Accepted Manuscript

Cookies Formulated from Fresh Okara using Starch, Soy Flour and Hydroxypropyl
Methylcellulose have High Quality and Nutritional Value

Jihyun Park, Induck Choi, Yookyung Kim

PII: S0023-6438(15)00264-9
DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2015.03.110
Reference: YFSTL 4585

To appear in: LWT - Food Science and Technology

Received Date: 18 June 2014

Revised Date: 30 March 2015
Accepted Date: 31 March 2015

Please cite this article as: Park, J., Choi, I., Kim, Y., Cookies Formulated from Fresh Okara using Starch,
Soy Flour and Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose have High Quality and Nutritional Value, LWT - Food
Science and Technology (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2015.03.110.

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1 LWT-D- 14- 00969R1

2 Cookies Formulated from Fresh Okara using Starch, Soy Flour and Hydroxypropyl

3 Methylcellulose have High Quality and Nutritional Value

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5 Jihyun Parka, Induck Choib, Yookyung Kim a*

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7 Department of Human Ecology, Graduate School, Korea University, Seoul, Korea

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8 National Institute of Crop Science, Rural Development Administration, Iksan, South Korea
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10 Corresponding author: E-mail: yookyung_kim@korea.ac.kr; Tel.: 82-2-32902328 ; Fax.: 82-
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24 Abstract

25 Okara is a nutritious byproduct of tofu manufacturing. To develop okara cookie using fresh

26 okara, cookies were baked using only okara (O) or okara with additives: starch (OS), soy

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27 flour (OF) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (OH). OH dough had the highest water

28 holding capacity value at 147.8%, followed by OF (88.6%), OS (77.6%) and O (46.5%)

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29 dough. OH dough was also the most elastic dough with no cutting when it was extended. The

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30 sensory panel scored the additive-added cookies 1.5 (OS) to 2.8 (OF and OH) times higher

31 than O cookie with regard to hardness, crispiness and chewiness. During the 7-day storage,

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32 OF and OH cookies had a lower water activity (0.50 to 0.69) compared to the O cookie (0.82
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33 to 0.87); however, OS cookie had a similar water activity (0.78 to 0.85) to the O cookie. The

34 OF and OH cookies had higher hardness value than OS and O cookies during storage. Based
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35 on the results, the additives held the water content of fresh okara during the production of

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okara cookies; further, the additives allow the formulation of healthier snack foods.

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38 Keywords : Okara cookies, Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, Soy flour, Starch, Texture

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39 property

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49 1. Introduction

50 Cookies are popular bakery products with its unique texture and taste; thus, they are widely

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51 consumed as a snack by all generations. However, cookies are usually made with wheat flour,

52 and most formulations have high calories and low fiber content. With increasing interest by

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53 consumers in living a healthy life, many researchers have studied health-promoting cookies

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54 that use buckwheat (Hadnaev, Torbica, & Hadnaev, 2013), barley (Frost, Adhikari, &

55 Lewis, 2011) or bean (Cady et al.,1987) flour.

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56 Okara, a fiber rich by-product produced from soymilk and tofu processing, is also used in
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57 snack products for its nutritional values and its good manufacturing capacities, such as its

58 good water holding and emulsifying quality (Katayama & Wilson, 2008). Based on a study
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59 by Grizotto et al. (2010), replacing 30% of wheat flour with dried okara flour did not

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significantly change the physical properties, brittleness and water activity from the standard

61 biscuit. In a coconut-based soft baked snack (Radocaj & Dimic, 2013), 30 and 40%
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62 replacement of coconut with wet okara improved the nutritional value, while resulting in the
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63 highest overall sensory score without a change in appearance, flavor, texture and water

64 activity. However, most okara snacks are made with only dried okara. The use of fresh okara
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65 in the food industry is limited because the high water content (around 80-85 g/100 g) causes
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66 rapid deterioration and the drying of wet okara is costly. A few studies report the use of wet

67 okara as a raw material with limited type of foods, such as low-fat beef patties (Turhan,

68 Temiz, & Sagir, 2007) and coconut-based baked snacks (Radocaj & Dimic, 2013). Another

69 limitation of okara snacks industry are that most okara snacks are not made with only okara

70 due to poor textural quality. Texture plays an essential role in cookie acceptability. In some

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71 types of cookies, crispiness is the most important factor for its acceptability (Laguna et al.,

72 2014). In order to improve the texture of gluten-free cookies, various additives were used

73 when other types of flours were substituted for wheat flour. As an additive in cookies, starch

74 is used for improving the cookie crispiness by quickly absorbing the water on the surface

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75 (Tianyi, 2003). Soy flour is used for spread control for cookies (Mcward, 1995), and also

76 contributes to other functional properties reported in bakery products, such as improved

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77 texture, moisture retention and shelf life (Shin, Kim, & Kim, 2013). Hydroxypropyl

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78 methylcellulose (HPMC) was used as an additive in bakery products due to its high water

79 holding capacity as well as to improve product texture as mimicking the viscoelastic

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80 properties of gluten (Brcenas, Cristina & Rosell, 2006). However, there are not many
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81 published results related to the HPMC addition in cookie dough although there are many

82 publications related to bread with HPMC. In this study, fiber-enhanced healthy okara cookies
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83 were prepared using fresh okara as raw material to prepare whole okara cookies. Water is an

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essential ingredient for solubilizing other ingredients in cookie dough formation. By using the

85 water from fresh okara, it is possible to prepare cookies without extra water addition, as well
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86 as reduce the expense of drying the wet okara. Starch, soy flour and HPMC were also used as
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87 additives to improve the okara cookie dough, as well as to make crispy cookies. The dough

88 and cookies were evaluated on their textural-related properties and sensory test.
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90 2. Materials and methods

91 2.1. Materials

92 Fresh okara (grits form) was supplied by NongHyup (Ilsan, Gyeonggi-do, Korea) at the

93 day of making tofu using Korean soy cultivar (Taekwang) and stored in polyethylene bags

94 at -20 until used (less than 1 month). HPMC (Any Addy CN40H, 4,000 mPa s) was

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95 supplied by Samsung Fine Chemicals (Incheon, Gyeonggi-do, Korea). Soy flour was

96 purchased from Salnongbu (Gueongnam, Korea), and starch (Homecraft GF20, National

97 Starch) was supplied from Corn Products Korea (Seoul, Korea). The sugar, butter, baking

98 powder and eggs were purchased from a local market.

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99 2.2. Preparation of okara cookie

100 The okara cookies were prepared by the AACC method 10-52 (AACC, 2000). Briefly,

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101 100 g of thawed fresh okara was ground by a blender (HM-1270, Hanil Co., Seoul, Korea)

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102 for 20 sec and filtered through a 1.40 mm sieve to remove large particles. Butter (25 g) was

103 creamed to a mayonnaise consistency. An aliquot of 30 g of powdered sugar was added to

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104 the creamed butter separately in 15 g increments and mixed for 1 min after each addition.
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105 An egg (7 g) was added with mixing for 30 sec. The butter-sugar-egg mixture was combined

106 with the fresh okara by mixing for 2 min and stored in a refrigerator for 20 min. Cookies
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107 containing starch and soy flour were prepared by mixing starch or soy flour with the butter-

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sugar-egg mixture for 1 min before mixing with okara. HPMC was mixed with the sugar

109 powder then added to the creamed butter followed by addition of the egg since HPMC does
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110 not disperse well in cold aqueous media. The ratio of starch, soy flour, or HPMC to okara
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111 was 1:25. The okara cookie doughs were rolled out to a thickness of 3 mm using a rolling

112 pin and then cut into 50 mm diameter circles with a cookie cutter. The cut cookie was placed
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113 in a pan and baked at 170 for 20 min and cooled on cooling shelf at room temperature for
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114 1 hr. For proximate composition and scanning electron microscopy, cookie sample was

115 freeze-dried (DRC-1000, EYELA, Tokyo, Japan) for 2 days. For 7-day storage study of

116 cookies, cookies were placed in aluminum pan and covered with plastic wrap and stored at 4

117 C using incubator (HA-1000, Hanil Science, Seoul, Korea). The changes of cookies during

118 storage were measured on 0, 1, 3, 4, and 7 days.

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119 2.3. Proximate composition of cookies

120 The moisture content was determined by the oven drying method at 105 . Nitrogen

121 content was determined by the Kjeldahl procedure (HKD-Pro, Hanil Labtech Co., Seoul,

122 Korea) and crude protein calculated using the conversion factor 5.71. The crude fat was

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123 determined by Soxhlet extraction (S-306A, Gerhardt, Germany) and the ash content was

124 determined by heating at 550 for 4 hr in a muffle furnace (LEF-1053, Iso Labtech Co.,

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125 Seoul, Korea). Carbohydrate was calculated by difference (Ferris, Flores, Shanklin, &

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126 Whitworth, 1995). The energy content was calculated as kilocalories per gram using the

127 conversion factors: crude protein (16.74 kJ/g), total carbohydrates (16.74 kJ/g) and crude fat

128
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(37.66 kJ/g). All proximate composition measurements were conducted 3 times using freeze
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129 dried cookie samples.
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130 2.4. Water holding capacity and water activity

131 The water holding capacity (WHC) of the cookie doughs were measured by a
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132 modification of the method of Medcalf and Gilles (1965). Briefly, 1 g of the dough was
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133 suspended by vortexing in 20 mL of water for 20 sec. The suspensions were centrifuged at

134 7311 g for 20 min at 20 and the weight of the water was determined after decanting the
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135 supernatant. The WHC was calculated by multiplying the weight of water by 100. The water
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136 activity (Aw) was determined by water activity analyzer (4TE, Aqua Lab, Pullman, USA).
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137 The moisture content of the cookie dough and okara cookie was determined by drying oven

138 (Convection Oven, SJ science Co., Seoul, Korea) at 105 for 24 hr. The water activity and

139 per cent moisture of okara cookie was measured at 0, 1, 3, 4 and 7 days of storage at 20 .

140 All measurements were conducted 3 times.

141 2.5. Spread factor and color determination

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142 The spread factor of the okara cookies were calculated by dividing the baked diameter of

143 the cookie by the thickness of the cookie. The average thickness of the cookies was

144 determined by measuring the height of a stack of six cookies and dividing by six. The

145 average diameter of the cookies was determined by measuring the width of six cookies put

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146 edge to edge and dividing by six. The diameter calculations included rotation of the cookies

147 at an angle of 90 for duplicate measurements. The color values, L*, a*, and b*, of the

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148 cookies were measured by a Chroma meter (CR-400, Minolta Camera Co. Ltd., Osaka,

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149 Japan). The cookie was place on a sheet of white paper and the surface color at the center of

150 cookie was measured and the average value was obtained from three different cookies from

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the same batch. The chroma meter was standardized with a white tile (Cal L*=96.48 a*=-
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152 0.29 b*=2.05).

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2.6. Scanning electron microscopy

154 Scanning electron micrographs of the surface of the okara cookie doughs were recorded
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155 by scanning electron microscopy (JSM-5300, Japan Electric, Tokyo, Japan). The cookie
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156 dough samples were freeze-dried, and stored in a vacuum-sealed wrap until used within 1

157 week. The freeze-dried cookie dough was cut into a 10 mm square, sputter coated with gold
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158 (4 min, 2 mbar), transferred to a microscope, where it was observed at 30 kV and 75 x

159 magnification.
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2.7. Textural properties

161 The textural properties of the cookie doughs and the cookies were measured using a

162 Texture analyzer (TA-XT2, Stable Micro System, Surrey, UK) with a 5 kg load cell. The

163 dough sample (10 x 10 x10 mm) was compressed with a 20 mm diameter cylindrical probe

164 and the pre-test, test and post-test speeds were set at 2.0, 1.0 and 1.0 mm/s, respectively.

165 Dough hardness and cohesiveness were calculated using the method of Bourne (1978). The

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166 texture of the cookie dough was evaluated by pressing and lengthening. For pressing the

167 dough, cookie dough (diameter: 40 mm, thickness: 3 mm) was pressed by the palm of the

168 hand until the diameter of the dough was 60 mm. For lengthening the dough, cookie dough

169 (diameter: 40 mm, thickness: 3 mm) was stretched by fingers from the center of dough

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170 outward until the length of the dough reached 80 mm. The hardness of the cookies after

171 storage periods (0, 1, 3, 4 and 7 days) was evaluated by compression at the center of cookies

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172 50 mm diameter and 3 mm thickness to 80% of the original height at a test speed of 1.0

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173 mm/s after cookies were brought to room temperature for 1 hr. The first peak force was

174 recorded as hardness. All measurements were repeated seven times.

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175 2.8. Sensory analysis
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176 The perceived intensity of the sensory attributes of okara cookies was evaluated by eight

177 panelists (female, 25-30 years old). The panelists had experience in at least five soy food
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178 panels and were trained previously in descriptors used in this study (Shin et al. 2013). The

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panelists were re-calibrated on specific attributes used in this study to describe okara cookies.

180 The panelists evaluated the appearance, beany odor and taste, mouthfeel and texture
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181 (hardness, crispiness, chewiness) of okara cookies using a 9-point scale with the modified
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182 sensory attributes from Shin et al. (2013). Appearance was defined as the uniformity of the

183 cookie surface, including the irregular and twisted surfaces (1= extremely bumpy and
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184 irregular surface, 9 = extremely smooth and regular surface). Beany odor and bean taste were
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185 defined as the odor and taste associated with raw soybeans, respectively (1= extremely strong

186 beany odor/taste, 9 = no beany odor/taste). The mouthfeel was defined as the taste perception

187 by the tongue when the sample is removed; HPMC was used as the reference for mouthfeel

188 (1= extremely strong slimy mouthfeel, 9 = no mouthfeel). In this study, we expected a

189 sliminess of HPMC, measured by the mouthfeel. Hardness was evaluated by the force needed

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190 to bite through the cookie sample using the front teeth. Crispiness was evaluated as the force

191 and noise with which a sample breaks when chewed with molar teeth. Chewiness indicates

192 the energy necessary to masticate solid foods so that they can be easily swallowed.

193 Commercial wheat cookies were used as the reference (scale =9) for texture properties, such

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194 as hardness, crispiness, and chewiness (1= extremely weak, 9 = extremely strong). The

195 cookie samples were served after cooling for 1 hr after baking.

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196 2.9. Statistical analysis

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197 Experimental data were analyzed using the analysis of variance with the significance

198 defined at (p<0.05). Significant differences between cookie samples were determined by

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199 Duncans multiple range test. All statistical analysis was performed using the SPSS 12.0
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200 software program. Correlation among means was determined using a two-tailed Pearson

201 correlation test (p<0.05).

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4. Result and discussion

204 4.1. Water holding capacity and textural properties of okara cookie dough
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205 The moisture content and WHC of okara cookie doughs are shown in Table 1. The
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206 moisture content of the control, O, dough (56.5 g/100 g), was higher than the OS, OF or OH

207 doughs (51.4-53.3 g/100g) (p<0.05). Since the additive to okara ratio was 1:25, the lower
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208 water content of the additive-added doughs may be due to the greater WHC of the additives.
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209 The capacity to bind water by the different additives results in greater differences in WHC as

210 shown in Table 1. The O dough (46.5%) had a significantly lower WHC compared to the

211 additive-added doughs (p<0.05). HPMC is highly water active and forms viscous solutions.

212 The OH dough had approximately 3 times higher WHC than the O dough. The WHC of the

213 OH dough was the highest value at 147.8%, followed by OF (88.6%) and OS (77.6%). The

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214 WHC of HPMC added to tortilla dough also increased WHC (Friend, Waniska, & Rooney

215 1993).

216 The type of the additive changed the textural properties of the dough (Table 1). The OF and

217 OH -added okara doughs had higher hardness values and the OS-added dough had lower

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218 hardness values compared to the control (p<0.05). The increase in hardness of the additive

219 doughs was linearly related to decreasing moisture content (R2=0.97) and related to the

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220 strength of their water binding properties (Eliasson & Larsson, 1993). A similar effect on

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221 increased dough firmness was noted when carboxylmethyl cellulose (CMC) was added to

222 gluten-free cookies made with buckwheat and rice blend (Hadnaev et al., 2013). The

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223 increased hardness was explained by the increase of cohesiveness of the starch granules by
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224 hydrogen bonding interactions with CMC as well as an increase in dough consistency due to

225 decreased free water and due to increased water absorption by CMC. Protein and fat will also
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226 contribute to cookie dough hardness (Fustier, Castagigne, Turgeon, & Biliaderis, 2009). For

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example, dough hardness decreased with the increased level of flaxseed flour due to the

228 decrease in protein content (Khouryieh & Aramouni, 2012). Soy flour has a higher protein
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229 content and could affect the greater hardness of the dough. Cohesiveness of all okara dough
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230 were similar (0.1 and 0.2) (p>0.05).

231 4.2 Microstructure of okara cookie dough

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232 The WHC affects the textural properties of okara cookie doughs as observed in the
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233 photographic and microstructure images of the cookie doughs. Pressing the dough (Fig. 1A)

234 resulted in fissures or splitting of the O, OS and OF doughs. However, the pressed OH dough

235 had less cracks and a smooth surface appearance while the other doughs had a grainy surface.

236 Extension of the doughs resulted in breaks and separation of pieces of the O, OS, and OF

237 doughs (Fig. 1B). The OH dough was the most elastic dough, a small tear, but no breaks

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238 occurred during extension. In general, adding water increases dough extensibility (Bloskma,

239 1971). Although the moisture content of the OH dough was lowest, while it was also the most

240 extensible, the difference in moisture content was likely due to water being tightly bound by

241 HPMC and that this absorbed water resulted in a highly viscous adhesive fluid that connected

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242 the okara flour granules and increased extensibility. Similar results were found by Tarancn,

243 Hernndez, Salvador and Sanz (2014) who explained the increased consistency of biscuit

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244 with additive of cellulose ethers was due to reduction of the water avaible for hydrating the

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245 proteins because of the high water absorption rate of the cellulose ethers.

246 The microstructure of the doughs by scanning electron microscopy corresponds to the

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247 macro scale observations (Fig. 2). In the micrographs the holes, dark colored regions, are
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248 likely caused by loss of water during freeze-drying. Compared to regular wheat dough, where

249 the starch granules are densely distributed in a partially formed protein matrix, the gluten-free
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250 okara cookies showed a disrupted matrix structure resulting in the weakening of the dough

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(Hadnaev et al., 2013). The O dough, had the highest moisture content and had the largest

252 irregular holes (Fig. 2A). The additives (Fig. 2B-D) reduced moisture content resulting in
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253 fewer and smaller holes in doughs with additives compared to the O dough. In particular, the
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254 OH dough (Fig. 2D) appears to have the least void spaces and also showed a more condensed

255 arrangement of smaller holes among the dough samples.

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256 4.3. Proximate composition of okara cookie

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257 The proximate composition of okara cookies is presented in Table 2. The fresh okara

258 contained 80.5 g/100 g moisture. The dried okara contained 13.0 g/100 g crude protein, 11.0

259 g/100 g crude fat, 6.6 g/100 g ash and 63.7 g/100 g total dietary fiber. Okara cookies had 35.3

260 g/100g carbohydrate, 11.6 g/100 g protein, 25.7 g/100 g fat and 6.3 g/100 g ash. Compared to

261 wheat cookies, which had 59.6 g/100 g carbohydrate, 15.2 g/100 g protein, 20.2 g/100 g fat

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262 and 2.2 g/100 g ash (Olagunju & Ifesan, 2013), okara cookies had a lower carbohydrate

263 content, but a higher ash content. The additives altered the composition of the okara cookies.

264 Starch, soy flour and HPMC addition (4 g/100 g) significantly increased the carbohydrate

265 content in okara cookie from 35.3 (O) to 42.4 (OS), 43.3 (OF), and 45.7 (OH) g/100 g,

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266 respectively (p<0.05). However, this carbohydrate value is still lower than the regular value

267 of wheat-based cookie; thus, it could be possible to develop low-carbohydrate cookies using

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268 fresh okara. The crude protein, lipid and ash content of okara cookies with additives showed

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269 less changes compared to the carbohydrate content. However, all additive-added okara

270 cookies had lower ash content than the O cookie. Further, soy flour-added cookies had the

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271 highest protein (13.7 g/100 g) and fat (27.1 g/100g) content among cookies. HPMC-added
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272 cookies had the highest carbohydrate content (45.6 g/100 g). With regard to the energy

273 content, the OF cookie had the highest value (1975 kJ/g) due to its higher protein and fat
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274 contents in soy flour, followed by OH (1870 kJ/g), OS (1854 kJ/g) and O (1753 kJ/g)

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(p<0.05).

276 4.4. Morphology of okara cookie

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277 The diameter, thickness and spread factor of okara cookies were changed by the additives
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278 (Table 3) (p<0.05). The diameters ranged from 27.8 to 28.4 mm and the thickness ranged

279 from 2.8 to 3.0 mm. The thickness of the OF and OH cookies were thicker than the control
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280 (p<0.05). Similar results were observed by Ryan and Brewer (2006). They reported that soy
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281 flour-added cookies were thicker and smaller in diameter compared to wheat cookies due to

282 the extreme water absorptive properties of soy flour. The spread factor of the OF (9.6) and

283 OH (9.5) cookies were significantly lower than the control (10.1). The spread factor is

284 decreased by increased protein (Singh & Mohamed, 2007) or with decreased moisture

285 content (Han et al., 2004). High protein content may cause a higher amount of water retention

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286 in the dough and therefore led to higher dough viscosity, resulting in a lower spread ratio

287 (Filipev et al., 2011). The soy flour-added cookies had a low spread ratio due to protein

288 water retention, and HPMC like proteins has a high WHC also resulting a lower spread factor.

289 The additives influenced the surface color of the cookies (Table 3). Soy flour significantly

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290 lowered the L* value (77.8) from O cookie (81.9), increased the a* value (3.3) from O cookie

291 (1.7), and lowered the b* value (27.9) from O cookie (30.7) (p<0.05). This color change may

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292 be due to nonenzymatic browning of soy flour. Singh and Mohamed (2007) also reported that

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293 the addition of soy protein isolate produced cookies with lower lightness and increased

294 saturation. In contrast, HPMC addition had a significantly higher L* value (84.4) and lower

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295 b* value (23.7) than those of O cookie (p<0.05).
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296 4.5. Perceived intensity of sensory attributes of okara cookies

297 The sensory attributes of the okara cookies with additives are presented in Table 4. All the
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298 additive-added cookies (4.5 to 7.1) were rated higher in appearance than the O cookie (3.0)

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(p<0.05). The HPMC-added cookies were judged to have the best appearance (7.1), and the

300 value was twice higher than the O cookie. The visual appearance (photo not shown here) of
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301 the cookies showed that the O cookie had a rough surface and concave center while the OH
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302 cookie had a clean surface and convex and smooth center. HPMC addition also appears to

303 have improved the shape of the okara cookie. All additive cookies (5.0 to 7.6) had stronger
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304 beany odor than the O cookie (4.13). The soy flour-added cookie had the strongest odor.
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305 Beany taste was higher in the OS and OF cookie samples (4.4 to 7.4) than the O cookie (3.5)

306 and OF (3.3) cookie. HPMC appears to mask the beany taste. However, the OH (8.4) cookie

307 had a significantly stronger mouthfeel compared to other cookies (4.0 to 4.3) (p<0.05). With

308 the addition of additives, the textural parameters, such as hardness, crispiness and chewiness

309 increased (Table 4). The OH (6.9) and OF (6.3) cookies were rated highest for hardness,

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310 followed by OS (3.5) and O (2.4) cookies. Crispiness tended to correlate with hardness

311 (r=0.985). OF (6.3) and OH (6.0) cookies had the highest score for crispiness, followed by

312 OS (3.4) and O (2.4) cookies. All okara cookies had a significantly different value for

313 chewiness (p<0.05). The additives increased chewiness. The OH (5.8) cookie had the highest

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314 value for chewiness, followed by OF (4.4), OS (3.4) and O (2.3) cookies.

315 4.6. Hardness of okara cookie during storage

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316 Hardness decreased continuously in all cookies until storage day 3, but then increased the

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317 7th day of storage (Fig. 3). During the storage periods, the hardness was changed from 552 to

318 572 g (O), from 934 to 908 g (OS), from 1348 to 1506 g (OF) and from 1655 to 1503 g (OH)

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319 cookie. Further, during the storage periods, the O cookie had the lowest hardness value
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320 among the samples. Soy flour and HPMC addition led to higher hardness than starch addition.

321 These data agree with the results from the sensory panels. Moreover, studies on other soy
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322 flour-added cookies indicated similar results (Ryan & Brewer, 2006). Generally, cookies

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prepared with flour with a higher protein content resulted in a harder structure due to the

324 strong binding of protein and starch (Moiraghi et al., 2011). The same process occurred with
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325 wheat bread (Mohamed et al., 2006). The addition of soy flour caused an increase in firmness
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326 and density due to the absorption of water by soy fiber, causing an increase in dough

327 viscosity as well as an interchange of disulfide bonds between soy and gluten proteins.
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328 However, navy bean flour substitution on wheat cookies showed an increased tenderness due
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329 to the weakened or diluted gluten matrix (Cady et al., 1987). As fat replacer in biscuits,

330 HPMC led to an increase of the maximum compression force which correlates with hardness

331 when HPMC, 15 g/100 g, was used to replace fat (Laguna et al., 2014).

332 4.7. Moisture content and water activity of okara cookie during storage

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333 The change in moisture content of the okara cookies during the 7-day storage study is

334 depicted in Fig. 4A. Like the cookie doughs (Table 1), the okara cookie control (O) had

335 higher moisture (16.0 g/100 g) compared to wheat cookies (2.7 g/100 g of moisture)

336 (Olagunju & Ifesan, 2013). The additives significantly decreased moisture content of the

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337 cookies to 10.4 (OS), 8.5 (OF) and 5.1 (OH) g/100 g (p<0.05). During the 7-day storage,

338 moisture content of all okara cookies increased for up to 3 days, and then decreased, except

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339 the OH cookie, which had increased moisture content until day 4. The O cookie had the

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340 highest moisture content over the course of the storage period. However, the OS cookie had a

341 similar value with the control on day 4 and day 7 of storage. The OH cookie had a lower

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342 moisture content compared to others at day 0 and day 1; however, after day 3, the OF had the
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343 lowest moisture content. After the 7-day storage period, the moisture content of the okara

344 cookie was 14.3 (O), 14.3 (OS), 9.3 (OF) and 13.4 (OH) g/100 g, respectively. During the 7-
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345 day storage, the Aw of okara cookies increased (Fig. 4B). The O cookie had higher water

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activity compared to the additive-added cookies over the storage period. Moreover, the Aw of

347 the okara cookie decreased with the addition of additives: The OS cookie showed a similar
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348 Aw with that of the O cookie. However, both OF and OH cookies had lower Aw than the
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349 control. During the 7-day storage, the Aw of all of the okara cookies increased. In general,

350 intermediate-moisture bakery products, such as cookies and snacks, have an Aw between 0.6
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351 and 0.85 (Smith et al., 2004). Products with Aw greater than 0.8 are not microbiologically
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352 stable. Hence, the O cookie, which had an Aw of 0.8 or above over the storage period even

353 on the first day, may not have a reasonable shelf life. Radocaj and Dimic (2013) reported that

354 50% replacement of wet okara for rice and dry coconut mix for a snack increased the Aw

355 from 0.77 to 0.81 because of the addition of water through wet okara. The OS cookie did not

356 appear to be affected by the additive, which had a similar Aw with the O cookie after 3 days

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357 of storage. On the other hand, soy flour and HPMC addition seem to improve the shelf life

358 based on a lower Aw and also engenders a greater WHC. A similar study has been conducted

359 on fiber-enriched cookies by Cho, Prosky, and Dreher (1999), who showed that soy flour and

360 HPMC were effective in extending the shelf life of cookies. Aw is also related to textural

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361 properties. Roos et al (1998) measured the texture of a model crispy snack at different Aw

362 and found that the loss of crispiness occurred at an Aw of 0.62. However, moisture content

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363 and Aw of fresh okara cookies are still higher than the regular wheat based cookie which has

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364 a moisture content of 4.53 g/100 g and Aw of 0.24 (Laguna et al., 2014).

365 In summary, this study demonstrated that the addition of additives with high WHC led

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366 to better dough performance as well as improved qualities of okara cookies. HPMC
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367 supplemented cookies had 3 times higher WHC than the control. The cookies with additives,

368 especially soy flour and HPMC, reduced the water activity, which increased shelf life and
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369 hardness and improved crispiness compared to the control cookie. Incorporating fresh okara

370
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into bakery products increases the protein and fiber content and may contribute to a more

371 nutritious product for consumers as well as a reduction of environmental waste.

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372 Reference
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373 AACC. (2000). Baking quality of cookie flourmicro method, Approved Method of the

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375 Brcenas, M. E., Cristina, M., & Rosell, C. M. (2006). Different approaches for improving
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376 the quality and extending the shelf life of the partially baked bread: low temperatures

377 and HPMC addition. Journal of Food Engineering, 72, 92-99.

378 Bourne, M. C. (1978). Texture Profile Analysis. Food Technology, 32, 62-66.

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379 Cady, N.D., Carter, A.E., Kayne, B.E., Zabik, M.E., & Uebersax, M.A. (1987). Navy bean

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383 In S.S. Cho, L. Prosky, & M. Dreher (Eds.), Complex carbohydrates in foods (pp 342).

384 New York : Marcel Dekker

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389 Filipev, B., Simurina, O., Saka, M., Sedej, I., Jovanov, P., & Pestoric, M. (2011). Feasibility

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391 Chemistry, 125, 51-57.

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398 soft wheat flour streams on dough rheology and quality attributes of cookies. Journal of

399 Food Engineering, 90, 228-237.

400 Grizotto, R.K., Rufi, C.R.G., Yamada, E.A., & Vicente, E. (2010). Evaluation of the quality

401 of a molded sweet biscuit enriched with okara flour, Food Science and Technology

402 (Campinas), 30, 270-275.

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403 Hadnaev, T.R.D., Torbica, A.M., & Hadnaev, M.S. (2013). Influence of buckwheat flour

404 and carboxymethyl cellulose on rheological behaviour and baking performance of

405 gluten-free cookie dough, Food and Bioprocess Technology, 6, 1770-1781.

406 Han, J. S., Kim, J. A., Han, G. P., & Kim, D. S. (2004). Quality characteristics of functional

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407 cookies with added potato peel. Korean Journal Food Cookery Science, 20, 63-69.

408 Katayama, M., & Wilson, L.A. (2008). Utilization of okara, a byproduct from soymilk

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411 Khouryieh, H., & Aramouni F. (2012). Physical and sensory characteristics of cookies

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413 2372.

414 Laguna, L., Primo-Martin, C., Varela, P., Salvador, A., & Sanz, T. (2014). HPMC and inulin
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415 as fat replacers in biscuits: Sensory and instrumental evaluation. LWT-Food Science and

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417 McWard, C. (1995). Specialty flours and grains. Baking Snack, 17, 4046.
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418 Medcalf, D.G. & Gilles, K.A. (1965). Wheat starches, I. Comparison of physicochemical
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419 properties. Cereal Chemistry, 42, 558-562.

420 Mohamed, A. A., Rayas-Duarte, P., Shogren, R. L., & Sessa, D. J. (2006). Low
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421 carbohydrates bread: Formulation, processing and sensory quality. Food Chemistry, 99,
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422 686692.

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424 Relationship between soft wheat flour physicochemical composition and cookie-making

425 performance. Cereal Chemistry, 88, 130-136.

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426 Olagunju, A.I., & Ifesan, B.O.T. (2013). Nutritional composition and acceptability of

427 cookies made from wheat flour and germinated sesame (Sesamum indicum) flour blends.

428 British Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 3, 702-713.

429 Radocaj, O., & Dimic, E. (2013). Valorization of wet okara, a value-added functional

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430 ingredient, in a coconut-based baked snack. Cereal chemistry, 90, 256-262.

431 Roos, Y.H., Roininen, K., Jouppila, K., & Tuorila, H. (1998). Glass transition and water

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432 plasticization effects on crispiness of a snack food extrudate. International Journal of

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433 Food Properties, 1, 163-180.

434 Ryan, K.J., & Brewer, M.S. (2006). Physical properties of sugar-snap cookies using granule

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435 surface deproteinated wheat starch. Journal of Texture Studies, 37, 442-457.
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436 Shin, D.J., Kim, W., Kim, Y. (2013). Physicochemical and sensory properties of soy bread

437 made with germinated, steamed, and roasted soy flour. Food Chemistry, 141, 517-523.
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438 Singh, M., & Mohamed, A. (2007). Influence of gluten-soy protein blends on the quality of
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439 reduced carbohydrates cookies. LWT-Food Science Technology, 40, 353-360.

440 Smith, J.P, Daifas, D.P, El-Khoury, W., Koukoutsis, J., & El-Khoury, A. (2004). Shelf life and
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441 safety concerns of bakery products- A reivew. Critical Reviews in Food Science and
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444 oscillatory tests for understanding how cellulose emulsions function as fat replacers in
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445 biscuits. LWT-Food Science and Technology, DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2014.06.029.

446 Tianyi, K., Susan., Xiuzhi, S., & Paul, S. (2003). Blending of poly(lactic acid) and starches

447 containing varying amylose content. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 89, 3639

448 3646.

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449 Turhan, S., Temiz, H., & Sagir, I. (2007). Utilization of wet okara in low-fat beef patties,

450 Journal of Muscle Foods, 18, 226-235.

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1 Table 1. Moisture content, water holding capacity and textural properties of okara cookie dough depending on different additives

Textural property

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Moisture content Water holding capacity
Sample
(g/100g)

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(%) Hardness (g) Cohesiveness

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O 56.5a 46.5d 6.5c 0.1a

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OS 53.3b 77.6c 5.9d 0.1a

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OF 52.4bc 88.5b 7.7b 0.1a

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OH 51.4c 147.8a 11.3a 0.2a

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2

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3 O: only okara, OS: okara with starch added, OF: okara with soy flour added , OH: okara with HPMC added
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4 Different superscripts within the same column are significantly different by Duncans multiple range test (p<0.05).

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Table 2. Proximate composition of okara cookie

Total Carbohydrate Crude Protein Crude Fat Ash Energy

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Sample
(g/100 g) (g/100 g) (g/100 g) (g/100 g) (kJ/g)

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O 35.3c 11.6b 25.7b 6.3a 1753d

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OS 42.4b 11.2c 25.6b 5.7b 1854c

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OF 43.3b 13.7a 27.1a 5.8b 1975a

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OH 45.6a 10.8d 24.5c 5.3c 1870b

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O: only okara, OS: okara with starch added, OF: okara with soy flour added , OH: okara with HPMC added

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a-d
Different superscripts within the same column are significantly different by Duncans multiple range test (p<0.05).
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Table 3. Spread factor and color properties of okara cookie

Diameter Thickness Spread Color property

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Sample (mm) (mm) factor L* a* b*

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O 28.4a 2.8c 10.1a 81.9b 1.7b 30.7a

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OS 27.8b 2.8c 10.1a 81.3b 1.2b 28.3b

28.0ab 2.9b 9.6b 77.8c 3.3a 27.9b

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OF

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OH 28.4ab 3.0a 9.5c 84.4a 1.1b 23.7c

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O: only okara, OS: okara with starch added, OF: okara with soy flour added , OH: okara with HPMC added

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a-d
Different superscripts within the same column are significantly different by Duncans multiple range test (p<0.05).
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Table 4. Sensory evaluation of okara cookie according to additives

Texture property

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Sample Appearance Beany odor Beany taste Mouthfeel Hardness Crispiness Chewiness

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O 3.0c 4.1c 3.5b 4.3b 2.4c 2.4c 2.3d

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OS 4.5b 5.0bc 4.4b 4.1b 3.5b 3.4b 3.4c

OF 5.0b 7.6a 7.4a 4.0b 6.3a 6.3a 4.4b

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7.1a 5.3b 3.3b 8.4a 6.9a 6.0a 5.8a

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OH

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O: only okara, OS: okara with starch added, OF: okara with soy flour added , OH: okara with HPMC added

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A hedonic 9-point scale (1=very weak, 9=very strong); values are meanSD of 8 replicates

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a-d
Different superscripts within the same column are significantly different by Duncans multiple range test (p<0.05).
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FIGURE CAPTIONS

Fig. 1. Images (A: after pressing, B: after extension) of okara cookie dough with additives (O:

only okara, OS: okara with starch, OF: okara with soy flour, OH: okara with HPMC)

Fig. 2. Representative scanning electron micrographs of okara cookie doughs with (A) no

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additives, (B) starch added, (C) soy flour added, and (D) HPMC added during dough making

Fig. 3. Change in the hardness of okara cookies during 7-day storage

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Fig. 4. Change in moisture content (A) and water activity (B) of okara cookies during 7-day

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storage

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Fig. 1.

(A)

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(B)

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O OS OF OH
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Fig. 2.

Hole

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A B

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Fig. 3.

1800

1600

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1400

1200
Hardness (g)

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1000

800

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600

400

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200

0
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0 1 3 4 7
Storage period (Day)
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O: only okara (grey bar), OS: okara with starch added (dot bar), OF: okara with soy flour
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added (black bar), OH: okara with HPMC added (striped bar)
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Fig. 4.

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O: only okara (), OS: okara with starch added (), OF: okara with soy flour added (), OH: okara with HPMC added ()
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Highlights

Fiber-enhanced cookies were developed using fresh okara.

Texture improvers starch, soy flour and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC)

were evaluated.

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Okara cookie dough containing HPMC was the most elastic dough with no cutting.

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Okara cookies containing soy flour and HPMC had the lowest water activity.

Incorporating fresh okara into cookies may contribute to a more nutritious product.

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