as previously loss and:
in psi:
hf = friction (head) loss, ft. of water.
pf = friction (head) loss, psi 1.85
DI = pipe inside 0.diameter,
0009015 in L 100 Q
pf = Eq. 1-19
C = Hazen-Williams 4.8655
DFriction Factor, C
dimensionless c = 150-155 for PE , (not related to Darcy-Weisbach
friction factor, )I

Q = flow rate, gpm
The Hazen-Williams Friction Factor, C, for PE pipe was determined in a hydraulics
laboratory using heat fusion joined lengths of pipe with the inner bead present.
Other forms of these equations are prevalent throughout the literature.(21) The reader
is referred to the references at the end of this chapter.
154-264.indd 175 1/16/09 9:56:56 AM

176 Chapter 6
Table 2-3
Properties of Water
Kinematic Viscosity,
Temperature, F/C Specific Weight, lb/ft3
Centistokes
32 / 0 62.41 1.79
60 / 15.6 62.37 1.13
75 / 23.9 62.27 0.90
100 / 37.8 62.00 0.69
120 / 48.9 61.71 0.57
140 / 60 61.38 0.47 14 14 14 14
Water flow through pipes having different Hazen-Williams factors and different
equation
ng equation
Using 1-21
Using 1-21
and
equation and
C =1-21
equation
1-21 C150,
=C
and 150,
and= 150,
C = 150,
flow diameters may be determined using the following equations:
(2-13) 1.851.851.85 1.85
0.0009015
0.0009015(15000
0(.15000
) (15000
100
) D100
((50
)I2)(100
50) (50
C
pf p f =p f %p0flow
.0009015 0009015

= 100 4D
15000

100
2) =
11 .(350
11
!
).3 psi
psi 11.3 psi
11.3 psi
3.f4938
3.938 .86554.8655
938150
3.93834..8655 150
.8655
I1 150 C 1150
ermine
determine
Tothe the
elevation
To determine elevation
determine head,
the elevation
the head,
assume
elevationassume
head, point
head,
assumepoint
1 is
assume 1atisthe
point atisthe
point
1 bottom
1 bottom
at theatof
is the
ofbottom
bottom
the the
of theof the
Where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the designated properties for two separate pipe
on,
vation,
and and
point
elevation, point
2
elevation, is 2
atisthe
and profiles,
point at
and point the
top.
2inisthis
at top.
Using
2 case,
is Using
theattop. Equation
the top. Equation
UsingUsing 1-17,
Equation 1-17,
Equation
1-17,1-17,
the pipe inside diameter (D in inches) of the one pipe (1) versus I
that of the second pipe (2) and the Hazen-Williams factor for each respective profile.
hE h150
E =h150 0 = ft0of
E 0 150
h150
E 150
ft150
water
0of ftwater
of water
150 ft of water
Pipe Flow Design Example 3 3
eecific
specific
The weight
weight
specific
The of water
specific ofweight
weight water
ofatwater
60F
at
of 60F
is 60F
water
at 62.37
isat62.37
islb/ft
60F lb/ft
is, which
62.37 , which
62.37
lb/ft 3is a is
,lb/ft
which3pressure
,awhichpressure
is isofa 62.37
a pressure of 62.37
oflb62.37
pressure lb 62.37
of lb lb
A PE pipeline conveying water at 60F is 15,000 feet long 2 and
2 is2 laid 2on a uniform
er1over
aft 1square
ft square
over area,area,
a 1 ftasquare or a
1 ft squareor
pressure
a pressure
area,area, of 62.37
or a pressureof 62.37
or a pressure / 144
of 62.37/ 144
= 0.43
of 62.37 = 0.43
lb/in
/ 144/ =144 lb/in
0.43. Therefore,
.
= 0.43 Therefore,
lb/in lb/in
. Therefore,
. Therefore,
grade that rises 150 feet. What is the friction head loss in 4 IPS DR 17 PE 3408 pipe
14
14
for a 50 gpm flow? What is the elevation head? What is the internal pressure at the 14
hE of
bottom hE150 150
0 h0when
=hpipe
the E
.43
150
E
( )
0 0.water
43
150 ispsi
0640=..543
64 psi.5 psi
.05.64
0flowing
43 64.5 psi
uphill?
When flowing downhill? When full
uation
uation 1-21
Using andbut
1-21 and CC=not flowing?
= 150,
equation150, 1-21 and C =head 150,
water
en When water iswater
When flowing,
is water
flowing,
isUsing elevation
flowing, elevation
is flowing,
equation elevation
2-12 =head
and Celevation150and head and the headandthe
friction friction
and
the head
thehead
friction are
friction are
head added.added.
head
are Theadded.
added.
are The The The
um
ximum friction
maximum friction
maximum head head
friction acts
frictionactsat
headhead theat the
source
acts acts source
at theatsource point, point,
the source
11
1
.85
..85
85 and and the
point,1point, the
maximum
and the maximum
andmaximum elevation
elevation
the maximum head
elevation head
elevation
headhead
he
owest 00..0009015
0009015 0(Therefore,
(15000
.15000
0009015 ))when
100
100 ((50
(flowing
15000 50)))uphill,
100uphill, (flowing
50
.85
).3uphill,
psi
at lowest
theat pppoint.
lowest
the
fff
point. Therefore,
lowestpoint.Therefore,
point.
p f 444.8655..8655
8655
when
Therefore,
when flowingwhen
flowing 11
11 the
. 3
the
psipressure,
pressure,
uphill,
the
11.3 psi P,
pressure,
the atP,the
at
pressure, P,the
bottom
at bottom
P,
theatbottom
the bottom
ation
levation head
is elevation head
is elevation plus head33the
plus..938
938 the
friction
head
plus friction
3.938
plus
the head 4.head
friction
the 150
150
8655
because
friction
head head
because 150thebecause
because the
flow flow
is
the from
is
flow
the from
the
flow
is the
bottom
fromis bottom
from
the to the
bottom
the to the
bottom
to theto the
. top. top.
mine
mine the
To determinethe elevation
elevation the head,
head, assume
elevation assume
head,point point
assume 11 is ispoint
atat the the1bottom bottom
is at the of
ofbottom
the
the of the
To determine the elevation head, assume point 1 is at the bottom of the elevation,
,elevation,
and
and point
pointand 22 isispoint
at
at the
the2top. top.
is2 at Using
Using
the top. Equation
Equation
Using 1-17,
1-17,
Equation 1-17,
PandP hpoint
E=h
is at the
PEp f+hpPE64 f = .h5ptop.
64
Ef
11
.5 Using
p.
+
64 3f
11
. 5 . Equation
75
3
64
=
11 ..8
5 75
. 3psi
. 8
11
2-10,
psi
75
. 3 . 8 psi
75.8 psi
hhEEE 150 150h00E 150 150 ftft of
of water
water
150 0 150 ft of water
flowing
en When flowing
When downhill,
flowing downhill,
flowing water
downhill, water
downhill,flows flows
waterwater fromflowsfromtheflows
from the
topfrom top
to the
the to
thethe
top bottom.
totopthebottom. Friction
to bottom.
the Friction
bottom. head
Frictionhead
Friction
headhead
333
cific
ific
ific
plies
The weight
fromweight
applies from thefrom
specific
applies of
of
the water
water
source The
source
weight
from
the at
at
specific
point
source
the 60F
60F
point
of water is
weightis
atpoint
source the 62.37
62.37
of
at 60Fthe water
top,
point
at the lb/ft
lb/ft
top,
isso at
at62.37 ,,
60F which
which
so the
top,
the is 62.37
pressure
lb/ftthe
top,
so is
is aa
3 lb/ft
pressure pressure
, which
so pressure
3
(see Table
developed
pressure
the is of
of
developed
a
pressure 62.37
62.37
2-3),
pressurewhich,
from
developed lb
lb
fromfor
the
of
developed each
the
62.37
from foot
lb the
from
the
222
ft
t
wnhill
over square
square
lldownhill
flow flow
1 is
adownhill area,
area, or
applied
is flow
ft square
flow or
of aa
head
appliedpressure
pressure
is area, inexerts
is or
applied the a
in athe
applied of
of
pressure 62.37
62.37
opposite
pressure
in of
opposite
thein the// 144
62.37144
ofdirection
opposite lb
62.37 ==over0.43
0.43
direction
opposite a 1 lb/in
lb/in
ft square
asdirection
/direction
144 =asthe..
0.43 Therefore,
Therefore,
area,
the
as or2a pressure of 62.37/144
elevation
elevation
lb/in
the
as . the head.
Therefore,
elevation head.
elevation
head. head.
erefore,
ore, = 0.43 lb/in2. Therefore, for a 150 ft. head,
Therefore,
Therefore,
hhEEE 150 150hE0000..43 43 64
150 640..505.psi
psi
psig
43 64.5 psi
P Ph E=P h Ep f hPpE 64f = h.p5E64 .11
f p
564.f311 .5 . 53
311
64 3psi
=..52.53 .253
11 psi
.3 .2 psi53 .2 psi
ater
ater
When is
is flowing,
flowing,
water is elevation
elevation
flowing, elevation head
head and andhead the
the friction friction
and thehead head
friction are
arehead added.
added. are The The
added. The
m
mmaximum
en
hefriction
friction
Whenthe
pipe When head
pipe
the head
is friction
full,
is acts
acts
thefull,
pipe butishead
pipe at
at
but
water
full, the
theacts
iswater
but source
source
iswater
full, not
butat
is thenot point,
point,
is source
flowing,
water flowing, and
and
notisflowing, notpoint,
no the
the
friction
no
flowing, maximum
maximum
and
friction
no head the
friction
no head elevation
elevation
maximum
develops.
friction develops.
head head head
head
elevation
develops.head
develops.
west
estthe
at point.
point.
lowest Therefore,
Therefore,
point. Therefore, when flowing
when flowingwhenuphill,uphill,
flowing theuphill,
the pressure,
pressure, P, at
P,
the pressure, at the
the bottom
bottom
P, at the bottom
on
on head
head
is elevation plus
plus the
the
head friction
friction head
head because
because the
the flow
flow
176 plus the friction head because the flow is from the bottom to the 1/16/09 9:56:56 AM
is
is from
from the
the bottom
bottom to
to the
the
154-264.indd
P P h =hp + p 64=.564 .05 + 64 0 =.564 psi .5 psi
pecific weight of water hE 150 at 60F 0 0is.4362.37 psi3, which is a pressure of 62.37 lb
64.5lb/ft
2
a 1 ft square area, orh a pressure
E 150 00of.4362.37 64.5/ 144
psi = 0.43 lb/in . Therefore,
water is flowing, elevation head and the friction head are added. The Chapter 6 177
numwater
friction
is head acts at
= (the
150 source )0.43point, and the maximum elevation
added.head
flowing, hEelevation 0head =and64.5thepsi friction head are The
owestfriction
mum point. head
Therefore,
acts atwhen flowingpoint,
the source uphill,and thethe pressure,
maximum P, at the bottom
elevation head
eation
lowest
water head plus Therefore,
point.
is flowing,the elevation
friction when head head because
flowing
and uphill,
thethefriction
flow
the is from
head the
pressure, are bottom
P, at theto
added. the
bottom
The
vation
mum head head
friction plus theactsfriction
at the head source because
point, and the the flowmaximum
is from the bottom to
elevation head the
lowest point. Therefore,
When water iswhen flowing, flowing
elevation uphill,
head the pressure,
and the P, at
friction head arethe bottom
added. The
vation head plus Pmaximum
hE friction
the pfriction
f 64 .
head5 11 .3
because 75 .8the psi flow is from the
head acts at the source point, and the maximum elevationbottom to the head
atPthe hlowest
E pf
point.64 Therefore,
.5 11.3when 75.flowing
8 psi uphill, the pressure, P, at the bottom is
flowing downhill, elevation
waterhead flowsplus from
the friction
the head
top to because
the the flow is from
bottom. the bottom
Friction headto the top.
from the source
n flowing downhill, point
P = hwater at
E + p f flows
the top,
= 64.5from so
+ 11.3the the
= 75top pressure
psi
.8 psig developed
to the bottom. Friction head from the
ll flow
es from is theapplied
source in point theat opposite
the top, so direction
the pressure as thedeveloped
elevation from head. the
ore,
nhill flow downhill,
flowing is applied
Whenwater in flows
flowing the opposite
downhill,from water direction
theflows
topfrom to thetheas the
bottom.
top to the elevation
Friction
bottom. head.
head
Friction head
efore,
es from the source appliespoint
from the at source
the top, pointso thetop,pressure
at the developed
so the pressure developed from
from thethe
hill flow is appliedP downhill
h E in pflow
f the
is64 . 5
applied 11
oppositein. 3
the 53 . 2
direction
opposite psi as
direction the
as theelevation
elevation head.
head. Therefore,
fore, P h E p f 64 .5 11 .3 53 .2 psig psi
he pipe is full, but water is not flowing, no friction head develops.
n the pipe is full, PWhen
= h Ethe
but water p f is
pipe =is not
full,
64 but water
.5flowing,
11 .3 =isno
53 not psi head
2flowing,
.friction no friction head develops.
develops.
P hE p f 64.5 0 64.5 psig psi
the pipe is full, but P hE p f 64.5 0 64.5friction
water is not flowing, no psi head develops.
derations
Pressure Flow of Liquid Slurries
siderations Liquid P = hslurry + ppiping = 64systems 64.5 psisolid particles entrained in a liquid carrier.
.5 + 0 =transport
m must be designed forE continuous f operating pressure and for transient (surge)
osed by the Water application.
particular is typically used as a liquid
Surge carrier,and
allowance and solid particles are commonly
vary granular
tem must be designed for continuous operating
iderations pressuretemperature effects
and for transient (surge)
erial to pipe materials
material, such as sand, conclusions
andapplication.
erroneous fly-ash or coal.may
Key design considerations
be drawn involve the nature
when comparing
posed by the particular Surge allowance and temperature effects vary
lass
aterial (PC)
to of
pipedifferent
of the
material, pipe
solid
and materials.
material,
erroneousits particle size
conclusions and the
may carrier
be liquid.
drawn when comparing
em must be designed for continuous operating pressure and for transient (surge)
Class by
posed (PC)
theofparticular
different
Turbulentpipe
flowmaterials.
is preferred
application. Surge to ensure that particles
allowance are suspended
and temperature in thevary
effects liquid.
andle temporary pressure surges is a major advantage of polyethylene. Due tothe carrier
terial to pipe Turbulent
material, and flow also
erroneousreduces pipeline
conclusions wearmay because
be particles
drawn suspended
when comparing in
Class
chandle
nature(PC)ofofpolyethylene,
different pipebounce
liquid will materials.
off thesystem
pipe inside surface.
safelyPEwithstand
pipe has viscoelastic properties
temporary pressurea surges piping is a majorcan advantage momentarily
of polyethylene. Due to
um pressures that are
that combine with high molecular
significantly above theweight
pipestoughness
PC. to provide
The strainservice
from life
an that can
stic nature of polyethylene, a piping system can safely withstand momentarily
ited significantly
load of short that duration exceed many metal piping materials. Flow velocity that is too low to
mum
handlepressures
temporary are is
pressure
met with anabove
significantly
surges is a
elasticthe
major
response,
advantage
whichThe
pipes PC.
of
is relieved
strain from
polyethylene.
uponan
Due to
maintain fully turbulent flow for a given particle size can allow solids to drift to the
mited load of
tic nature of short duration isa met
polyethylene, withsystem
piping an elasticcan response, which is relieved
safelyHowever,
withstand momentarily upon
bottom of the pipe and slide along the surface. compared to metals, PE is a
mum pressures that are significantly above the pipes PC. The strain from an
softer material. Under sliding bed and direct impingement conditions, PE may wear
mited load of short duration is met with an elastic response, which is relieved upon
appreciably. PE directional fittings are generally unsuitable for slurry applications
because the change of flow direction in the fitting results in direct impingement.
Directional fittings in liquid slurry applications should employ hard materials that
are resistant to wear from direct impingement.
Particle Size
As a general recommendation, particle size should not exceed about 0.2 in (5 mm),
but larger particles are occasionally acceptable if they are a small percentage of
the solids in the slurry. With larger particle slurries such as fine sand and coarser
particles, the viscosity of the slurry mixture will be approximately that of the
carrying liquid. However, if particle size is very small, about 15 microns or less, the
slurry viscosity will increase above that of the carrying liquid alone. The rheology
154-264.indd 177 1/16/09 9:56:57 AM

178 Chapter 6
of fine particle slurries should be analyzed for viscosity and specific gravity before
determining flow friction losses. Inaccurate assumptions of a fluids rheological
properties can lead to significant errors in flow resistance analysis. Examples of fine
particle slurries are water slurries of fine silt, clay and kaolin clay.
Slurries frequently do not have uniform particle size, and some particle size non-
uniformity can aid in transporting larger particles. In slurries having a large
proportion of smaller particles, the fine particle mixture acts as a more viscous
carrying fluid that helps suspend larger particles. Flow analysis of non-uniform
particle size slurries should include a rheological characterization of the fine particle
mixture.
Solids Concentration and Specific Gravity

Equations 2-14 through 2-17 are useful in determining solids concentrations and
2323 2323specific
mixture specific gravity. Tables 2-4, 2-5, and 2-6 provide information about
gravity and particle size of some slurries.
(2-14) SS SS
CCV V= CCMV M SSMLMLSSLL Eq.1-31
Eq. 1-31
Eq. 1-31
Eq. 1-31
SVSS SSSSSL LSS
SS LL
(2-15) CC SSS C
SCVSS S
CC
WW= C
VV
CWW V S Eq.1-32
Eq. 1-32
Eq. 1-32
Eq. 1-32
SSMM SS
MM
SMM= SC
S(2-16) SC
M M
SCS SVSSSSLSL)+SSSSLLLSS L
V V( SC V S L L
Eq.1-33
Eq. 1-33
Eq. 1-33
Eq. 1-33
(2-17) SSL L SS L
SSMM= SS M L Eq.1-34
Eq. 1-34
Eq. 1-34
Eq. 1-34
M CC ( SS SSSSSL L)SS
WW S CC
11 11 WW SS LL
SSS S SS
SS
: Where
==carrier
carrier liquid
liquid
carrier
carrier Sspecific
specific
L = carrier
liquid
liquid gravity
gravity
liquid
specific
specific specific gravity
gravity
gravity
==solids
solids specific
specific
solids S
specific gravity
Sgravity
= solids
solids specific gravity specific
gravity gravity
=slurry
slurry mixture
mixture Mspecific gravity
Sspecific gravity
= slurry mixture specific gravity
= slurry
slurry mixture
mixture specific
specific gravity
gravity
==percent
percent solids
solids
percent V concentration
Cconcentration
solids
percent solids concentration
concentration bybyvolume
volume
= percent solids concentration by volume
by volume
by volume
CW = percent solids concentration by weight
percent
percent
== percent solids
solids
percent solids concentration
concentration
solids concentration by
concentration by by weight
weight
by weight
weight
Critical Velocity
As pointed out above, turbulent flow is preferred to maintain particle suspension.
A turbulent flow regime avoids the formation of a sliding bed of solids, excessive
ty
ty pipeline wear and possible clogging. Reynolds numbers above 4000 will generally
insure turbulent flow.
bove,
ove,
ut
ut turbulent
turbulent
above,
above, flowflow
flow
turbulent
turbulent isispreferred
flowpreferred totomaintain
is preferred
is preferred maintain particle
particle
to maintain
to maintain suspension.
suspension.
particle
particle AA AA
suspension.
suspension.
ime
me avoids
avoids the
regime avoids
regime the formation
formation
avoids the of
of
the formation aa
formation of sliding
sliding bed
bed
of aa sliding of
of
sliding bed solids,
solids,
bed of excessive
excessive
of solids, pipeline
pipeline
solids, excessive
excessive pipeline
pipeline
ble
e clogging.
clogging.
ossible clogging.
ossible Reynolds
Reynolds
clogging. Reynolds numbers
numbers
Reynolds numbers above
above
numbers above 4000
4000 will
will
above 4000 generally
generally
4000 will insure
insure
will generally
generally insure
insure
.
154-264.indd 178 1/16/09 9:56:58 AM
ut above, turbulent flow is preferred to maintain particle suspension. A
regime avoids the formation of a sliding bed of solids, excessive pipeline Chapter 6 179
ossible clogging. Reynolds numbers above 4000 will generallyDesign insure
he flow velocity of a slurry at about 30% above the critical settlement

ood practice. This insures that the particles will remain in suspension
ing the potentialMaintaining
for excessivethe flow velocity wear.
pipeline of a slurry
Forathorizontal
about 30% above
pipes,the critical
critical settlement
velocity
be estimated using is a good1-35.
Equation practice. This insures that the particles will remain in suspension
thereby avoiding the potential for excessive pipeline wear. For horizontal pipes,
perience with this equation
critical velocityvaries.
may be Other relationships
estimated using Equationare
2-18.offered in the
e Thompson and Aude (26). A test section may be installed to verify
Individual
f this equation for specificexperience with this equation varies. Other relationships are offered in
projects.
24
the literature. See Thompson and Aude(26). A test section may be installed to verify
applicability of this equation for specific projects.
FL 2 gd ' S S 1
(2-18)
VC Eq. 1-35
inimum
are velocitydefined
previously for fineand particle slurries (below 50 microns, 0.05 mm)
ovided turbulentWhere flowtermsisaremaintained.
previously definedA andguideline minimum velocity for 24
ries (oversettlement
critical 150 microns,
VC = critical 0.15 mm) ft/secis provided by Equation 1-36.
settlement
velocity,
velocity, ft/sec
FL = velocity coefficient (Tables 2-7 and 2-8)
velocity coefficient (Tables 1-11 and 1-12)
d = pipe inside diameter, ft
pipe inside diameter, V ft 14 d ' Eq. 1- 3650 microns,
inimum velocityAnforapproximate
fine
min particle slurries
minimum (below
velocity 50particle
for fine microns, 0.05
slurries mm)
(below
ovided turbulent0.05
flow
mm)isismaintained. A guideline
4 to 7 ft/sec, provided turbulentminimum velocityAfor
flow is maintained. guideline
minimum velocity for larger particle slurries
ies (over 150 microns, 0.15 mm) is provided by Equation 1-36. (over 150 microns, 0.15 mm) is provided
by Equation 2-19.
proximate minimum
(2-19) velocity, ft/sec
V = 14 d ' Eq. 1- 36
min
Where
t velocity and Vminimum velocity
min = approximate for ft/sec
minimum velocity, turbulent flow increases with
ore. The relationship in Equation
Critical settlement velocity1-37 is derived
and minimum from
velocity the Darcy-
for turbulent flow increases with
proximate
n. minimum velocity, ft/sec
increasing pipe bore. The relationship in Equation 2-20 is derived from the Darcy-
Weisbach equation. (Equation 2-3)
(2-20)
velocity and minimum d '2
velocity for turbulent flow increases
V2 V1 Eq. 1-with
37
ore. The relationship in Equation
d '1 1-37 is derived from the Darcy-
n.
The subscripts 1 and 2 are for the two pipe diameters.
d '2
V2 =
V1 Eq. 1- 37
d '1
nd 2 are for the two pipe diameters.
Table 1-8: Scale of Particle Sizes

U.S. Standard
Inches Microns Class
Mesh
nd 2 are for the two pipe
1.3 diameters.
2.5 33,000 63,500 Very coarse gravel
0.6 1.3 15,200 32,000 Coarse gravel
Table 1-8: Scale of Particle Sizes
0.321 8,000 Medium gravel
5 0.157 4,000 Fine gravel
U.S. Standard
10 0.079 2,000 VeryClass
fine gravel
Inches Microns
Mesh
18 0.039 1,000 Very coarse sand
35 1.3 2.5
0.0197 33,000500
63,500 Very coarsesand
Coarse gravel
60
154-264.indd 179 0.6 1.3
0.0098 15,200250
32,000 Coarse
Mediumgravel
sand 1/16/09 9:56:58 AM
180 Chapter 6
Table 2-4
Scale of Particle Sizes
Tyler Screen Mesh U.S. Standard Mesh Inches Microns Class

1.3 2.5 33,000 63,500 Very coarse gravel
0.6 1.3 15,200 32,000 Coarse gravel
2.5 0.321 8,000 Medium gravel
5 5 0.157 4,000 Fine gravel
9 10 0.079 2,000 Very fine gravel
16 18 0.039 1,000 Very coarse sand
32 35 0.0197 500 Coarse sand
60 60 0.0098 250 Medium sand
115 120 0.0049 125 Fine sand
250 230 0.0024 62 Very fine sand
400 0.0015 37 Coarse silt
0.0006 0.0012 16 31 Medium silt
8 13 Fine silt
- 48 Very fine silt
24 Coarse clay
12 Medium clay
0.5 - 1 Fine clay
Table 2-5
Typical Specific Gravity and Slurry Solids Concentration (Water Slurries)
Typical Solids Concentration

Material Specific Gravity
% by Weight % by Volume
Gilsonite 1.05 40 45 39 44
Coal 1.40 45 55 37 47
Sand 2.65 43 43 23 30
Limestone 2.70 60 65 36 41
Copper Concentrate 4.30 60 65 26 30
Iron Ore 4.90
Iron Sands 1.90
Magnetite 4.90 60 - 65 23 - 27
154-264.indd 180 1/16/09 9:56:58 AM

Chapter 6 181
Table 2-6
Water-Base Slurry Specific Gravities
Concentration by Solid Specific Gravity, SS

Weight Percent, 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.8 4.2 4.6 5.0
CW
5 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04
10 1.03 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.07 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.09
15 1.04 1.07 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.12 1.13 1.13 1.14
20 1.05 1.10 1.12 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.19
25 1.08 1.13 1.16 1.18 1.20 1.21 1.23 1.24 1.24 1.25
30 1.09 1.15 1.20 1.23 1.25 1.27 1.28 1.30 1.31 1.32
35 1.11 1.18 1.24 1.27 1.30 1.33 1.35 1.36 1.38 1.39
40 1.13 1.22 1.28 1.33 1.36 1.39 1.42 1.44 1.46 1.47
45 1.15 1.25 1.33 1.38 1.43 1.47 1.50 1.52 1.54 1.56
50 1.17 1.29 1.38 1.44 1.50 1.55 1.58 1.62 1.64 1.67
55 1.19 1.32 1.43 1.51 1.58 1.63 1.69 1.72 1.76 1.79
60 1.21 1.36 1.49 1.59 1.67 1.73 1.79 1.84 1.89 1.92
65 1.23 1.41 1.55 1.67 1.76 1.85 1.92 1.98 2.04 2.08
70 1.25 1.45 1.62 1.76 1.88 1.98 2.07 2.14 2.21 2.27
Table 2-7
Velocity Coefficient, FL (Uniform Particle Size)
Particle Size, Velocity Coefficient, FL

mm CV = 2% CV = 5% CV = 10% CV = 15%
0.1 .76 0.92 0.94 0.96
0.2 0.94 1.08 1.20 1.28
0.4 1.08 1.26 1.41 1.46
0.6 1.15 1.35 1.46 1.50
0.8 1.21 1.39 1.45 1.48
1.0 1.24 1.04 1.42 1.44
1.2 1.27 1.38 1.40 1.40
1.4 1.29 1.36 1.67 1.37
1.6 1.30 1.35 1.35 1.35
1.8 1.32 1.34 1.34 1.34
2.0 1.33 1.34 1.34 1.34
2.2 1.34 1.34 1.34 1.34
2.4 1.34 1.34 1.34 1.34
2.6 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35
2.8 1.36 1.36 1.36 1.36
3.0 1.36 1.36 1.36 1.36
154-264.indd 181 1/16/09 9:56:58 AM

182 Chapter 6
1-12: Velocity Coefficient, FL (50% Passing Particle Size)

Velocity Coefficient, FL
CV = 5% CV = 10% CV = 20% CV = 30%
0.48 Table 2-8 0.48 0.48 0.48
0.58 0.59 1.60
Velocity Coefficient, FL (50% Passing Particle Size) 0.61
0.70 0.72 0.74 0.76
0.77 Particle Size, 0.79 Velocity Coefficient,
0.81 FL 0.83
0.83 mm 0.86
CV = 5% CV = 10% C0.86
V = 20% CV = 30% 0.91
0.85 0.01 0.88
0.48 0.48 0.92
0.48 0.48 0.95
0.97 0.02 1.00
0.58 0.59 1.05
0.60 0.61 0.18
1.09 0.04 1.13
0.70 0.72 1.18
0.74 0.76 1.23
1.15 0.06 1.21
0.77 0.79 1.26
0.81 0.83 1.30
1.21 0.08 1.25
0.83 0.86 1.31
0.86 0.91 1.33
1.24 0.10 1.29
0.85 0.88 1.33
0.92 0.95 1.35
1.33 0.20 1.36
0.97 1.00 1.38
1.05 1.08 1.40
1.36 0.40
1.38
1.09 1.13
1.39
1.18 1.23
1.40
0.60 1.15 1.21 1.26 1.30
0.80 1.21 1.25 1.31 1.33
1.0 1.24 1.29 1.33 1.35
2.0 1.33 1.36 1.38 1.40
3.0 1.36 1.38 1.39 1.40
arcy-Weisbach, and Equations 1-18 and 1-19, Hazen-Williams, may be

ne friction head Equation
loss 2-3,
for Darcy-Weisbach,
pressure slurry and flows
Equations 2-11 and 2-12,
provided the Hazen-Williams,
viscosity 27
may be
equations are used
taken to determine friction Elevation
into account. head loss forhead
pressure slurry
loss flows provided
is increased by the viscosity
ity of the slurry limitations
mixture. of the equations are taken into account. Elevation head loss is increased
Equations for High Pressure Gas Flow
by the specific gravity of the slurry mixture.
s 1-39 through 1-42

(2-21)
h2 h1 equations used in industry
hE areS Mempirical Eq. for
1- 38 27
pressure
han 1 psig. (26) Calculated results may vary due to the assumptions inherent
Compressible Gas Flow
livation of the
Equations forequation.
High Pressure Gas Flow
Flow equations for smooth pipe may be used to estimate compressible gas flow
Gas Flow through PE pipe.
squation
1-39 through 1-42 are empirical equations used in industry for pressure
han 1 psig. (26)Empirical Equations
Calculated for High
results mayPressure
vary dueGas to
Flow
the assumptions inherent
or smooth pipe may be used to estimate compressible gas flow through
rivation of the equation.
Equations 2-22 through 2-25 are
0
2 empirical.575
equations used in industry for pressure
e. 2826 DI
2.725
p1 p 2
2
Qhthan 1 psig.0.425
greater results may
Calculated vary due to the assumptions Eq.inherent
1-39 in
S L
Equation
the derivation of the equation.
g
Mueller Equation
(2-22) 0.575
2826 DI
2.725
p1 2 p 2 2
Qh = Eq. 1-39
Sg
0.425 L

h Equation
Weymouth Equation
(2-23) 0.5
2034 DI
2.667
p1 2 p 2 2
Qh Eq. 1-40
Sg
0.5 L

th Equation
0.5
bution Equation 2034 DI
2.667
p1 2 p 2 2
Qh = Eq. 1-40
Sg
0.5 L
2
2 0.555
154-264.indd 182 2.667
1/16/09 9:56:59 AM
th Equation 0.5
2034 DI
2.667
p1 2 p 2 2
Qh = Eq. 1-40
S
0.5 2 2 0L.5
g p1 p 2
2.667
2034 DI Chapter 6 183
Qh Eq. 1-40
Sg
0.5 L

T Distribution Equation
ibution Equation 0.555
IGT Distribution Equation 2679 DI p1 2 p 2 2
2.667

Qh = Eq. 1-41
2 0.555
2679 DI g p1 p 2 L
(2-24) 0.444 2
S
2.667

Qh Eq. 1-41
Sg
0.444 L

itzglass Equation
Spitzglass Equation
s Equation (2-25) 0.5

0.5
2 2
3410 p1 p 2 5
D I 0.5
Qh = Eq. 1-42
20.5 2 0.5 5 3.6
3410 Sp1g p 2 L D 1+ + 0.03 D I
Qh 0.5
I
DI Eq. 1-42
Sg L 3 .
6
1 0.03 D I
Where: DI 28
Where 28
(Equations 2-22 through 2-25) 3
here: Qh = flow, standard ft /hour
Sg = Qh =gas flow, standard ft 3/hour
specific 3 gravity
Qh =p flow, =
Sg standard ft
= gas specific gravity
inlet pressure, /hourlb/in2 absolute
1
Sg =p gas = pspecific
p 1 = inlet
outlet gravity
pressure, lb/in
pressure,
2 absolute
lb/in2
absolute
pirical Equations
Equations 2
p1 = L for Low
inlet for Low
Pressure
2pressure,
= outlet Pressure
Gas
lb/in
pressure, Gas Flow
lb/in22 absolute
Flow
absolute
= L = length,
length, ft 2
p2 =D outlet = D =pressure,
pipe
ft
inside lb/in
diameter,absolutein
I
applications
L = where
length,I pipeft internal pressures
inside diameter,
ations where internal pressures are less
in arethan
less 1than
psig,1 such
psig, as
such as landfill
landfill gas gas
hering
D or
= wastewater
or wastewaterpipe inside
odor odor control,
diameter,
control, Equations inEquations 1-43 or 1-44 may be used.
I Empirical Equations for Low1-43 or 1-44
Pressure Gasmay
Flow be used.
For applications where internal pressures are less than 1 psig, such as landfill gas
eller Equation
quation gathering or wastewater odor control, Equations 2-26 or 2-27 may be used.
Mueller Equation
2.725 0.575
2.725 D
2971 hI1 h2 h1 h2
(2-26) 0.575
Qh Qh D I
2971
0.425 L Eq. 1-43
Eq. 1-43
0.425 S
Sg g L
zglass Equation
Equation
Spitzglass Equation
(2-27) 0.5

0.5

3350h h10.5h2 D 5 DI
0 .5 5
Qh h1
3350 Eq. 1-44
Qh S
0.5
2
L I
3 . 6 Eq. 1-44

S g g L 1 10.03 D
0.5
3 . 6 0.03 DI
I

DI D
I

Where terms are previously defined, and
ereWhere terms
terms are h1are
= inletpreviously
previously pressure, in H2O defined, and
defined, and
h2 = outlet pressure, in H2O
h1 =h1 inlet
= pressure,
inlet pressure,
in H2Oin H2O
h2 =h2 outlet
= outlet pressure,
pressure, in H2Oin H2O
seation
Permeation
154-264.indd 183 1/16/09 9:57:00 AM
inlet pressure, in H2O
outlet pressure, in H2O
184 Chapter 6
pelines carryingGascompressed
Permeation gasses may deliver slightly less gas due
on through the Long
pipedistance
wall. Permeation losses
pipelines carrying are small,
compressed but deliver
gasses may it mayslightly
be less gas
inguish between duepermeation losses
to gas permeation andthe
through possible leakage.
pipe wall. PermeationEquation 1- but it
losses are small,
ed to determine maythe volumeto distinguish
be necessary of a gasbetween
that will permeate
permeation through
losses and possible leakage.
e of a given wallEquation
thickness:
2-28 may be used to determine the volume of a gas that will permeate
through PE pipe of a given wall thickness:
(2-28) K P As PA
qP = Eq. 1-45
t'
Where
qP = permeated,
volume of gas cm3 cm
volume of gas permeated, 3 (gas at standard temperature and pressure)
(gas at standard temperature and
Cm3 mil
pressure) K P = permeability constant (Table 2-9); units: 100 in2 atm day
permeabilityAconstant
s = pipe outside(Table 1-13)
wall area in units of 100 square inches
2
surface areaPAof the outside wall of the (1pipe,
= pipe internal pressure, atmospheres 100= in
atmosphere 14.7 lb/in2 )
pipe internal pressure, atmospheres (1 atmosphere = 14.7 lb/in2 )
= elapsed time, days
t = wall thickness, mils
Table 2-9
Permeability Constants (28)
Gas KP
Methane 85
Carbon Monoxide 80
Hydrogen 425
154-264.indd 184 1/16/09 9:57:00 AM

Chapter 6 185
Table 2-10
Physical Properties of Gases (Approx. Values at 14.7 psi & 68F)
Chemical Weight Density, Specific Gravity,

Gas Molecular Weight
Formula lb/ft3 (Relative to Air) Sg
Acetylene (ethylene) C2H2 26.0 0.0682 0.907
Air 29.0 0.0752 1.000
Ammonia NH3 17.0 0.0448 0.596
Argon A 39.9 0.1037 1.379
Butane C4H10 58.1 0.1554 2.067
Carbon Dioxide CO2 44.0 0.1150 1.529
Carbon Monoxide CO 28.0 0.0727 0.967
Ethane C2H6 30.0 0.0789 1.049
Ethylene C2H4 28.0 0.0733 0.975
Helium He 4.0 0.0104 0.138
Hydrogen Chloride HCl 36.5 0.0954 1.286
Hydrogen H 2.0 0.0052 0.070
Hydrogen Sulphide H2S 34.1 0.0895 1.190
Methane CH4 16.0 0.0417 0.554
Methyl Chloride CH3Cl 50.5 0.1342 1.785
Natural Gas 19.5 0.0502 0.667
Nitric Oxide NO 30.0 0.0708 1.037
Nitrogen N2 28.0 0.0727 0.967
Nitrous Oxide N2O 44.0 0.1151 1.530
Oxygen O2 32.0 0.0831 1.105
Propane C3H8 44.1 0.1175 1.562
Propene (Propylene) C3H6 42.1 0.1091 1.451
Sulfur Dioxide SO2 64.1 0.1703 2.264
Landfill Gas (approx. value) 1.00
Carbureted Water Gas 0.63
Coal Gas 0.42
Coke-Oven Gas 0.44
Refinery Oil Gas 0.99
Oil Gas (Pacific Coast) 0.47
Wet Gas (approximate value) 0.75
Gravity Flow of Liquids

In a pressure pipeline, a pump of some sort, generally provides the energy required
to move the fluid through the pipeline. Such pipelines can transport fluids across a
level surface, uphill or downhill. Gravity flow lines, on the other hand, utilize the
energy associated with the placement of the pipeline discharge below the inlet.
Like pressure flow pipelines, friction loss in a gravity flow pipeline depends on
viscous shear stresses within the liquid and friction along the wetted surface of the
pipe bore.
154-264.indd 185 1/16/09 9:57:00 AM

placement of the pipeline discharge below the inlet. Like pressure
friction
nes,
, and friction
loss inloss
a gravity
in the
a gravity
flow pipeline
flow pipeline
dependsdepends
on bore.
viscous
on viscous
shearshear
stressesstresses
on lossfriction along
in a gravity flowwetted
pipeline surface
dependsof the
on pipe
viscous shear stresses
d,liquid,
and friction
and friction
alongalong
the wettedthe wettedsurface
surface
of theofpipe
the bore.
pipe bore.
d friction along the wetted surface of the pipe bore.
ow piping systems 186 Chaptermay6 become very complex, especially if the pipeline
vity
ow
ecausepiping
flow piping
systemssystems
frictionmay may
loss become become
may along
will vary become
very complex,
withvery complex,
especially
theespecially
varying especially
grade. if the ifpipeline
the pipeline
Sections of
iping systems very complex, if the pipeline
ies,
ayecausebecause
develop friction
friction
loss
internal will
loss vary
pressure, will along
vary
or along
with
vacuum, the
withvarying
and the varying
may grade.
have grade.
Sections
varying Sections
of of
liquid
se friction loss will vary along with the varying grade. Sections of
ne
ay may
develop
e bore. develop
internal
internal
pressure,pressure, or vacuum,
or vacuum,and may
and may
have have
varyingvarying
liquidliquid
evelop internal pressure, or vacuum, and may have varying liquid
pe
he bore.
pipe bore.
re.
Some gravity flow piping systems may become very complex, especially if the
pipeline grade varies, because friction loss will vary along with the varying grade.
nel water flow under
Sectionsconditions
of the pipelineofmay
constant
develop grade, and uniform
internal pressure, channel
or vacuum, and may have
nel
channel
waterwater
he Manningflow under
flow
equation under
conditions
may conditions
liquid be of constant
of constant
grade, grade,
and uniform
and uniform
channel
channel
water flow undervarying
conditions of used.
levels in the(28,29,30)
constant pipegrade,
bore. andOpen channel
uniform flow exists
channel
nhe
ion,
itManning
anning
the Manning
runs equation
partially
equation
equation
may
may
full.beLikebe
may
used.
used.
thebeHazen-Williams
used.
(28,29,30)
(28,29,30)
(28,29,30)
Open Open
channel
formula,
Open channel
channel
flow
theexists
flow
exists
flow exists
Manning
ned
when
ittoruns
it runs
waterpartially
partially
full.with
Manning
or full.
liquids Like
full.
Flow Like
the Hazen-Williams
aEquation the viscosity
kinematic Hazen-Williams
formula,
equal formula,
tothe the Manning
water. the Manning
runs partially Like the Hazen-Williams formula, Manning
ted
s limited
to water
to water
or liquids
or liquids
Forwith with a
openachannelwith
kinematic
a kinematic
viscosity
waterviscosity viscosity
flow underequalequal
conditions equal
to water.
to water.
of constant grade, and uniform
o water or liquids kinematic to water.
channel cross section, the Manning equation may be used.(29,30) Open channel flow
exists in a pipe when it runs partially full. Like the Hazen-Williams formula,
ion the Manning equation is applicable to water or liquids with a kinematic viscosity
Equation
ion equal to water.
Manning Equation
1.486 2 / 3 1 / 2
(2-29) V 1.486 1rH.486 2/3
S 2/3 Eq. 1- 46
1V = Vn2 / 3 rH1 / 2 SrH1 / 2 S 1 / 2
.486 Eq. 1-Eq.
461- 46
V rHn S n Eq. 1- 46
n
ere Where
= flow velocity, ft/sec
V = flow velocity, ft/sec
=
V flow
= velocity,
flow
=flow velocity,
roughness velocity,
ft/secft/sec
n coefficient,
ft/sec dimensionless
= roughness coefficient, dimensionless
=
n roughness
=
=roughness roughness
hydraulic coefficient,
radius, coefficient,
ft dimensionless
dimensionless
coefficient,
rH = hydraulic dimensionless
radius, ft
=
rH hydraulic
= hydraulic
radius, radius,
ft ft
hydraulic radius, SH =fthydraulic slope, ft/ft
AC
rH A AC Eq. 1- 47
(2-30) rAHC = PrWHC Eq. 1-Eq.
471- 47
rH PW PW Eq. 1- 47
= cross-sectional areaPof W pipe bore, ft2
A
==C perimeter
cross-sectional
= cross-sectional area of
area pipeftof bore,
pipe ft2 ft2
bore,
cross-sectionalAwettedarea ofby pipe
C = cross-sectionalflow, bore,
area ft2bore, ft2
of flow
P==W hydraulic
perimeter
= perimeter
Pwetted
slope, wetted
by wetted
ft/ft flow,by flow,
ft ft
perimeter wetted W= by flow,
perimeter
ft by flow, ft
S=H hydraulic
= hydraulic
slope,slope, ft/ft ft/ft
hydraulic slope, ft/ft
(2-31) h h hf
S H hUU hhDDU hDf hf Eq. 1-48
ShHU = hSDH L h f = L Eq. 1-48
Eq. 1-48
SH L L L L Eq. 1-48 31
= upstream hpipe Lpipe elevation,
elevation,
U = upstream ftL ft 31
h
==U downstream
upstream
= upstream
hpipe
D =pipe elevation,
pipe elevation,
elevation,
downstream ft ft ftft
pipe elevation,
upstream pipe elevation, ft
h=D to friction
ent
= downstream
= downstream
combine the
(head) pipe
Manning
loss, elevation,
pipe
ft of elevation,
equation ft with ft
ftliquid
hf = friction (head) loss, ft of liquid
downstream
ombine pipe elevation,
= = thefriction
hf friction Manning
(head) equation
(head)
loss,
L = length, ft loss,
with
ft of liquid
ft of liquid
friction (head) loss, ft of liquid
It is convenient to combine the Manning equation with
(2-32) Q
Q ACV Eq. 1-49
ACV Eq. 1-49
To obtain
1.486 A
(2-33) 2/3 1/ 2
Q AC 2 / 3 C r1H/ 2 S H
1.486 Eq. 1-50
Q rH n S H Eq. 1-50
n
are as defined above, and
defined above, and
= flow, ft3/sec
flow, ft3/sec
ular pipe is running full or half-full,
e is running full or half-full,
154-264.indd 186 d' DI 1/16/09 9:57:01 AM
Q = ACV Eq. 1-49
Q ACV Eq. 1-49
1.486 AC 2 / 3 1 / 2
Q rH S H Eq.Design
1-50 Chapter 6 187
n 1.486 AC 2 / 3 1 / 2 of PE Piping Systems
1.486QA=C 2 / n3 1 /r2H S H Eq. 1-50

re as defined above, Q and rH S H Eq. 1-50
n
rms
= are as ftdefined
flow, 3
/sec above, and
as defined above,3and
rQpipe =is running
flow,Where /sec
ftfull or half-full,
terms are as defined above, and
flow, ft3/sec Q = flow, ft3/sec
ircular pipe is running full or half-full,
pe is running full or half-full, d ' DI
rH Eq. 1-51 31
When a circular pipe 4 48
is running ' orDhalf-full,
d full
(2-34) r
d ' DI 4 = 48
H = I
Eq. 1-51
rH Eq. 1-51
onvenient
ere to combine the 4Manning 48 equation with
= pipe inside diameter, ft
=d pipe 31
= inside
pipewhere diameter,
inside in
diameter, ft
d = pipe inside diameter, ft Q ACV Eq. 1-49
DIpipe
3 = inside
pipe diameter, ft
inside diameter, in
n ft per secondDmay I = pipe be
insideestimated
diameter, in using:
otainpipe inside
combine 3 thediameter,
Manning in
equation with using:
3
flow in ft per second may be estimated
8/3
per second may beflow estimated 4 DI
using: S 1 / 2 using:

Full pipe in ft 3 per second may be estimated
Q(2-35) 6 . 136 u 10 1 . 486 A Eq. 1-52
FPS Q Q ACV 4n rD
C 28/ /33 11/ 2/ 2
SSH Eq. 1-49 Eq. 1-50
QFPS = 6.136 ( 4 DI
810 )
n/ 3 S 1 / 2
HI
Eq. 1-52
ne gallons
terms are
Qminute
peras FPS
defined

6may
.136 ube 10
above,estimated
and n using:
n Eq. 1-52
Full pipe flow in gallons per minute may be estimated using:
low in gallons per minute 3
486 A may be estimated using:
Q = (2-36) ft1./sec
flow, 2 /83/ 3 11/ 2/ 2
allons per minuteQmay be estimated C
rD SSHusing: Eq. 1-50
a circular pipe is running Q ' 0 . 275 H I
n full or half-full, 8 / 3 1/ 2 Eq. 1-53
n DI S
as defined above, and QD' =I 0.275 Eq. 1-53
8 / 3 1/ 2
S n
ular pipes will Q ' 0 . 275
carry more liquid than DI more liquid
ad completely
' carry full pipe. Eq. 1-53
When slightly
flow, ft3/secNearly full circularnpipes rH will than a completely full pipe.
Eq.When1-51
he hydraulic radius
slightly is
less significantly
than full, the reduced,
4
perimeter
l circular pipes will carry more liquid than a completely full pipe. When slightly 48 but
wetted the
by actual
flow is flow
reduced, area
but the is
actual flow
pipe
ssened.
pipes
full, isthe
running
will carryfull
Maximum area
hydraulic moreor
is half-full,
flow
only
radius is
liquid achieved
slightly
is than lessened. atThis
a completely
significantly about results
reduced, 93%
full of
in pipe.
abut full
larger pipe
hydraulic
When
the flow,
radius
slightly
actual flowand
than
areawhen
is
where
city at
hydraulic
tly about
lessened. 78%
radiusthe
Maximumof
pipefull is pipe
running
is significantly flow. full.
flow is achieved Maximum
reduced, at flow
butabout is achieved
the actual93% of at about
flow 93%
fullarea of full pipe
pipe isflow, and flow,
ned. dMaximum
= aboutpipe
and
flow inside
maximumis d velocity
' pipe
diameter,
achieved DI at at ftabout
about 78%93% of fullof pipe
fullflow.
pipeMannings
flow, n is often assumed
velocity at 78% rH of full flow. Eq. and
1-51
DI =
at about 78% pipe
of fullinside
to be constant
pipe flow. diameter,
4with flow48 depth. in Actually, n has been found to be slightly larger in
3 non-full flow.
ipe flow in ft per second may be estimated using:
Table 1-15: Values of n for Use with Manning Equation
pipe inside
Table 1-15:diameter,
Values ft 8 / 3n, typical
2-11 of n for Use with 4 DI
Manning S 1 / 2 Equation
pipe inside
ble 1-15: Values
Surface
Table
diameter,
ofofnn for
Values for
Surface
in
QUse Use with
with Manning
FPS
6.136Equation
u 10
Manning design
Equation n, typical
n 0.009design
Eq. 1-52
3 Polyethylene pipe n, typical
ft per Uncoated
secondSurface
may orbe estimated
castPolyethylene
ductileSurface
ironpipepipe using: n, typical0.013
design
design 0.009
pe flow in Polyethylene
gallons
Corrugatedper
Uncoated cast minute
steel
pipeorpipe
PE pipe may be
ductile iron8 /pipe estimated using:
0.024 0.013
0.009
0.009
D pipe 3 S 1 / 2

Uncoated cast or ductile iron 0.013
Concrete
orCorrugatedpipe 0.013 0.024
Uncoated cast
Q ductile
Vitrified
FPS 6.136 iron
Corrugated
clay pipe
usteel
pipe
10
steel
4pipe
pipe
I 0.013
8 / 3 1 / 2 0.024
0.013 0.013
Eq. 1-52
Corrugated steel Concrete
pipe pipe pipe n DI S 0.024
Brick and cement
Concrete
mortar sewers
Vitrified
Q ' 0.275 0.013
0.015 0.013 Eq. 1-53
Concrete pipeVitrifiedclay pipe
clay pipe n 0.013 0.013
gallons perVitrified
minute may
Brick Brick
and
clay cement
pipe
and be estimated
cement mortar sewers
mortar sewers using: 0.013
0.015 0.015
Brick and cement mortar
y full circular pipes will carry sewers
Wood stave
more liquid than a 0.011 0.015
completely full pipe. When slightly
8 / 3 1/ 2
han full, the hydraulic radius DI is significantly
Rubble masonry
S 0.021
reduced, but the actual flow area is
Note:Q ' n-value
0.275of 0.009 Eq. 1-53
lightly lessened. Maximum
The
flow
An n-value of 0.010 is typically
is achieved at suchabout
for PE pipe is for clear water applications.
n utilized for applications 93% of full pipe flow, and
as sanitary sewer, etc.
mum velocity at about 78% of full pipe flow.
ar pipes will carry more liquid than a completely full pipe. When slightly
e hydraulic radius is significantly reduced, but the actual flow area is
ened. Maximum flow is achieved at about 93% of full pipe flow, and
y at about 78%1-15:
Table of full Values
pipe flow. of n for Use with Manning Equation
n, typical
154-264.indd 187
Surface 1/16/09 9:57:02 AM
32
188 Chapter 6
Wood stave 0.011
Rubble masonry 0.021
Note: The n-value of 0.009 for polyethylene pipe is for clear water applications.
An n-value of 0.010 is typically utilized for applications such as sanitary sewer, etc.
tive Flows for Slipliners

Comparative Flows for Slipliners
Deteriorated gravity flow pipes may be rehabilitated by sliplining with PE pipe. This
ted gravity flowprocess
pipesinvolves
may be therehabilitated
installation of aby PE sliplining
liner inside with
of thepolyethylene pipe.pipe
deteriorated original
cess involves the installation
as described of a polyethylene
in subsequent chapters within liner
this inside
manual. of
Forthe deteriorated
conventional sliplining,
ipe as described in subsequent chapters within this manual. For conventional
clearance between the liner outside diameter and the existing pipe bore is required
clearance between
to installthe liner thus
the liner; outside diameter and
after rehabilitation, thechannel
the flow existing pipe than
is smaller borethat is of
to install the liner; thus after
the original pipe. rehabilitation,
However, it is often the flow channel
possible is smaller
to rehabilitate with a PEthan theand
slipliner,
pipe. However, regain
it is often possible
all or most to rehabilitate
of the original flow capacity withdueatopolyethylene slipliner,
the extremely smooth inside
in all or most of the original
surface flowand
of the PE pipe capacity due totodeposition
its resistance the extremely smooth
or build-up. Because inside
PE pipe
of the polyethylene pipe byand
is mostly joined means itsof butt-fusion,
resistance thisto deposition
results or reduction
in no effective build-up. of
tive flow capacities of circular
flow diameter pipes
at joint mayComparative
locations be determined by the following:
flow capacities of circular pipes may be
determined by the following:
(2-37)
D I 18 / 3

Q1 n1
% flow = 100 = 100 Eq. 1-54
Q2 DI 2
8/3

n2

Table 2-12 was developed using Equation 2-36 where D I1 = the inside diameter (ID)
16 was developed using Equation 1-54 where DI1 = the inside diameter (ID) of
of the liner, and D I2 = the original inside diameter of the deteriorated host pipe.
and DI2 = the original inside diameter of the deteriorated host pipe.
Table 1-16: Comparative Flows for Slipliners

Liner DR 32.5 Liner DR 26 Liner DR 21 Liner DR 17
ine
r % flow % % flow % % flow % % flow %
Line Line Line Line
OD, vs. flow vs. flow vs. flow vs. flow
r ID, r ID, r ID, r ID,
n. concre vs. concre vs. concre vs. concre vs.
in. in. in. in.
te clay te clay te clay te clay
.50 3.27 84.5 3.21 80.6 3.14 76.2 3.06 70.9
97.5% 93.0% 87.9% 81.8%
0 2 % 5 % 7 % 4 %
.50 4.20 56.0 4.13 53.5 4.04 50.5 3.93 47.0
64.6% 61.7% 58.3% 54.3%
0 6 % 3 % 6 % 9 %
.37 5.02 90.0 4.93 85.9 4.83 81.1 4.70 75.5
103.8% 99.1% 93.6% 87.1%
5 4 % 7 % 2 % 5 %
.62 6.19 73.0 6.08 69.6 5.95 65.8 5.79 61.2
84.2% 80.3% 75.9% 70.7%
5 3 % 5 % 6 % 9 %
.12 6.66 88.6 6.54 84.5 6.40 79.9 6.23 74.4
102.2% 97.5% 92.1% 85.8%
5 0 % 4 % 6 % 6 %
.62 8.06 81.3 7.92 77.6 7.75 73.3 7.54 68.3
93.8% 89.5% 84.6% 78.8%
5 2 % 2 % 4 % 9 %
0.7 10.0 90.0 9.87 85.9 9.66 81.1 9.40 75.5
103.8% 99.1% 93.6% 87.1%
50 49 % 3 % 5 % 9 %
2.7 11.9 78.2 11.7 74.6 11.4 70.5 11.1 65.6
90.3% 86.1% 81.4% 75.7%
50 18 % 10 % 63 % 60 %
154-264.indd 188 1/16/09 9:57:02 AM

Chapter 6 189
Table 2-12
Comparative Flows for Slipliners
Liner DR 32.5 Liner DR 26 Liner DR 21 Liner DR 17

Existing Liner % flow % flow % flow % flow
Liner ID, % flow Liner ID, % flow Liner ID, % flow Liner ID, % flow
Sewer OD, in.
vs.
vs. clay in.
vs.
vs. clay in.
vs.
vs. clay in.
vs.
vs. clay
ID, in in. concrete concrete concrete concrete
4 3.500 3.272 97.5% 84.5% 3.215 93.0% 80.6% 3.147 87.9% 76.2% 3.064 81.8% 70.9%
6 4.500 4.206 64.6% 56.0% 4.133 61.7% 53.5% 4.046 58.3% 50.5% 3.939 54.3% 47.0%
6 5.375 5.024 103.8% 90.0% 4.937 99.1% 85.9% 4.832 93.6% 81.1% 4.705 87.1% 75.5%
8 6.625 6.193 84.2% 73.0% 6.085 80.3% 69.6% 5.956 75.9% 65.8% 5.799 70.7% 61.2%
8 7.125 6.660 102.2% 88.6% 6.544 97.5% 84.5% 6.406 92.1% 79.9% 6.236 85.8% 74.4%
10 8.625 8.062 93.8% 81.3% 7.922 89.5% 77.6% 7.754 84.6% 73.3% 7.549 78.8% 68.3%
12 10.750 10.049 103.8% 90.0% 9.873 99.1% 85.9% 9.665 93.6% 81.1% 9.409 87.1% 75.5%
15 12.750 11.918 90.3% 78.2% 11.710 86.1% 74.6% 11.463 81.4% 70.5% 11.160 75.7% 65.6%
15 13.375 12.503 102.5% 88.9% 12.284 97.8% 84.8% 12.025 92.4% 80.1% 11.707 86.1% 74.6%
16 14.000 13.087 97.5% 84.5% 2.858 93.0% 80.6% 12.587 87.9% 76.2% 12.254 81.8% 70.9%
18 16.000 14.956 101.7% 88.1% 14.695 97.0% 84.1% 14.385 91.7% 79.4% 14.005 85.3% 74.0%
21 18.000 16.826 92.3% 80.0% 16.532 88.1% 76.3% 16.183 83.2% 72.1% 15.755 77.5% 67.1%
24 20.000 18.695 85.6% 74.2% 18.369 81.7% 70.8% 17.981 77.2% 66.9% 17.506 71.9% 62.3%
24 22.000 20.565 110.4% 95.7% 20.206 105.3% 91.3% 19.779 99.5% 86.2% 19.256 92.6% 80.3%
27 24.000 22.434 101.7% 88.1% 22.043 97.0% 84.1% 21.577 91.7% 79.4% 21.007 85.3% 74.0%
30 28.000 26.174 115.8% 100.4% 25.717 110.5% 95.8% 25.173 104.4% 90.5% 24.508 97.2% 84.2%
33 30.000 28.043 108.0% 93.6% 27.554 103.0% 89.3% 26.971 97.3% 84.3% 26.259 90.6% 78.5%
36 32.000 29.913 101.7% 88.1% 29.391 97.0% 84.1% 28.770 91.7% 79.4% 28.009 85.3% 74.0%
36 34.000 31.782 119.5% 103.6% 31.228 114.1% 98.9% 30.568 107.7% 93.4% 29.760 100.3% 86.9%
42 36.000 33.652 92.3% 80.0% 33.065 88.1% 76.3% 32.366 83.2% 72.1% 31.511 77.5% 67.1%
48 42.000 39.260 97.5% 84.5% 38.575 93.0% 80.6% 37.760 87.9% 76.2% 36.762 81.8% 70.9%
54 48.000 44.869 101.7% 88.1% 44.086 97.0% 84.1% 43.154 91.7% 79.4% 42.014 85.3% 74.0%
60 54.000 50.478 105.1% 91.1% 49.597 100.3% 86.9% 48.549 94.8% 82.1% 47.266 88.2% 76.5%
Liner ID calculated per Equation 2-1.
Flow Velocity
Acceptable flow velocities in PE pipe depend on the specific details of the system.
For water systems operating at rated pressures, velocities may be limited by surge
allowance requirements. See Tables 1-3A and 1-3B. Where surge effects are reduced,
higher velocities are acceptable, and if surge is not possible, such as in many gravity
flow systems, water flow velocities exceeding 25 feet per second may be acceptable.
Liquid flow velocity may be limited by the capabilities of pumps or elevation head
to overcome friction (head) loss and deliver the flow and pressure required for
the application. PE pipe is not eroded by water flow. Liquid slurry pipelines may
be subject to critical minimum velocities that ensure turbulent flow and maintain
particle suspension in the slurry.
Gravity liquid flows of 2 fps (0.6 m/s) and higher can help prevent or reduce solids
deposition in sewer lines. When running full, gravity flow pipelines are subject to
the same velocity considerations as pressure pipelines.
154-264.indd 189 1/16/09 9:57:02 AM

190 Chapter 6
Flow velocity in compressible gas lines tends to be self-limiting. Compressible

gas flows in PE pipes are typically laminar or transitional. Fully turbulent flows
are possible in short pipelines, but difficult to achieve in longer transmission and
distribution lines because the pressure ratings for PE pipe automatically limit flow
capacity and, therefore, flow velocity.
Pipe Surface Condition, Aging

Aging acts to increase pipe surface roughness in most piping systems. This in
turn increases flow resistance. PE pipe resists typical aging effects because PE
does not rust, rot, corrode, tuberculate, or support biological growth, and it resists
the adherence of scale and deposits. In some cases, moderate flow velocities are
sufficient to prevent deposition, and where low velocities predominate, occasional
high velocity flows will help to remove sediment and deposits. As a result, the
initial design capabilities for pressure and gravity flow pipelines are retained as the
pipeline ages.
Where cleaning is needed to remove depositions in low flow rate gravity flow
pipelines, water-jet cleaning or forcing a soft (plastic foam) pig through the
pipeline are effective cleaning methods. Bucket, wire and scraper-type cleaning
methods will damage PE pipe and must not be used.
154-264.indd 190 1/16/09 9:57:02 AM

Chapter 6 191
Section 3
Buried PE Pipe Design
Introduction
This section covers basic engineering information for calculating earth and live-load
pressures on PE pipe, for finding the pipes response to these pressures taking into
account the interaction between the pipe and its surrounding soil, and for judging
that an adequate safety factor exists for a given application.
Soil pressure results from the combination of soil weight and surface loads. As
backfill is placed around and over a PE pipe, the soil pressure increases and the
pipe deflects vertically and expands laterally into the surrounding soil. The lateral
expansion mobilizes passive resistance in the soil which, in combination with the
pipes inherent stiffness, resists further lateral expansion and consequently further
vertical deflection.
During backfilling, ring (or hoop) stress develops within the pipe wall. Ring
bending stresses (tensile and compressive) occur as a consequence of deflection,
and ring compressive stress occurs as a consequence of the compressive thrust
created by soil compression around the pipes circumference. Except for shallow pipe
subject to live load, the combined ring stress from bending and compression results
in a net compressive stress.
The magnitude of the deflection and the stress depends not only on the pipes
properties but also on the properties of the surrounding soil. The magnitude of
deflection and stress must be kept safely within PE pipes performance limits.
Excessive deflection may cause loss of stability and flow restriction, while excessive
compressive stress may cause wall crushing or ring buckling. Performance limits for
PE pipe are given in Watkins, Szpak, and Allman(1) and illustrated in
Figure 3-1.
The design and construction requirements can vary somewhat, depending on

whether the installation is for pressure or non-pressure service. These differences
will be addressed later in this chapter and in Chapter 7, Underground Installation
of PE Pipe.
154-264.indd 191 1/16/09 9:57:02 AM

192 Chapter 6
Calculations
Section 3 describes how to calculate the soil pressure acting on PE pipe due to soil
weight and surface loads, how to determine the resulting deflection based on pipe
and soil properties, and how to calculate the allowable (safe) soil pressure for wall
compression (crushing) and ring buckling for PE pipe.
Detailed calculations are not always necessary to determine the suitability of a

particular PE pipe for an application. Pressure pipes that fall within the Design
Window given in AWWA M-55 PE Pipe Design and Installation regarding
pipe DR, installation, and burial depth meet specified deflection limits for PE pipe,
have a safety factor of at least 2 against buckling, and do not exceed the allowable
material compressive stress for PE. Thus, the designer need not perform extensive
calculations for pipes that are sized and installed in accordance with the Design
Window.
AWWA M-55 Design Window

AWWA M-55, PE Pipe Design and Installation, describes a Design Window.
Applications that fall within this window require no calculations other than
constrained buckling per Equation 3-15. It turns out that if pipe is limited to DR 21
or lower as in Table 3-1, the constrained buckling calculation has a safety factor of at
least 2, and no calculations are required.
The design protocol under these circumstances (those that fall within the AWWA
Design Window) is thereby greatly simplified. The designer may choose to proceed
with detailed analysis of the burial design and utilize the AWWA Design Window
guidelines as a means of validation for his design calculations and commensurate
safety factors. Alternatively, he may proceed with confidence that the burial design
for these circumstances (those outlined within the AWWA Design Window) has
already been analyzed in accordance with the guidelines presented in this chapter.
The Design Window specifications are:
Pipe made from stress-rated PE material.

Essentially no dead surface load imposed over the pipe, no ground water above
the surface, and provisions for preventing flotation of shallow cover pipe have
been provided.
The embedment materials are coarse-grained, compacted to at least 85% Standard
Proctor Density and have an E of at least 1000 psi. The native soil must be stable;
in other words the native soil must have an E of at least 1000 psi. See Table 3-7.
The unit weight of the native soil does not exceed 120 pcf.
The pipe is installed in accordance with manufacturers recommendations for
controlling shear and bending loads and minimum bending radius, and installed
154-264.indd 192 1/16/09 9:57:02 AM

Chapter 6 193
in accordance with ASTM D2774 for pressure pipes or ASTM D2321 for non-
pressure pipes.
Minimum depth of cover is 2 ft (0.61 m); except when subject to AASHTO H20
truck loadings, in which case the minimum depth of cover is the greater of 3 ft
(0.9 m) or one pipe diameter.
Maximum depth of cover is 25 ft (7.62 m).
Table 3-1
AWWA M-55 Design Window Maximum and Minimum Depth of
Cover Requiring No Calculations
Min. Depth of Min. Depth of

Maximum
DR Cover With H20 Cover Without
Depth of Cover
Load H20 Load
7.3 3 ft 2 ft 25 ft
9 3 ft 2 ft 25 ft
11 3 ft 2 ft 25 ft
13.5 3 ft 2 ft 25 ft
17 3 ft 2 ft 25 ft
21 3 ft 2 ft 25 ft
* Limiting depths where no calculations are required. Pipes are suitable for deeper depth provided
a sufficient E (1,000 psi or more) is accomplished during installations. Calculations would be required
for depth greater than 25 ft.
Installation Categories
For the purpose of calculation, buried installations of PE pipe can be separated
into four categories depending on the depth of cover, surface loading, groundwater
level and pipe diameter. Each category involves slightly different equations for
determining the load on the pipe and the pipes response to the load. The boundaries
between the categories are not definite, and engineering judgment is required to
select the most appropriate category for a specific installation. The categories are:
1. Standard Installation-Trench or Embankment installation with a maximum

cover of 50 ft with or without traffic, rail, or surcharge loading. To be in this
category, where live loads are present the pipe must have a minimum cover of
at least one diameter or 18 whichever is greater. Earth pressure applied to the
pipe is found using the prism load (geostatic soil stress). The Modified Iowa
Formula is used for calculating deflection. Crush and buckling are performance
limits as well. The Standard Installation section also presents the AWWA Design
Window.
2. Shallow Cover Vehicular Loading Installation applies to pipes buried at a

depth of at least 18 but less than one pipe diameter. This installation category
154-264.indd 193 1/16/09 9:57:03 AM

194 Chapter 6
uses the same equations as the Standard Installation but with an additional
equation relating wheel load to the pipes bending resistance and the soils
supporting strength.
3. Deep Fill Installation applies to embankments with depths exceeding 50 ft.

The soil pressure calculation may be used for profile pipe in trenches less
than 50 ft. The Deep Fill Installation equations differ from the Standard
Installation equations by considering soil pressure based on armored, calculating
deflection from the Watkins-Gaube Graph, and calculating buckling with the
Moore-Selig Equation.
4. Shallow Cover Flotation Effects applies to applications where insufficient

cover is available to either prevent flotation or hydrostatic collapse. Hydrostatic
buckling is introduced in this chapter because of its use in subsurface design.
Section 3 of the Design Chapter is limited to the design of PE pipes buried in

trenches or embankments. The load and pipe reaction calculations presented may
not apply to pipes installed using trenchless technologies such as pipe bursting
and directional drilling. These pipes may not develop the same soil support as
pipe installed in a trench. The purveyor of the trenchless technology should be
consulted for piping design information. See the Chapter on PE Pipe for Horizontal
Directional Drilling and ASTM F1962, Use of Maxi-Horizontal Directional Drilling
(HDD) for Placement of Polyethylene Pipe or Conduit Under Obstacles, Including River
Crossings for additional information on design of piping installed using directional
drilling.
37
Figu
re 2-
1.
Perf
orm
ance
Limi
ts
for
Buri
ed
PE
Pipe
Figure 3-1 Performance Limits for Buried PE Pipe
Design Process
The interaction between pipe and soil, the variety of field-site soil conditions, and the
Design
range of Process
available pipe Dimension Ratios make the design of buried pipe seem
challenging. This section of the Design Chapter has been written with the intent of
The interaction
easing the designers between
task. Whilepipe and
some soil,
very the variety
sophisticated ofapproaches
design field-sitefor
soil conditions, and
buried pipe systems may be justified in certain applications, the simpler, empirical
the
methodologies presented herein have been proven by experience to provide reliableof buried pipe seem
range of available pipe Dimension Ratios make the design
challenging.
results for virtuallyThis
all PEsection of the Design Chapter has been written with the intent
pipe installations.
of easing
The the designers
design process task.
consists of the While
following some very sophisticated design approaches for
steps:
1) Determine the vertical soil pressure acting at the crown of the pipe due to
earth, live, and surcharge loads.
2) Select a trial pipe, which means selecting a trial dimension ratio (DR) or, in the
case of profile pipe, a trial profile as well.
3) Select an embedment material and degree of compaction. As will be described

154-264.indd 194 later, soil type and compaction are relatable to a specific modulus of soil 1/16/09 9:57:03 AM
Chapter 6 195
buried pipe systems may be justified in certain applications, the simpler, empirical
methodologies presented herein have been proven by experience to provide reliable
results for virtually all PE pipe installations.
The design process consists of the following steps:
1. Determine the vertical soil pressure acting at the crown of the pipe due to earth,
live, and surcharge loads.
2. Select a trial pipe, which means selecting a trial dimension ratio (DR) or, in the
case of profile pipe, a trial profile.
3. Select an embedment material and degree of compaction. As will be described

later, soil type and compaction are relatable to a specific modulus of soil reaction
value (E) (Table 3-8). (As deflection is proportional to the combination of pipe
and soil stiffness, pipe properties and embedment stiffness can be traded off to
obtain an optimum design.)
4. For the trial pipe and trial modulus of soil reaction, calculate the deflection due
to the vertical soil pressure. Compare the pipe deflection to the deflection limit. If
deflection exceeds the limit, it is generally best to look at increasing the modulus
of soil reaction rather than reducing the DR or changing to a heavier profile.
Repeat step 4 for the new E and/or new trial pipe.
5. For the trial pipe and trial modulus of soil reaction, calculate the allowable soil
pressure for wall crushing and for wall buckling. Compare the allowable soil
pressure to the applied vertical pressure. If the allowable pressure is equal to or
higher than the applied vertical pressure, the design is complete. If not, select a
different pipe DR or heavier profile or different E, and repeat step 5.
Since design begins with calculating vertical soil pressure, it seems appropriate to
discuss the different methods for finding the vertical soil pressure on a buried pipe
before discussing the pipes response to load within the four installation categories.
Earth, Live, and Surcharge Loads on Buried Pipe
Vertical Soil Pressure

The weight of the earth, as well as surface loads above the pipe, produce soil
pressure on the pipe. The weight of the earth or earth load is often considered
to be a dead-load whereas surface loads are referred to as surcharge loads and
may be temporary or permanent. When surcharge loads are of short duration they
are usually referred to as live loads. The most common live load is vehicular load.
Other common surcharge loads include light structures, equipment, and piles of
stored materials or debris. This section gives formulas for calculating the vertical
154-264.indd 195 1/16/09 9:57:03 AM

196 Chapter 6
soil pressure due to both earth and surcharge loads. The soil pressures are normally
calculated at the depth of the pipe crown. The soil pressures for earth load and each
surcharge load are added together to obtain the total vertical soil pressure which is
then used for calculating deflection and for comparison with wall crush and wall
buckling performance limits.
Earth Load
In a uniform, homogeneous soil mass, the soil load acting on a horizontal plane
within the mass is equal to the weight of the soil directly above the plane. If the
mass contains areas of varying stiffness, the weight of the mass will redistribute
itself toward the stiffer areas due to internal shear resistance, and arching will
occur. Arching results in a reduction in load on the less stiff areas. Flexible pipes
including PE pipes are normally not as stiff as the surrounding soil, so the resulting
earth pressure acting on PE pipe is reduced by arching and is less than the weight
of soil above the pipe. (One minor exception to this is shallow cover pipe under
dynamic loads.) For simplicity, engineers often ignore arching and assume that the
earth load on the pipe is equal to the weight of soil above the pipe, which is referred
to as the prism load or geostatic stress. Practically speaking, the prism load is
a conservative loading for PE pipes. It may be safely used in virtually all designs.
Equation 3-1 gives the vertical soil pressure due to the prism load. The depth of cover
is the depth from the ground surface to the pipe crown.
(3-1) P E = wH
Where
PE = vertical soil pressure due to earth load, psf
w = unit weight of soil, pcf
H = depth of cover, ft
UNITS CONVENTION: To facilitate calculations for PE pipes, the convention used with
rigid pipes for taking the load on the pipe as a line load along the longitudinal axis in
units of lbs/lineal-ft of pipe length is not used here. Rather, the load is treated as a soil
pressure acting on a horizontal plane at the pipe crown and is given in units of lbs/ft2
or psf.
Soil weight can vary substantially from site to site and within a site depending
on composition, density and load history. Soil weights are often found in the
construction site geotechnical report. The saturated unit weight of the soil is used
when the pipe is below the groundwater level. For design purposes, the unit
weight of dry soil is commonly assumed to be 120 pcf, when site-specific information
is not available.
154-264.indd 196 1/16/09 9:57:03 AM

Chapter 6 197
Generally, the soil pressure on profile pipe and on DR pipe in deep fills is
significantly less than the prism load due to arching. For these applications, soil
pressure is best calculated using the calculations that account for arching in the
40
Deep Fill Installation section.
Figure
Figure 2-2.
3-2 Prism LoadPrism Load
Live Load
Even though wheel loadings from cars and other light vehicles may be frequent,
these loads generally have little impact on subsurface piping compared to the less
frequent but significantly heavier loads from trucks, trains, or other heavy vehicles.
h wheel loadings Forfrom
designcars andunder
of pipes other lightand
streets vehicles
highways,mayonlybe
thefrequent,
loadings fromthese
these heavier
ally have little impact on subsurface piping compared to the less frequent
vehicles are considered. The pressure transmitted to a pipe by a vehicle depends
ntly heavier loads from
on the trucks,
pipes depth,trains, or other
the vehicles heavy
weight, vehicles.
the tire Forsize,
pressure and design ofspeed,
vehicle
streets and highways, then, only the loadings from these heavier vehicles
surface smoothness, the amount and type of paving, the soil, and the distance from
red. The pressure transmitted
the pipe to the pointtoofaloading.
pipe by Forathevehicle depends
more common onsuch
cases, theaspipes
AASHTO, H20
vehicle's weight, the tire pressure and size, vehicle speed,
HS20 truck traffic on paved roads and E-80 rail loading, this information surface has been
, the amount and type ofand
simplified paving,
put intothe
Tablesoil, andand
3-3, 3-4, the3-5distance
to aid thefrom theFor
designer. pipe to cases,
special
loading. For the suchmore common
as mine cases,
trucks, cranes, or such
off-roadasvehicles,
H20 (HS20) truck
Equations traffic
3-2 and on be used.
3-4 may
s and E-80 rail loading, this information has been simplified and put into
2-3, and 2-4 toThe
aidmaximum load under
the designer. Fora wheel occurs
special at the surface
cases, such asandmine
diminishes with depth.
trucks,
PE pipes should be installed a minimum
ff-road vehicles, Equations 2-2 and 2-4 may be used. of one diameter or 18, whichever is greater,
beneath the road surface. At this depth, the pipe is far enough below the wheel load
to significantly reduce soil pressure and the pipe can fully utilize the embedment
um load under a wheel occurs at the surface and diminishes with depth.
soil for load resistance. Where design considerations do not permit installation with
e pipes should be installed a minimum of one diameter or 18, whichever is
eath the road surface. At this depth, the pipe is far enough below the wheel
ificantly reduce soil pressure and the pipe can fully utilize the embedment
resistance. Where design considerations do not permit installation with at
ameter of cover, additional calculations are required and are given in the
cussing154-264.indd
"Shallow 197
Cover Vehicular Loading Installation." State highway 1/16/09 9:57:03 AM
198 Chapter 6
at least one diameter of cover, additional calculations are required and are given
in the section discussing Shallow Cover Vehicular Loading Installation. State
highway departments often regulate minimum cover depth and may require 2.5 ft to
5 ft of cover depending on the particular roadway.
During construction, both permanent and temporary underground pipelines may

be subjected to heavy vehicle loading from construction equipment. It may be
advisable to provide a designated vehicle crossing with special measures such as
temporary pavement or concrete encasement, as well as vehicle speed controls to
limit impact loads.
The following information on AASHTO Loading and Impact Factor is not needed
to use Tables 3-3 and 3-4. It is included to give the designer an understanding of the
surface loads encountered and typical impact factors. If the designer decides to use
Equations 3-2 or 3-4 rather than the tables, the information will be useful.
AASHTO Vehicular Loading

Vehicular loads are typically based on The American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) standard truck loadings. For calculating the
soil pressure on flexible pipe, the loading is normally assumed to be an H20 (HS20)
truck. A standard H20 truck has a total weight of 40,000 lbs (20 tons). The weight is
distributed with 8,000 lbs on the front axle and 32,000 lbs on the rear axle. The HS20
truck is a tractor and trailer unit having the same axle loadings as the H20 truck but
with two rear axles. See Figure 3-3. For these trucks, the maximum wheel load is
found at the rear axle(s) and equals 40 percent of the total weight of the truck.
The maximum wheel load may be used to represent the static load applied by either
a single axle or tandem axles. Some states permit heavier loads. The heaviest tandem
axle loads normally encountered on highways are around 40,000 lbs (20,000 lbs per
wheel). Occasionally, vehicles may be permitted with loads up to 50 percent higher.
154-264.indd 198 1/16/09 9:57:03 AM

Chapter 6 199
4242
AASHTO H20
AASHTO H20
AASHTO Wheel
WheelLoad
H20Wheel Load
Load AASHTO
AASHTO HS20
AASHTO HS20
HS20 WheelLoad Load
Wheel
Wheel Load
Figure 3-3 AASHTO H20 and HS20 Vehicle Loads
Figure
Figure 2-3.AASHTO
2-3. AASHTO H20
H20 && HS20
HS20 VehicleLoads
Vehicle Loads
Impact Factor
Road surfaces are rarely smooth or perfectly even. When vehicles strike bumps in
the road, the impact causes an instantaneous increase in wheel loading. Impact load
Impact
Impact Factor
Factor
may be found by multiplying the static wheel load by an impact factor. The factor
varies with depth. Table 3-2 gives impact factors for vehicles on paved roads. For
Road
Road surfaces
surfaces areare rarely
rarely smooth
smooth or perfectly even.When
When vehiclesstrike
strikebumps
bumpsininthe
the
unpaved roads, impact factorsor
ofperfectly even.
2.0 or higher may occur, vehicles
depending on the road
road,
road, thethe impact causes an instantaneous increase in wheel loading. Impact
impact causes an instantaneous increase in wheel loading. Impact load may load may
surface.
be be found
found by by multiplying
multiplying thethe static
static wheel
wheel load
load byby
anan impact
impact factor.The
factor. Thefactor
factorvaries
varieswith
with
depth. Table 2-1 gives impact factors for vehicles on paved roads. For unpaved roads,
depth. Table 2-1 gives impact factors for vehicles on paved roads. For unpaved roads,
impact factors of 2.0 or higher may occur, depending on the road surface.
impactTable
factors3-2
of 2.0 or higher may occur, depending on the road surface.
Typical Impact Factors for Paved Roads
Cover Depth, ft Impact Factor, If

1 Table1.35
2-1: Typical Impact Factors for Paved Roads
2
Table 2-1:
1.30
Typical Impact Factors for Paved Roads
3 1.25Cover
Depth, ft Impact Factor, If
4
Cover Depth, ft
1.20
Impact Factor, If
6 1.10 1 1.35
8 1.00 1 1.35
Derived from Illinois DOT dynamic load2formula (1996). 1.30
2 1.30
3 1.25
3 1.25
Vehicle Loading through Highway Pavement (Rigid)
Pavement reduces the live load4 pressure reaching a pipe.
1.20A stiff, rigid pavement
4 1.20
spreads load out over a large subgrade area thus significantly reducing the vertical
6 1.10
6 1.10
154-264.indd 199 1/16/09 9:57:04 AM

200 Chapter 6
soil pressure. Table 3-3 gives the vertical soil pressure underneath an H20 (HS20)
truck traveling on a paved highway (12-inch thick concrete). An impact factor is
incorporated. For use with heavier trucks, the pressures in Table 3-3 can be adjusted
proportionally to the increased weight as long as the truck has the same tire area as
an HS20 truck.
Table 3-3
Soil Pressure under H20 Load (12 Thick Pavement)
Depth of cover, ft. Soil Pressure, lb/ft2

1 1800
1.5 1400
2 800
3 600
4 400
5 250
6 200
7 175
8 100
Over 8 Neglect
Note: For reference see ASTM F7906. Based on axle load equally distributed
over two 18 by 20 inch areas, spaced 72 inches apart. Impact factor included.
Vehicle Loading through Flexible Pavement or Unpaved Surface

Flexible pavements (or unpaved surfaces) do not have the bridging ability of rigid
pavement and thus transmit more pressure through the soil to the pipe than given
by Table 3-3. In many cases, the wheel loads from two vehicles passing combine
to create a higher soil pressure than a single dual-tire wheel load. The maximum
pressure may occur directly under the wheels of one vehicle or somewhere in
between the wheels of the two vehicles depending on the cover depth. Table
3-4 gives the largest of the maximum pressure for two passing H20 trucks on
an unpaved surface. No impact factor is included. The loading in Table 3-3 is
conservative and about 10% higher than loads found by the method given in
AASHTO Section 3, LRFD Bridge Specifications Manual based on assuming a
single dual-tire contact area of 20 x 10 inches and using the equivalent area method
of load distribution.
154-264.indd 200 1/16/09 9:57:04 AM

Chapter 6 201
Table 3-4
Soil Pressure Under H20 Load (Unpaved or Flexible Pavement)

1.5 2000
2.0 1340
2.5 1000
3.0 710
3.5 560
4.0 500
6.0 310
8.0 200
10.0 140
Note: Based on integrating the Boussinesq equation for two H20 loads spaced 4 feet apart
or one H20 load centered over pipe. No pavement effects or impact factor included.
Off-Highway Vehicles
Off-highway vehicles such as mine trucks and construction equipment may be
considerably heavier than H20 trucks. These vehicles frequently operate on unpaved
construction or mine roads which may have very uneven surfaces. Thus, except
for slow traffic, an impact factor of 2.0 to 3.0 should be considered. For off-highway
vehicles, it is generally necessary to calculate live load pressure from information
supplied by the vehicle manufacturer regarding the vehicle weight or wheel load,
tire footprint (contact area) and wheel spacing.
The location of the vehicles wheels relative to the pipe is also an important factor in
determining how much load is transmitted to the pipe. Soil pressure under a point
load at the surface is dispersed through the soil in both depth and expanse. Wheel
loads not located directly above a pipe may apply pressure to the pipe, and this
pressure can be significant. The load from two wheels straddling a pipe may produce
a higher pressure on a pipe than from a single wheel directly above it.
For pipe installed within a few feet of the surface, the maximum soil pressure
will occur when a single wheel (single or dual tire) is directly over the pipe. For
deeper pipes, the maximum case often occurs when vehicles traveling above the
pipe pass within a few feet of each other while straddling the pipe, or in the case
of off-highway vehicles when they have closely space axles. The minimum spacing
between the centerlines of the wheel loads of passing vehicles is assumed to be
four feet. At this spacing for H20 loading, the pressure on a pipe centered midway
between the two passing vehicles is greater than a single wheel load on a pipe at or
below a depth of about four feet.
For design, the soil pressure on the pipe is calculated based on the vehicle location
(wheel load locations) relative to the pipe that produces the maximum pressure. This
154-264.indd 201 1/16/09 9:57:04 AM

46
I f W w H
3
PL = 1 -
202 Chapter 6
aC ( r T + H 2 )
2 1.5
I f W w H
3
PL = 1 - 46 Eq. 2-2
2 1.5
aC ( r T + H ) Where:
2
generally involves comparing the pressure PLunder

= vertical
a singlesoil pressure
wheel with that due to live
occurring load, lb/ft2
with two wheels straddling the pipe. TheITimoshenko
Where: = impact Equation
factor can be used to find
pressureHdirectly
I f W wthe 3 under a single wheelf load, whereas the Boussinesq Equation
PL = 1 - 2 Eq. 2-2
a can be( used find pressure
P2L+=to vertical
2 1.5the
) soil pressure W
due
from wheels =towheel
w not directlyload,
live load, lb
lb/ft
above the pipe.
C rT H
aC = contact area, ft2 46
If = impact factor
Timoshenkos Equation
The Timoshenko Equation
Ww = wheel gives
load, lbthe soil pressure at a point directly
rT = equivalent radius,under
ft a
Where: distributed surface load, neglecting
2 any pavement.
aC = contact area, ft H = depth of cover, ft
PL(3-2)
= vertical soil pressure due to live load, lb/ft2
I f W w H
3
P L r=T = equivalent 1- radius, ft Eq. 2-2
If = impact aC ( r T + H 2 )1.5
factor 2
H = depth The equivalent

of cover, ftradius is given by:
Ww = wheel load, lb
Where
2 to live load, lb/ft2 aC
aCP=L =contact
vertical soilarea,
Where:
pressureft due
rT =
The equivalent If =radius is given by:
impact factor S
rT =
Wwequivalent
= wheel load, P lb Lradius,
= vertical ft soil pressure due to live load, lb/ft2
Ha=C =depth
contact area, ft 2
of Icover, a
rT = equivalent radius,f =
= ft C factor
r Tftimpact Eq. 2-3
For standard S H2O and HS20 highway vehicle loading, the contact area
Wtakenw = wheelfor dual load, lb
wheels, that is, 16,000 lb over 10 in. by 20 in. area.
uivalent radius is given by: is given by:
The equivalent radiusaC = contact area, ft2
For standard H2O
(3-3)
and HS20 highway vehicle loading, the contact area is normally
ar = equivalent radius, 10 ftin.
taken for dual wheels, r T = thatTTimoshenko
is, 16,000 lbExample over Calculation
by 20 in. area.
C
Eq. 2-3
S
HFind
= depth of cover,
the vertical ft
pressure on a 24" polyethylene pipe buried 3 ft ben
For standard
Timoshenko Example H2Oroad
andwhen
Calculation an R-50
HS20 highway truckloading,
vehicle is over thethe pipe.
contact areaThe manufacturer lists the
is normally
ndard H2O taken for
and HS20 radiusdual
highwaywheels,
weight that is,
ofby:
vehicle 16,000
183,540 lb
loading,lbsover a
theon 10 in. by
21X35
contact 20 in. area.
E3 is
area tires, each having a 30,590 lb loa
normally
The equivalent is given
Find the vertical pressure
or dual wheels, that is, 16,000 on
area a 24"
of 370
lb over polyethylene
2 pipe
10inin.. by 20 in. area. buried 3 ft beneath an unpaved
Timoshenko Example Calculation
road when an R-50 truck is over the pipe. aC The manufacturer lists the truck with a gross
Find the verticalSOLUTION:
r T =
pressure on a 24Use Equations
PE pipe 2-2
buried 3 ft and an
beneath 2-3. Sinceroad
unpaved the vehicleEq.
is operatin
2-3
weight of 183,540 lbs on 21X35 E3 tires, S each having a 30,590 lb load over an imprint
when
2 an R-50 off-road truck is over the pipe. The manufacturer
road, an impact factor of 2.0 is appropriate. lists the truck with
enko
areaExample
of 370 inCalculation
.
a gross weight of 183,540 lbs on 21X35 E3 tires, each having a 30,590 lb load over an
imprint area of 370 2-2
in2. and 2-3. Since the vehicle is operating on an unpaved
e SOLUTION:
vertical pressure Use Equations
on a 24" polyethylene pipe buried 3 ft beneath an unpaved
road, Foran standard
impact H2O and
factor HS20 highway vehicle loading, the contact area is normally
hen an R-50 truck is overofUse
SOLUTION: 2.0Equations
the is appropriate.
pipe. 3-2 and
The manufacturer370 /the
3-3. Since 144
= over 10 in. =
vehicle
lists is operating
the on an
truck with unpaved
a gross
taken for road, dualanwheels,
impact
that is,
factor of
16,000
2.0 is
r T lb
appropriate.
by0.90ft
20 in. area.
of 183,540 lbs on 21X35 E3 tires, each having a 30,590 S lb load over an imprint
2
370 in .
370 / 144 (2.0)(30,590) 3
3

ION: Timoshenko
Use Equations =
r T Example = 0.90ft
2-2SandCalculation
2-3. Since the =
P L vehicle is 1-
operating on an 1.5
unpaved 47
370 ( 0.90 + 3 )
2 2
n impact factor of 2.0 is appropriate. 144 pipe buried 3 ft beneath an unpaved

Find the vertical pressure on a 24" 3 polyethylene
(2.0)(30,590) 2 3
road whenP LLan = 2890lb / ft is
R-50 truck 1-over the pipe.
2 1.5
The manufacturer lists the truck with a gross
370 ( 0.90
2
+ 3 )
weight of 183,540 lbs on 21X35 E3 tires, each having a 30,590 lb load over an imprint
370 / 144 144
r T = of 370 in2. = 0.90ft
area
Boussinesq Equation S
SOLUTION: Use Equations 2-2 and 2-3. Since the vehicle is operating on an unpaved
road,
(2.0)(30,590)factor 3

3 is appropriate.
P L = an impact
The Boussinesq 370
1- ofgives
Equation
2.0
1.5 pressure at any point in a soil mass under a
the
154-264.indd 202 ( 0.90 + 3 )
2 2
1/16/09 9:57:04 AM
sq Equation gives the pressure at any point in a soil mass under a
L = 2890lb
urface Pload. ft 2
The /Boussinesq Equation may be used to find the pressure
m a wheel load to a point that is not along the line of action of the load. Chapter 6 203
cts are neglected.
esq Equation
ussinesq Equation gives 3 the pressure at any point in a soil mass under a
3I f W w H
rated surface =
P Lload. The
Boussinesq Boussinesq Equation may be used to find
5 Equation
Eq.the2-4
pressure
ted from a wheel 2S r
The load to a Equation
Boussinesq point that is the
gives notpressure
along atthe
anyline
pointofinaction of the
a soil mass load.
under a
ent effects are neglected.
concentrated surface load. The Boussinesq Equation may be used to find the pressure
transmitted from a wheel load to a point that is not along the line of action of the
load. Pavement effects are neglected.
= vertical soil (3-4)
pressure3I due to live load lb/ft2
f Ww H
L 3
PL = Eq. 2-4
Ww = wheel load, lb 2S r 5
H = vertical depth to pipe crown, ft
Where
= impact factorPL = vertical soil pressure due to live load lb/ft
2
Where:
Ww = wheel load, lb
= distance fromH the
PL = vertical point
soil
= vertical depthof
pressure load
to pipe application
due
crown, ftto live load lb/ft2crown,
to pipe ft
If = impact factor
Ww = wheel load,from
r = distance lb the point of load application to pipe crown, ft
H = vertical depth to2 pipe 4848
+ H 2 crown, ft
(3-5)
r= X Eq. 2-5
If = impact factor
r = distance from the point of load application to pipe crown, ft
r = X 2+ H2 Eq. 2-5
Figure 3-4 Illustration of Boussinesq Point Loading

Figure
Figure2-4:
2-4:Illustration
IllustrationofofBoussinesq
BoussinesqPoint
PointLoading
Loading
Example Using Boussinesq Point Loading Technique

Example
ExampleUsing
Using
Determine Boussinesq
Boussinesq
the Point
vertical soilPoint
Loading
Loading
pressure Technique
Technique
applied to a 12 pipe located 4 ft deep under a
dirt road when two vehicles traveling over the pipe and in opposite lanes pass each
Determine
Determine the
thevertical
verticalsoil
soilpressure
pressureapplied
appliedtotoa a12"
12"pipe
pipelocated
located4 4ft ftdeep
other. Assume center lines of wheel loads are at a distance of 4 feet. Assume a wheel
deepunder
undera adirt
dirt
road
roadwhen
whentwo twovehicles
vehiclestraveling
travelingover
overthe
thepipe
pipeand
andininopposite
oppositelanes
lanespass passeach
eachother.
other.
load of 16,000 lb.
Assume
Assume center
centerlines
linesofofwheel
wheelloads
loadsare
areatata adistance
distanceofof4 4feet.
feet. Assume
Assumea awheelwheelload
loadofof
16,000
16,000lb.lb.
SOLUTION:
SOLUTION:Use UseEquation
Equation2-4,
2-4,and
andsince
sincethe thewheels
wheelsare
aretraveling,
traveling,a a2.0
2.0impact
impactfactor
factor
isisapplied.
applied.The
Themaximum
maximumload
loadwill
willbebeatatthe
thecenter
centerbetween
betweenthe thetwo
twowheels,
wheels,sosoXX= =2.0
2.0
ft.ft.Determine
Determiner from
r fromEquation
Equation2-5.
2-5.
r=
r = 424+2 +
2.20.0==4.447
2 2
.47ft ft
154-264.indd 203 1/16/09 9:57:05 AM
when two vehicles traveling over the pipe and in opposite lanes pass each other.
me center lines of wheel loads are at a distance of 4 feet. Assume a wheel load of
mine
0 lb. the vertical soil pressure applied to a 12" pipe located 4 ft deep under a dirt
when two vehicles
204 Chapter traveling
6 over the pipe and in opposite lanes pass each other.
me center lines of wheel loads are at a distance of 4 feet. Assume a wheel load of
UTION: Use Equation 2-4, and since the wheels are traveling, a 2.0 impact factor
0 lb.
plied. The maximum load will be at the center between the two wheels, so X = 2.0
etermine r from Equation 2-5.
UTION: Use Equation 2-4, and since the wheels are traveling, a 2.0 impact factor
plied. The maximum load will be at the center between the two wheels, so X = 2.0
etermine r from SOLUTION:
Equation 2-5. Use Equation 3-4, and since the wheels are traveling, a 2.0 impact
rfactor
= is 2
+ 2.02 =The
4 applied. 4.47 ft
maximum load will be at the center between the two wheels,
so X = 2.0 ft. Determine r from Equation 3-5.
solve Equation r2-4

= for
4 +P2L,.0the= load
4.47 ftdue to a single wheel.
2 2
Then solve Equation 3-4 for PL, the load due to a single wheel.
solve Equation 2-4 for PL, the load due 3 to a single wheel.
3( 2.0)( 16,000 )( 4 )
PL =
2S ( 4.47 )5
3
3( 2.0)( 16,2000 )( 4 ) 49
PL = 548 lb / ft
2 ( 4.47 )5
The load on the pipe crown
2 is from both wheels, so
L = 548
oad on the pipe Pcrown islbfrom
/ ft both wheels, so
2 P L = 2( 548 ) = 1096 lb / ft 2
oad on the pipeThe load is

crown calculated in this
from both exampleso
wheels, is higher than that given in Table 3-4 for a
comparable depth even after correcting for the impact factor. Both the Timoshenko
oad calculatedandinBoussinesq
this example is higher than that given in Table 2-3 for a
Equations give the pressure applied at a point in the soil. In solving
arable depth even after correcting for the impact factor. Both the Timoshenko and
for pipe reactions it is assumed that this point pressure is applied across the entire
sinesq Equations surface ofthe
give pressure
a unit length ofapplied at a the
pipe, whereas point in applied
actual the soil. In solving
pressure foraway
decreases pipe
ons it is assumed
fromthat thisofpoint
the line action pressure
of the wheelisload.
applied across
Methods the entire
that integrate surfaceover
this pressure of a
ength of pipe, whereas the actual applied pressure decreases away from the
the pipe surface such as used in deriving Table 3-4 gives more accurate loading line of
n of the wheel values.
load. However,
Methods that integrate this pressure over the pipe surface
the error in the point pressure equations is slight and conservative,
as used in deriving Table 2-3 giveequations
so they are still effective more accurate
for design. loading values. However, the
in the point pressure equations is slight and conservative, so they are still effective
ions for design.Railroad Loads
The live loading configuration used for pipes under railroads is the Cooper E-80
loading, which is an 80,000 lb load that is uniformly applied over three 2 ft by 8 ft
areas on 5 ft centers. The area represents the 8 ft width of standard railroad ties and
the standard spacing between locomotive drive wheels. Live loads are based on
Table 2-4: Live
the axle Load
weight Pressure
exerted forbyE-80
on the track Railroad and
two locomotives Loading
their tenders coupled
together in doubleheader fashion. See Table 3-5. Commercial railroads frequently
require casings for pressure pipes if they are within 25 feet of the tracks, primarily
for safety reasons in the event of a washout. Based upon design and permitting
requirements, 2.0 3800
the designer should determine whether or not a casing is required.
5.0 2400
8.0 1600
10.0 1100
12.0 800
154-264.indd 204 15.0 600 1/16/09 9:57:06 AM

der fashion. See Table 2-4. Commercial railroads frequently require casings
e pipes if they are within 25 feet of the tracks, primarily for safety reasons in
f a washout. Based upon design and permitting requirements, the6 designer
Chapter 205
ermine whether or not a casing is required.
Load
Table 3-5
Live Load Pressure for E-80 Railroad Loading
loads may be distributed loads, such as a footing, foundation, or an ash pile, 2
Depth of cover, ft. Soil Pressure*, lb/ft
concentrated loads,2.0such as vehicle 3800 wheels. The load will be dispersed
e soil such that there5.0is a reduction in 2400 pressure with an increase in depth or
distance from the surcharged area. Surcharge loads not directly over the
8.0 1600
10.0 1100
exert pressure on the pipe as well. The pressure at a point beneath a
12.0 800
oad depends on the15.0 20.0

load magnitude 600 and the surface area over which the
300
s applied. Methods 30.0 for calculating vertical 100 pressure on a pipe either located
eath a surcharge or located near a surcharge are given below.
Over 30.0 Neglect
For referecne see ASTM A796. *The values shown for soil pressure include impact.
Surcharge Load
y Beneath aSurcharge
Surcharge Load
loads may be distributed loads, such as a footing, foundation, or an ash
pile, or may be concentrated loads, such as vehicle wheels. The load will be dispersed
through the soil such that there is a reduction in pressure with an increase in depth
n method is for findingdistance
or horizontal the vertical soil pressure
from the surcharged under
area. Surcharge loadsanot
rectangular
directly over area with
the pipe may exert pressure on the pipe as well. The pressure at a point beneath a
distributed surcharge load. This may be used in place of Tables 2-2 to 2-4
surcharge load depends on the load magnitude and the surface area over which
ons 2-2 and the
2-4surcharge
to calculate vertical soil pressure due to wheel loads. To do
is applied. Methods for calculating vertical pressure on a pipe either
s knowledgelocated
of the tire beneath
directly imprint area and
a surcharge impact
or located factor. are given below.
near a surcharge
Pipe Directly Beneath a Surcharge Load

pressure onThisthedesignpipe
methodatis for
depth, H,vertical
finding the is found byunder
soil pressure dividing thearearectangular
a rectangular
area (ABCD) into four sub-area rectangles (a, b, c, and d) which have a
with a uniformly distributed surcharge load. This may be used in place of Tables
3-3 to 3-5 and Equations 3-3 and 3-5 to calculate vertical soil pressure due to wheel
orner, E, in the surcharge area, and over the pipe. The surcharge pressure,
loads. This requires knowledge of the tire imprint area and impact factor.
int directly under E is the sum of the pressure due to each of the four sub-
The point pressure on the pipe at depth, H, is found by dividing the rectangular
Refer to Figure 2-5 A.
surcharge area (ABCD) into four sub-area rectangles (a, b, c, and d) which have a
common corner, E, in the surcharge area, and over the pipe. The surcharge pressure,
PL, at a point directly under E is the sum of the pressure due to each of the four
re due to each sub-area is calculated by multiplying the surcharge pressure
sub-area loads. Refer to Figure 3-5 A.
ce by an Influence Value, IV. Influence Values are proportionality constants
The pressure due to each sub-area is calculated by multiplying the surcharge
re what portion of a surface load reaches the subsurface point in question.
pressure at the surface by an Influence Value, IV. Influence Values are proportionality
derived usingconstants
the Boussinesq
that measure what Equation and are
portion of a surface giventheinsubsurface
load reaches Table point2-5.in
question. They were derived using the Boussinesq Equation and are given in
Table 3-6.
(3-6)
P L = p a + pb + pc + p d Eq. 2-6
Where:
154-264.indd 205 1/16/09 9:57:06 AM
51
pa = pressure
206 Chapterdue
6 to sub-area a, lb/ft2
pb = pressure due to sub-area b, lb/ft2
pc = pressure due to sub-area c, lb/ft2 51

pd = pressure due to sub-area d, lb/ft2
pa = pressure
o the surcharge due to
applied to the
sub-area a, lb/ft2 equals:
i-th sub-area
Where
pb = pressure due to sub-area b, lb/ft2
PL = vertical soil pressure due to surcharge 2pressure, lb/ft 2
pc = pressure due to sub-area c, lb/ft
pa = pressure due to sub-area a, lb/ft 2
pd = pressure due to tosub-area d,2 lb/ft2
pi = Idue
pb = pressure V wS
sub-area b, lb/ft Eq. 2-7
pc = pressure due to sub-area c, lb/ft 2
o the surchargepdapplied to tothe
= pressure due i-th d,sub-area
sub-area lb/ft 2 equals:
Where: Pressure due to the surcharge applied to the i-th sub-area equals:
IV = Influence i = I V from
pValue Eq. 2-7
(3-7)
wS Table 2-5
wS = distributed pressure of surcharge load at ground surface, lb/ft2
Where
IV = Influence Value from Table 3-6
Where:
areas are equivalent, thenpressure
wS = distributed Equation 12 may
of surcharge be simplified
load at ground surface, lb/ft 2 to
wS = distributed pressure
If the four sub-areas of surcharge
are equivalent, then Equationload atbeground
3-7 may surface, lb/ft2
simplified to:
(3-8)
P L = 4I V wS Eq. 2-8
The influence
areas are equivalent, thenvalue is dependent
Equation 12 mayupon
bethe dimensions
simplified toof the rectangular area and
upon the depth to the pipe crown, H. Table 3-6 Influence Value terms depicted in
value is Figure
dependent 3-6, are
upon thedefined as:
dimensions of the rectangular area and upon
e pipe crown, H.
H = Table 2-5
P L =cover,
depth of 4I ftInfluence Value terms depicted in Figure
V wS Eq.2-5,2-8
: M = horizontal distance, normal to the pipe centerline, from the center of the load to the load edge, ft
N = horizontal distance, parallel to the pipe centerline, from the center of the load to the load edge, ft
value is dependent upon the

Interpolation maydimensions
be used to findofvalues
the rectangular area
not given in Table and
3-6. Theupon
influence value
th of cover, ft
e pipe crown, H. Table 2-5 Influence Value
gives the portion (or influence) of the terms depicted
load that reaches a in Figure
given depth2-5,
beneath the 5252
:izontal distance,corner
normal
of thetoloaded
the pipe
area. centerline, from the center of the load
he load edge, ft
zontal distance, parallel to the pipe centerline, from the center of the load
heth load edge,
of cover, ft ft
izontal distance, normal to the pipe centerline, from the center of the load
he load edge, ft
may be used to find values not given in Table 2-5. The influence value
zontal
ion (ordistance,
influence)parallel
of thetoload
the pipe
that centerline,
reaches a from
giventhedepth
center of the load
beneath the
he load edge,
oaded area. ft
may be used to find values not given in Table 2-5. The influence value
ion (or influence) of the load that reaches a given depth beneath the
oaded area.
Figure 3-5 Illustration of Distributed Loads
Figure
Figure2-5:
2-5: Illustration
IllustrationofofDistributed
DistributedLoads
Loads
154-264.indd 206 1/16/09 9:57:07 AM

Chapter 6 207
Table 3-6
Influence Values, IV for Distributed Loads*
N/H
M/H 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0
0.1 0.005 0.009 0.013 0.017 0.020 0.022 0.024 0.026 0.027 0.028 0.029 0.030 0.031 0.032
0.2 0.009 0.018 0.026 0.033 0.039 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.053 0.055 0.057 0.060 0.061 0.062
0.3 0.013 0.026 0.037 0.047 0.056 0.063 0.069 0.073 0.077 0.079 0.083 0.086 0.089 0.090
0.4 0.017 0.033 0.047 0.060 0.071 0.080 0.087 0.093 0.098 0.101 0.106 0.110 0.113 0.115
0.5 0.020 0.039 0.056 0.071 0.084 0.095 0.103 0.110 0.116 0.120 0.126 0.131 0.135 0.137
0.6 0.022 0.043 0.063 0.080 0.095 0.107 0.117 0.125 0.131 0.136 0.143 0.149 0.153 0.156
0.7 0.024 0.047 0.069 0.087 0.103 0.117 0.128 0.137 0.144 0.149 0.157 0.164 0.169 0.172
0.8 0.026 0.050 0.073 0.093 0.110 0.125 0.137 0.146 0.154 0.160 0.168 0.176 0.181 0.185
0.9 0.027 0.053 0.077 0.098 0.116 0.131 0.144 0.154 0.162 0.168 0.178 0.186 0.192 0.196
1.0 0.028 0.055 0.079 0.101 0.120 0.136 0.149 0.160 0.168 0.175 0.185 0.194 0.200 0.205
1.2 0.029 0.057 0.083 0.106 0.126 0.143 0.157 0.168 0.178 0.185 0.196 0.205 0.209 0.212 53
1.5 0.030 0.060 0.086 0.110 0.131 0.149 0.164 0.176 0.186 0.194 0.205 0.211 0.216 0.223
2.0 0.031 0.061 0.088 0.113 0.135 0.153 0.169 0.181 0.192 0.200 0.209 0.216 0.232 0.240
0.062 0.089 0.116
0.137
0.032 0.062 0.156 0.172
0.089 0.116 0.137 0.185 0.196
0.156 0.172 0.2050.2050.212
0.185 0.196 0.2230.2400.240
0.212 0.223 0.250 0.250
* H, M, and N are per Figure 3-5.
al Surcharge Example #1
Vertical Surcharge Example # 1
Find the vertical surcharge load for the 4 x 6, 2000 lb/ft2 footing shown below.
he vertical surcharge load for the 4' x 6', 2000 lb/ft2 footing shown below.
SOLUTION: Use equations 3-6 and 3-7, Table 3-6, and Figure 3-5. The 4 ft x 6 ft
footing is divided into four sub-areas, such that the common corner of the sub-areas
TION: Use equations 2-6the
is directly over and 2-7,
pipe. SinceTable
the pipe2-5,
is notand Figure
centered under2-5.
ft The
the load, 4 ft xa 6
sub-areas
g is divided into four sub-areas, such that the common corner of the sub-areas is
y over the pipe. Since the pipe is not centered under the load, sub-areas a and b
dimensions of 3 ft x 2.5 ft, and sub-areas c and d have dimensions of 3 ft x 1.5 ft.
154-264.indd 207 1/16/09 9:57:07 AM

208 Chapter 6
and b have dimensions of 3 ft x 2.5 ft, and sub-areas c and d have dimensions of
3 ft x 1.5 ft. 54
Determine sub-area dimensions for M, N, and H, then calculate M/H and N/H. Find
pi the 190
Influence Value from190
Table 3-6, then solve126 , pb, pc, pd, and
for each sub area, pa126
sum for PL.
Sub-area
a b c d
2M
re: PL = 632 lbs/ft N
2.5
3.0
2.5
3.0
1.5
3.0
1.5
3.0
M/H 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.3
N/H 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
jacent to, but Not Directly
IV Beneath,
0.095 a0.095
Surcharge
0.063 Load 0.063
pi 190 190 126 126
sign method may be used

Therefore: PL = 632 to find
lbs/ft2 the surcharge load on buried pipes near, but
ctly below, uniformly distributed loads such as concrete slabs, footings and
r other rectangular area loads, including wheel loads that are not directly over
. Pipe Adjacent to, but Not Directly Beneath, a Surcharge Load
This design method may be used to find the surcharge load on buried pipes near, but
not directly below, uniformly distributed loads such as concrete slabs, footings and
tical pressure is found by first adding an imaginary loaded area that covers the
floors, or other rectangular area loads, including wheel loads that are not directly
en determiningover thethesurcharge
pipe.
pressure due to the overall load (actual and
ry) based on the previous section, and finally by deducting the pressure due to
ginary load fromThe vertical
that due pressure is foundload.
to the overall by first adding an imaginary loaded area that covers
the pipe, then determining the surcharge pressure due to the overall load (actual and
imaginary) based on the previous section, and finally by deducting the pressure due
Figure 2-5 B. Since there is no surcharge directly above the pipe centerline, an
to the imaginary load from that due to the overall load.
ry surcharge load, having the same pressure per unit area as the actual load, is
to sub-areas c Refer
and tod.Figure
The3-5 B. Since there
surcharge is no surcharge
pressure directly above
for sub-areas a+dtheand
pipe b+c
centerline,
are
an imaginary
ned, then the surcharge surcharge
loads fromload,
the having the same
imaginary pressure
areas c andperdunit
arearea as the actual
deducted to
load, is applied to sub-areas
ne the surcharge pressure on the pipe. c and d. The surcharge pressure for sub-areas a+d and
b+c are determined, then the surcharge loads from the imaginary areas c and d are
deducted to determine the surcharge pressure on the pipe.
(3-9) P L = p a+d + pb+c - p d - p c Eq. 2-9
Where terms are as previously defined above, and

where terms
Pa+dare as previously
= surcharge defined
load of combined sub-areas above,
a and d, lb/ftand
2
Pb+c = surcharge load of combined sub-areas b and c, lb/ft 2
pa+d = surcharge load of combined sub-areas a and d, lb/ft2

pb+c = surcharge load of combined sub-areas b and c, lb/ft2
Surcharge Example # 2
154-264.indd 208 1/16/09 9:57:08 AM

Chapter 6 209
55
nd the vertical surcharge pressure for the 6' x 10', 2000 lb/ft2 slab shown below.
Vertical Surcharge Example # 2

Find the vertical surcharge pressure for the 6 x 10, 2000 lb/ft2 slab shown below.
SOLUTION: Use Equations 3-7 and 3-9, Table 3-6, and Figure 3-5 B. The surcharge
area is divided into two sub-areas, a and b. The area between the surcharge and the
OLUTION: Use lineEquations
of the pipe crown
2-7 isand
divided
2-9,into two sub-areas,
Table 2-5, and c and d, as well.
Figure 2-5TheB.
imaginary
The surcharge
load is applied to sub-areas c and d. Next, the four sub-areas
ea is divided into two sub-areas, a and b. The area between the surcharge and theare treated as a single
surcharge area. Unlike the previous example, the pipe is located under the edge
e of the pipe crown is divided into two sub-areas, c and d, as well. The imaginary
of the surcharge area rather than the center. So, the surcharge pressures for the
ad is applied tocombined
sub-areas c and d. Next, the four sub-areas are treated as a single
sub-areas a+d and b+c are determined, and then for the sub-areas c and
rcharge area. d.Unlike the previous example, the pipe is located under the edge of the
The surcharge pressure is the sum of the surcharge pressure due to the surcharge
rcharge area rather
acting onthan thea+d
sub-areas center.
and b+c, So, the
less the surcharge
imaginary pressures
pressure for the combined
due to the imaginary
b-areas a+d and b+c are determined,
surcharge acting on sub-areas c and d. and then for the sub-areas c and d. The
rcharge pressure is the sum of the surcharge pressure due to the surcharge acting on
Sub-area
b-areas a+d and b+c, less the imaginary pressure due to the imaginary surcharge
a+d b+c c d
ting on sub-areas Mc and d.10 10 4 4
N 5 5 5 5
M/H 2.0 2.0 0.8 0.8
N/H 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
IV 0.200 0.200 0.160 Sub-area
0.160
pi 400 400 (320) (320)
a+d b+c c d
Therefore PL = 160 lb/ft 2
M 10 10 4 4
N 5 5 5 5
M/H 2.0 2.0 0.8 0.8
N/H 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
IV 0.200 0.200 0.160 0.160
pi 400 400 (320) (320)
154-264.indd 209 1/16/09 9:57:08 AM

210 Chapter 6
Installation Category 1: Standard Installation - Trench or

Embankment
Pipe Reaction to Earth, Live, and Surcharge Loads

Now might be a good time to review the Design Process that appeared earlier in
Section 3. After calculating the vertical pressure applied to the pipe the next design
step is to choose a trial pipe (DR or profile). Then, based on the Installation Category
and the selected embedment and compaction, calculate the anticipated deflection
and resistance to crush and buckling.
The Standard Installation category applies to pipes that are installed between 18
inches and 50 feet of cover. Where surcharge, traffic, or rail load may occur, the
pipe must have at least one full diameter of cover. If such cover is not available,
then the application design must also consider limitations under the Shallow Cover
Vehicular Loading Installation category. Where the cover depth exceeds 50 ft an
alternate treatment for dead loads is given under the Deep Fill Installation category.
Where ground water occurs above the pipes invert and the pipe has less than two
diameters of cover, the potential for the occurrence of flotation or upward movement
of the pipe may exist. See Shallow Cover Flotation Effects.
While the Standard Installation is suitable for up to 50 feet of cover, it may be used
for more cover. The 50 feet limit is based on A. Howards (3) recommended limit
for use of E values. Above 50 feet, the E values given in Table B.1.1 in Chapter 3
Appendix are generally thought to be overly conservative as they are not corrected
for the increase in embedment stiffness that occurs with depth as a result of the
higher confinement pressure within the soil mass. In addition, significant arching
occurs at depths greater than 50 feet.
The Standard Installation, as well as the other design categories for buried PE pipe,
looks at a ring or circumferential cross-section of pipe and neglects longitudinal
loading, which is normally insignificant. They also ignore the re-rounding effect of
internal pressurization. Since re-rounding reduces deflection and stress in the pipe,
ignoring it is conservative.
Ring Deflection
Ring deflection is the normal response of flexible pipes to soil pressure. It is also
a beneficial response in that it leads to the redistribution of soil stress and the
initiation of arching. Ring deflection can be controlled within acceptable limits by
the selection of appropriate pipe embedment materials, compaction levels, trench
width and, in some cases, the pipe itself.
The magnitude of ring deflection is inversely proportional to the combined stiffness

of the pipe and the embedment soil. M. Spangler (4) characterized this relationship
154-264.indd 210 1/16/09 9:57:08 AM

approach for soil characterization, thus developing the Modified Iowa Formula. In 1964, 57
Burns and Richards [6] published a closed-form solution for ring deflection and pipe
stress based
approach for on
soilclassical linear elasticity.
characterization, In 1976 M.
thus developing Katona
the et. al.
Modified Iowa [7] Formula.
developed Ina1964,
Chapter 6 211 finite
element
Burns andprogram called
Richards [6]CANDE
published(Culvert Analysis and
a closed-form Design)
solution for which is now available
ring deflection and pipe in
astress
PC version and can be used to predict pipe deflection and stresses.
based on classical linear elasticity. In 1976 M. Katona et. al. [7] developed a finite
element program called CANDE (Culvert Analysis and Design) which is now available in
The
a PCmore recent
version andsolutions
can be used maytomake better
predict pipepredictions
deflection than the Iowa Formula, but they
and stresses.
require detailed information
in the Iowa on soil
Formula in 1941. and pipe
R. Watkins (5) properties,
modified e.g. more
this equation to allowsoil lab testing. Often
a simpler
the improvement
The moreapproach
recent forin precision is all
soil characterization,
solutions may makethus but lost in
developing
better construction
the Modified
predictions variability.
than Iowa Formula.
the Iowa Therefore,
In
Formula, the
but they
Modified Iowa
require detailed Formula
1964, Burns remains
and Richards
information the
on published
(6) most
soil and apipe frequently
closed-form used
solution
properties, method
for more
e.g. of
ring deflection determining
soil laband ring
testing. Often
deflection.
pipe stress based
the improvement on classical
in precision islinear elasticity.
all but lost In in 1976 M. Katona et.variability.
construction al. developed
(7)
a
Therefore, the
Modified finite
Iowaelement
Formulaprogram called CANDE
remains the most(Culvert Analysis used
frequently and Design) whichofis determining
method now ring
Spangler'savailable in a PC version and can be used to predict pipe deflection and stresses.
deflection. Modified Iowa Formula can be written for use with conventionally extruded
DR pipe as:
The more recent solutions may make better predictions than the Iowa Formula,
butModified
Spangler's they require detailed
Iowa information
Formula canonbesoilwritten
and pipe properties,
for use with e.g.conventionally
more soil lab extruded
testing. Often the improvement in precision is all but lost in construction variability.
DR pipe as:
Therefore, the Modified Iowa Formula remains the most frequently used method of
determining ring deflection.

Iowa Formula can be writtenfor use with solid wall PE pipe as:
Spanglers Modified
X 1 K BED LDL PE + K BED PL
(3-10) = Eq. 2-10
D M 144 2E 1
3
+0.061F
SE
'X 1 3KBEDDRL-DL1 P
K P
= E
3
BED L Eq. 2-10
D M 144 2E 1
3 DR - 1 + 0.061FS E c

and for use

and with ASTM
for use F894F894
with ASTM profile wall
profile wallpipe as:
pipe as:
(3-11)

and for use with ASTM F894 profile wall pipe as:
X P K BED LDL
= Eq. 2-11
DI 144
1.24(RSC)

+ 0.061FS E
'X
=
P D M K BED LDL Eq. 2-11
WhereD I 144 1.24(RSC)
Where: in
X = Horizontal deflection, + 0.061FS E c
DM
K BED = Bedding factor, typically 0.1
Where:
LDL = X = lag
Deflection Horizontal
factor deflection, in
KBED = Bedding factor,
PE = Vertical soil pressure due to earth load, typically
psf 0.1
PL = Vertical soil pressure due to live load, psf
LX = Deflection lag factor
E = Apparent=modulusHorizontal deflection, in 2
DL
of elasticity of pipe material, lb/in
P = Vertical
= Bedding soil pressure due to earth load, psf
KBEDof Soil reaction, psi factor, typically 0.1
E
E =Modulus
PLDLL = Vertical
= Factor soil
Deflection lag factorpressure due to live load, psf
FS = Soil Support
ERing=Stiffness
Apparent modulus of elasticity of pipe material, lb/in2
RSC = P E = Vertical Constant,soil
lb/ft pressure due to earth load, psf
PL== Vertical
E'
DR = Dimension
Modulus of Soil reaction, psi
Ratio, OD/t soil pressure due to live load, psf
F =
ES =diameter
DM = Mean Soil
ApparentSupport
(DI+2z or DOmodulus
Factorof elasticity of pipe material, lb/in2
-t), in
RSC = Ring
E' =of wall
z = Centroid Modulus Stiffness
section, Constant,
in of Soil reaction,lb/ft
psi
FS ==
DR
t = Minimum wall Dimension
Soil Support
thickness, in Ratio,
FactorOD/t
DRSC
DI = pipeM = =diameter,
inside Mean indiameterConstant,
Ring Stiffness (DI+2z or lb/ft
DO-t), in
= Dimension
DRoutside
DO = pipe diameter, in Ratio, OD/t
DM = Mean diameter (DI+2z or DO-t), in
154-264.indd 211 1/16/09 9:57:08 AM

212 Chapter 6
Deflection is reported as a percent of the diameter which can be found by

multiplying 100 times X/DM or X/DI. (When using RSC, the units of conversion
are accounted for in Equation 3-11.)
Apparent Modulus of Elasticity for Pipe Material, E

59
The apparent modulus of PE is dependent on load-rate or, duration of laoding and
temperature.Apparent elastic modulus values for high and medium density PE
may be found in Table B.1.1 in Chapter 3 Appendix. These values can be used in
Spanglers Iowa Formula. It has long been an industry practice to use the short-term
modulus in the Iowa Formula for thermoplastic pipe. This is based on the idea that,
in granular embedment soil, deformation is a series of instantaneous deformations
consisting
2-6: Design Values forofApparent
rearrangement and fracturing
Modulus of grains while
of Elasticity, E @the73F
bending stress in
the pipe wall is decreasing due to stress relaxation. Use of the short-term modulus
uration has proven10
Short- effective 100
and reliable for corrugated
1000 1 yearand profile
10 wall pipes.
50 These pipes
typically
Term have pipe stiffness
hours hours hours values of 46 psi or less when measured
years per ASTM
years
D2412. Conventional DR pipes starting with DR17 or lower have significantly higher
stiffness and therefore they may carry a greater proportion of the earth and live load
PE 110,000 57,500 51,200 43,700 38,000 31,600 28,200
than corrugated or profile pipe; so it is conservative to use the 50-year modulus for
lus of DR pipes that have low DR values when determining deflection due to earth load.
ity, psi
Vehicle loads are generally met with a higher modulus than earth loads, as load
duration may be nearly instantaneous for moving vehicles. The deflection due
PE 88,000 46,000 41,000 35,000 30,400 25,300 22,600
to a combination of vehicle or temporary loads and earth load may be found by
lus of separately calculating the deflection due to each load using the modulus appropriate
ity, psi for the expected load duration, then adding the resulting deflections together to get
the total deflection. When doing the deflection calculation for vehicle load, the Lag
Factor will be one. An alternate, but conservative, method for finding deflection for
s Constant, RSCcombined vehicle and earth load is to do one calculation using the 50-year modulus,
but separate the vertical soil pressure into an earth load component and a live load
component and apply the Lag Factor only to the earth load component.
pes manufactured to ASTM F894, Standard Specification for Polyethylene
Diameter ProfileRing
Wall Sewer and Drain Pipe, are classified on the basis of
Stiffness Constant, RSC
ffness ConstantProfile
(RSC). wall Equation 2-12 gives
pipes manufactured the F894,
to ASTM RSC.Standard Specification for
Polyethylene (PE) Large Diameter Profile Wall Sewer and Drain Pipe, are classified
on the basis of their Ring Stiffness Constant (RSC). Equation 3-12 gives the RSC.
(3-12) 6 . 44 EI
RSC = Eq. 2-12
D M2
Where:
E = Apparent modulus of elasticity of pipe material (Short-term
value Table 2-6) @73oF
I = Pipe wall moment of inertia, in4/in (t3/12, if solid wall
construction)
z = Pipe
154-264.indd 212 wall centroid in 1/16/09 9:57:09 AM
Chapter 6 213
Where
E = Apparent modulus of elasticity of pipe material @73F (See Chapter 3 Appendix)
I = Pipe wall moment of inertia, in4/in (t 3/12, if solid wall construction)
z = Pipe wall centroid in
DI = Pipe inside diameter in
DM = Mean diameter (DI + 2z or DO-t), in
t = Minimum wall thickness, in
Modulus of Soil Reaction, E

The soil reaction modulus is proportional to the embedment soils resistance
to the lateral expansion of the pipe. There are no convenient laboratory tests to
determine the soil reaction modulus for a given soil. A. Howard (8) determined E
values empirically from numerous field deflection measurements by substituting
site parameters (i.e. depth of cover, soil weight) into Spanglers equation and back-
calculating E. Howard developed a table for the Bureau of Reclamation relating
E values to soil types and compaction efforts. See Table 3-7. In back-calculating
E, Howard assumed the prism load was applied to the pipe. Therefore, Table 3-7
E values indirectly include load reduction due to arching and are suitable for use
only with the prism load. In 2006, Howard published a paper reviewing his original
1977 publication from which Table 3-7 is taken. For the most part the recent work
indicates that the E values in Table 3-7 are conservative.
Due to differences in construction procedures, soil texture and density, pipe

placement, and insitu soil characteristics, pipe deflection varies along the length of a
pipeline. Petroff (9) has shown that deflection measurements along a pipeline typically
fit the Normal Distribution curve. To determine the anticipated maximum deflection
using Eq. 3-10 or 3-11, variability may be accommodated by reducing the Table 3-7 E
value by 25%, or by adding to the calculated deflection percentage the correction for
accuracy percentage given in Table 3-7.
In shallow installations, the full value of the E given in Table 3-7 may not develop.
This is due to the lack of soil confining pressure to hold individual soil grains
tightly together and stiffen the embedment. Increased weight or equivalently,
depth, increases the confining pressure and, thus, the E. J. Hartley and J. Duncan (10)
published recommended E values based on depth of cover. See Table 3-8. These are
particularly useful for shallow installations.
Chapter 7, Underground Installation of PE Pipe covers soil classification for pipe

embedment materials and preferred methods of compaction and installation for
selected embedment materials. Some of the materials shown in Table 3-7 may not be
appropriate for all pipe installation. One example would be fine-grained soils in wet
ground, which would not be appropriate embedment, under most circumstances,
for either profile pipe or pipes with high DRs. Such limitations are discussed in
Chapter 7.
154-264.indd 213 1/16/09 9:57:09 AM

214 Chapter 6
Table 3-7
Values of E for Pipe Embedment (See Howard (8))
E for Degree of Embedment Compaction, lb/in2
Slight, Moderate,
High,
85%-95%
<85% Proctor, >95% Proctor,
Dumped Proctor,
<40% Relative >70% Relative
Soil Type-pipe Embedment Material 40%-70%
Density Density
(Unified Classification System)1 Relative Density
Fine-grained Soils (LL > 50)2 Soils with No data available: consult a competent soils engineer,
medium to high plasticity; CH, MH, CH-MH otherwise, use E = 0.
Fine-grained Soils (LL < 50) Soils with
medium to no plasticity, CL, ML, ML-
50 200 400 1000
CL, with less than 25% coarse grained
particles.
Fine-grained Soils (LL < 50) Soils with
medium to no plasticity, CL, ML, ML-CL,
with more than 25% coarse grained
100 400 1000 2000
particles; Coarse-grained Soils with Fines,
GM, GC, SM, SC3 containing more than
12% fines.
Coarse-grained soils with Little or No Fines

GW, GP, SW, SP3 containing less than 12% 200 1000 2000 3000
fines
Crushed Rock 1000 3000 3000 3000
Accuracy in Terms of Percentage

2% 2% 1% 0.5%
Deflection4
1 ASTM D-2487, USBR Designation E-3
2 LL = Liquid Limit
3 Or any borderline soil beginning with one of these symbols (i.e., GM-GC, GC-SC).
4 For 1% accuracy and predicted deflection of 3%, actual deflection would be between 2% and 4%.
Note: Values applicable only for fills less than 50 ft (15 m). Table does not include any safety factor. For use in
predicting initial deflections only; appropriate Deflection Lag Factor must be applied for long-term deflections.
If embedment falls on the borderline between two compaction categories, select lower E value, or average the
two values. Percentage Proctor based on laboratory maximum dry density from test standards using 12,500
ft-lb/cu ft (598,000 J/m2) (ASTM D-698, AASHTO T-99, USBR Designation E-11). 1 psi = 6.9 KPa.
154-264.indd 214 1/16/09 9:57:09 AM

Chapter 6 215
Table 3-8
Values of E for Pipe Embedment (See Duncan and Hartley(10))
Depth of E for Standard AASHTO Relative Compaction, lb/in2

Type of Soil Cover, ft 85% 90% 95% 100%
0-5 500 700 1000 1500
Fine-grained soils with less than 5-10 600 1000 1400 2000
25% sand content (CL, ML, CL-ML) 10-15 700 1200 1600 2300
15-20 800 1300 1800 2600
0-5 600 1000 1200 1900
Coarse-grained soils with fines 5-10 900 1400 1800 2700
(SM, SC) 10-15 1000 1500 2100 3200
15-20 1100 1600 2400 3700
0-5 700 1000 1600 2500
Coarse-grained soils with little or no 5-10 1000 1500 2200 3300
fines (SP, SW, GP, GW) 10-15 1050 1600 2400 3600
15-20 1100 1700 2500 3800
Soil Support Factor, FS

Ring deflection and the accompanying horizontal diameter expansion create lateral
earth pressure which is transmitted through the embedment soil and into the
trench sidewall. This may cause the sidewall soil to compress. If the compression
is significant, the embedment can move laterally, resulting in an increase in pipe
deflection. Sidewall soil compression is of particular concern when the insitu soil
is loose, soft, or highly compressible, such as marsh clay, peat, saturated organic
soil, etc. The net effect of sidewall compressibility is a reduction in the soil-pipe
systems stiffness. The reverse case may occur as well if the insitu soil is stiffer than
the embedment soil; e.g. the insitu soil may enhance the embedment giving it more
resistance to deflection. The Soil Support Factor, FS, is a factor that may be applied to
E to correct for the difference in stiffness between the insitu and embedment soils.
Where the insitu soil is less stiff than the embedment, FS is a reduction factor. Where
it is stiffer, FS is an enhancement factor, i.e. greater than one.
The Soil Support Factor, FS, may be obtained from Tables 3-9 and 3-10 as follows:
Determine the ratio Bd/DO, where Bd equals the trench width at the pipe
springline (inches), and DO equals the pipe outside diameter (inches).
Based on the native insitu soil properties, find the soil reaction modulus for the
insitu soil, EN in Table 3-9.
Determine the ratio EN/E.
Enter Table 3-10 with the ratios Bd/DO and EN/E and find FS.
154-264.indd 215 1/16/09 9:57:09 AM

216 Chapter 6
Table 3-9
Values of EN, Native Soil Modulus of Soil Reaction, Howard(3)
Native In Situ Soils

Granular Cohesive
Std. Pentration Unconfined EN (psi)
ASTM D1586 Description Compressive Description
Blows/ft Strength (TSF)
>0-1 very, very loose > 0 - 0.125 very, very soft 50
1-2 very loose 0.125 - 0.25 very soft 200
2-4 very loose 0.25 - 0.50 soft 700
4-8 loose 0.50 - 1.00 medium 1,500
8 - 15 slightly compact 1.00 - 2.00 stiff 3,000
15 - 30 compact 2.00 - 4.00 very stiff 5,000
30 - 50 dense 4.00 - 6.00 hard 10,000
> 50 very dense > 6.00 very hard 20,000
Rock 50,000
Table 3-10
Soil Support Factor, FS
Bd/DO Bd/DO Bd/DO Bd/DO Bd/DO Bd/DO

EN/E
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0
0.1 0.15 0.30 0.60 0.80 0.90 1.00
0.2 0.30 0.45 0.70 0.85 0.92 1.00
0.4 0.50 0.60 0.80 0.90 0.95 1.00
0.6 0.70 0.80 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.00
0.8 0.85 0.90 0.95 0.98 1.00 1.00
1.0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
1.5 1.30 1.15 1.10 1.05 1.00 1.00
2.0 1.50 1.30 1.15 1.10 1.05 1.00
3.0 1.75 1.45 1.30 1.20 1.08 1.00
5.0 2.00 1.60 1.40 1.25 1.10 1.00
Lag Factor and Long-Term Deflection

Spangler observed an increase in ring deflection with time. Settlement of the backfill
and consolidation of the embedment under the lateral pressure from the pipe
continue to occur after initial installation. To account for this, he recommended
applying a lag factor to the Iowa Formula in the range of from 1.25 to 1.5. Lag
occurs in installations of both plastic and metal pipes. Howard (3, 11) has shown that
the lag factor varies with the type of embedment and the degree of compaction.
Many plastic pipe designers use a Lag Factor of 1.0 when using the prism load as it
154-264.indd 216 1/16/09 9:57:09 AM

factor
to occurto the
afterIowa Formula
initial in the range
installation. of fromfor
To account 1.25 to 1.5.
this, Lag occurs in applying
he recommended installations a lagof
both plastic
factor and metal
to the Iowa Formula pipes. Howard
in the range [3, 11] has
of from 1.25shown
to 1.5.that
Lagthe lag factor
occurs varies with
in installations of
the type
both of embedment
plastic and metal pipes. and the degree[3,
Howard of 11]
compaction.
has shown Many
that plastic
the lagpipe factordesigners
varies with
Chapter 6 217
use
a Lag
the typeFactor of 1.0 when
of embedment and using the prism
the degree load as it accounts
of compaction. Many plastic for
Designbackfill
pipe settlement.
designers
of PE Piping Systems use
This makes even more sense when the Soil Support
a Lag Factor of 1.0 when using the prism load as it accounts for backfill settlement.Factor is included in the
calculation.
This makes even more sense when the Soil Support Factor is included in the
calculation.
Vertical Deflection Example
Vertical Deflectionaccounts for backfill settlement. This makes even more sense when the Soil Support
Example
Estimate the vertical deflection
Factor is included ofcalculation.
in the a 24 diameter HDPE DR 26 pipe installed under 18
feet of cover.
Estimate The embedment
the vertical deflection of material is a well-graded
a 24 diameter HDPE DR sandy gravel,
26 pipe compacted
installed underto18 a
minimum
feet 90 percent
of cover. of Standardmaterial
The embedment
Vertical Deflection ExampleProctorisdensity, and thesandy
a well-graded nativegravel,
groundcompacted
is a saturated, to a
soft clayey90soil.
minimum Estimate the vertical deflection
The anticipated
percent of Standard trench of
Proctor a density,
24 diameter
width is 42.and DRthe
26 pipe produced
native ground fromisa PE4710
a saturated,
soft clayey soil. material
The that is installedtrench
anticipated under 18 feet ofiscover.
width 42.The embedment material is a well-
graded sandy gravel, compacted to a minimum 90 percent of Standard Proctor
SOLUTION: Use theand
density, prism load,ground
the native Equation 2-1, Tables
is a saturated, 2-7,soil.
soft clayey 2-9,The
and 2-10, and
anticipated Equation
trench
2-10. Table
SOLUTION: 2-7
Use gives
widththe prism
is 42. an E' for Equation
load, a compacted sandy 2-7,
2-1, Tables gravel
2-9,orand
GW-SW
2-10, andsoil Equation
as 2000
lb/in2. To
2-10. estimate
Table 2-7 maximum
gives
SOLUTION:
an E' deflection due to variability,
for a compacted sandy gravel this or
value will besoil
GW-SW reduced by
as 2000
2 Use the prism load, Equation 3-1, Tables 3-7, 3-9, and 3-10, and Equation
25%,2. or
lb/in To to 1500
estimate lb/in .
maximum Table 2-9 gives
deflection duean toE of 700
variability,
N psi
thisfor soft
value clay.
will be Since
reduced
3-10. Table23-7 gives an E for a compacted sandy gravel or GW-SW soil as 2000 lb/in 2.
B d /D
by
equals 1.75 and
25%, or to 1500 E /E
lb/in
N equals
. Table
The Short-Term
0.47,
Apparent
F
2-9Modulusis
gives
S obtained by
anElasticity
of
interpolation
EN offor700 and
psi material
PE 4710
equal
for softobtained 0.60.
clay. from
Since Bd/D
equals 1.75 and E /E equals 0.47, F is obtained by interpolation and equal
Table B.2.1 equals 130,000 psi. To estimate maximum deflection due to variability,
N S 0.60.
this value will be reduced by 25%, or to 1500 lb/in 2. Table 3-9 gives an E of 700
The prism loadpsion the pipe is equal to: N
for soft clay. Since Bd/D equals 1.75 and EN/E equals 0.47, FS is obtained by
The prism loadinterpolation
on the pipe is equal to:
and equal 0.60.
The prism load on the pipe is equal to: 2
P E = (120)(18) = 2160lb / ft
2
P E = (120)(18) = 2160lb / ft
Substituting these values

Substituting into into
these values Equation 2-10
Equation 3-10 gives:gives:
Substituting these values into Equation 2-10 gives:

X 2160 (0.1)(1.0 )

=
DXM = 2160
' 144 2((130,000)
110,000) 1(0.1)(1. 0)
2(110,000) ( 1 ) + (0.061)(0.60)(1500)
3
144 3
DM
( 26 1) 3 + (0.061)(0.60)(1500)
3 26 1
X
= 0.025 = 2.5 %
DXM = 0.025 = 2.5 %
'
DM
Deflection Limits
The designer limits ring deflection in order to control geometric stability of the pipe,
wall bending strain, pipeline hydraulic capacity and compatibility with cleaning
equipment, and, for bell-and-spigot jointed pipe, its sealing capability. Only the
limits for geometric stability and bending strain will be discussed here. Hydraulic
capacity is not impaired at deflections less than 7.5%.
Geometric stability is lost when the pipe crown flattens and loses its ability to
support earth load. Crown flattening occurs with excessive deflection as the increase
in horizontal diameter reduces crown curvature. At 25% to 30% deflection, the
154-264.indd 217 1/16/09 9:57:09 AM

218 Chapter 6
crown may completely reverse its curvature inward and collapse. See Figure 3-1A.
A deflection limit of 7.5% provides at least a 3 to 1 safety factor against reverse
curvature.
Bending strain occurs in the pipe wall as a result of ring deflectionouter-fiber

tensile strain at the pipe springline and outer-fiber compressive strain at the crown
and invert. While strain limits of 5% have been proposed, Jansen (12) reported
that, on tests of PE pipe manufactured from pressure-rated resins and subjected
to soil pressure only, no upper limit from a practical design point of view seems
to exist for the bending strain. In other words, as deflection increases, the pipes
performance limit will not be overstraining but reverse curvature collapse.
Thus, for non-pressure applications, a 7.5 percent deflection limit provides a

large safety factor against instability and strain and is considered a safe design
deflection. Some engineers will design profile wall pipe and other non-pressure pipe
applications to a 5% deflection limit, but allow spot deflections up to 7.5% during
field inspection.
The deflection limits for pressurized pipe are generally lower than for non-
pressurized pipe. This is primarily due to strain considerations. Hoop strain from
pressurization adds to the outer-fiber tensile strain. But the internal pressure acts to
reround the pipe and, therefore, Eq. 3-10 overpredicts the actual long-term deflection
for pressurized pipe. Safe allowable deflections for pressurized pipe are given in
Table 3-11. Spangler and Handy(13) give equations for correcting deflection to account
for rerounding.
Table 3-11
Safe Deflection Limits for Pressurized Pipe
DR or SDR Safe Deflection as % of Diameter

32.5 7.5
26 7.5
21 7.5
17 6.0
13.5 6.0
11 5.0
9 4.0
7.3 3.0
*Based on Long-Term Design Deflection of Buried Pressurized Pipe given in ASTM F1962.
154-264.indd 218 1/16/09 9:57:09 AM

Chapter 6 219
Compressive Ring Thrust

Earth pressure exerts a radial-directed force around the circumference of a pipe that
results in a compressive ring thrust in the pipe wall. (This thrust is exactly opposite
to the tensile hoop thrust induced when a pipe is pressurized.) See Figure 3-1B.
Excessive ring compressive thrust may lead to two different performance limits:
crushing of the material or buckling (loss of stability) of the pipe wall. See Figure
3-1C. This section will discuss crushing, and the next section will discuss buckling.
As is often the case, the radial soil pressure causing the stress is not uniform around
the pipes circumference. However, for calculation purposes it is assumed uniform
and equal to the vertical soil pressure at the pipe crown.
Pressure pipes often have internal pressure higher than the radial pressure applied
by the soil. As long as there is pressure in the pipe that exceeds the external
pressure, the net thrust in the pipe wall is tensile rather than compressive, and wall
crush or buckling checks are not necessary. Whether one needs to check this or
not can be quickly determined by simply comparing the internal pressure with the
vertical soil pressure.
67
Crushing occurs when the compressive stress in the wall exceeds the compressive
yield stress of the pipe material. Equations 3-13 and 3-14 give the compressive stress
resulting from( earth 67
P E + and
P L )live
DRload pressure for conventional extruded DR pipe and
for ASTMS =F894 profile wall PE Pipe: Eq. 2-13
288
(3-13) ( P E + P L ) DR
S = Eq. 2-13
288
(3-14) ( P E + P L ) DO
S= Eq. 2-14
288A
( P E + P L ) DO
WhereS= Eq. 2-14
288A due to earth load, psf
PE = vertical soil pressure
Where:
PL = vertical soil pressure due to live-load, psf
PSE ==pipe vertical soil pressure
wall compressive stress, lb/in2 due to earth load, psf
Where: PDR L ==vertical soilDpressure
Dimension Ratio, O/t due to live-load, psf
2
S D = pipe
= pipe wall
outside compressive
PE =O vertical soil pressure due
diameter (for profile stress,
pipe DOto I +lb/in
= Dearth2HP), load,
in psf
PDR
L
D=I == Dimension
pipe inside diameter,Ratio,
vertical soil pressure
in D due
O /t to live-load, psf
SD=HOPpipe
== profile
pipe outside
wall
wall height, in diameter (for profile2 pipe DO = DI + 2HP), in
compressive stress, lb/in
D AI = pipe
= profile
DR =(Obtain inside
wall
Dimension average diameter,
D /tin in /in
cross-sectional area,
Ratio,
2
the profile wall area fromOthe manufacturer of the profile pipe.)
DHOP==pipe profile wall height,
outside diameter in (for profile pipe DO = DI + 2HP), in
DI = pipe inside diameter,cross-sectional
A = profile
(Note: wall
These equations average
contain a factor of 144 in the denominator
in area, in2/in
for correct units conversions.)
HP = profile wall height, in

A = profile
(Note: These equations containwalla average
factor of 144 cross-sectional
in the denominator area, in2/in units conversions.)
for correct
Note: These equations contain a factor of 144 in the denominator for correct units conversions.)
on 2-14 may overstate the wall stress in profile pipe. Ring deflection in profile
pe induces arching. The "Deep Fill Installation" section of this chapter discusses
gn and
2-14gives
may equations
overstate
154-264.indd 219
for calculating
the wall stress the earth pressure
in profile resulting
pipe. Ring frominarching,
deflection profile 1/16/09 9:57:10 AM
220 Chapter 6
68
Equation 3-14PE
may
2406overstate the wall stress in profile
800 pipe. Ring deflection in profile
wall pipe induces arching. The Deep Fill Installation section of this chapter 68
discusses arching and gives equations for calculating the earth pressure resulting
from arching, PRD. PRD is given by Equation 3-23 and may be substituted for PE to
The long-termdetermine
compressivePE
the 2406
wall stress value
compressive should
stress be800reduced
when arching occurs. for elevated temperature
pipeline operation. Temperature design factors used for hydrostatic pressure may be
The compressive stress in the pipe wall can be compared to the pipe material
used, i.e. 0.5 @ 140F. Additional temperature design factors may be obtained by
allowable compressive stress. If the calculated compressive stress exceeds the
reference to Table 1-11 in Section 1 of this chapter.
The long-termallowable
compressivestress, then a lower
stress DR (heavier
value should wall
be thickness)
reduced or heavier profile wall
for elevated is
temperature
required.
used, i.e. 0.5 @ 140F.
Ring Compression ExampleAdditional temperature design factors may be obtained by
Allowable Compressive Stress
reference to Table 1-11 in Section 1 of this chapter.
Allowable long-term compressive stress values for the several PE material
Find the pipe wall compressive
designation codes can ring stress
be found in a DRChapter
in Appendix, 32.5 HDPE
3. pipe buried under 46 ft of
cover. The ground water level is at the surface, the saturated weight of the insitu silty-
Ring Compression Example
clay soil is 120The long-term
lbs/ft 3
. compressive stress value should be reduced for elevated temperature
Find the pipe used. compressive
wall See temperature ring
re-rating or adjustment
stress in a DR factors in the Appendix,
32.5 HDPE Chapter
pipe buried 3.
under 46 ft of
SOLUTION: Find the vertical earth pressure acting on the pipe. Use Equation 2-1.
cover. The ground water level is at the surface, the saturated weight of the insitu silty-
clay soil is 120Ring Compression
lbs/ft 3
. Example
Find the pipe
Although the net soil pressure wall compressive
is equal ringtostress
theinbuoyant
a DR 32.5 PE4710
weight pipe
ofburied underthe
the soil, 46 water
pressure is alsoft ofacting
cover. The
onground waterTherefore
the pipe. level is at thethe
surface,
totalthepressure
saturated weight
(waterofand
the insitu
earth load)
SOLUTION: Find thesoil
silty-clay vertical
is 120 earth
lbs/ft 3. pressure acting on the pipe. Use Equation 2-1.
can be found using the saturated unit weight of the soil.
SOLUTION: Find the vertical earth pressure acting on the pipe. Use Equation 3-1.
Although the net soil pressure is equal to the buoyant weight of the soil, the water
Although
pressure is also actingtheonnet soilpipe.
the pressure is equal to the buoyant weight of the soil, the water
P E = (120
pressure is pcf)(46
also acting on =Therefore
ft) the pipe. psf thethe
5520Therefore total pressure
total pressure
(water
(water and
and
earth
earth load)
can be found using the saturated unit weight of the soil.
load) can be found using the saturated unit weight of the soil.
Next, solve for the compressive stress.
Next, solve for the compressive stress.
P E = (120 pcf)(46 ft) = 5520 psf
(5520 lb / ft 2 )(32.5)
S =
Next, solve for the compressive stress. = 623 lb / inch2
288
The compressive stress2

is well below the allowable limit of 1150 psi for the PE4710
The compressive (5520 lb / ft )(32.5) 2
S = stress
material is the
given in within the =1000
Appendix, Chapterlb/in
623 lb3./ allowable
2
inch stress for HDPE given in
Table 2-12. 288
Constrained (Buried) Pipe Wall Buckling
Excessive compressive stress (or thrust) may cause the pipe wall to become unstable
2
The compressive
Constrained stress
and buckle.
(Buried) isWall
within
Buckling
Pipe from the 1000 lb/instress
ring compressive
Buckling allowable stressas for
initiates locally HDPE given
a large in
Table 2-12. dimple, and then grows to reverse curvature followed by structural collapse.
Resistance to buckling is proportional to the wall thickness divided by the diameter
Excessive compressive stress (or thrust) may cause the pipe wall to become unstable
and buckle. Buckling from ring compressive stress initiates locally as a large "dimple,"
Constrained (Buried) Pipe Wall Buckling
and then grows to reverse curvature followed by structural collapse. Resistance to
buckling is proportional to the wall thickness divided by the diameter raised to a power.
Excessive
Therefore compressive
the
154-264.indd
stress (or thrust) may cause the pipe
220 lower the DR, the higher the resistance.
wall to
Buried become
pipe unstable
has an added
1/16/09 9:57:10 AM
Chapter 6 221
69
raised to a power. Therefore the lower the DR, the higher the resistance. Buried pipe
Non-pressurized pipes or gravity flow pipes are most likely to have a net compressive
has an added resistance due to support (or constraint) from the surrounding soil.
stress in the pipe wall and, therefore, the allowable buckling pressure should be 69
calculated andNon-pressurized
compared to pipes
theor gravity flow pipes
total (soil and are most likely
ground to have
water) a net
pressure. For most
pressure pipe compressive
applications, stress in fluid
the the pipe wall and,in
pressure therefore,
the pipe the exceeds
allowable buckling
the externalpressurepressure,
Non-pressurized shouldpipesbe or gravity
calculated and flow pipes
compared to aretotal
the most likely
(soil and to have
ground water)a pressure.
net compressive
and the net stress in the pipe wall is tensile. Buckling needs only be considered for that
stress in the For pipe wall
mostunder and,
pressure pipetherefore,
applications, the allowable
theduring
fluid pressure buckling pressure
in the pipe exceeds should be
theconstruction
time the pipe is not pressure, such as and immediately after
calculated andexternal
compared pressure, and the net stress in the pipe wall is tensile. Buckling needs For most
to the total (soil and ground water) pressure.
and during system shut-downs.
pressure pipe only
applications,
be considered theforfluid pressure
that time the pipeinisthe pipe pressure,
not under exceedssuch theasexternal
during and pressure,
and the net stress in the pipe wall is tensile. Buckling needs only
immediately after construction and during system shut-downs and, in cases in be considered for that
This chapter
time the pipe is gives two
notaunder equations
pressure, for calculating buckling. The modified Luscher
which surge pressure eventsuch as during
can produce and immediately
a temporary negative internal after construction
pressure.
Equation
and duringis system
for buried pipes that are beneath the ground water level, subject to vacuum
shut-downs.
Under these circumstances the pipe will react much stiffer to buckling as its
pressure, or under live load with a shallow cover. These forces act to increase even the
modulus is higher under short term loading. When designing, select a modulus
slightest eccentricity in the pipe wallthebynegative following deformation inward. While soil
This chapter appropriate
gives twoforequations
the duration of for calculating external pressure. For
buckling. pipemodified
The that are Luscher
pressure alone can create instability, due soilto is less likely to shouldfollowbedeformation inward,
Equation is forsubjected
buried to negative
pipes thatpressure
are beneath surge,
the consideration
ground water level, given to to vacuum
subject
particularly if selecting
it is granular. So, dry ground buckling is only considered for deep
pressure, or under livea DR loadthat gives
with a the pipe sufficient
shallow cover.unconstrained
These forces collapse strength
act to to resist
increase even the
applications and is given
the full applied by the
negative Moore-Selig Equation found in the section, Buckling of
slightest eccentricity in the pipepressure
wall by without support deformation
following for the soil. This inward.
is to insure While soil
Pipes in Deep,against
Dry Fills.
pressure alone can construction affects thatsoil
create instability, resultisinless
the embedment
likely to material
follow not developing itsinward,
deformation
full design strength.
particularly if it is granular. So, dry ground buckling is only considered for deep
applications andThisischapter
givengives
by the
two Moore-Selig Equation
equations for calculating found The
buckling. in the section,
modified LuscherBuckling of
Luscher
Pipes in Equation Dryfor
Deep,Equation Constrained Buckling Below Ground Water Level
Fills.
is for buried pipes that are beneath the ground water level, subject to
vacuum pressure, or under live load with a shallow cover. These forces act to
For pipes below the even
increase ground watereccentricity
the slightest level, operating
in the pipeunder
wall by a full or deformation
following partial vacuum, or
subject to live load,
inward.
Luscher Equation Luschers
forWhile equation
soil pressure
Constrained may
alone canBelow
Buckling be used
create instability, to determine
soil is less
Ground Water the allowable
likely to follow
Level
constrained buckling pressure.
deformation Equation
inward, particularly if it2-15 and So,
is granular. 2-16
dry are
ground forbuckling
DR and profile pipe
is only
respectively. considered for deep applications and is given by the Moore-Selig Equation found in
For pipes below the ground water level, operating under a full or partial vacuum, or
the section, Buckling of Pipes in Deep, Dry Fills.
subject to live load, Luschers equation may be used to determine the allowable
constrained buckling pressure. Equation 2-15 and 2-16 are for DR and profile pipe
Luscher Equation for Constrained Buckling Below Ground Water Level
respectively. For pipes below the ground water level, operating under a full or partial vacuum,
5.65
or subject to live E
load, Luschers equation may be used to determine the allowable
B E
PWC =bucklingRpressure. Eq. 2-15
constrained N Equation 33-15 and 3-16 are for DR and profile pipe
12( DR 1)
respectively.
(3-15)
5.65 E
PWC = RB E Eq. 2-15
N 12( DR 1) 3
(3-16) 5.65 EI
PWC = RB E 3
Eq. 2-16
N DM
5.65 EI
PWC = RB E 3
Eq. 2-16
N DM
Where:
PWC = allowable constrained buckling pressure, lb/in2
154-264.indd 221 1/16/09 9:57:10 AM
222 Chapter 6
70
Where
70
H GWbuckling pressure, lb/in2
PWC = allowable constrained
R = 1 - 0.33 Eq. 2-17
N = safety factor H
(3-17) H GW
Where: R = 1 - 0.33 Eq. 2-17
H
R = buoyancy reduction factor
HWhere
GW = height of ground water above pipe, ft
Where:HR =
= buoyancy reduction factor
depth of cover, ft
HGW = height of ground water above pipe, ft
RH == depth
buoyancy
of cover, ft reduction factor
HGW = height of ground water above pipe, ft
H(3-18)
= depth of cover, 1 ft
B = Eq. 2-18
1+ 4 e (-0.065H)
Where 1
B =
Where: e = natural log base number, 2.71828 Eq. 2-18
1+ 4 e(-0.065H)
E = soil reaction modulus, psi
eE== apparent
natural log base
modulus number,
of elasticity, psi 2.71828
E'DR== soil reaction
Dimension Ratio modulus, psi
Where:EI ==pipeapparent modulus
wall moment of inertia, in4/inof(telasticity,
3/12, if solid wallpsi
construction)
DR =Mean
Dimension
eD=M =natural I +Ratio
log(Dbase
diameter 2z ornumber,
DO t), in 2.71828
IE' = soil
pipe wall modulus,
reaction moment psi of inertia, in4/in (t3/12, if solid wall
Although buckling occurs rapidly, long-term external pressure can gradually
construction)
E = apparent modulus of elasticity, psi
deform the pipe to the point of instability. This behavior is considered viscoelastic
DR
DM == Mean
Dimension diameter Ratio (DI + 2z or DO t), in
and can be accounted for in Equations 3-15 and 3-164by using the apparent modulus
I = pipe wall moment of inertia, in /in (t3/12, if solid wall
of elasticity value for the appropriate time and temperature of the loading. For
construction)
instance, a vacuum event is resisted by the short-term value of the modulus whereas
gh buckling occurs rapidly,
Dcontinuous long-term external or Dpressure t), in can gradually deform the
M = Mean diameter
ground water (D I + 2zwould
pressure Obe resisted by the 50 year value. For
o the point of instability. This behavior is considered viscoelastic and can be
modulus values see Appendix, Chapter 3.
nted for in Equations 2-15 and 2-16 by using the apparent modulus of elasticity
for
gh the appropriate
buckling occurs time
For pipes andlong-term
buried
rapidly, temperature
with less than 4 ftoforthe
external a fullloading.
diametercan
pressure For
of instance,
cover, Equations
gradually a3-15
vacuum
deform and
the
is resisted by the
3-16 short-term
may have limitedvalue of the
applicability. modulus
In this
o the point of instability. This behavior is considered viscoelastic and can be case whereas
the designer continuous
may want to ground
use
pressure
nted for inwould be resisted
Equations
Equations 3-39 and
2-15 by 3-40.
and the
2-16 50by yearusingvalue. the For modulus
apparent valuesofsee
modulus Table
elasticity
for the appropriate time and temperature of the loading. For
The designer should apply a safety factor commensurate with the application. A instance, a vacuum
is resisted by safety
the short-term
factor of 2.0 has value
beenof used theformodulus
thermoplastic whereas
pipe. continuous ground
pressure would be resisted by the 50 year
pes buried with less than 4 ft or a full diameter of cover, Equations value. For modulus values
2-15seeandTable
2-16
The allowable constrained buckling pressure should be compared to the total
ave limited applicability. In this case the designer may want to use Equations 2-39
vertical stress acting on the pipe crown from the combined load of soil, and ground
40. water or floodwater. It is prudent to check buckling resistance against a ground
pes buried withwater less level
thanfor4aft100-year-flood.
or a full diameter of cover,theEquations
In this calculation total vertical2-15
stressand 2-16
is typically
ave limited applicability.
esigner should takenapplyasathe In
safetythis case
prism factor the designer
commensurate
load pressure may
for saturated soil, want
withplus to
thethe use Equations
application.
fluid pressureA 2-39
of safety
any
40.2.0 has beenfloodwater
of used forabovethermoplastic
the ground surface.pipe.
esigner
llowableshould apply abuckling
constrained safety factor commensurate
pressure with the application.
should be compared to the totalAvertical
safety
of 2.0 has been used for thermoplastic pipe.
acting on the pipe crown from the combined load of soil, and ground water or
water. It is prudent to check buckling resistance against a ground water level for a
154-264.indd 222 1/16/09 9:57:11 AM
pressure for saturated soil, plus the fluid pressure of any floodwater above the
ombined
nstrained pressureequation,
d surface.buckling from soil, ground 2-39,
Equation water, to and
verifyvacuum, and can
that the pipe thenoperate
to use with the
nstrained
acuum buckling
independent equation,
of any Equation
soil support 2-39,
or to
soil verify
load, that
in
R pipes operating under a vacuum, it is customary to use Equation 2-15 to check the
case pipe can
construction operatedoes with
not
acuum
op the independent
ombined full soil support.
pressure of any
from soilground
Where
soil, support
vacuum orload
water,soilandload,
is in case construction
short-term,
vacuum, such then
and as2-15 to does
during use not6
water
the
Chapter 223
R pipes operating under a vacuum, it is customary to use Equation Design of PEto check
Piping Systems
op
mer the full
events soil
two support.
calculations Where
with vacuum
Equation load
2-14 is short-term,
are necessary. such as
First during
determine water
nstrained
ombined buckling
pressureequation,
from soil,Equation
ground 2-39,water, to and
verifyvacuum,
that the pipe
and can
thenoperate
to use with theif
mer events
pe is sufficienttwo calculations
for equation,
the
of ground with Equation
water and 2-14
orsoil are necessary. First determine notif
acuum
nstrained independent
buckling any soil support
Equation 2-39, topressure
soil load, that
verify in using
case a long-term
the construction
pipe can operate modulus;
doeswith
pe the
op is sufficient
determine full ifsoil for theis ground
thesupport.
pipe water
sufficient
Where andcombined
for the
vacuum soil pressure groundusing a long-term
water, soil
as pressure modulus; and
acuum independent of any soil support orload
soil is
load,short-term,
in case such
construction during does water
not
determine
um if the pipe is sufficient for the combined ground water, soil pressure and
op loading
mer events
the using
full soil the short-term
two support.
calculations withmodulus.
Where Equationload
vacuum 2-14is are necessary.
short-term, suchFirst determine
as during waterif
um
pe loading
is usingforthe
sufficient theshort-term
ground modulus.
water and soil pressure usingtoauselong-term modulus;
mer events two For
calculations
DR pipes with
operatingEquation
under 2-14
a vacuum, itare necessary.
is customary First determine
Equation 3-15 to if
determine if the
pe is sufficient check pipe
for the is sufficient
theground for
combinedwater the
and
pressure combined
fromsoil pressure
soil, ground
ground water, water,
using soil
andavacuum, pressure
long-term modulus;
and then to and
um loadingifusing
determine theuse the
theshort-term
pipe is sufficientmodulus.
unconstrained for the combined
buckling ground
equation, Equation water,
3-39, soilthat
to verify pressure
the pipe and
trained
m loadingBuckling
using Example
canthe short-term
operate with the modulus.
vacuum independent of any soil support or soil load, in case
trained Bucklingconstruction
Example does not develop the full soil support. Where vacuum load is short-
a 36" SDR 26term, HDPE such as during
pipe havewater hammer events
satisfactory two calculations
resistance with Equationbuckling
to constrained 3-14
a
rained
installed with26are
36" Buckling
SDR 18 necessary.
HDPE
Example First
pipe
ft of cover determine
have
in if the pipe soil
a satisfactory
compacted is sufficient
resistance fortothe
embedment. ground water buckling
constrained
Assume and soil
ground
installed
to pressure
with and
the surface
rained Buckling 18 using a
ftanofE'cover
Example long-term
of 1500 in a modulus;
2
compacted
lb/in . then determine if the pipe is
soil embedment. Assume ground sufficient for the
combined ground water, soil2 pressure and vacuum loading using the short-term
to 36"
a the surface
SDR 26and HDPE an E'pipe
of 1500
havelb/in .
satisfactory resistance to constrained buckling
modulus.
ainstalled
36" SDR with2618HDPEft of cover
pipe have in a satisfactory
compacted resistance soil embedment. Assumebuckling
to constrained ground
2
UTION:
to the Solve
surface
installed with 18 Equation
and an E'
ft of cover
Constrained
of2-15.
1500
Buckling
Since
lb/in
in Example . this is a long-term
a compacted soil embedment. Assume ground loading condition, the
UTION:
sto Solve
relaxation
the surface andEquation
modulus
Does an
can
a 36E'SDR 2-15.
be
of 1500assumed
26 PE4710
Since 2 tothis
be is
28,200 a long-term
psi. Soil loading
cover, condition,
H, and
. have satisfactory resistance to constrained buckling
lb/inpipe groundthe
s height,
relaxation
HGWmodulus
, are
when both can 18befeet.
installed
assumed
with 18Therefore,
to be 28,200
ft of cover in athe soil psi.
compacted
Soil factor,
support cover, B',
soil embedment?
H, and ground
is found
Assume ground as
height,
s; H ,
UTION: Solve water
GW are both
Equation 18 feet.
2-15. and
to the surface
Therefore,
Since
an E of this the
1500islb/in
soil support
a 2long-term
.
factor, B', is found
loading condition, the as
s;
s relaxation modulus can be assumed tothis
be 28,200 psi. Soil cover, H, and ground
UTION: Solve Equation
SOLUTION: 12-15.
Solve Since3-15.
Equation is this
Since a long-term
is a long-termloading condition,
loading condition, the the
height, H , B
are
relaxation modulusc =both can 18 1 feet. = 0.446
Therefore, the soil support factor, B', is found as
GW
50 = 1+
B year 4 ebe
stress assumed
-(0.065)(18)
relaxation =
to be
modulus
0.446 for28,200 psi. Soil
PE4710 material cover,
is given H,Appendix
in the and groundto
s;
height, HGW, are both
1+34as 18 feet.psi.Therefore,
-(0.065)(18)
Soil cover, H,the and soil support factor, B', isboth
found as
Chapter e 29,000 ground water height, HGW , are 18 feet.
s; Therefore, the 1 soil support factor, B, is found as follows;
B
he bouyancy reduction = = found
0.446 as follows:
1+ 4factor,
e R, is
1-(0.065)(18)
Bc =
he bouyancy reduction factor, R, is = found
0.446 as follows:
18
1+ 4 e-(0.065)(18)
R = 1- 0.33 18 = 0.67
R = 1- 0.33 18 = 0.67
he bouyancy reduction factor,
and the bouyancy 18 R, factor,
reduction is found as asfollows:
R, is found follows:
he bouyancy reduction factor, 18 R, is found as follows:
Equation 2-15 Rfor = the
1- 0.33allowable
18
= 0.67long-term constrained buckling pressure:
Equation 2-15 Rfor = the
1- 0.33allowable = 0.67long-term constrained buckling pressure:
18
Solve Equation 3-15 for the allowable long-term constrained buckling pressure:
Equation 2-15 Pfor the 5.65 0.67(0.446
allowable )1500(28,200)
long-term constrained buckling pressure:
WC = 5.65 0.67(0.446)1500(28,200) (329,000)
Equation 2-15 for
PWCthe 2 12 ( 26 1)
= allowable long-term3 constrained buckling pressure:
2 12(26 1)
5.65 0.67(0.446)1500(28,200) 72
PWC =
PWC =5.65
232 .2 psi
23.5 = 3387
3340
0.67(0.446
12(26 psf
)1500(28,200)
1) 3
P
PWC == 23 . 2 psi = 3340 psf
earth pressure and WC
2
ground 12(26
water 1) 3
pressure applied to the pipe is found using
The earth pressure and ground water pressure applied to the pipe is found using
ion 2-1 (prism load) with a saturated soil weight. The saturated soil weight being
et weight of bothEquation233-1
soil= and
PWC (prism load) with
psi = 3340
.2water. psf a saturated soil weight. The saturated soil weight
being the net weight of both soil and water.
PWC = 23.2 psi = 3340 psf
lb
P E = (120)(18) = 2160 2
ft
are this with the constrained buckling pressure. Since PWC exceeds PE, DR 26
atisfactory resistance to constrained pipe buckling.
154-264.indd 223 1/16/09 9:57:12 AM
224 Chapter 6
74
Installation Category # 2: Shallow Cover Vehicular Loading
Compare this with the constrained buckling pressure. Since P exceeds PE, DR 26
The Standard has Installation methodology assumes that the pipeWCbehaves primarily as a
satisfactory resistance to constrained pipe buckling.
"membrane" structure, that is, the pipe is almost perfectly flexible with little ability to
resist bending.Installation
At shallow cover #2:
Category depths,
Shallowespecially those Loading
Cover Vehicular less than one pipe diameter,
membrane action may not
The Standard fully develop,
Installation andassumes
methodology surcharge orpipe
that the livebehaves
loadsprimarily
place a bending
load on the pipe crown. In this case the pipes flexural stiffness carries
as a membrane structure, that is, the pipe is almost perfectly flexible with part of the load
little
and prevents ability
the pipe crown
to resist bending.from dimpling
At shallow cover inward under the
depths, especially thoseload. Equation
less than one pipe 2-19,
published by diameter,
Watkinsmembrane
[14] gives the soil pressure that can be supported
action may not fully develop, and surcharge or live loads place at the pipe
crown by the acombination
bending load on ofthe
the
pipepipes
crown.flexural
In this case stiffness
the pipes(bending resistance)
flexural stiffness carries and the
soils internal part
resistance
of the loadagainst
and preventsheaving
the pipeupward.
crown from In addition
dimpling inwardto under
checking
the load.Watkins'
formula, the designer should check deflection using Equations 2-10
Equation 3-19, published by Watkins gives the soil pressure that can be supported
(14) or 2-11, pipe wall
compressive at stress
the pipeusing
crown byEquations 2-13of or
the combination 2-14,flexural
the pipes and stiffness
pipe wall buckling using
(bending
Equations 2-15 or 2-16.
resistance) and the soils internal resistance against heaving upward. In addition to
checking Watkins formula, the designer should check deflection using Equations
3-10 oris3-11,
Watkins' equation pipe wall compressive
recommended stress using
only where the Equations
depth of3-13 or 3-14,
cover is and pipe wall
greater than one-
buckling using Equations 3-15 or 3-16.
half of the pipe diameter and the pipe is installed at least 18 inches below the road
surface. In other words, it is recommended that the pipe regardless
Watkins equation is recommended only where the depth of cover is greater than of diameter always
be at least 18one-half
beneath the
of the road
pipe surface
diameter and thewhere
pipe isthere areatlive
installed leastloads present;
18 inches below themore may
be required depending
road surface.on the words,
In other properties of the pipethat
it is recommended and installation.
the pipe Indiameter
regardless of some cases,
lesser cover depths
always bemay
at least be18sufficient
beneath thewhere therewhere
road surface is athere
reinforced concrete
are live loads present; cap or a
reinforced concrete pavement
more may be requiredslab over the
depending pipe.
on the Equation
properties 2-19and
of the pipe may be used
installation. In for both
DR pipe and profile pipe.
some cases, Seecover
lesser definition
depths mayof A below. where there is a reinforced concrete
be sufficient
cap or a reinforced concrete pavement slab over the pipe. Equation 3-19 may be used
for both DR pipe and profile pipe. See definition of A below.
2
(3-19)
12 w(KH ) 7387(I) w H
PWAT = + S
2 MAT
- DO Eq. 2-19
N S DO N S DO c 288A
Where
Where:PWAT = allowable live load pressure at pipe crown for pipes with one diameter or less of cover, psf
w = unit weight of soil, lb/ft3
PDWAT = outside
O = pipe allowable
diameter, live
in load pressure at pipe crown for pipes with one
diameter or less
H = depth of cover, ft of cover, psf
3
wI = pipe
= wall unit weight
moment of(tsoil,
of inertia 3 /12 forlb/ft
DR pipe), in4/in
DA O= profile
= pipe outside
wall average diameter,
cross-sectional area, inin
2 /in, for profile pipe or wall thickness (in) for DR pipe
(obtain the profile from the manufacturer of the profile pipe.)

Ic ==outer fiber
pipe wall moment of inertia (t3/12 for DR pipe), in4/in
to wall centroid, in
c = HP z for profile pipe and c = 0.5t for DR pipe, in
A = profile wall average cross-sectional area, in2/in, for profile pipe or
wall thickness (in) for DR pipe
z = pipe wall centroid, in
cS = = material
outeryieldfiber to wall centroid, in
strength, lb/in2, Use 3000 PSI for PE3408
MAT
c = HP z for profile pipe and c = 0.5t for DR pipe, in
z = pipe wall centroid, in
SMAT = material yield strength, lb/in2, USE 3000 PSI FOR pe3408
NS = safety factor
154-264.indd K = passive earth pressure coefficient
224 1/16/09 9:57:12 AM
1 + SIN( I )
K= Eq. 2-20
1 - SIN( I )
Chapter 6 225
= angle of internal friction, deg
75
NS = safety factor 75
K = passive earth pressure coefficient
quation 2-19 is for a point load applied to the pipe crown. Wheel loads should be
etermined using a point load method such as given by Equations 2-2 (Timeoshenko)
2-4 (Boussinesq). K = 1 + SIN( I )
(3-20)
Eq. 2-20
1 + SIN( ) 1 - SIN( I )
K= Eq. 2-20
hen a pipe
1 - SIN ( =) angle ofwith
is installed internalshallow
friction, degcover below an unpaved surface, rutting can occur
hich will not only reduce cover depth, but also increase the impact factor.
Equation 3-19 is for a point load applied to the pipe crown. Wheel loads should be
determined
angle of internal usingdeg
friction, a point load method such as given by Equations 3-2 (Timoshenko)
hallow Cover Example
or 3-4 (Boussinesq).
Equation 2-19When a pipe is installed with shallow cover below an unpaved surface, rutting can
is for a point load applied to the pipe crown. Wheel loads should be
etermine the safety factor against flexural failure
depth, of
but the pipe accompanied
the impact factor.by soil
determined using a pointwill
occur which not only reduce
load method suchcover
as given also increase
by Equations 2-2 (Timeoshenko)
eave, for a 36" RSC 100 F894 profile pipe 3.0 feet beneath an H20 wheel load.
or 2-4 (Boussinesq).
for a an
ssume point load
asphalt applied
surface
Shallow Coverwith to the pipe
granular
Example crown. Wheel loads should be
embedment.
a point load Determine
methodthesuch
safetyas
factor againstby
given flexural failure of the
Equations 2-2pipe(Timeoshenko)
accompanied by
When a pipe issoil
installedforwith
a 36shallow cover below an unpaved surface, rutting
load.can occur
q).
OLUTION: The liveheave,
load pressure RSC 100 F894 profile
acting at the pipe
crown3.0 feet
of beneath an H20 wheel
the pipe can be found using
which will not only reduce
Assume cover
an asphalt depth,
surface withbut also embedment.
granular increase the impact factor.
quation 2-4, the Boussinesq point load equation. At 3.0 feet of cover the highest live
ad pressure occurs directly
SOLUTION: Theunder a single
live load pressurewheel and
acting at the equals:
crown of the pipe can be found
stalled with shallow cover
using Equation 3-4,below an unpaved
the Boussinesq point load surface,
equation. Atrutting
3.0 feet ofcan
coveroccur
the
y reduce cover
Shallow Cover depth,
Example
highest butpressure
live load also increase theunder
occurs directly impact factor.
a single wheel and equals:
3
(3)(2.0)(16000)(3.0 ) = 1697 psf
Determine ptheP=safety factor against
WAT L flexural failure of the pipe accompanied by soil
5
2S (3.0 )
heave, for a 36" RSC 100 F894 profile pipe 3.0 feet beneath an H20 wheel load.
xample
Assume an asphalt surface with granular embedment.
Where
If = 2.0
afety factorWhere:
SOLUTION: against
The live lbs
W = 16,000 flexural
load failure
pressure of atthe
acting thepipe
crownaccompanied
of the pipe canby
be soil
found using
RSC 100 F894 I = 2.0
profile pipe 3.0 feet beneath an H20 wheel load.
Equation 2-4, the Boussinesq point load equation. At 3.0 feet of cover the highest live
H = 3.0f ft
altload
surface with
pressure Wpcf=directly
granular
occurs
w = 120 16,000 lbs a single wheel and equals:
embedment.
under
H = 3.0 ft
The w
live=load
120 pcf is to be compared with the value in Equation 3-19. To solve
pressure
live load pressure
Equation 3-19, the at
acting the crown
following of are
parameters
3
the pipe can be found using
required:
(3)(2.0)(1 6000)(3.0 )At 3.0 feet of cover the highest live
heBoussinesq point
Ip
live load pressure
= = inload
0.171
WAT is to equation.
4 /in
be compared
5 with the value in Equation 2-19. To solve
curs directly under a 2S (3.0
2single )
wheel and equals:
quation 2-19, the following parameters are required:
A = 0.470 in /in
HP = 2.02 in (Profile Wall Height)
DO = DI+2*h = 36.00+2*2.02 = 40.04 in
Where:
I =in 0.171
Z = 0.58 in4/in
3
(3)(2.0)(16000)(3.0
C = h-z = 1.44 )in
If = 2.0
T = S = 3000
5 psi
= )30 deg.W = 16,000 lbs
2 (3.0
H = 3.0 ft
w = 120 pcf
ere:
The live load pressure is to be compared with the value in Equation 2-19. To solve
If =154-264.indd
2.02-19,225the following parameters are required:
Equation 1/16/09 9:57:12 AM
C
SO =
D == 3000
h-z = psi
DI+2*h 1.44 in
= 36.00+2*2.02 = 40.04 in
Determine the earth Z S =
pressure
3000
==0.58
30 deg. psi
coefficient:
in
== h-z
C 30 deg.
= 1.44 in
226 Chapter 6
Determine theDesign
earth S = 3000
of PEpressure psi
Piping Systems coefficient:
Determine theKearth 1+ sin (30)
pressure 1+ 0.5
coefficient:
= = 30 deg. = = 3.0
1-sin(30) 1- 0.5
Determine theKearth 1+ sin(30) coefficient:
pressure 1+ 0.5
= 1+ sin(30) = 1+ 0.5 = 3.0
K = 1-sin(30) = 1- 0.5 = 3.0
The live load pressure
Determine1- incipient
thesin pressureto
(30)
earth 1-failure
0.5 equals:
coefficient:
1+sin(30) 1+ 0.5
K = = = 3.0
The live load pressure incipient
1-sin(30) to 1-failure
0.52
equals:
The live load pressure incipient
(12)120(3. 0 *to3.0failure
) 7387 equals:
* 0.171 120(40.04)3.0
PWAT = + (3000 - )
The live load pressure40.04 40.04 (1.44) 288 * 0.470
2
incipient to failure equals:
2
The live load pressure (12)120(3.
incipient0 *to3.0 failure
) 7387 equals:
* 0.171 120(40.04)3.0
PWAT = (12)120(3.0 * 3.0 )2 +7387 *2 0.171 (3000 - 120(40.04)3.0 )
PWAT = 40.04 + 40.04 2 (1.44)(3000 - 288 * 0.470 )
PWAT = 2904 +40.04 1584 = 4498 psf 40.04 (1.44) 288 * 0.470
2
(12)120(3.0 * 3.0 ) 7387 * 0.171 120(40.04)3.0
PWAT = = 2904 + 1584 = 4498
+
psf
(3000 - )
PWAT 40.04 40.04 (1.44)
2
288 * 0.470
The resulting safety
PWAT = factor
2904 +equals:
1584 = 4498 psf
The resulting safety factor equals:
The resulting safety
PWAT P factor+ equals:
= 2904 1584 = 4498 psf
The resulting safety factor4498
N = WAT = equals: = 2.65
pL 1697
The resulting safety PWAT
factor4498
equals:
N = P = 4498
Installation Category
= 2.65
#3: Deep Fill Installation
N = p L = 1697 = 2.65
WAT
pL
The performance 1697 limits for pipes in a deep fill are the same as for any buried pipe.
They P include: 4498
N = WAT = # 3: Deep = 2.65Fill Installation
pL
1. Compressive 1697ring thrust stress
The performance
Installation limits
Category
2. Ring #for
3:pipes
deflection DeepinFill
a deep fill are the same as for any buried pipe. They
Installation
Installation
include: Category # 3: Deep Fill Installation
3. Constrained pipe wall buckling
The performance limits for pipes in a deep fill are the same as for any buried pipe. They
The
Installation (1)
The compressive
performance limits#for
suggested
Category pipesringinFill
calculation
3: Deep thrust
a deep
method stress,
forfill areinthe
pipe
Installation deepsame as for any
fill applications buried
involves the pipe. They
include:
include: (2) ring deflection,
introduction and for each performance limit that are different than
of design routines
(3)
those
(1) constrained pipe
previously given.
compressive ring wall buckling
The performance limits for pipes in thrust
a deep stress,
fill are the same as for any buried pipe. They
(1)
(2) compressive
ring deflection, ringand thrust stress,
include: Compressive ring thrust is calculated using soil arching. The arching calculation
(2)
(3) ring deflection,
constrained
may calculation pipe
also be used formethod
and wall
profile pipe buckling
designs
The suggested (3) constrained pipe wall for pipeinin
buckling
standard
deeptrench applications. Profile
fill applications involves the
(1)
pipescompressive
are relatively ring
low thrust
stiffness stress,
pipes where
introduction of design routines for each performance limit that are significant arching maydifferent
occur at than those
previously (2)
given. ring deflection,
relatively shallow depths and of cover.
The suggested (3) calculation pipe
constrained method wall for pipe in deep fill applications involves the
buckling
The suggested
introduction a calculation
ofAtdesign
depth of around
routines method
50for or for
feeteach pipe inimpractical
so itperformance
becomes deep
limitfill
to applications
use
that Spanglers
are involves
equation
different the
than those
introduction ofasdesign
previously given.published routines for each
in this chapter because performance limit thatload
it neglects the significant arereduction
differentduethan
to those
previously given.
arching and the inherent stiffening of the embedment and consequential increase in
The suggested calculation method for pipe in deep fill applications involves the
E due to the increased lateral earth pressure applied to the embedment. This section
introduction of design routines for each performance limit that are different than those
gives an alternate deflection equation for use with PE pipes. It was first introduced
previously given.
by Watkins et al. for metal pipes, but later Gaube extended its use to include PE
(1)
pipes.(15)
154-264.indd 226 1/16/09 9:57:13 AM

Chapter 6 227
Where deep fill applications are in dry soil, Luschers equation (Eq. 3-15 or 3-16)
may often be too conservative for design as it considers a radial driving force from
ground water or vacuum. Moore and Selig(17) developed a constrained pipe wall
buckling equation suitable for pipes in dry soils, which is given in a following
section.
Considerable care should be taken in the design of deeply buried pipes whose failure
may cause slope failure in earthen structures, or refuse piles or whose failure may
have severe environmental or economical impact. These cases normally justify the
use of methods beyond those given in this Chapter, including finite element analysis
and field testing, along with considerable professional design review.
Compressive Ring Thrust and the Vertical Arching Factor

The combined horizontal and vertical earth load acting on a buried pipe creates a
radially-directed compressive load acting around the pipes circumference. When a
PE pipe is subjected to ring compression, thrust stress develops around the pipe
hoop, and the pipes circumference will ever so slightly shorten. The shortening
permits thrust arching, that is, the pipe hoop thrust stiffness is less than the soil
hoop thrust stiffness and, as the pipe deforms, less load follows the pipe. This occurs
much like the vertical arching described by Marston.(18) Viscoelasticity enhances this
effect. McGrath(19) has shown thrust arching to be the predominant form of arching
with PE pipes. 78
Burns and Richard(6) have published equations that give the resulting stress
occurring in a pipe due to arching. As discussed above, the arching is usually
78
considered when calculating the ring compressive stress in profile pipes. For deeply
S 1
VAFMcGrath
buried pipes = 0.88 (19)
0has
.71simplified
A
Eq. 2-21
the Burns and Richards equations to derive
S Aby
a vertical arching factor as given 2.5
+ Equation 3-21.
(3-21) S A 1
Where: VAF 0.88 0.71 Eq. 2-21
S A 2.5
VAF
Where = Vertical Arching Factor
VAF = Vertical Arching Factor
Where: SSA = = Hoop Thrust Stiffness Ratio
Hoop Thrust Stiffness Ratio
A
SA (3-22) 1.43 MStiffness
= Hoop=Thrust S rCENT Ratio
SA Eq. 2-22
EA
Where
1.43to M
rCENT = radius S rCENT
S A= centroidal axis of pipe, in
Eq. 2-22
M = one-dimensional EAmodulus of soil, psi
Where: E =s apparent modulus of elasticity of pipe material, psi (See Appendix, Chapter 3)
rCENT = radius
A= profile tocross-sectional
wall average centroidalarea, axis oforpipe,
in2 /in, in (in) for DR pipe
wall thickness
Where: Ms= one-dimensional modulus of soil, psi

E = apparent modulus of elasticity of pipe material, psi
rCENT = radius to centroidal axis of pipe, in
A= profile wall average cross-sectional area, in2/in, or wall
Ms= one-dimensional modulus of soil, psi
thickness (in) for DR pipe
154-264.indd =227
E apparent modulus of elasticity of pipe material, psi 1/16/09 9:57:14 AM
228 Chapter 6
One-dimensional modulus values for soil can be obtained from soil testing, 79
geotechnical texts, or Table 3-12 which gives typical values. The typical values in
Table 3-12 were obtained by converting values from McGrath(20).
80 6000 2900 1300

Table 3-12
Typical Values of Ms, One-Dimensional Modulus of Soil
100 6500 3200 1450
and extended fromVertical
values given1 (psi)
Soil Stress by McGrath [20]. For depths
Gravelly Sand/Gravels not
Gravelly shown in McGrath
Sand/Gravels [20], the
Gravelly Sand/Gravels
95% Std. Proctor (psi) 90% Std. Proctor (psi)
s were approximated using the hyperbolic soil model with appropriate values for 85% Std. Proctor (psi)
K and n where
10 3000 1600 550
d K=200, K=100, and K=45 for 95% Proctor, 90% Proctor, and 85% Proctor, respectively.
20 3500 1800 650
Soil Stress (psi) = [ soil depth (ft) x soil density (pcf)]/144
40 4200 2100 800
60 5000 2500 1000
80 6000 2900 1300
100 6500 3200 1450
* Adapted and extended from values given by McGrath (20). For depths not shown in McGrath(20), the MS values
were approximated using the hyperbolic soil model with appropriate values for K and n where n=0.4 and
K=200, K=100, and K=45 for 95% Proctor, 90% Proctor, and 85% Proctor, respectively.
dial directed earthVertical

pressure
1
can be found by multiplying the prism load (pressure)
Soil Stress (psi) = [ soil depth (ft) x soil density (pcf)]/144
vertical arching factor as shown in Eq. 2-23.

The radial directed earth pressure can be found by multiplying the prism load
(pressure) by the vertical arching factor as shown in Eq. 3-23.
(3-23) P RD = (VAF)wH Eq. 2-23
Where
Where: PRD = radial directed earth pressure, lb/ft 2
PRD = radial directed earth pressure, lb/ft2
The ring compressive stress in the pipe wall can be found by substituting PRD from
Equation 3-23 for PE in Equation 3-13 for DR pipe and Equation 3-14 for profile
wall pipe.
g compressiveEarth
stress in the pipe wall can be found by substituting PRD from
Pressure Example
n 2-23 for PE in Equation 2-13 for DR pipe and Equation 2-14 for profile wall
Determine the earth pressure acting on a 36 profile wall pipe buried 30 feet deep.
The following properties are for one unique 36 profile pipe made from PE3608
material. Other 36 profile pipe may have different properties. The pipes cross-
Earth Pressure sectional
Example area, A, equals 0.470 inches2/inch, its radius to the centroidal axis is 18.00
inches plus 0.58 inches, and its apparent modulus is 27,000 psi. Its wall height is 2.02
ine the radial earth
in andpressure acting
its DO equals on(2.02
36 in +2 a 36" RSC
in) or 40.04100 profilethe
in. Assume wallpipepipe buriedin30
is installed a
2
ep. The pipe'scleancross-sectional area, A,toequals
granular soil compacted 0.470
90% Standard inches
Proctor (Ms /inch, its radius
= 1875 psi), the insitutosoil
troidal axis is 18.00 inches
is as stiff plus 0.58 and
as the embedment, inches, and its
the backfill modulus
weighs 120 pcf. is 28,250
(Where psi. Its
the excavation
ght is 2.02 in and its DO equals 36 in +2 (2.02 in) or 40.04 in. Assume the pipe is
d in a clean granular soil compacted to 90% Standard Proctor (Ms = 1875 psi),
tu soil is as stiff as the embedment, and the backfill weighs 120 pcf. (Where the
tion is in a stable trench, the stiffness of the insitu soil can generally be ignored
alculation.)
154-264.indd 228 1/16/09 9:57:14 AM
Chapter 6 229
is in a stable trench, the stiffness of the insitu soil can generally be ignored in this
calculation.) The following series of equations calculates the hoop compressive
stress, S, in the pipe wall due to the earth pressure applied by the soil above the pipe.
80
The earth pressure is reduced from the prism load by the vertical arching factor.
(From Equation 3-22) 80
lbs 80
80
1.43( 1875 2
)(18.58 inch)
inch
S A = 1.43( 1875 lbs )(18.58 inch) = 3.93
3.75
lbs 2 inch
2
(28250 inch )(0.470 ) = 3.75
SA = inch lbs
2
inch
1.43( 1875 lbs 22 )(18.58 inchinch)
2
(28250 inch )(0.470 )
S AA = inch 3 2
. 75 1 inch 2 = 3.75
VAF = 0.883-21)
(From Equation - 0.71lbs =inch
0.57 2
(28250 33.75 )(0.470
+ 2.5 inch )
22.75 1
VAF = 0.88 - 0.71 inch = 0. 57
0.56
33.75 +2.5 lb
= 0. 57 (120
P RD = 0.88 - 0.71 pcf)(30
. 75 1
ft) = 2052 2
VAF = 0.57 ft
3.75 + 2.5 lb
= 0.57
P RD Equation
(From (120 pcf)(30
3-23) ft) = 2052 2
ft
2016 lb
P RD
RD = 0.57(120 pcf)(30 ft) = 2052
PRD DO 2052 psf (40.04 in ) ft 22
S 607 psi d 1000 psi
P288 DA 288
2052 (0psf
.470
( 40in.204/ in
in ))
S = Equation
(From
RD O
3-14)= = 607 psi 1000 psi
288 A 288 (0.470 in 2 / in)
PRD
RD DOO 2052 psf (40.04 in)
S 607 psi d 1000 psi
596
288 A 288 (0.470 in 22 / in)
Ring Deflection of Pipes Using Watkins-Gaube Graph
(Allowable compressive stress per Table C.1, Appendix to Chapter 3)
Ring Deflection of Pipes Using Watkins-Gaube Graph
R. Watkins Ring[1]Deflection
developed an extremely
of Pipes straight-forward
Using Watkins-Gaube Graph approach to calculating pipe
Ring Deflection
deflection in a of
fill
R. Watkins
Pipes
that
(1) doesUsing
developed not Watkins-Gaube
rely
an extremely on E. It
extremely straight-forwardis Graph
based on the
approach concept
to calculating that the deflection
R. Watkins
of a pipe embedded [1] developed ininaa layeran ofdoes
soilnotisrely straight-forward
proportional to the approach
compression to calculating
or settlement pipe
of
deflection pipe deflection
in aandfill that does fill that
not relyof on E.
onproportionality It is
E. It is basedis on based on the concept
the concept that the
that the deflection
the
R. soil layer
deflection that
of ain the
pipe constant
embedded in a is
layer of soil is proportional a function of the
to the compression relative
or stiffness
of aWatkins
betweenpipe embedded
the
[1] developed
pipe and asoil. an of
layer extremely
soil
Watkins
straight-forward
proportional
used laboratory to the approach
compression
testing
to calculating
or settlement pipe
of
deflection in a fill
settlement that
of thedoes not
soil layer rely
and on
that E.
the It
constant is based on the
of proportionality isto
concept establish
that
a function oftheand graph
deflection
the soil layer and
proportionality that the constant
constants, called of proportionality
Deformation is aDfunction of the relativeranges stiffness
of the relative
a pipe embedded stiffness
in asoil. between
layer the
of soil pipe and soil.Factors,
is used
proportional Watkins to used
the ,laboratory
for the
Fcompression stiffness
testing ortosettlement of
of
between
metal pipes.the pipe
Gaube and [15, 16] Watkins
extended Watkins' laboratory
work by testing
testing to
to establish
include PE and
pipes.graph In
the soil layer
proportionality and
establish that
and
constants, the
graph constant
proportionality
called of proportionality is
constants, called Deformation
Deformation Factors, a Dfunction
, for of
Factors,
the the
DFrelative
, for
stiffness stiffness
ranges of
F
order
between to predict
the pipedeflection,
the stiffness ranges
and of the
soil. metal designer
pipes. Gaube
Watkins first
used determines
(15, 16)
extended Watkins
laboratory the amount
testing workto by of compression
testing
establish and graph in
metal
the layerpipes.of Gaube
soil in which [15,the 16]pipe
extended
is Watkins'
installed using work by testing geotechnical
conventional to include PEequations. pipes. In
proportionality to include PE pipes. Incalled order toDeformation
predict deflection, the designer F, first determines
order to
Then, predictconstants,
deflection deflection,
equals the the
soil designer
compression
Factors,
first multiplied
determines Dthe
by
F
the
for
D
the stiffness
amount factor. of compression
This
ranges of
bypasses in
metal pipes.the amount
Gaube of compression
[15, 16] in
extended the layer of soil
Watkins' in which
work the
by pipe
testingis installed
Fto using
include PE pipes. In
the layer
some of of soil
the in which
inherent the pipe
problems is installed
associated with using using conventional
E' values. geotechnical
The designer equations.
using the
order to conventional
predict deflection,geotechnicalthe equations.
designer Then,
first deflection
determines equals the soil
the amountcompression
of compression in
Then, deflection
Watkins-Gaube equals
Graph the soil compression multiplied by the D F factor. This bypasses
the layer multiplied
of soil in by theshould
which Dthe
F factor.select
pipe This
is conservative
bypasses
installed some
using soil
of the modulus
inherent
conventional values
problems to accommodate
associated
geotechnical equations.
some of the
variance due inherent
to installation. problemsTwo associated with using
otherE,factors E' values.
to consider The designer using the
Then,
Watkins-Gaube
with using
deflection equals
Graph
the soil reaction
the soilselect
should
modulus,
compression values. The
conservative multipliedsoil by thewhen
designer using
modulus Dthe using
Watkins-
F factor.
values
F to
this
This method
bypasses
accommodate
is
that
some it ofassumes
Gaube
the inherent a constant
Graph (Figure
problems Deformation
3-6) should Factor
select conservative
associated with using independent
soilE'modulus
values. ofThe
valuesdepth of cover
todesigner usingandthe it
variance
does not due
addressto installation.
accommodate the effect
variance of Two
the
due
other factors
presence
to installation. of
Two
to consider
ground water
other factors
when
on the
to consider
using
Deformation
when using
this method Factor. is
Watkins-Gaube
that it assumes Graph a constant shouldDeformation
select conservative Factor independentsoil modulusofvalues depthtoofaccommodate
cover and it
variance
does not address the effect of the presence of ground water on the using
due to installation. Two other factors to consider when Deformation this method Factor.is
To
thatuse the Watkins-Gaube
it assumes a constant Graph, Deformation the designer
Factor independentfirst determines of depththe relative
of cover stiffness
and it
does not pipe
between addressandthe soil,effect
which of is
thegiven
presenceby theofRigidityground Factor,
water on RFthe Deformation
. Equation 2-24Factor.
and 2-
To are
25 usefor theDRWatkins-Gaube
pipe and for profile Graph, pipethe designer first determines the relative stiffness
respectively:
between pipe and soil, which is given by the Rigidity Factor, RF. Equation 2-24
154-264.indd 229 andAM2-
1/16/09 9:57:15
to predict deflection, the designer first determines the amount of compression in
yer of soil in which the pipe is installed using conventional geotechnical equations.
deflection equals the soil compression multiplied by the DF factor. This bypasses
230 Chapter 6
of the inherent Design
problems
of PE Pipingassociated
Systems with using E' values. The designer using the
ns-Gaube Graph should select conservative soil modulus values to accommodate
ce due to installation. Two other factors to consider when using this method is
assumes a constant Deformation Factor independent of depth of cover and it
not address the effect of the presence of ground water on the Deformation Factor.
this method is that it assumes a constant Deformation Factor independent of depth
of cover and it does not address the effect of the presence of ground water on the
e the Watkins-Gaube Graph, the designer first determines the relative stiffness
Deformation Factor. 81
en pipe and soil, which is given by the Rigidity Factor, RF. Equation 2-24 and 2-
e for DR pipe and for the
To use profile pipe respectively:
Watkins-Gaube Graph, the designer first determines the relative stiffness
between pipe and soil, which 3 is given by the Rigidity Factor, R F. Equation 3-24 and
3-25 are for DRRpipe E D
= and for profile pipe respectively:
S m
Eq. 2-25
F
EI
(3-24) 12 E S ( DR 1) 3
RF = 81
Eq. 2-24
E
Where:
3
(3-25)
DR =RDimension E S D m Ratio
F= Eq. 2-25
ES = SecantEImodulus of the soil, psi
E = Apparent modulus of elasticity of pipe material, psi
IWhere
DR
wall moment of inertia of pipe, in4/in
= Pipe Ratio
Where: D
= Dimension
ESm= = Mean
Secant diameter
modulus (DI + 2z or DO t), in
of the soil, psi
DR = Dimension Ratioof elasticity of pipe material, psi
E = Apparent modulus
ES = Secant modulus of the
I = Pipe wall moment of inertia soil,
of pipe, in4psi
/in
ecant modulus
E = Apparentof the soil may
modulus
Dm = Mean diameter be
(DI + 2zof
obtained
or elasticity
DO t), in offrom
pipe testing or psi
material, from a geotechnical
eers evaluation.
I In lieu of a precise
= Pipe wall moment of inertia of pipe, in /in determination,4 the soil modulus may be
d to theDone-dimensional modulus, MS, D
m = Mean diameter (DI + 2z or
from Table 2-14 by the following equation
O t), in
e is the soil's Poisson
The secantratio.
modulus of the soil may be obtained from testing or from a geotechnical
engineers evaluation. In lieu of a precise determination, the soil modulus may
modulus of thebesoil
related
mayto the
beone-dimensional
obtained from modulus,
testingMSor
, from Table
from a 3-12 by the following
geotechnical
valuation. equation where is the soils Poisson ratio.
In lieu of a precise determination, the soil modulus may be
e one-dimensional
(3-26) modulus, M S, from
(1+ P )(1-Table
2 P ) 2-14 by the following equation
e soil's Poisson ratio.E S = M S Eq. 2-26
(1- P )
Table 3-13
Typical range of Poissons Ratio for Soil (Bowles(21))
Soil Type (1+ P )(1- 2 P )

Table 2-15: = M S range of Poissons Poissons
Typical
E S Saturated for Soil (Bowles
Ratio Ratio, [21])
Eq. 2-26
Clay (1- P ) 0.4-0.5
Soil Type Clay
Unsaturated Poisson
0.1-0.3 Ratio,
Sandy Clay 0.2-0.3
Silt 0.3-0.35
Saturated Clay 0.4-0.5
Sand (Dense) 0.2-0.4
Unsaturated
le 2-15: Typical range
Coarse Clay
Sand of Poissons
(Void Ratio 0.4-0.7) Ratio for 0.1-0.3
0.15 Soil (Bowles [21])
Fine-grained Sand (Void Ratio 0.4-0.7) 0.25
Sandy Clay
Soil Type 0.2-0.3
Poisson Ratio,
Silt 0.3-0.35
Saturated Clay 0.4-0.5
Sand (Dense) 0.2-0.4
Unsaturated Clay 0.1-0.3
Coarse Sand (Void Ratio 0.4-
0.15
Sandy Clay0.7) 0.2-0.3
Silt
Fine-grained Sand (Void Ratio 0.3-0.35
0.25
0.4-0.7)
Sand (Dense)
154-264.indd 230 0.2-0.4 1/16/09 9:57:16 AM
Chapter 6 231
82
soil layer surrounding the pipe bears the entire load of the overburden above it
out arching. Therefore, settlement (compression) of the soil layer is proportional to
prism load and Next,
not the
thedesigner
radial determines
directed earth pressure.Factor,
the Deformation SoilDF strain, S, may
, by entering be
the Watkins-
mined from geotechnical analysis or from the following equation:
Gaube Graph with the Rigidity Factor. See Fig. 3-6. The Deformation Factor is the
proportionality constant between vertical deflection (compression) of the soil layer
wH
S = containing the pipe and the deflection of the pipe. Thus, pipe deflection
Eq. 2-27 can be 82
ES
144obtained by multiplying the proportionality constant DF times the soil settlement.
Where:If DF is less than 1.0 in Fig. 3-6, use 1.0.
The soil The
layer surrounding thethepipe bearsthethe entire load of the overburden above it
w = soil
unitlayer
without arching.
surrounding
weight pcf pipe bears
of soil,settlement
Therefore,
entire load of the overburden above it
(compression) of thelayer
soilislayer is proportional to
without
H = arching.
depth of Therefore,
cover (heightsettlement
of fill (compression)
above pipe of the soil
crown), ft proportional
the prismto the
load andload
prism not
andthe
notof radial
the radialdirectedearth
earth pressure. Soil strain,
S, may be S, may be
Es =from
determined secant modulus
geotechnical the soil,directed
analysis psi
or from the
pressure.
following
Soil strain,
equation:
determined from geotechnical analysis or from the following equation: 82
(3-27)
designer can find
The the
wH the pipe as
Hpipe
soil layer
without arching.
deflection
surrounding a the
bears percent
entire loadof theoverburden
of the diameter aboveby it multiplying the
S = Therefore, settlement (compression) of the soil layer is proportional to Eq. 2-27
train, in percent, by the 144 E
deformation
the prism load and not the factor:
S radial directed earth pressure. Soil strain, , may be S
determined from geotechnical analysis or from the following equation:
Where Where: wH
HS = Eq. 2-27
w = unit weight144
ofEsoil, pcf
S
Where:
H = depth of cover (height of fill above pipe crown), ft
wH = weight
= unit depth ofpcfcover (height of fill above pipe crown), ft
of soil,
Es = secant modulus of theofsoil, psi(height of fill above pipe crown), ft
E =
H = depth
secant
cover
modulus of the soil, psi
E =ssecant modulus of the soil, psi
The designer can find the pipe deflection as a percent of the diameter by multiplying
Deformation Factor, DF
the soil strain, in percent, byasthe

The designer can find the pipe deflection deformation
a percent factor:
of the diameter by multiplying the
soil strain, in percent, by the deformation factor:
The designer can find the pipe deflection as a percent of the diameter by multiplying the
soil strain, in percent, by the deformation factor:
Factor, DDFF
DeformationFactor,
Deformation
Deformation Factor, DF
5 10 5 50
10 10050 100 500
500 10001000 5000 10,000 5000 10,000
R(RigidityRigidity
Factor) Factor, RF
R(Rigidity Factor) Rigidity Factor, R
Figure 2-6: Watkins-Gaube Graph
F
Rigidity
Figure 3-6 Watkins-Gaube
'X
Graph Factor, RF
Figure 2-6:
D
Watkins-Gaube
(100) = D H
M
Graph F S Eq. 2-28
(3-28) X
(100) = D
Where: X/DM multiplied
F S by 100 gives percent deflection. Eq. 2-28
DM
Where
Where:X/D
MX/D M multiplied
multiplied by 100 givesby 100deflection.
percent gives percent deflection.
5 10 50 100 500 1000 5000 10,000
R(Rigidity Factor)
Rigidity Factor, RF
Figure 2-6: Watkins-Gaube Graph
154-264.indd 231 'X 1/16/09 9:57:16 AM
the
ns deflection
Gaube of 12%
a 6" or
Calculation
containing SDRless11fines,
Technique pipecompacted
under 140 atft 90%
of fillofwith granular
standard embedment
proctor. The fill weighs 75
ining 12%
pcf. or less fines, compacted at 90% of standard proctor.
UTION: First, calculate the vertical soil pressure equation, Eq. 2-1. The fill weighs 75
the
ns deflection of a 6" SDR
232 Chapter 6
Gaube Calculation Technique
Design of PE Piping
11 pipe under 140 ft of fill with granular embedment
Systems
ining 12%
SOLUTION: Eq.fines,
or less 2-1:
First,Pcompacted
E = wH the
calculate at vertical
90% of soil standard
pressureproctor. The fill
equation, Eq.weighs
2-1. 75
UTION: First, calculate
PEa= 6" the
(75lb/ft vertical
3 soil pressure equation, Eq. 2-1.
the deflection of SDR )(140 11 pipe ft) under 140 ft of fill with granular embedment
Eq. 2-1: PE = wH
ining 12% or lessPE = fines, Pcompacted
10,500 2 at 90%psi of standard proctor. The fill weighs 75
Eq. 2-1: E =lb/ftwH or 72.9
UTION: First, calculate thePvertical E = (75lb/ft soil 3pressure
)(140 ft) equation, Eq. 2-1.
3 Application of the Watkins-Gaube Calculation Technique
P E = (75lb/ft
Example of the )(140 ft) 2
Eq. 2-1: P P
= E = 10,500 lb/ft or 72.9 psi
wH
Find the deflection
MS is obtained
UTION: P by interpolation
E = 10,500
First, calculate the E
lb/ftof aor
vertical
2 6 SDRTable
from 11 pipe 2-14
psi made
72.9pressure
soil from
andPE4710
equation, Eq.materials
equals 2700.under
2-1. The140secant
ft
lus can be foundof fill with granular embedment containing 12% or less fines, compacted at 90% of
PEassuming
= (75lb/ft a 3 Poisson
)(140 ft) Ratio of 0.30
The MS Eq.standard
is obtained proctor.=by The fill weighs 75 pcf.
2-1:2700PE psi (1 2interpolation
wH 0or.30 )(1 psi
2(0.30from)) Table 2-14 and equals 2700. The secant
obtainedP
MS is modulus E = 10,500
by interpolation
E S be found
can
SOLUTION:
lb/ft
3 assuming
First, from72.9 Table
calculate theavertical 2-14
Poisson and of
2005
soil Ratio
pressureequals
psi0.30 2700.
equation, Eq. 3-1. The secant
P E = (75lb/ft )(140 ( 1
lus can be found assuming a Poisson Ratio of 0.30 ft)
0 . 30 )
Eq. 3-1: PE = wH 2 2700 psi (1 0.30)(1 2(0.30))
MS is obtainedP E = interpolation
PEby
10,500
2700
= (75lb/ft psi
3)(140
lb/ft
Eft) or 72.9Table
S(1 0from
psi 2-14 and equals2005
.30)(1 2((10 .30
0.))30) 2005 psi
psi The secant
2700.
lus can be found E
PES=assuming
10,500 lb/ft 2 or a Poisson
72.9(1psi 0.30)Ratio of 0.30
Mgidity
S is factor
obtained by interpolation
is obtained 2700 1 0from
psi (Equation
from Table
.30)(12-24.
2(0.30 2-14
)) and equals 2700. The secant
lus can be found E Sassuming
The MS is obtained by interpolation from Table 3-12 and equals
a Poisson Ratio of 0.30 2005 psiThe secant modulus can be found
2700.
assuming a Poissons Ratio (1 of 0.30.
03.30)
12 (2005) (11 1)
The rigidity
R F factor
= 2700 is psi
obtained
(1 + 0.30from )(1852Equation
= 2(0.30)) 2-24.
ES =
gidity factor is obtained 28250
from Equation 2-24. 3 = 2005 psi
(112
(0200
.30)5) (11 1)
12 (2005R)F(11 = 1) 3 = 852
RF = 28250
= 8 52
gidity factor is obtained from Equation 2-24.
Figure 2-6, the deformation 28250
The rigidity factor is obtained from Equation 3-24.
factor is found to be 1.2. The soil strain is calculated
3
uation 2-27. 12 (2005) (11 1)
gidity Using
factor is RF = = 830
82-24.
52
Figure 2-6, from
obtained the
28250
29,000 Equation
deformation factor is found to be 1.2. The soil strain is calculated
Figureby2-6,
Equation 75pcf * 140ft
the deformation
2-27. factor 3is found to be 1.2. The soil strain is calculated
12 (2005) (11 1)x 100 = 3.6%
HRS ==Figure
uation 2-27. Using F lbs value=of8the
3-6, the average 52deformation factor is found to be 1.2. The soil strain is calculated by
Equation144
3-27. 28250
* 200 5 75pcf 2 * 140ftto be 1.2. The soil strain is calculated
Figure 2-6, the deformation inch is found
factor
= x 100 = 3.6%
75pcf *H S140ft lbs
uation 2-27. H S = 144 x 100
* 200 =
5 3.6%
lbs inch
2
144 * 2005factor
Figure 2-6, the deformation 2 is found to be 1.2. The soil strain is calculated
75pcf * 140ft inch
uation 2-27. H S = x 100 = 3.6%
eflection is found by144 multiplying lbsthe soil strain by the deformation factor:
The deflection*is200
found5 by multiplying
2 the soil strain by the deformation factor:
75pcf * 140ft inch
=
'SX is found by multiplying
The deflection 100 = 3.6%
(100) = 1.2* lbs3.6 = 4.4% the soil strain by the deformation factor:
eflection is foundD Mby144 * 2005 the
multiplying 2 soil strain by the deformation factor:
'Xinch
'X (100) = 1.2* 3.6 = 4.4%
Moore-Selig
eflection is found by
(100) =Equation
multiplyingD1.2*
M 3.6
for Constrained Buckling in Dry Ground
the soil
= strain by the deformation factor:
4.4%
As
DM discussed previously, a compressive thrust stress exists in buried pipe. When this
thrust
'X stress approaches a critical value, the pipe can experience a local instability
eflection is found by multiplying
(100)
or large = 1.2* 3.6
deformation the collapse.
and soil4.4%
= strain
In anby the section
earlier deformation factor:Luschers
of this chapter,
D
equation was given for constrained buckling under ground water. Moore and Selig(17)
M
X used an alternate approach called the continuum theory to develop design

have (100) = 1.2* 3.6 = 4.4%
equations
DM for contrained buckling due to soil pressure (buckling of embedded pipes).
The particular version of their equations given below is more appropriate for dry
applications than Luschers equation. Where ground water is present, Luschers
equation should be used.
154-264.indd 232 1/16/09 9:57:18 AM

quation. Where ground water is present, Luschers equation should be
Chapter 6 233
Selig Equation for critical buckling pressure follows: (Critical buckling

the pressure at which buckling will occur. A safety factor should be
The Moore-Selig Equation for critical buckling pressure follows: (Critical buckling
pressure is the pressure at which buckling will occur. A safety factor should be
provided.)
(3-29) 2.4 M R H 1 2
PCR = (EI )3 ( E*S )3 Eq. 2-29
DM
Where
Where: PCR = Critical constrained buckling pressure, psi
= Calibration Factor, 0.55 for granular soils
PCR = Critical constrained
R H = Geometry Factor buckling pressure, psi
= Calibration
E = Apparent modulus of elasticityfor
Factor, 0.55 granular
of pipe material, psisoils
RH = Geometry Factor
I = Pipe wall moment 4 3
of Inertia, in /in (t /12, if solid wall construction)
E = Apparent
ES* = ES /(1-modulus
) of elasticity of pipe material, psi
4 3
I = SPipe wall moment
E = Secant modulus of the soil, psi of Inertia, in /in (t /12, if solid wall
s = Poissons Ratio of Soil (Consult a textbook on soil for values. Bowles (1982) gives typical values
construction)
for sand and rock ranging from 0.1 to 0.4.)
ES* = EThe
S/(1-)
geometry factor is dependent on the depth of burial and the relative stiffness
ES = Secant modulus of the soil, psi
between the embedment soil and the insitu soil. Moore has shown that for deep 85
s = Poisson's Ratio of
burials in uniform Soil
fills, RH equals 1.0.
SOLUTION: Critical Buckling Example 85

ry factor is dependent on the depth of burial and the relative stiffness 85
Determine the critical buckling pressure and safety factor against buckling for the
embedment soil *and the2000 lbs
insitu soil. Moore has shown that for deep burials
SOLUTION: 6 E = 11 pipe (5.987
SSDR = 2860
mean diameter) in the previous example.
s,SOLUTION:
RH equals 1.0. (1- 0.3) inch
2
SOLUTION:
2000 lbs
E **S = 2000 = 2860 lbs 2
= (1- 0.3) = 2860 inch
ling Example E S 2.4*
(1- 0.3)0.55* 1.0 (28250*
inch
2 1 2 lbs
PCR = 0.018 )3 (2860 )3 = 354
5.987 inch
2
2.4* 0.55*
he critical buckling pressure and1.0
safety factor against
1 buckling
2 forlbsthe 6"
P CR = 2.4* 0.55* 1.0 (28250*
(29000 0.018 )31 (2860 )32 = 358 354 lbs2 2
in the previous example. 5.987 (28250* 0.018 )3 (2860 )3 = 354 inch in
CR =against buckling:
Determine thePS.F. 5.987 inch
2
Determine the Safety Factor against buckling:

Determine the S.F. against buckling:
354*
358 144
Determine theS.F. PCR buckling:
S.F. =against = = 4.9
PE 140*75
PCR 354* 144
S.F. =
Installation
= 354* 144
P E Category = 4.9
#4: Shallow Cover Flotation Effects
S.F. = PCR = 140*75 = 4.9
Shallow cover 140*75
P E presents some special considerations for flexible pipes. As already
discussed, full soil structure interaction (membrane effect) may not occur, and live
loads are carried in part by the bending stiffness of the pipe. Even if the pipe has
sufficient strength to carry live load, the cover depth may not be sufficient to prevent
Installation Category # 4: Shallow Cover Flotation Effects
Shallow cover
Installation presents
Category # 4:some special
Shallow considerations
Cover for flexible pipes. As already
Flotation Effects
discussed, full # 4: Shallow
soil structure Cover
interaction Flotation
(membrane Effects
effect) may not occur, and live loads
154-264.indd 233 1/27/09 11:20:22 AM
234 Chapter 6
the pipe from floating upward or buckling if the ground becomes saturated with
ground water. This section addresses:
Minimum soil cover requirements to prevent flotation

Hydrostatic buckling (unconstrained)
Design Considerations for Ground Water Flotation

High ground water can float buried pipe, causing upward movement off-grade as
well as catastrophic upheaval. This is not an issue for plastic pipes alone. Flotation of
metal or concrete pipes may occur at shallow cover when the pipes are empty. 86
Flotation occurs when the ground water surrounding the pipe produces a buoyant
upport around the
forcepipe and
greater thanallow theof pipe
the sum to buckle
the downward from
forces the external
provided by the soilhydrostatic
weight,
ure. soil friction, the weight of the pipe, and the weight of its contents. In addition to
the disruption occurring due to off-grade movements, flotation may also cause
ion is generallysignificant
not a designreduction of soil support around the pipe and allow the pipe to buckle
consideration for buried pipe where the pipeline runs
from the external hydrostatic pressure.
nearly full of liquid or where ground water is always below the pipe invert. Where
conditions are Flotation
not met,is generally
a quick not "rule of thumb"
a design is thatforpipe
consideration buried
buried in soil
pipe where thehaving
pipeline a
3
ated unit weightrunsof at
fullleast 120fulllb/ft
or nearly withorat
of liquid least
where 1 pipe
ground diameters
water is of the
always below cover
pipe will
oat. However, ifinvert.
burial is inthese
Where lighter weight
conditions aresoils orawith
not met, quicklesser
rule of cover,
thumb ground water
is that pipe
on should be checked.
buried in soil having a saturated unit weight of at least 120 lb/ft3 with at least 1
pipe diameters of cover will not float. However, if burial is in lighter weight soils or
with lesser cover, ground water flotation should be checked.
ematically the relationship between the buoyant force and the downward forces is
in Equation 2-30. Refer to Figure
Mathematically 2-7. For
the relationship an empty
between pipe,force
the buoyant flotation will
and the occur if
downward
forces is given in Equation 3-30. Refer to Figure 3-7. For an empty pipe, flotation will
occur if:
(3-30) F B > W P + W S + W D + WL Eq. 2-30
Where
Where:FB = buoyant force, lb/ft of pipe
WP = pipe weight, lb/ft of pipe
FWBS ==weight
buoyant
of saturatedforce,
soil abovelb/ft
pipe,oflb/ftpipe
of pipe
WWDP==weight
pipe
of dryweight, lb/ftlb/ft
soil above pipe, of ofpipe
pipe
WWLS== weight
weight of liquid of saturated
contents, soil above pipe, lb/ft of pipe
lb/ft of pipe
WD = weight of dry soil above pipe, lb/ft of pipe
WL = weight of liquid contents, lb/ft of pipe
154-264.indd 234 1/16/09 9:57:19 AM

FB = buoyant force, lb/ft of pipe
WS = weight of saturated soil above pipe, lb/ftDesign
of ofpipe
PE Piping Systems
Chapter 6 235

87
87
87
gure 2-7: Schematic of Ground Water Flotation Forces
Figure 3-7 Schematic of Ground Water Flotation Forces
SS 22
For a 1 ft length of pipe running
==
ZZGG and
FFB B empty ddOO Eq.
Eq.2-31
2-31
44 submerged, the upward buoyant force is:
(3-31) 2
F B = G dO Eq. 2-31
4
Where:
Where:
of pipe totally submerged, the upward buoyant force is:
Where
dO = pipe outsideddOO== pipe pipeoutside
outsidediameter,
diameter,ftft
Where: diameter, ft
GG=of=ground
G = specific weight specific
specific
water weight
weightofofground groundwaterwater
33
dO = pipe outside diameter,
(fresh
(fresh
(fresh water = 62.4 lb/ft 3) water
water ft
= =62.4
62.4 lb/ft
lb/ft ) )
G = specific
(sea water =weight
64.0(sea
(sea
lb/ft 3) of ground
water
water ==64.0 water
64.0 lb/ft3)3)
lb/ft
(fresh water = 62.4 lb/ft3)
(sea water = 64.0 lb/ft3)
The
Theaverage
average
The pipe
pipeweight,
average weight,
pipe weight, WWPPinWinPlbs/ft
lbs/ft
in may
may
lbs/ft maybe be
be obtained
obtained
obtained from
fromfrom manufacturers
manufacturersliterature
manufacturers literatureoror
from
fromEquationliterature
Equation 2-32.or from Equation 3-32 or from the Table of Weights in the Appendix to
2-32.
pipe weight, Wthis P Chapter.
in lbs/ft This calculation
may be obtained is based
from on the use of a pipe material
manufacturers density
literature orof
n 2-32. 0.955 gm/cc.
(3-32)
2 2(1 .06 DR
(1.06 DR11.12 .12) )
WWP P SSddOO 22
5959.6.6 Eq.
Eq.2-32
2-32
DR
DR
2 (1.06 DR 1.12 )
W P = d O 59.6 Eq. 2-32
DR 2
Equation
Equation2-33
2-33gives
givesthe
theweight
weightofofsoil
soilper
perlineal
linealfoot
footofofpipe.
pipe.
3 gives the weight of soil per lineal foot of pipe.

154-264.indd 235
== (H (H- - ) ) Eq.
Eq.2-33
2-33
1/27/09 11:22:42 AM
(1.06 DR 1.12)
WP Sd O 2 59.6 Eq. 2-32
DR 2
236 Chapter 6
88
ion 2-33 gives the weight of soil per lineal foot of pipe.
Table 2-16: Saturated and Dry Soil Unit Weight
Equation 3-33 gives the weight of soil per lineal foot of pipe.
Unit Weight, lb/ft3
(3-33) W D = Z d (H - H S ) d O Eq. 2-33
88
Soil Type
Saturated Dry
Where
Where: d = unit
nds & Gravel 118-150
weight of dry soil, pcf (See Table 3-14 for typical values.) 93-144
Table 2-16: Saturated and Dry Soil Unit Weight
lts & Clays HdS ==levelunit weight
of ground 87-131
water of dry
saturation soil,ft pcfUnit
above pipe, (See Table
37-112
Weight, 2-16
lb/ft3 for typical
values.)
Glacial Till Soil Type 131-150 106-144
H = depth of cover, ft Saturated Dry
Table 3-14
S&=Gravel
HSaturated
Sands level of ground water118-150
and Dry Soil Unit Weight
saturation above pipe, ft 93-144
ushed Rock 119-137 94-125
Unit Weight, lb/ft3
Silts & Clays
nic Silts & Clay 81-112 87-131 37-112
Dry, the weight of31-94
Soil Type Saturated, unit weight of saturated soil above the
Glacial Till ground water, pcf 131-150
pipe, lbs per foot of pipe 106-144
S d
Crushed Rock
Sands & Gravel 118-150 119-137 93-144 94-125
Silts & Clays2 87-131 37-112
Organic
d (4 - S )
Silts & Till
Clay

W = ( Z - Z ) d O H S 81-112
+131-150 Eq.31-94
O
S S
Glacial
G
106-144 2-34
8
Crushed Rock 119-137
94-125
Organic Silts & 81-112 31-94
Clay
Where: S = saturated unit weight of soil, pcf

(3-34) d O 2 (4 - )
W S = ( S - G ) + d O H S Eq. 2-34
8
ea is submerged, the soil particles are buoyed by their immersion in the
weight of submerged soil, (S G), is the soil's saturated
r. The effectiveWhere

less the densityS =ofsaturated
Where:
the unit S =water.
saturated
weight of soil, pcf
ground Forunit weight ofa soil,
example, soil pcfof 120 pcf
nit weight has anWhen an area is
effective submerged,
weight of 57.6 the soil
pcfparticles
when are buoyed by their
completely immersion
immersed in in
the
62.4 = 57.6 pcf). ground water. The effective weight of submerged soil, (W S W G), is the soils
When an areasaturated unit weight less the density of the ground water. For example, a soil of
is submerged, the soil particles are buoyed by their immersion in the
120 pcf saturated unit weight has an effective weight of 57.6 pcf when completely
ground water. The effective weight
35 gives the weight per lineal foot of the of liquid
submerged
in a fullsoil, (S G), is the soil's saturated
pipe.
immersed in water (120 - 62.4 = 57.6 pcf).
unit weight less the density of the ground water. For example, a soil of 120 pcf
saturated unit Equation
weight 3-35hasgives
an effective
the weight weight
per linealof 57.6
foot pcf
of the when
liquid in a completely
full pipe. immersed in
water (120 - 62.4
(3-35)= 57.6 pcf). S d '2
W L = ZL Eq. 2-35
4
Equation 2-35 gives the weight per lineal foot of the liquid in a full pipe.
Where
Where:WL = weight of the liquid in the pipe, lb/ft
L = unit weight of liquid in the pipe, pcf
WL = weight of the the
d ' pipe, lb/ft
2
Wliquid
L = L
in Eq. 2-35
L = unit weight of liquid in4 the pipe, pcf
Where:
ll, the liquid weight is
WL = weight of the liquid in the pipe, lb/ft
154-264.indd 236
= unit weight of liquid in the pipe, pcf 1/27/09 11:26:22 AM
Chapter 6 237
89
S d '2 89 89
W L = ZL Eq. 2-36
8
and if half-full, the liquid weight is
S d' 2 2
W L = ZL d '
(3-36)
Eq. 2-36
WL =
Where
L 8 Eq. 2-36
L =8 unit weight of the liquid in the pipe, lb/ft3
Where d = pipe inside diameter, ft
Where
L =of the
L = unit weight unit weight
in theofpipe,
thelb/ft
liquid in the pipe, lb/ft3
Where liquid
d = pipe inside diameter, ft
3
For liquid levels between

d = pipe empty ftand half-full (0% to 50%), or between half-full and full
inside diameter,
3
(50% to 100%), the L = unit
following weight
formulas of the
provide an liquid in the
approximate pipe,
liquid lb/ftwith
weight an
For
accuracy of about liquid
+10%.
d levels
= between
Please
pipe refer empty
to
inside and
Figure half-full
2-8.
diameter, ft (0% to 50%),
For liquid levels between empty and half-full (0% to 50%), or between half-full and full or between half-full and
(50% to 100%),full the(50% to 100%),
following the following
formulas provide anformulas provide
approximate liquidanweight
approximate
with an liquid weight
accuracy of about +10%.
with Please refer
an accuracy to Figure
of about 2-8.
10%. Please refer to Figure 3-8.
quid levels between empty and half-full (0% to 50%), or between half-full and full
to 100%), the following formulas provide an approximate liquid weight with an
acy of about +10%. Please refer to Figure 2-8.
Figure 2-8: Flotation and Internal Liquid Levels

Figure 2-8: Flotation and Internal Liquid Levels
Figure 3-8 Flotation and Internal Liquid Levels
For a liquid level between empty and half-full, the weight of the liquid in the pipe is
approximately For a liquid level between empty and half-full, the weight of the liquid in the pipe is
For a liquid level between empty and half-full, the weight of the liquid in the pipe is
approximately approximately
(3-37) 3
4 hl d ' - hl
W L = Z L3 + 0.392 Eq. 2-37
4 hl 3d ' - hl hl
W L = ZL + 0.392 Eq. 2-37
3 hl
Figure
Where2-8:
Where:Flotation andinInternal
hl = liquid level pipe, ft Liquid Levels
hl = liquid level in pipe, ft
Where: hl = liquid level in pipe, ft
For a liquid level between half-full and full, the weight of the liquid in the pipe is 90
For a liquid level between half-full and full, the weight of the liquid in the pipe is
Forapproximately
a liquid level between half-full and full, the weight of the liquid in the pipe is
approximately approximately
liquid level between empty and half-full, the weight of the liquid in the pipe is
ximately (3-38) Sd ' 2
W L Z L
= - 1.573 he Eq. 2-38
4
3
Where:4 hhle = d '-h
- hl l
W L = L + 0.392 Eq. 2-37
3 hl
nstrained Pipe Wall Buckling (Hydrostatic Buckling)

Where: hl = liquid level in pipe, ft
equation for buckling given in this section is here to provide assistance when
ning shallow cover applications. However, it may be used to calculate the buckling
liquid
ance level
abovebetween
of154-264.indd half-full
grade pipes
237 and full,
subject the weight
to external of the liquid
air pressure due in
to the pipe is
an internal
1/27/09 11:32:44 AM
d ' 2
W L = L - 1.573 he Eq. 2-38
4
238 Chapter 6
Design of PE Piping Systems 90
Where: he = d '-hl
Sd ' 2
nstrained Pipe = Z L Buckling
W L Wall - 1.573 he
(Hydrostatic Buckling) Eq. 2-38
4
Where
equation for buckling
Where: he = d '-hgiven
l
in this section is here to provide assistance when
ning shallow cover applications. However, it may be used to calculate the buckling
ance of above grade pipes subject to external air pressure due to an internal
dm, for Wall
Pipe submerged pipes
Unconstrained
Buckling in lakes or ponds,
Pipe Wall
(Hydrostatic Bucklingand
Buckling) for pipesBuckling)
(Hydrostatic placed in casings without
encasement. The equation for buckling given in this section is here to provide assistance when
designing shallow cover applications. However, it may be used to calculate the
for buckling given in this section is here to provide assistance when
nstrained buckling resistance of above grade pipes subject to external air pressure ordue to an
low coverpipe are
applications.pipes that are
However, not
it may constrained
be used tobycalculate
soil embedment
the buckling concrete
ement. internal
Abovepipesground vacuum, for
pipestoare submerged pipes
unconstrained, in lakes or
as areponds,
pipesand for
placedpipes placed in
in a casing
above grade subject external air pressure due to an internal
o grouting.pipes casings
Buried without
pipe or may grout encasement.
be considered essentially
ubmerged in lakes ponds, and for pipes placed inunconstrained
casings without where the
unding soil does
ment. not significantly
Unconstrained pipe are pipes increase its constrained
that are not buckling byresistance
soil embedment beyond its
or concrete
strained strength. This can happen where the depth of cover
encasement. Above ground pipes are unconstrained, as are pipes placed in a casing is insufficient to
nt the pipe fromprior floating slightly
to grouting. upward
Buried pipe mayandbebreaking
consideredcontact
essentially with the embedment
unconstrained where
d pipe are pipes that are not constrained by soil embedment or concrete
its springline.theGround
surrounding water,
soil does flooding, or vacuum
not significantly increase itscan cause
buckling buckling
resistance beyondof
Above ground pipes are unconstrained, as are pipes placed in a casing
strained pipe. its unconstrained strength. This can happen where the depth of cover is insufficient
ng. Buried pipe may be considered essentially unconstrained where the
to prevent the pipe from floating slightly upward and breaking contact with the
oil does not significantly increase its buckling resistance beyond its
embedment below its springline. Ground water, flooding, or vacuum can cause
cial case of This
strength. unconstrained
can happen buckling
wherereferred
the depth to as of "upward" buckling may
cover is insufficient to happen
buckling of unconstrained pipe.
allow buried pipe. Upward buckling occurs when
pe from floating slightly upward and breaking contact with the embedment lateral pressure due to ground
or vacuum
ingline. pushes
Ground A specialthecase
water, sides of the or
of unconstrained
flooding, pipe inwardreferred
buckling
vacuum while
can cause forcing the pipe
to as upward
buckling crown
of mayand
buckling
oilpipe.
above it upward.
happen (Collapse lookspipe.
for shallow buried likeUpward
pipe deflection
buckling occurs rotated
when 90 degrees.)
lateral pressure A
s susceptible todue upward
to ground buckling where pushes
water or vacuum the cover depth
the sides of theispipe
insufficient
inward while to forcing
restrain
d crown movement. It hasand
the pipe crown been suggested
the soil that a(Collapse
above it upward. minimum lookscover
like pipeof deflection
four feet is
e of unconstrained buckling referred to as "upward" buckling may happen
ed before soil rotated
support contributes
90 degrees.) A pipeto averting to
is susceptible upward
upward buckling;
buckling where however,
the coverlarger
depth
ried pipe. Upward buckling
is insufficient
occurs
to restrain
when lateral pressure due to ground
ter pipe may require as much as a upward
diameter crown
and movement.
a half toItdevelop
has been suggested
full support.that a
um pushes the minimum sides ofcover the pipe inward while forcing the pipe crown and
of four feet is required before soil support contributes to averting
it upward. (Collapse looks like pipe deflection rotated 90 degrees.) A
upward buckling; however, larger diameter pipe may require as much as a diameter
nservative design
ptible to upward for shallow
buckling where cover buckling
the cover depth is to assume notosoil
is insufficient support, and
restrain
and a half to develop full support.
nmovement.
the pipe using It has been suggested that a minimum cover of four feet isof this, a
the unconstrained pipe wall buckling equation. In lieu
ete
e soilcap,support
sufficient to resist design
Acontributes
conservative upward
to deflection,
for shallow
averting may
cover buckling
upward also
buckling; is tobe placed
assume
however, no soilover the and
support,
larger pipe
hen the pipe may to be
designdesigned
the pipe using
using Luscher's
the unconstrained
may require as much as a diameter and a half to develop full support. equation
pipe wall for constrained
buckling equation. buckling.
In lieu of
this, a concrete cap, sufficient to resist upward deflection, may also be placed over
the pipe and then the pipe may be designed using Luschers equation for constrained
eions 2-39 for
design andshallow
2-40 give
buckling.
the buckling
cover allowableisunconstrained
to assume nopipe soilwall buckling
support, andpressure
Repipe
usingand profile
the pipe, respectively.
unconstrained pipe wall buckling equation. In lieu of this, a
Equations 3-39 and 3-40 give the
sufficient to resist upward deflection, mayallowable unconstrained
also be pipe wall
placed over the buckling
pipe
pressure for DR pipe and profile pipe, respectively.
ipe may be designed using Luscher's equation for constrained buckling.
(3-39) 3
f O 2E 1
WU = Eq. 2-39
9 and 2-40 give thePallowable
N S (1unconstrained
- 2 ) DR - 1 pipe wall buckling pressure
nd profile pipe, respectively.
3
f O 2E 1
PWU = Eq. 2-39
N S (1 - P 2 ) DR - 1
154-264.indd 238 1/16/09 9:57:22 AM

fO 24EI
PWU = Eq. 2-40
N S (1 - P 2 ) D3M
Chapter 6 239 91
Where:
PWU = allowable unconstrained pipe wall buckling pressure, psi
DR
(3-40)= Dimension fO 24EI
Ratio
PWU = Eq. 2-40
E = apparent N S (1modulus
- 2 ) D3M of elasticity of pipe material, psi
fO = Ovality Correction Factor, Figure 2-9
NWhere
S = safety factor
IPWU ==allowable
Pipe unconstrained
wall moment ofbuckling
pipe wall inertia, in4/in
pressure, psi
DR = =
Where: Poisson's
Dimension Ratio ratio
DM = Mean diameter, (DI + 2z or DO -t), in
WU = allowable
Factor, Figureunconstrained pipe wall buckling pressure, psi
= P
DfOI = Ovality Correction
pipe inside diameter, 3-9
in
NS = safetyDR =
factor
Dimension Ratio
z = wall-section centroidal distance from inner fiber of pipe, in
I = Pipe wall moment of inertia, in4/in
= Poissons ratio
DM = Mean diameter, (DI + 2z or DO -t), in
ugh buckling occurs NS = safety factor
DI = piperapidly, long-term
inside diameter, in external pressure can 4 gradually deform the
I = Pipe wall moment of inertia, in /in
o the point of zinstability. This distance
= wall-section centroidal behavior is fiber
from inner considered viscoelastic
of pipe, in (obtain and can be
from pipe producer)
= Poisson's ratio
nted for in EquationsD2-39 and 2-40 by using the apparent modulus of elasticity
M = Mean diameter, (DI + 2z or DO -t), in
Although
for the appropriate time buckling
and occurs rapidly, long-term
temperature external pressure
of theinspecific can gradually
application deform
as given in
DI = pipe inside diameter,
the pipe to the point of instability. This behavior is considered viscoelastic and
2-6. For Poisson's zratio, = designers
wall-section typically
centroidal usedistance
a valuefrom of 0.45
innerforfiber
long-term
of pipe, in
can be accounted for in Equations 3-39 and 3-40 by using the apparent modulus of
g on polyethylene pipe, and 0.35 for short-term loading.
elasticity value for the appropriate time and temperature of the specific application
as given in the Appendix, Chapter 3. For Poissons ratio, use a value of 0.45 for all PE
yAlthough
or deflection of the
buckling pipe rapidly,
occurs diameterlong-term
increasesexternal
the local radius of
pressure cancurvature
graduallyofdeform
the the
pipe materials.
wall and thus reduces buckling resistance. Ovality is typically reported as the
pipe to the point of orinstability. This behavior is considered viscoelastic and can be
ntage reductionOvality deflection ofor:
in pipe diameter the pipe diameter increases the local radius of curvature of
accounted for the
in pipe
Equations
wall and 2-39 and 2-40
thus reduces by resistance.
buckling using theOvality
apparent modulus
is typically ofaselasticity
reported
value for the appropriate time andin temperature
the percentage reduction pipe diameter or:of the specific application as given in
Table 2-6. For Poisson's
(3-41) ratio, designers typically use a value of 0.45 for long-term
DI - D MIN
loading on polyethylene pipe, andN0.35
%DEFLECTIO = 100for
short-term loading. Eq. 2-41
D I
Ovality or deflection of the pipe diameter increases the local radius of curvature of the
Where:
pipe wall and Where
thus reduces buckling resistance. Ovality is typically reported as the
DI = pipe inside diameter, in
percentage reductionDin I pipe= pipe inside or:
diameter diameter, in
DMIN = pipe minimum inside diameter, in
D - D MIN
%DEFLECTION = 100 I Eq. 2-41
DI
Where:
DI = pipe inside diameter, in
154-264.indd 239 1/16/09 9:57:22 AM

240 Chapter 6
92
Figur
e 2-9:
Ovalit
y
Com
pens
ation
Facto
r, 0
The
desig
ner should compare the critical buckling pressure with the actual anticipated pressure,
3-9 Ovality Compensation Factor,
and apply Figure
a safety factor commensurate with their assessment of the application. A
safety factor of 2.5 is common, but specific circumstances may warrant a higher or
lower safety
Thefactor.
designerFor large-diameter
should compare thesubmerged pipe,
critical buckling the anticipated
pressure pressure may
with the actual
be conservatively calculated by determining the height of water from the pipe invert
anticipated pressure, and apply a safety factor commensurate with their assessment
rather than from the pipe crown.
of the application. A safety factor of 2.5 is common, but specific circumstances may
warrant a higher or lower safety factor. For large-diameter submerged pipe, the
anticipated pressure may be conservatively calculated by determining the height of
Ground Water Flotation Example
water from the pipe invert rather than from the pipe crown.
Find the allowable flood Flotation

Ground Water water level above a 10" DR 26 HDPE pipe installed with only 2
Example
ft of cover. Assume the pipe has 3 percent ovality due to shipping, handling, and
installationFind the allowable flood water level above a 10 DR 26 PE4710 pipe installed with
loads.
only 2 ft of cover. Assume the pipe has 3 percent ovality due to shipping, handling,
and installation loads.
SOLUTION: SOLUTION: Use Equation

Use Equation 2-39. 3-39.
TheThe pipe
pipe wallbuckling
wall bucklingpressure
pressure depends
dependsupon thethe
upon
duration of the water level above the pipe. If the water level is constant, then a along-
duration of the water level above the pipe. If the water level is long lasting, then
term valuelong-term value relaxation
of the stress of the stressmodulus
relaxationshould
modulusbeshould
used, be
butused, butwater
if the if the level
water rises
only occasionally, a only
level rises shorter term elastic
occasionally, modulus
a shorter termmay bemodulus
elastic applied.may be applied.
Case (a): For the long lasting water above the pipe, the stress relaxation modulus at
50 year, 73F is approximately 29,000 lb/in2 for a typical PE4710 material. Assuming
Case (a): 3%
Forovality
the constant water above 93
(fO equals 0.76) and a 2.52the
to 1pipe,
safetythe stress
factor, relaxationlong-term
the allowable modulus at 50
year, 73Fpressure,
is approximately 28,200
PWU is given by: lb/in for a typical P3408 material. Assuming 3%
ovality (fO equals 0.76) and a 2.5 to 1 safety factor, the allowable long-term pressure,
3
PWU is given by: (0.76) 2 (28,200)
(29,000) 1
PWU = =1.4
1.4 psi 3.2 ftft-hd)
psig= (3.2 Hd
2.5 (1 - 0.452 ) 26 - 1
Case (b): Flooding conditions are occasional happenings, usually lasting a few days to
a week or so. However, ground water elevations may remain high for several weeks
following a flood.
154-264.indd 240 The 1000 hour (41.6 days) elastic modulus value has been used to AM
1/16/09 9:57:22
3
(0.76) 2 (28,200) 1
PWU = = 1.4 psi = 3.2 ft Hd
2.5 (1 - 0.452 ) 26 - 1 Chapter 6 241
Case (b): Flooding conditions are occasional happenings, usually lasting a few days to
a week or so. However, ground water elevations may remain high for several weeks
following a flood. The
Case (b): 1000 conditions
Flooding hour (41.6 days) elastic
are occasional modulus
happenings, value
usually lastinghas been
a few days used to
approximate theto a expected
week or so. flood duration.
However, ground water elevations may remain high for several
weeks following a flood. The 1000 hour elastic modulus value has been used to
approximate the expected flood duration.
3
(0.76) 2(43,700)
(46,000) 1
PWU = = 2.2
2.1 psi = 45.2 ft (ofHd
.9 ft. head)
2.5 (1 - 0.452 ) 26 - 1
SECTION 3: THERMAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Like most materials, polyethylene is affected by changing temperature. Unrestrained,
154-264.indd 241 1/16/09 9:57:23 AM

242 Chapter 6
Section 4
Thermal Design Considerations
Introduction
Similar to all thermoplastics, the engineering behavior of PE can be significantly
affected by temperature. An increase in temperature causes a decrease in strength
and in apparent modulus. A decrease in temperature results in opposite effects. For
effective pipeline design these effects must be adequately recognized.
In the case of pressure pipe the highest operating temperature is limited by the
practical consideration of retaining sufficient long-term strength or maintaining
the pressure rating that is sufficient for the intended application. That maximum
temperature is generally 140F (60C). De-rating factors for up to 140F
are presented in the Appendix to Chapter 3. If higher temperatures are being
considered, the pipe supplier should be consulted for additional information.
In the case of buried applications of non-pressure pipe, in which the embedment

material provides a significant support against pipe deformation, the highest
operating temperature can be higher sometimes, as high 180F (~82C). The
temperature re-rating factors for apparent modulus of elasticity, which are
presented in the Appendix, Chapter 3, can be used for the re-rating of a pipes
73F pipe stiffness for any other temperature between -20 to 140F (-29 to 60C).
For temperatures above 140F the effect is more material dependent and the pipe
supplier should be consulted.
A beneficial feature of PE pipe is that it retains much of its toughness even at low
temperatures. It can be safely handled, installed and operated even in sub-freezing
conditions. The formation of ice in the pipe will restrict or, stop flow but not cause
pipe breakage. Although under sub-freezing conditions PE pipe is somewhat less
tough it is still much tougher that most other pipe materials.
Strength and Stress/Strain Behavior

As discussed earlier in this Handbook, the engineering properties of PE material are
affected by the magnitude of a load, the duration of loading, the environment and
the operating temperature. And, also as discussed earlier, the standard convention
is to report the engineering properties of PE piping materials based on a standard
environment which is water and, a standard temperature which is 73F (23C).
A design for a condition that departs from this convention requires that an
appropriate accommodation be made. This Section addresses the issue of the effect
of a different temperature than that of the base temperature.
154-264.indd 242 1/16/09 9:57:23 AM

Chapter 6 243
To properly consider the affect of temperature on strength and, on stress/strain

properties this must be done based on actually observed long-term strength behavior.
Tables which are presented in an Appendix to Chapter 3, list temperature adjustment
factors that have been determined based on long-term evaluations.
Thermal Expansion/Contraction Effects

Fused PE pipe joints are fully restrained. The pipe and the fused joints can easily
accommodate the stress induced by changes in temperature. In general thrust
restraints and mechanical expansion joints are not required in a fully fused PE piping
system. However, thrust restraint may be necessary where PE pipe is connection to
other bell and spigot end pipe. Design for this condition is addressed later in this
chapter and in PPIs TN-36.
Because the coefficient of thermal expansion for PE is significantly larger than that
of non-plastics, considerations relating to the potential effects of thermal expansion/
contraction may include:
Piping that is installed when it is warm may cool sufficiently after94

installation to
generate significant tensile forces. Thus, the final connection should be made after
the pipe has equilibrated to its operating temperature.
experience greater expansion and contraction than many other
Unrestrained
ncreasing or decreasing pipe may shrink
(respectively) enough so that itHowever,
temperatures. pulls out fromitsalow
mechanical joint
that does not provide sufficient pull-out resistance.
eases the challenge of arresting this movement, and very often end Methods used to connect PE
pipe should
employed to eliminate the provide
effectsrestraint against pull-out
of temperature that is either inherent to the joint
changes.
design or additional mechanical restraint. See Chapter 9. (Note specially designed
thrust blocks may be needed to restrain movement when mechanical joints are in
e can be installed
lineand
withoperated
PE pipes.) in sub-freezing conditions. Ice in the
or stop flow, but not cause pipe breakage. In sub-freezing conditions,
Unrestrained pipe that is exposed to significant temperature swings will in some
ot as impact resistant as it is at room temperature. In all cases, one
combination, expand and contract, deflect laterally, or apply compressive or tensile
unloading guidelines in the handling and storage section of the PPI
loads to constraints or supports.
dbook chapter Inspections, Tests, and Safety Considerations that
A mitigating factor is PEs relatively low modulus of elasticity, which greatly reduces
ing devices to safely unload polyethylene piping products.
the thrust that is generated by a restrained expansion/contraction. This thrust
imposes no problem on thermal fusion connections.
See Chapter 8 for additional information on designing above grade pipelines for
ermal Effects thermal effects.
hange in length for an unrestrained pipe placed on a frictionless

etermined from Unrestrained
Equation 3-1.Thermal Effects
The theoretical change in length for an unrestrained pipe placed on a frictionless
surface can be determined from Equation 4-1.
(4-1) L = L T Eq. 3-1
ere:
L = pipeline length change, in
= pipe length, ft
154-264.indd 243 1/16/09 9:57:23 AM
244 Chapter 6
Where
L = pipeline length change, ft
L = pipe length, ft
= thermal expansion coefficient, in/in/F
T = temperature change,F
The coefficient of thermal expansion for PE pipe material is approximately 1 x 10-4

in/in/F. As a rule of thumb, temperature change for unrestrained PE pipe is about
1/10/100, that is, 1 inch for each 10F temperature change for each 100 foot of pipe.
A temperature rise results in a length increase while a temperature drop results in a
length decrease.
End Restrained Thermal Effects

A length of pipe that is restrained or anchored on both ends and one placed on a
frictionless surface will exhibit a substantially different reaction 95
to temperature
change than the unrestrained pipe discussed above. If the pipe is restrained in
a straight line between two points and the temperature decreases, the pipe will
stress is created alongtothe
attempt pipe.inThe
decrease magnitude
length. Because theof this
ends arestress canorbe
restrained anchored, length
quation 3-2. change cannot occur, so a longitudinal tensile stress is created along the pipe. The
magnitude of this stress can be determined using Equation 4-2.
(4-2) V E D 'T Eq. 3-2
are as definedWhere
above,
terms and
are as defined above, and
= longitudinal stress in pipe, psi
E = apparent modulus elasticity of pipe material, psi
= apparent modulus elasticity of pipe material, psi 47
The value of the apparent modulus of elasticity of the pipe material has a large
P L = 2890lb
impact / ft 2
on the calculated stress. As with all thermoplastic materials, PEs modulus,
apparent modulus of elasticity
and therefore of isthe
its stiffness, pipe material
dependent hasand
on temperature a the
large
duration of the
culated stress.applied
As with all thermoplastic materials, polyethylenes
load. Therefore, the appropriate elastic modulus should be selected based on
foreBoussinesq
its stiffness, istwo
Equation
these dependent on temperature
variables. When determining theand the duration
appropriate of it is important
time interval,
herefore, the appropriate elastic modulus should be selected based
to consider that heat transfer occurs at relatively slow rates through the wall of PE
bles.TheWhen determining
Boussinesq
pipe; thereforethetemperature
Equation appropriate
gives thechanges timedointerval,
pressure at occur
not it is important
any point
rapidly. inBecause
a soilthe
mass under a
temperature
eat concentrated
transfer occurssurface at relatively
load. The slow
Boussinesq rates through
Equation may the
be wall
used 96
to of
find the pressure
change does not happen rapidly, the average temperature is often chosen for the
transmitted
therefore from
temperature
modulusa wheel load todo
changes
selection. a point that is not
not occur alongBecause
rapidly. the line of the
action of the load.
Pavement
e does effectsrapidly,
not happen are neglected.
(4-3) F V AP the average temperature is oftenEq.
chosen
3-3
ection.
Where terms are as defined above, and
F = end thrust, lb 3I f Ww H 3
are as defined above, and PL = Eq. 2-4

2 /4)(DO
AP = area of pipe cross section,( 5
r 2 Di2) in2
1:
= Apparent Modulus
end thrust, lb Elasticity for HDPE Pipe Material
= at Various Temperatures
area of pipe cross section,(/4)(DO2 Di2) in2
Where:
PE 3408 Apparent Elastic Modulus, 1000 psi (MPa), at Temperature, F (C)
2
9) 0 (-18) 40PL(4) 60 (16)
= vertical 73 (23)due 100
soil pressure (38)load120
to live lb/ft(49) 140 (60)
260.0 170.0 130.0 110.0 100.0 65.0 50.0
3 can(1793)
also be used Ww =towheel
(1172)
154-264.indd 244
determine
load, lbthe
(896) compressive
(758) (690) stress (448)and thrust
(345) 1/27/09 11:36:22 AM
= end thrust, lb
P = area of pipe cross section,(/4)(DO2 Di2) in2
Chapter 6 245
nd 3-3 can also be used to determine the compressive stress and thrust
m a temperature increase.
gth change of polyethylene pipe during temperature changes is greater

Equations 4-2 and 4-3 can also be used to determine the compressive stress and
r materials, thethrust
amount of force required to restrain the movement is
(respectively) from a temperature increase.
ts lower modulus of elasticity.
Although the length change of PE pipe during temperature changes is greater than
many other materials, the amount of force required to restrain the movement is less
erature decreases from weather or operating conditions, a longitudinal
because of its lower modulus of elasticity.
velops along the pipe that can be determined using Equation 3-2. The
As operating
e stress for pipe pipeline temperature decreases from
at its pressure weather
rating or operating conditions,
is determined using a
longitudinal tensile stress develops along the pipe that can be determined using
Equation 4-2. The allowable tensile stress for pipe operating at its pressure rating is
determined by the HDS for that temperature. The HDS is that of the pipe material
for the base temperature at 73F (23C) times the temperature adjustment factor listed
in Appendix, Chapter 3. Eq. 3-4
(4-4) allow == HDB
HDS xxDF
FT
Where
allow = Allowable tensile stress at 73F, lb/in2

HDS = Hydrostatic Design Stress, psi (Table 1-1)
FT = Temperature factor (See Appendix, Chapter 3)
DB = Hydrostatic Design Basis, psi (Table 1-1)*
F = Design Factor, from Table 1-2
Equation 4-3 is used to determine the thrust load applied to structural anchoring
manufacturer should
devices.be consulted for HDB values for temperatures
han 73F.
During temperature increase, the pipeline attempts to increase in length, but is
restrained by mechanical guides that direct longitudinal compressive thrust to
structural anchors that prevent length increase. This in turn creates a longitudinal
sed to determine the thrust
compressive load
stress applied
in the to astructural
pipe and thrust load anchoring
against the structural anchors.
The compressive stress that develops in the pipe and is resisted by the structural
anchors is determined using Equation 4-2. Compressive stress should not exceed the
ture increase, allowable
the pipeline attempts
compressive totheincrease
stress per Appendix in inChapter
length,3. but is
echanical guides that direct longitudinal compressive thrust to structural
vent length increase. This in
Above Ground turn Systems
Piping creates a longitudinal compressive
e and a thrustThe
load against the structural anchors. The compressive
design considerations for PE piping systems installed above ground are
ops in the pipeextensive
and is and,
resisted by the structural anchors is determined
therefore, are addressed separately in the Handbook chapter on above
3-2. Compressive stress should not exceed the allowable compressive
ground applications for PE pipe.
2-12 in Section 2 of this chapter.
Buried Piping Systems
A buried pipe is generally well restrained by soil loads and will experience very
little lateral movement. However, longitudinal end loads may result that need to
be addressed.
Transitions to other pipe materials that use the bell and spigot assembly technique
will need to be calculated using the thrust load as delivered by the pressure
154-264.indd 245 1/16/09 9:57:24 AM

97
246 Chapter 6
e Ground Piping Systems
design considerations
plus the for polyethylene
potential piping
of the load due systems changes.
to temperature installedMerely
above ground
fixing the endare
sive and, therefore, are
of the PE addressed
to the separately
mating material in in
may result theupPPI Engineering
stream joints pullingHandbook
apart
er on Above Ground Applications
unless those connectionsfor
arePE Pipe. The number of joints that need to be
restrained.
restrained to prevent bell and spigot pull out may be calculated using techniques
as recommended by the manufacturer of the alternate piping material. Equation 4-3
ed Piping may be used to calculate the total thrust load due to temperature change.
Systems
Low thrust capacity connections to manholes or other piping systems as will
be presentwell
ried pipe is generally in many no pressure
restrained bygravity
soil flow systems
friction alongmay its
be addressed
length, andvia a with
longitudinalchange,
rate or low temperature thrust anchor
soil such as shown
friction alone in Fig. 4-1. The size
is usually of the thrust
sufficient block will
to prevent
vary depending on soil conditions and the thrust load
mal expansion and contraction movement. Consequently, a buried polyethylene as calculated via Equation 4-3.
Figure 4-1 Longitudinal Thrust Anchor
will usually experience a change in internal stress rather than dimensional change
movement. A very significant temperature decrease may exceed soil friction
aint, and apply Conclusion
contraction thrust loads to pipeline appurtenances. Longitudinal
anchoring may Thebe used to
durability andprotect underground
visco-elastic connections
nature of modern that have
PE piping materials makeslimited
these
ance to longitudinal movement,
products ideally suited forbut arearray
a broad usually not
of piping requiredsuch
applications unless great
as: potable
erature change water
is anticipated.
mains and service lines, natural gas distribution, oil and gas gathering, force
main sewers, gravity flow lines, industrial and various mining piping. To this end,
fundamental design considerations such as fluid flow, burial design and thermal
response were presented within this chapter in an effort to provide guidance to the
piping system designer on the use of these tough piping materials in the full array of
potential piping applications.
ForFigure 3-1:
the benefit Longitudinal
of the Thrust
pipeline designer, Anchoramount of background
a considerable
information and/or theory has been provided within this chapter. However, the
designer should also keep in mind that the majority of pipeline installations fall
ally, the soil friction
withincan
the be employed
criteria to arrest
for the AWWA theWindow
Design effectsapproach
of operating temperature
presented in Section 3
ges. In smaller diameter pipe, the pipe is usually snaked from side to side within
tch to assist in the soil anchoring.
154-264.indd 246 1/16/09 9:57:24 AM

Chapter 6 247
of this chapter. Pipeline installations that fall within the guidelines for the AWWA
Window, may be greatly simplified in matters relating to the design and use of
flexible PE piping systems.
While every effort has been made to be as thorough as possible in this discussion,
it also should be recognized that these guidelines should be considered in light of
specific project, installation and/or service needs. For this reason, this chapter on
pipeline design should be utilized in conjunction with the other chapters of this
Handbook to provide a more thorough understanding of the design considerations
that may be specific to a particular project or application using PE piping systems.
The reader is also referred to the extensive list of references for this chapter as
additional resources for project and or system analysis and design.
References for Section 1

Kerr, Logan, Water Hammer Problems in Engineering Design, Consulting Engineering, May 1985
Howard; A., The Reclamation E Table, 25 Years Later, Plastic Pipe XIII, Washington, D. C., Oct. 2-5, 2006.
Marshall, G. P., Brogden, S., Evaluation of the Surge and Fatigue Resistances of PVC and PE Pipe Materials for use in the
U.K. Water Industry, Plastics Pipe X, September 98, Gotenberg, Sweden.
UK Water Industry IGN 4-37-02, Design Against Surge And Fatigue Conditions For Thermoplastics Pipes, March 1999.

1. Jeppson, Roland W., Analysis of Flow in Pipe Networks, Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, MI.
2. Distribution Network Analysis, AWWA Manual M32, American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.
3. ASTM D 2513, Standard Specification for Thermoplastic Gas Pipe, Tubing and Fittings, American Society for
Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
4. ASTM D 2737, Standard Specification for PE (PE) Tubing, American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, PA.
5. ASTM D 2447, Standard Specification for PE (PE) Plastic Pipe, Schedules 40 and 80, Based on Outside Diameter,
American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
6. ASTM D 3035, Standard Specification for PE (PE) Plastic Pipe (DR-PR) Based on Controlled Outside Diameter,
7. ASTM F 714, Standard Specification for PE (PE) Plastic Pipe (SDR-PR) Based on Controlled Outside Diameter,
8. ANSI/AWWA C901, AWWA Standard for PE (PE) Pressure Pipe and Tubing, 1/2 In.(13 mm) Through 3 In. (76 mm) for
Water Service, American Water Works Association, Denver, CO
9. ANSI/AWWA C906, AWWA Standard for PE (PE) Pressure Pipe and Fittings, 4 In. Through 63 In. for Water
Distribution, American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.
10. API Specification 15LE, Specification for PE Line Pipe (PE), American Petroleum Institute, Washington DC.
11. ASTM D 2104, Standard Specification for PE (PE) Plastic Pipe, Schedule 40, American Society for Testing and
Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
12. ASTM D 2239, Standard Specification for PE (PE) Plastic Pipe (SIDR-PR) Based on Controlled Inside Diameter,
13. ASTM F 894, Standard Specification for PE (PE) Large Diameter Profile Wall Sewer and Drain Pipe, American
Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
14. PPI TR-22, PE Piping Distribution Systems for Components of Liquid Petroleum Gases, Plastics Pipe Institute,
Irving, TX.
15. Nayyar, Mohinder L. (1992). Piping Handbook , 6th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
16. Iolelchick, I.E., Malyavskaya O.G., & Fried, E. (1986). Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, Hemisphere Publishing
Corporation.
17. Moody, L.F. (1944). Transactions, Volume 6, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY.
18. Swierzawski, Tadeusz J. (2000). Flow of Fluids, Chapter B8, Piping Handbook, 7th edition, Mohinder L. Nayyar,
McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
19. Lamont, Peter A. (1981, May). Common Pipe Flow Formulas Compared with the Theory of Roughness, Journal of
the American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.
20. Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings and Pipe. (1957). Crane Technical Paper No 410, the Crane Company,
Chicago, IL.
21. Chen, W.F., & J.Y. Richard Liew. (2002). The Civil Engineering Handbook, 2 nd edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
154-264.indd 247 1/16/09 9:57:24 AM

248 Chapter 6
22. Bowman, J.A. (1990). The Fatigue Response of Polyvinyl Chloride and PE Pipe Systems, Buried Plastics Pipe
Technology, ASTM STP 1093, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia.
23. Marshall, GP, S. Brogden, & M.A. Shepherd, Evaluation of the Surge and Fatigue Resistance of PVC and PE Pipeline
Materials for use in the UK Water Industry, Proceedings of Plastics Pipes X, Goteborg, Sweden.
24. Fedossof, F.A., & Szpak, E. (1978, Sept 20-22). Cyclic Pressure Effects on High Density PE Pipe, Paper presented
at the Western Canada Sewage Conference, Regian, Saskatoon, Canada.
25. Parmakian, John. (1963). Waterhammer Analysis, Dover Publications, New York, NY.
26. Thompson, T.L., & Aude, T.C. (1980). Slurry Pipelines, Journal of Pipelines, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company,
Amsterdam.
27. Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering. (1959). McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
28. AGA Plastic Pipe Manual for Gas Service. (2001). American Gas Association, Washington DC.
29. ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice No. 60. (1982). Gravity Sewer Design and Construction,
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, NY.
30. Hicks, Tyler G. (1999). Handbook of Civil Engineering Calculations, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
31. PPI TR-14, Water Flow Characteristics of Thermoplastic Pipe, Plastics Pipe Institute, Irving, TX.
32. Kerr, Logan, Water Hammer Problems in Engineering Design, Consulting Engineering, May 1985.

1. Watkins, R.K., Szpak, E., & Allman, W.B. (1974). Structural Design of PE Pipes Subjected to External Loads, Engr.
Experiment Station, Utah State Univ., Logan.
2. AWWA (2006), PE Pipe Design and Installation, M55, American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.
3. Howard, A.K. (1996). Pipeline Installation, Relativity Printing, Lakewood, Colorado,ISBN 0-9651002-0-0.
4. Spangler, M.G. (1941). The Structural Design of Flexible Pipe Culverts, Bulletin 153, Iowa Engineering Experiment
Station, Ames, IA.
5. Watkins, R.K., & Spangler, M.G. (1958). Some Characteristics of the Modulus of Passive Resistance of SoilA
Study in Similitude, Highway Research Board Proceedings 37:576-583, Washington.
6. Burns, J.Q., & Richard, R.M. (1964). Attenuation of Stresses for Buried Cylinders, Proceedings of the Symposium
on Soil Structure Interaction, pp.378-392, University of Arizona, Tucson.
7. Katona, J.G., Forrest, F.J., Odello, & Allgood, J.R. (1976). CANDEA Modern Approach for the Structural Design and
Analysis of Buried Culverts, Report FHWA-RD-77-5, FHWA, US Department of Transportation.
8. Howard, A.K. (1977, January). Modulus of Soil Reaction Values for Buried Flexible Pipe, Journal of the
Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 103, No GT 1.
9. Petroff, L.J. (1995). Installation Technique and Field Performance of PE, Profile Pipe, Proceedings 2 nd Intl.
Conference on the Advances in Underground Pipeline Engineering, ASCE, Seattle.
10. Duncan, J.M., & Hartley, J.D. (1982). Evaluation of the Modulus of Soil Reaction, E, and Its Variation with Depth,
Report N o. UCB/GT/82-02, University of California, Berkeley.
11. Howard, A.K. (1981). The USBR Equation for Predicting Flexible Pipe Deflection, Proceedings Intl. Conf. On
Underground Plastic Pipe, ASCE, New Orleans, LA.
12. Janson, L.E. (1991). Long-Term Studies of PVC and PE Pipes Subjected to Forced Constant Deflection, Report No.
3, KP-Council, Stockholm, Sweden.
13. Spangler, M.G., & Handy, R.L. (1982). Soil Engineering, 4th ed., Harper & Row, New York.
14. Watkins, R.K. (1977). Minimum Soil Cover Required Over Buried Flexible Cylinders, Interim Report, Utah State
University, Logan, UT.
15. Gaube, E. (1977, June). Stress Analysis Calculations on Rigid PE and PVC Sewage Pipes, Kunstoffe, Vol.67, pp.
353-356, Germany.
16. Gaube, E., & Muller, W. (1982, July). Measurement of the long-term deformation of PE pipes laid underground,
Kunstoffe, Vol. 72, pp. 420-423, Germany.
17. Moore, I. D., & Selig, E. T. (1990). Use of Continuum Buckling Theory for Evaluation of Buried Plastic Pipe Stability,
Buried Plastic Pipe Technology, ASTM STP 1093, Philadelphia.
18. Marston, A. (1930). Iowa Engineering Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 96.
19. McGrath, T. (1994). Analysis of Burns & Richard Solution for Thrust in Buried Pipe, Simpson Gumpertz & Heger,
Inc, Cambridge, Mass.
20. McGrath, T.J. (1998). Replacing E with the Constrained Modulus in Flexible Pipe Design, proceedings Pipeline Div.
Conf. Pipelines in the Constructed Environment, ASCE, San Diego, CA.
21. Bowles, J.E. (1982). Foundation Analysis and Design, 3 rd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
154-264.indd 248 1/16/09 9:57:25 AM

Chapter 6 249
Appendix A.1
Pipe Weights And Dimensions (Dips)

(Black)
Pipe Minimum
inside Wall
diameter Thickness Weight
OD
(d) (t) (w)
Nominal Actual lb. per
in. in. DR* in. in. foot
7 2.76 0.566 2.621
9 3.03 0.440 2.119
11 3.20 0.360 1.776
13.5 3.34 0.293 1.476
3 3.960 15.5 3.42 0.255 1.299
17 3.47 0.233 1.192
21 3.56 0.189 0.978
26 3.64 0.152 0.798
32.5 3.70 0.122 0.644
7 3.35 0.686 3.851

9 3.67 0.533 3.114
11 3.87 0.436 2.609

13.5 4.05 0.356 2.168
4 4.800 15.5 4.14 0.310 1.909
17 4.20 0.282 1.752
21 4.32 0.229 1.436
26 4.41 0.185 1.172
32.5 4.49 0.148 0.946
7 4.81 0.986 7.957

9 5.27 0.767 6.434
11 5.57 0.627 5.392
13.5 5.82 0.511 4.480
6 6.900 15.5 5.96 0.445 3.945
17 6.04 0.406 3.620
21 6.20 0.329 2.968
26 6.34 0.265 2.422
32.5 6.45 0.212 1.954
154-264.indd 249 1/16/09 9:57:25 AM

250 Chapter 6
Pipe Minimum
inside Wall
diameter Thickness Weight
OD
(d) (t) (w)
7 6.31 1.293 13.689
9 6.92 1.006 11.069
11 7.31 0.823 9.276
13.5 7.63 0.670 7.708
8 9.050 15.5 7.81 0.584 6.787
17 7.92 0.532 6.228
21 8.14 0.431 5.106
26 8.31 0.348 4.166
32.5 8.46 0.278 3.361
7 7.74 1.586 20.593

9 8.49 1.233 16.652
11 8.96 1.009 13.955
13.5 9.36 0.822 11.595
10 11.100 15.5 9.58 0.716 10.210
17 9.72 0.653 9.369
21 9.98 0.529 7.681
26 10.19 0.427 6.267
32.5 10.38 0.342 5.056
7 9.20 1.886 29.121

9 10.09 1.467 23.548
11 10.66 1.200 19.734
13.5 11.13 0.978 16.397
12 13.200 15.5 11.39 0.852 14.439
17 11.55 0.776 13.250
21 11.87 0.629 10.862
26 12.12 0.508 8.863
32.5 12.34 0.406 7.151
7 10.67 2.186 39.124

9 11.70 1.700 31.637
11 12.35 1.391 26.513
13.5 12.90 1.133 22.030
14 15.300 15.5 13.21 0.987 19.398
17 13.39 0.900 17.801
21 13.76 0.729 14.593
26 14.05 0.588 11.907
32.5 14.30 0.471 9.607
154-264.indd 250 1/16/09 9:57:25 AM

Chapter 6 251
Pipe Minimum
inside Wall
OD diameter Thickness Weight
(d) (t) (w)
7 12.13 2.486 50.601
9 13.30 1.933 40.917
11 14.05 1.582 34.290
13.5 14.67 1.289 28.492
16 17.400 15.5 15.02 1.123 25.089
17 15.23 1.024 23.023
21 15.64 0.829 18.874
26 15.98 0.669 15.400
32.5 16.26 0.535 12.425
7 13.59 2.786 63.553

9 14.91 2.167 51.390
11 15.74 1.773 43.067
13.5 16.44 1.444 35.785
18 19.500 15.5 16.83 1.258 31.510
17 17.07 1.147 28.916
21 17.53 0.929 23.704
26 17.91 0.750 19.342
32.5 18.23 0.600 15.605
7 15.06 3.086 77.978

9 16.51 2.400 63.055
11 17.44 1.964 52.842
13.5 18.21 1.600 43.907
20 21.600 15.5 18.65 1.394 38.662
17 18.91 1.271 35.479
21 19.42 1.029 29.085
26 19.84 0.831 23.732
32.5 20.19 0.665 19.147
11 20.83 2.345 75.390

13.5 21.75 1.911 62.642
15.5 22.27 1.665 55.159
24 25.800 17 22.58 1.518 50.618
21 23.20 1.229 41.495
26 23.70 0.992 33.858
32.5 24.12 0.794 27.317
154-264.indd 251 1/16/09 9:57:25 AM

252 Chapter 6
Pipe Minimum
inside Wall
(d) (t) (w)
13.5 26.97 2.370 96.367
15.5 27.62 2.065 84.855
30 32.000 17 28.01 1.882 77.869
21 28.77 1.524 63.835
26 29.39 1.231 52.086
32.5 29.91 0.985 42.023
* These DRs (7.3, 9, 11, 13.5, 17, 21, 26, 32.5) are from the standard
dimension ratio (SDR) series established by ASTM F 412.51
154-264.indd 252 1/16/09 9:57:25 AM

Chapter 6 253
Appendix A.2
PIPE WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS (IPS)

(BLACK)
Pipe Minimum
inside Wall
(d) (t) (w)
in. in. DR in. in. foot
7 0.59 0.120 0.118
7.3 0.60 0.115 0.114
1/2 0.840 9 0.64 0.093 0.095
9.3 0.65 0.090 0.093
11 0.68 0.076 0.080
11.5 0.69 0.073 0.077
7 0.73 0.150 0.184

7.3 0.75 0.144 0.178
3/4 1.050 9 0.80 0.117 0.149
9.3 0.81 0.113 0.145
11 0.85 0.095 0.125
11.5 0.86 0.091 0.120
7 0.92 0.188 0.289

7.3 0.93 0.180 0.279
1 1.315 9 1.01 0.146 0.234
9.3 1.02 0.141 0.227
11 1.06 0.120 0.196
11.5 1.07 0.114 0.188
7 1.16 0.237 0.461

7.3 1.18 0.227 0.445
9 1.27 0.184 0.372
1 1/4 1.660 9.3 1.28 0.178 0.362
11 1.34 0.151 0.312
11.5 1.35 0.144 0.300
13.5 1.40 0.123 0.259
154-264.indd 253 1/16/09 9:57:25 AM

254 Chapter 6
Pipe Minimum
inside Wall
(d) (t) (w)
7 1.32 0.271 0.603
7.3 1.35 0.260 0.583
9 1.45 0.211 0.488
1 1/2 1.900 9.3 1.47 0.204 0.474
11 1.53 0.173 0.409
11.5 1.55 0.165 0.393
13.5 1.60 0.141 0.340
15.5 1.64 0.123 0.299
7 1.66 0.339 0.943

7.3 1.69 0.325 0.911
9 1.82 0.264 0.762
9.3 1.83 0.255 0.741
2 2.375 11 1.92 0.216 0.639
11.5 1.94 0.207 0.614
13.5 2.00 0.176 0.531
15.5 2.05 0.153 0.467
17 2.08 0.140 0.429
7 2.44 0.500 2.047

7.3 2.48 0.479 1.978
9 2.68 0.389 1.656
9.3 2.70 0.376 1.609
11 2.83 0.318 1.387
3 3.500 11.5 2.85 0.304 1.333
13.5 2.95 0.259 1.153
15.5 3.02 0.226 1.015
17 3.06 0.206 0.932
21 3.15 0.167 0.764
26 3.21 0.135 0.623
154-264.indd 254 1/16/09 9:57:25 AM

Chapter 6 255
Pipe Minimum
inside Wall
(d) (t) (w)
7 3.14 0.643 3.384
7.3 3.19 0.616 3.269
9 3.44 0.500 2.737
9.3 3.47 0.484 2.660
11 3.63 0.409 2.294
4 4.500 11.5 3.67 0.391 2.204
13.5 3.79 0.333 1.906
15.5 3.88 0.290 1.678
17 3.94 0.265 1.540
21 4.05 0.214 1.262
26 4.13 0.173 1.030
32.5 4.21 0.138 0.831
7 3.88 0.795 5.172

7.3 3.95 0.762 4.996
9 4.25 0.618 4.182
9.3 4.29 0.598 4.065
11 4.49 0.506 3.505
5 5.563 11.5 4.54 0.484 3.368
13.5 4.69 0.412 2.912
15.5 4.80 0.359 2.564
17 4.87 0.327 2.353
21 5.00 0.265 1.929
26 5.11 0.214 1.574
32.5 5.20 0.171 1.270
7 4.62 0.946 7.336

7.3 4.70 0.908 7.086
9 5.06 0.736 5.932
9.3 5.11 0.712 5.765
11 5.35 0.602 4.971
6 6.625 11.5 5.40 0.576 4.777
13.5 5.58 0.491 4.130
15.5 5.72 0.427 3.637
17 5.80 0.390 3.338
21 5.96 0.315 2.736
26 6.08 0.255 2.233
32.5 6.19 0.204 1.801
154-264.indd 255 1/16/09 9:57:26 AM

256 Chapter 6
Pipe Minimum
inside Wall
(d) (t) (w)
7 6.01 1.232 12.433
7.3 6.12 1.182 12.010
9 6.59 0.958 10.054
9.3 6.66 0.927 9.771
11 6.96 0.784 8.425
8 8.625 11.5 7.04 0.750 8.096
13.5 7.27 0.639 7.001
15.5 7.45 0.556 6.164
17 7.55 0.507 5.657
21 7.75 0.411 4.637
26 7.92 0.332 3.784
7 7.49 1.536 19.314

7.3 7.63 1.473 18.656
9 8.22 1.194 15.618
9.3 8.30 1.156 15.179
11 8.68 0.977 13.089
10 10.750 11.5 8.77 0.935 12.578
13.5 9.06 0.796 10.875
15.5 9.28 0.694 9.576
17 9.41 0.632 8.788
21 9.66 0.512 7.204
26 9.87 0.413 5.878
32.5 10.05 0.331 4.742
7 8.89 1.821 27.170

7.3 9.05 1.747 26.244
9 9.75 1.417 21.970
9.3 9.84 1.371 21.353
11 10.29 1.159 18.412
12 12.750 11.5 10.40 1.109 17.693
13.5 10.75 0.944 15.298
15.5 11.01 0.823 13.471
17 11.16 0.750 12.362
21 11.46 0.607 10.134
26 11.71 0.490 8.269
32.5 11.92 0.392 6.671
154-264.indd 256 1/16/09 9:57:26 AM

Chapter 6 257
Pipe Minimum
inside Wall
(d) (t) (w)
7 9.76 2.000 32.758
7.3 9.93 1.918 31.642
9 10.70 1.556 26.489
9.3 10.81 1.505 25.745
11 11.30 1.273 22.199
14 14.000 11.5 11.42 1.217 21.332
13.5 11.80 1.037 18.445
15.5 12.09 0.903 16.242
17 12.25 0.824 14.905
21 12.59 0.667 12.218
26 12.86 0.538 9.970
32.5 13.09 0.431 8.044
7 11.15 2.286 42.786

7.3 11.35 2.192 41.329
9 12.23 1.778 34.598
9.3 12.35 1.720 33.626
11 12.92 1.455 28.994
16 16.000 11.5 13.05 1.391 27.862
13.5 13.49 1.185 24.092
15.5 13.81 1.032 21.214
17 14.00 0.941 19.467
21 14.38 0.762 15.959
26 14.70 0.615 13.022
7 12.55 2.571 54.151

7.3 12.77 2.466 52.307
9 13.76 2.000 43.788
9.3 13.90 1.935 42.558
11 14.53 1.636 36.696
18 18.000 11.5 14.68 1.565 35.263
13.5 15.17 1.333 30.491
15.5 15.54 1.161 26.849
17 15.76 1.059 24.638
21 16.18 0.857 20.198
26 16.53 0.692 16.480
32.5 16.83 0.554 13.296
154-264.indd 257 1/16/09 9:57:26 AM

258 Chapter 6
Pipe Minimum
inside Wall
(d) (t) (w)
7 13.94 2.857 66.853
7.3 14.19 2.740 64.576
9 15.29 2.222 54.059
9.3 15.44 2.151 52.541
11 16.15 1.818 45.304
20 20.000 11.5 16.31 1.739 43.535
13.5 16.86 1.481 37.643
15.5 17.26 1.290 33.146
17 17.51 1.176 30.418
21 17.98 0.952 24.936
26 18.37 0.769 20.346
32.5 18.70 0.615 16.415
9 16.82 2.444 65.412

9.3 16.98 2.366 63.574
11 17.76 2.000 54.818
11.5 17.94 1.913 52.677
22 22.000 13.5 18.55 1.630 45.548
15.5 18.99 1.419 40.107
17 19.26 1.294 36.805
21 19.78 1.048 30.172
26 20.21 0.846 24.619
32.5 20.56 0.677 19.863
9 18.35 2.667 77.845

9.3 18.53 2.581 75.658
11 19.37 2.182 65.237
11.5 19.58 2.087 62.690
24 24.000 13.5 20.23 1.778 54.206
15.5 20.72 1.548 47.731
17 21.01 1.412 43.801
21 21.58 1.143 35.907
26 22.04 0.923 29.299
32.5 22.43 0.738 23.638
154-264.indd 258 1/16/09 9:57:26 AM

Chapter 6 259
Pipe Minimum
inside Wall
(d) (t) (w)
11 22.60 2.545 88.795
11.5 22.84 2.435 85.329
13.5 23.60 2.074 73.781
15.5 24.17 1.806 64.967
28 28.000 17 24.51 1.647 59.618
21 25.17 1.333 48.874
26 25.72 1.077 39.879
32.5 26.17 0.862 32.174
11 24.22 2.727 101.934

11.5 24.47 2.609 97.954
13.5 25.29 2.222 84.697
15.5 25.90 1.935 74.580
30 30.000 17 26.26 1.765 68.439
21 26.97 1.429 56.105
26 27.55 1.154 45.779
32.5 28.04 0.923 36.934
13.5 26.97 2.370 96.367

15.5 27.62 2.065 84.855
32 32.000 17 28.01 1.882 77.869
21 28.77 1.524 63.835
26 29.39 1.231 52.086
32.5 29.91 0.985 42.023
15.5 31.08 2.323 107.395

17 31.51 2.118 98.553
36 36.000 21 32.37 1.714 80.791
26 33.06 1.385 65.922
32.5 33.65 1.108 53.186
15.5 36.26 2.710 146.176

17 36.76 2.471 134.141
42 42.000 21 37.76 2.000 109.966
26 38.58 1.615 89.727
32.5 39.26 1.292 72.392
154-264.indd 259 1/16/09 9:57:26 AM

260 Chapter 6
Pipe Minimum
inside Wall
(d) (t) (w)
17 42.01 2.824 175.205
48 48.000 21 43.15 2.286 143.629
26 44.09 1.846 117.194
32.5 44.87 1.477 94.552
21 48.55 2.571 181.781

54 54.000 26 49.60 2.077 148.324
32.5 50.48 1.662 119.668
154-264.indd 260 1/16/09 9:57:26 AM

Chapter 6 261
Appendix A.3
List of Design Chapter Variables
= kinematic viscosity, ft2/sec

= fluid density, lb/ft3
= dynamic viscosity, lb-sec/ft2
v = Sudden velocity change, ft/sec
a = Wave velocity (celerity), ft/sec
AC = Cross-sectional area of pipe bore, ft2
ac = contact area, ft2
A = profile wall average cross-sectional area, in2/in, for profile pipe or wall thickness (in) for
DR pipe
AS = Area of pipe cross-section or (/4) (DO2 Di2), in2
AP = area of the outside wall of the pipe, 100 in2
C = Hazen-Williams Friction Factor, dimensionless ,see table 1-7.
c = outer fiber to wall centroid, in
CV = percent solids concentration by volume
CW = percent solids concentration by weight
DA = pipe average inside diameter, in
DF = Design Factor, from Table 1-2
d = Pipe inside diameter, ft
DI = Pipe inside diameter, in
DM = Mean diameter (DI+2z or DO-t), in
Do = pipe outside diameter, in
dO = pipe outside diameter, ft
DR = Dimension Ratio, DO/t
E = Apparent modulus of elasticity for pipe material, psi
e = natural log base number, 2.71828
E = Modulus of soil reaction, psi
Ed = Dynamic instantaneous effective modulus of pipe material (typically 150,000 psi for PE pipe)
EN = Native soil modulus of soil reaction, psi
ES = Secant modulus of the soil, psi
ES* = ES/(1-)
f = friction factor (dimensionless, but dependent upon pipe surface roughness and
Reynolds number)
F = end thrust, lb
FB = buoyant force, lb/ft
FL = velocity coefficient (Tables 1-14 and 1-15)
FS = Soil Support Factor
FT = Service Temperature Design Factor, from Table 1-11
g = Constant gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft/sec2
H = height of cover, ft
hl = liquid level in the pipe, ft
HGW = ground water height above pipe, ft
h1 = pipeline elevation at point 1, ft
154-264.indd 261 1/16/09 9:57:26 AM

262 Chapter 6
h1 = inlet pressure, in H2O

hU = upstream pipe elevation, ft
h2 = pipeline elevation at point 2, ft
h2 = outlet pressure, in H2O
dD = downstream pipe elevation, ft
HDB = Hydrostatic Design Basis, psi
hE = Elevation head, ft of liquid
hf = friction (head) loss, ft. of liquid
HS = level of ground water saturation above pipe, ft
I = Pipe wall moment of inertia, in4/in
IDR = ID -Controlled Pipe Dimension Ratio
If impact factor
k = kinematic viscosity, centistokes
KBULK = Bulk modulus of fluid at working temperature
KBED = Bedding factor, typically 0.1
K = passive earth pressure coefficient
K = Fittings Factor, Table 1-5
KP = permeability constant (Table 1-13)
LEFF = Effective Pipeline length, ft.
L = Pipeline length, ft
LDL = Deflection lag factor
L = pipeline length change, in
M = horizontal distance, normal to the pipe centerline, from the center of the load to the load
edge, ft
Ms = one-dimensional modulus of soil, psi
n = roughness coefficient, dimensionless
N = horizontal distance, parallel to the pipe centerline, from the center of the load to the load
edge, ft
NS = safety factor
P = Internal Pressure, psi
PW = perimeter wetted by flow, ft
p1 = inlet pressure, lb/in2 absolute
p2 = outlet pressure, lb/in2 absolute
PA = pipe internal pressure, atmospheres (1 atmosphere = 14.7 lb/in2 )
PC = Pressure Class
PCR = Critical constrained buckling pressure, psi
PE = vertical soil pressure due to earth load, psf
Pf = friction (head) loss, psi
PL = vertical soil pressure due to live load, psf
POS = Occasional Surge Pressure
PRD = radial directed earth pressure, lb/ft2
PRS = Recurring Surge Pressure
Ps = Transient surge pressure, psig
PWAT = Allowable live load pressure at pipe crowm for pipes with one diameter or less of cover, psf
PWC = allowable constrained buckling pressure, lb/in2
PWU = allowable unconstrained pipe wall buckling pressure, psi
154-264.indd 262 1/16/09 9:57:27 AM

Chapter 6 263
pi = Pressure due to sub-area i lb/ft2

Q = flow rate, gpm
QFPS = flow, ft3/sec

Qh = flow, standard ft3/hour
qP = volume of gas permeated, cm3 (gas at standard temperature and pressure)
rH = hydraulic radius, ft
r = distance from the point of load application to pipe crown, ft
R = buoyancy reduction factor
rCENT = radius to centroidal axis of pipe, in
Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless
RH = Geometry Factor
RSC = Ring Stiffness Constant, lb/ft
rT = equivalent radius, ft
RF = Rigidity factor, dimensions
s = liquid density, gm/cm3
SH = hydraulic slope, ft/ft
S = pipe wall compressive stress, lb/in2
SMAT = material yield strength, lb/in2
SA = Hoop Thrust Stiffness Ratio
Sg = gas specific gravity
SL = carrier liquid specific gravity
SM = slurry mixture specific gravity
SS = solids specific gravity
t = minimum wall thickness, in
t = wall thickness, mils
TCR = Critical time, seconds
V = flow velocity, ft/sec
VC = critical settlement velocity, ft/sec
= kinematic viscosity. ft2/sec
VMin = approximate minimum velocity, ft/sec
w = unit weight of soil, lb/ft3
Ww = wheel load, lb
WL = weight of the liquid in contacts, lb/ft of pipe
WP = Working Pressure, psi
WPR = Working Pressure Rating, psi
wS = distributed surcharge pressure acting over ground surface, lb/ft2
WS = weight of saturated soil above pipe, lb/ft of pipe
= dynamic viscosity, centipoises
Z = Centroid of wall section, in
Z = Pipe wall centroid, in
Zi = wall-section centroidal distance from inner fiber of pipe, in
= thermal expansion coefficient, in/in/F
154-264.indd 263 1/16/09 9:57:27 AM

264 Chapter 6
L = length change, in
T = temperature change, F
X = Horizontal deflection, in
V = Sudden velocity change., ft/sec

= absolute roughness, ft.
s = Soil strain
= elapsed time, days
s = Poissons Ratio of Soil
= Poissons ratio
allow = Allowable tensile stress at 73F, lb/in
= Calibration Factor, 0.55 for granular soils change in psi
D = unit weight of dry soil,lb/ft3 (See Table 2-16 for typical values.)
G = unit weight of groundwater lb/ft3
L = unit weight of liquid in the pipe, lb/ft3
S = unit weight of saturated soil, pcf lb/ft3
= Dynamic viscosity, lb-sec/ft2
154-264.indd 264 1/16/09 9:57:27 AM

Chapter06 PDF

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Chapter06 PDF

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Chapter 6 155

Design of PE Piping Systems

Design of PE Piping Systems

Section 1 covers Design based on Working Pressure Requirements.

Section 2 deals with the hydraulic design of PE piping. It covers

Section 3 focuses on burial design and flexible pipeline design

Finally, Section 4 deals with the response of PE pipe to

154-264.indd 155 1/16/09 9:56:52 AM

This chapter concludes with a fairly extensive appendix which

154-264.indd 156 1/16/09 9:56:52 AM

154-264.indd 157 1/16/09 9:56:52 AM

e used to determine an average inside diameter for OD-controlled

gth of thermoplastic pipe is based on regression analysis of stress-

The Environmental Application Factor is used to adjust the pressure rating of

When choosing the environmental applications factor (AF), consideration must

154-264.indd 159 1/16/09 9:56:53 AM

Pressure Rating for Fuel Gas Pipe

154-264.indd 160 1/16/09 9:56:53 AM

Pressure Rating for Liquid Flow Surge Pressure

154-264.indd 161 1/16/09 9:56:53 AM

In the design of PE pipe, pressure surges are generally classified as Occasional

1. Resistance to Occasional Pressure Surges:

154-264.indd 162 1/16/09 9:56:53 AM

2. Resistance to Recurring Pressure Surges:

3. Resistance to Localized Buckling When Subjected to a Negative Pressure Generated

Estimating the Magnitude of Pressure Surges

154-264.indd 163 1/16/09 9:56:53 AM

ief valve failure.

e pressure surge curves for PE3408 as calculated using Equations 1-21

154-264.indd 164 1/16/09 9:56:53 AM

Pressure Surge, psig

Sudden Changes in Flow Rate, fps

154-264.indd 165 1/16/09 9:56:54 AM

Standard Allowance for Momentary Surge Pressure Above the

Standard Allowance for Momentary Surge Pressure Above the

154-264.indd 166 1/16/09 9:56:54 AM

Controlling Surge Pressure Reactions

Also, potential surge pressure problems should be investigated in the design of

154-264.indd 167 1/16/09 9:56:54 AM

Pipe ID for Flow Calculations

Flow Diameter for Outside Diameter Controlled Pipe

154-264.indd 168 1/16/09 9:56:54 AM

may be used to determine an average inside diameter for OD-controlled

Pipe Minimum Wall Thickness, in.

Head Loss in Pipes Darcy-Weisbach/Colebrook/Moody

154-264.indd 169 1/16/09 9:56:54 AM

pipe inside diameter,

154-264.indd 170 1/16/09 9:56:54 AM

with enough accuracy for calculation.

= absolute roughness, ft. ft. (see Table 2-1)

= kinematic (2-7) z 3160

154-264.indd 171 1/16/09 9:56:55 AM

Absolute Roughness of Surface, ft

Pipe Deflection Effects

154-264.indd 172 1/16/09 9:56:55 AM

Head Loss in Fittings

Where a pipeline contains a large number of fittings in close proximity to each

154-264.indd 173 1/16/09 9:56:55 AM

e 90 Fabricated Elbow (1 miters)

entional Swing Angle Valve, Conventional, Fully Open

- K values are based on Crane Technical Paper No 410-C

e lost or gained from a change in elevation. For liquids, the

154-264.indd 174 1/16/09 9:56:55 AM