Brige Lauching Cap 5

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/bl.59979.299
Chapter 5
Prestressed composite bridges
Limiting the self-weight is a prime requirement in the design of bridges, whatever the construction
method may be. Self-weight is the most signicant load on the structure, and its reduction creates a
reserve available for live loads. Self-weight also governs the cost of construction equipment, which
is a prime component of the construction cost of a bridge (Rosignoli, 2013).
The self-weight of a PC box girder is the sum of the weight of the top slab, the bottom slab and the
webs. These three components can be treated separately to lighten the cross-section. The thickness
of the top slab depends on the live load bending and the need for punching strength and adequate
concrete cover, and cannot be excessively reduced. The thickness of the bottom slab often depends
on the need to contain internal tendons, but its design is generally less restrained.
Using internal prestressing, the web thickness is often governed by the need to contain and deviate
the tendons. In a narrow box girder the web area can reach 30% of the cross-sectional area (Dezi
et al., 1982; Rosignoli, 1996). The webs reduce the exural efciency of the cross-section (Equation
2.10) because of their position close to the neutral axis. The webs also increase the cost of materials
and labour, as they are the most difcult element of the cross-section to form and to cast. The webs
are necessary for shear transfer, and their shear efciency depends mainly on the mechanical prop-
erties of the material.
The efciency of a material can be evaluated using the strength-to-weight ratio em = f/g. A con-
crete with compressive strength fc = 45 MPa and specic weight gc = 25 kN/m3 has a compressive
efciency em = 1.8 103 m and much lower tensile and shear efciency. An Fe510 EN-10025
steel plate with fy = 355 MPa and gs = 77 kN/m3 has a tensile efciency em = 4.6 103 m at rst
yielding and higher tensile strength, and is therefore 2.5 times more efcient at rst yielding.
Although buckling reduces the compressive efciency of a steel plate, the composite bridges are
more efcient than the prestressed concrete (PC) ones, as their masses are more distant from the
gravity axis and the materials perform better.
Prestressing strand is denitely more efcient. Normal commercial strand reaches em = 21.5
103 m at the 0.1% load, and the cable is generally the most effective way to use steel in tension.
By relating the efciency of materials in their optimum work conditions to that of prestressing
steel, 45 MPa concrete reaches 8.4%, and Fe510 EN-10025 steel plates reach 21.4%.
A PC bridge is mainly designed for bending. Prestressing is the most cost-effective solution to
create an eccentric compression that controls the edge stresses, and in a continuous beam this
requires the presence of two anges to compress without instability. The use of reinforced concrete
offers compressive strength at low cost, and external prestressing allows web design without geo-
metry restraints. Once the exural demand has been met, tendon deviation reduces the tangential
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stresses in the webs, with benecial effects on the web thickness and the exural efciency of the
cross-section.
The efciency of concrete can be improved by increasing the strength and keeping the same density
(i.e. by using high-performance concrete), or by reducing the density and keeping the same strength
(i.e. by using lightweight concrete). The next step consists of abandoning the PC box girder concept
for the non-prestressed steelconcrete composite beam made of two or more I-girders completed
with a concrete slab. Thin steel plates offer the same shear capacity as concrete webs but have only
58% of their weight, the use of a concrete bottom slab for double composite action is limited to
varying-depth long spans, and in most cases thick steel bottom anges designed to prevent buckling
resist negative bending in the support regions.
A similar efciency may be reached by using prestressed-composite box girders that combine the
use of external prestressing, concrete slabs that resist positive and negative bending, and light steel
webs that resist shear in combination with tendon deviation. These cross-sections are structurally
efcient and quick and easy to build by incremental launching.
5.1. High-performance concrete

In the last 20 years, international research into high-performance concrete has led to a variety of
new materials, with new abbreviations and acronyms. Among these, the most general one is
probably chemically bonded ceramic (CBC), which emphasises the ceramic character of the
material (inorganic and not metallic) and the prevalently chemical nature of the bond
(Collepardi et al., 1995b). The association of CBC materials with the family of ceramics is also
justied by the production process, which is much more similar to the processes used for conven-
tional neo-ceramics (powder pressing, high shear mixing, lamination, extrusion, calendering) than
to those used for ordinary concrete.
Only some of these materials are suitable for the construction of large and complex elements
using conventional techniques (mixing and transport in concrete mixers, casting in forms). The
others are reserved for more sophisticated uses, such as the production of small elements of regular
shape.
In general, CBC materials are designed to reach the highest mechanical strength permitted by the
absence or the minimum presence of defects or pores in the matrix microstructure, and can be
grouped into two classes. The macro-defect-free (MDF) materials are characterised by a gummy
rheology that permits processing by extrusion or calendering between rolls. The densied with
small particles (DSP) materials are characterised by a more conventional rheology and are based
on the principle of lling the voids between the cement granules (150 mm) with sub-micron
particles (0.010.1 mm). Processing includes humid powder pressing, and pouring mixtures of
plastic consistency into moulds.
The DSP materials may be divided into two subtypes: the current high-performance concrete
(HPC) and the reactive powder concrete (RPC), which represents the peak of technological
development of HPC. HPC is commercially available in many countries and is characterised by
a compressive strength of 60120 MPa obtained by using the following materials.
g high-strength cements with a low alkali content mixed with mineral additives with high
pozzolanic activity such as silica fumes, rice husk ash and microne slag
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g super-water-reducing admixtures (superplasticisers and retarders) that can produce the

lowest water-to-cement ratio, generally prescribed in the range 0.260.30, considering the
cement to be both the cement itself and the mineral additives
g high-quality, rough-surface crushed coarse aggregates (basalt, granite and diabase)
combined with washed silica sand to ensure high mechanical strength and adhesion to the
cement matrix.
HPC has some limitations when subject to large strains because of the brittle nature and the low
fracture energy of ceramic materials. Low ductility minimises stress redistribution and requires
accurate distribution of reinforcement. The research on RPC is aimed at eliminating these weak
points. Soft-casting production of a concrete with 200 MPa compressive strength and ductility,
exural strength and fracture energy much higher than HPC will open new perspectives in the use
of concrete, and will represent a valid alternative to structural metals.
The use of HPC in a PC bridge offers numerous advantages. The combination of external pre-
stressing and higher concrete strength results in thinner slabs and webs, with increased exural
efciency. Some studies (Xanthakos, 1994; CEB/FIP, 1994) show that the concrete quantity in the
deck may be reduced by 2530% through the use of HPC, leading to a 20% volume reduction in
the substructure. Economic comparisons indicate that, considering the higher unit price but the
reduced concrete volume, the use of HPC can also result in lower construction costs.
In a launched bridge, a lighter cross-section reduces the inuence of the launch stresses, leading
to cost savings in the launch equipment and prestressing, and longer spans can be reached without
temporary piers. A lighter cross-section also increases the relative quantity of draped tendons, and
with it the overall efciency of prestressing. A thinner deck leads to more slender and aesthetically
pleasing structures, and the quantity of reinforcement also decreases, although not in linear
proportion with the reduction in self-weight.
Deections and prestress losses due to elastic shortening diminish because of the higher modulus of
elasticity of HPC, and shrinkage and creep decrease due to the better time-dependent behaviour.
Some design standards allow signicant increases in the elastic modulus compared with con-
ventional concrete. Higher tensile strength, reduced shrinkage cracking, increased resistance to
freezethaw cycles, abrasion resistance and imperviousness to water and gas improve the structure
resistance to aggressive agents and thus increase durability.
The advantages of using HPC in non-prestressed composite bridges are less evident but not
less signicant. The use of HPC is often related to a higher compressive strength, which appears
pointless when compared with the low longitudinal axial stress in the concrete slab in the positive
bending regions. In addition, thermal shrinkage of cast-in-place HPC may be higher than that of
conventional concrete. The interest in the use of HPC is mainly related to precasting of thin and
light full-depth deck panels, and to segmental casting of the concrete slab behind the abutment
combined with its incremental launching over the steel girder.
Comparisons are difcult, as HPC technology is progressively being used also for conventional-
strength concrete. The long-term shrinkage strain of HPC is similar to that of conventional
concrete, but its evolution over time is different. With 70% relative humidity and an average
cross-sectional radius of, say, 0.15 m, the 28-day shrinkage of conventional concrete is about
17% of total shrinkage, while a 60 MPa concrete with silica fumes reaches 31% of total shrinkage
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at the same age. If composite action is attained at 28-day curing, the residual shrinkage is 20%
higher in conventional concrete. The shrinkage stress in a composite bridge depends on the
residual shrinkage strain and on the elastic modulus of concrete. As the latter increases with the
cubic root of the compressive strength, the long-term tensile stress is slightly lower in a HPC slab,
while the tensile strength is denitely higher.
The long-term creep of HPC is smaller than that of conventional concrete. The creep coefcient
may decrease down to 1.5 without silica fume and to 0.8 with silica fume, compared with 2.0 for
conventional concrete (C81-63, 1981). The ratio of the short- to long-term modulus of elasticity is,
therefore, 2.5 and 1.8 for HPC (without and with silica fumes, respectively) compared with 3.0 for
conventional concrete. The long-term modular ratio is often taken as 18 for conventional 35 MPa
concrete. Based on a cubic root increase with the compressive strength, the short-term modulus of
elasticity of a 60 MPa concrete is 1.19 times that of a 35 MPa concrete, and the short-term
modular ratio is therefore about 5 instead of 6. The long-term modular ratio is 12.5 for a
60 MPa HPC without silica fume and 9 with silica fume, instead of 18. The reduction in the
long-term modular ratio is, therefore, 31% without silica fume and 50% with silica fume. The
weight savings in the steel girder due to a more efcient composite action under service loading
combine with the savings due to a lighter concrete slab.
Design strengths of 60120 MPa do not subject the handling of concrete to particular restraints.
The production of hydration heat must be controlled as it can produce micro-cracks. The follow-
ing steps may be adopted.
1 Limit the maximum temperature inside the concrete. In the 80 MPa HPC for the Elorn
Bridge in France (97 MPa average strength was actually reached), internal temperatures up
to 808C were measured in the pylons during hydration. The effects were lower than those
expected in a conventional concrete, with a 10% reduction in the 28-day strength and some
vertical cracks smaller than the 0.3 mm limit related to durability requirements.
2 Limit the thermal gradients. In the Great Belt Link in Denmark, maximum differences of
208C were allowed between the external surface and any internal point, and of 128C
between the mean temperature of the setting segment and the match-cast segment. These
conditions were achieved by combining heating or cooling of the fresh concrete, heating of
the match-cast segment, and cooling of the setting segment. When the cross-section is cast
in two phases, heating of the bottom U-segment may also be necessary to control thermal
shrinkage at the horizontal joints.
3 Postpone form stripping to reduce the supercial shrinkage cracks. In the Elorn Bridge, the
forms were maintained against the young concrete for 72 hours. This is easy to achieve in a
launched bridge, as the weekend is typically used for curing, and longer protection of the
segments after extraction from the casting cell does not affect the cycle time.
4 Immediately protect the exposed surface of the top slab with plastic sheets. In a launched
bridge, this protection can be extended to the entire outer surface of the segment, with only
minor cost and labour demand.
5 Use the lowest possible water-to-cement ratio, and check the number of micro-cracks
measured in drilled cores.
6 Adhere to quality control procedures with training programmes for the staff of the owner
and contractor.
7 Carefully plan the whole production process, including methods and limit times for
transport, pouring and vibration of concrete, as well as mixing of admixtures in the yard.
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5.2. Lightweight concrete

The use of lightweight concrete increases the structural efciency of the bridge (see Equation 2.7)
and diminishes reinforcement, prestressing, the cost of launch equipment, and the loads on piers
and abutments (ACI, 1992). Its use may also be convenient in bridges in seismic areas or those
located very high above the ground, and the savings soon exceed the higher cost of material. In
Bridge No. 33 on highway A55 in France, which was built using full-span incremental launching,
the value engineering design with lightweight concrete was 3% less expensive than that with
normal-weight concrete because of savings in prestressing (Gillet and Jacquet, 1988).
Lightweight concrete is more expensive than normal-weight concrete because of the higher pro-
duction cost of the aggregate and the few sources of supply, which increases the cost of transport.
Lightweight concrete may reach 60 MPa compressive strength with 18.5 kN/m3 density
(Collepardi et al., 1995a). In the main 163 m span of the cable-stayed Salhus Bridge in Norway,
lightweight concrete was specied with 73.5 MPa average compressive strength and 19.2 kN/m3
density.
The physical properties of the light aggregates require accurate design and detailing. Low ductility
requires dense reinforcement to increase the plastic strain capacity and to dissipate energy. Low
thermal conductivity reduces the loss of hydration heat and accelerates the gain in mechanical
strength, so that the ratio of the 7-day strength to the 28-day one is generally 0.80.9, compared
with an average value of 0.7 for normal-weight concrete. In some instances this may be an
advantage; in other cases (box girders cast in two phases, cast-in-place concrete slabs of composite
bridges) delayed concrete cooling may amplify the effects of thermal shrinkage.
Shrinkage is about 50% higher because of the lower rigidity of the aggregate, creep is about 20%
higher, and the tensile strength is 1530% lower than for normal-weight concrete. The elastic
modulus is 2550% lower, which increases short- and long-term deections and losses of prestress
but reduces the inuence of some secondary stresses. Several design standards specify the elastic
and time-dependent parameters to be used for design using lightweight concrete.
5.3. Introduction to prestressed composite bridges

Prestressed composite bridges may be grouped into two categories, the main difference between
them being in the transmission of shear. The space-frame decks eliminate material not working
in the Morsch shear lattice (Figure 5.1). The diagonals between the concrete slabs may be made
Figure 5.1 Prestressed composite space frame. (Reproduced with permission from ASCE)
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with steel shapes, steel pipes with or without concrete inll acting compositely, or precast PC
members (Boudot et al., 1987). The box girders with steel plate webs benet from the higher shear
efciency of the steel plates compared with concrete webs.
The combined use of external prestressing, concrete slabs and steel-plate or trussed webs results in
efcient cross-sections that make the most out of prestressing and are light and easy to build by
incremental launching.
Compared with a conventional PC box girder, self-weight diminishes without affecting the carry-
ing capacity, and the structural efciency increases (Equation 2.7). On a 40 m span, a PC
box girder with internal prestressing requires about 0.55 m3 of concrete per square metre of
deck surface, which decreases to 0.45 m3/m2 with the use of external prestressing. A prestressed
composite box girder requires only 0.35 m3/m2 and is 2535% lighter.
Concrete is located at the edges of the cross-section, the radius of gyration increases, and the
exural efciency increases in a quadratic ratio (Equation 2.10). The concrete cross-sectional area
to be compressed decreases, and launch prestressing diminishes because of the combined effect of
smaller area and higher efciency (Equation 3.3).
The contribution of materials is specic. The concrete slabs resist bending thanks to prestressing,
and tendon deviation reduces the vertical shear to values that can be carried with light steel-plate
or trussed webs. Each material works uniformly rather than in triangular stress pattern (the
concrete slabs are uniformly compressed, the web plates resist the uniform shear stress, the truss
diagonals resist the axial compression and tension, and the prestressing tendons are subject to
axial tension), which further enhances the efciency of design.
A prestressed composite box girder with steel plate webs is a hybrid between a PC box girder and a
non-prestressed composite deck that takes the best from the two technologies.
g Compared with a non-prestressed composite deck with two or multiple I-girders, the webs
are thinner, the anges are smaller, fewer cross-frames and no lateral braces are necessary,
the weight of steelwork is only 1520%, the unit cost of steelwork is similar, eld assembly
is simpler, the geometry tolerances are less stringent, and the maintenance costs are lower.
g Compared with a PC box girder, the absence of concrete webs saves labour and accelerates
and simplies casting of the segments, reinforcement is simpler and easier to assemble,
construction is faster, and the casting cell, launch nose and thrust systems are less expensive.
In addition to savings in labour and materials, both types of prestressed composite cross-section
offer quality advantages (Richard, 1984). Most PC box girders have only two webs because of the
forming cost and the weight of a multicellular section, and the longitudinal axial stress in the slabs
is different from the Naviers average value because of shear lag. In a space-frame deck, the larger
number of trussed webs makes elastic analysis more reliable, the effects of distortion are often
negligible (Bruneau et al., 1984a, 1984b), and load dispersal throughout multiple load paths
(Mireles and Podonly, 1983) increases the robustness and redundancy of the structural solution
(Figure 5.2).
In a PC box girder, the shrinkage differential due to the different thickness of webs and slabs
causes stress gradients at the cross-sectional nodes. In a space-frame deck, the diagonals of the
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Figure 5.2 Launching-gantry erection of the Bubiyan Bridge. (Reproduced with permission from ASCE)
trussed webs exert a lower level of restraint on the time-dependent shortening of the slabs, and the
effects of differential shrinkage are mitigated (Figure 5.3). The steel corrugated-plate webs offer
the same advantage through their minimal longitudinal stiffness.
Axial launch prestressing is the main limitation to the use of space-frame sections in launched
bridges. Rectilinear launch tendons assign the entire self-weight shear to the trussed webs.
Migration of the support reactions during launch is another limitation (Rosignoli, 2000, 2001),
Figure 5.3 Launching-gantry erection of the Sylans Bridge
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Figure 5.4 Balanced cantilever erection of the Bras de la Plaine Bridge. (Photo: VSL)
which could be solved by using mobile launch bearings under the bottom truss nodes (Rosignoli,
1998). To date, most space-frame bridges have been built using segmental precasting and launch-
ing-gantry erection (Martin et al., 1982; Rosignoli, 2013), by balanced-cantilever in-place casting
(Figure 5.4), or by in-place casting on falsework in the case of small bridges (Figure 5.5).
5.4. Cross-sectional efciency

The efciency of prestressed composite bridges has been compared with that of PC box girders in a
statistical analysis of 76 continuous highway bridges having a constant-depth single-cell cross-
section and internal prestressing (Rosignoli, 1997, 1998). The exural efciency of conventional
Figure 5.5 Arbois Bridge. (Reproduced with permission from ASCE)
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Figure 5.6 Flexural efficiency of conventional box girders (CBG) and prestressed composite sections (PCS)
0.90
PCS
Flexural efficiency
0.70
CBG
0.50
0.30
20 40 60 80
Span: m
PC box girders as per Equation 2.10 is represented by white triangles along with their regression
line in Figure 5.6.
The exural efciency of the PC box girders was recalculated by subtracting the webs from the cross-
sectional area and moment of inertia, and the net area thus obtained was increased by 5% to account
for the weight of the steel corrugated-plate webs of the prestressed composite sections. The results are
represented by white dots in Figure 5.6. The few prestressed composite bridges built to date (black
circles) distribute conservatively among the white dots and have the same structural behaviour. This
validates the use of a common regression line, which shows a 22% increase in the exural efciency.
In Figure 5.7, the white triangles represent the self-weight of the conventional box girders
(inclusive of pier diaphragms, and for the 12.6 m average deck width of the database), the white
Figure 5.7 Self-weight of CBG and PCS
30
Unit dead load: kN/sq. m
20
CBG
PCS
10
0
20 40 60 80
Span: m
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Figure 5.8 Self-weight and live service loads
20
Dead load
Unit loads: kN/sq. m CBG
Dead load
PCS
10
BS 5400
DIN 1072
AASHTO
0
20 40 60 80
Span: m
circles represent the self-weight of the derived prestressed composite sections, and the black circles
represent the self-weight of actual prestressed composite bridges. The regression lines show a
signicant weight saving, which is practically constant with the span.
The live loads are represented along with the self-weight regression lines in Figure 5.8, and the
structural efciency as per Equation 2.7 is compared in Figure 5.9. The improvement ranges from
15% for 30 m spans to 27% for 70 m spans. Better structural performance and savings in labour,
concrete, reinforcement, prestressing and special construction equipment balance the cost of the
steel webs and the risks of innovation, and open up new perspectives in the incremental launching
construction of medium-span bridges.
Figure 5.9 Structural efficiency of CBG and PCS
0.60
Structural efficiency
PCS
0.30
CBS
0.00
20 40 60 80
Span: m
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5.5. Prestressed composite box girders with stiffened-plate webs

The most intuitive way to replace the concrete webs of a PC box girder with steel girders is to use
stiffened-plate webs (Figure 5.10). The deck has a conventional aspect, as the prestressing tendons
are hidden within the box cell. The behaviour of the individual materials is well known, and the
combined use of reinforced concrete slabs and steel I-girders has been amply tested in hundreds
of composite bridges. However, this simplicity is only apparent, and several reasons discourage
the use of this structural scheme.
The steel webs resist a signicant portion of the prestressing force applied to the composite section.
Under an axial force F, strain compatibility at the webslab nodes governs the distribution of the
axial force between the concrete slabs, of total area Ac , and the steel girders, of total area As . The
initial portion of prestressing resisted by the steel girders is
As
Fs = F (5.1)
E
As + c Ac
Es
where Ec is the elastic modulus of concrete at stressing. The effects of concrete creep are evaluated
using an age-adjusted modulus that decreases with time, and therefore Fs increases with time and
soon reaches 2025% of the total prestressing force. This force is wasted and requires additional
web stiffeners to prevent buckling, which increases the fabrication costs and may reduce the fatigue
life due to cracks initiating at the stiffener welds (Elgaaly and Seshadri, 1998).
A cross-section composed of two I-girders and two concrete slabs would be excessively deform-
able, and vertical stiffeners are necessary to attain a transverse exural stiffness of the webs similar
to that of the slabs, to control transverse bending and cross-sectional distortion. Braces are also
necessary within the box cell to complement the action of the tendon deviation diaphragms.
The use of thicker web plates may also control buckling, but increases the loss of prestress because
of a higher level of restraint exerted by the steel webs on the time-dependent shortening of the con-
crete slabs. Stress analysis is complex, as creep of concrete decreases progressively due to shedding
of prestress to the steel webs, and the variation in the modular ratio over time modies the moment
of inertia of the composite section, the position of the centroid, the section moduli at the edges,
and the eccentricity of the prestressing force.
Figure 5.10 Prestressed composite box girder with stiffened-plate webs. (Reproduced with permission
from ASCE)
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5.5.1 Bottom webslab node

The bottom webslab node is the weakest point of the deck in terms of durability. Longitudinal
corrosion lines have been frequently observed at the deck paving level in U-spans with edge girders
connected by a concrete slab supported on the bottom anges. In a prestressed composite box
girder the situation is similar, although only condensation water can ow along the webs inside
the box cell and gather at the bottom anges.
Corrosion prevention discourages the placement of triple contact points (air, concrete and steel)
near main structural members. Therefore, while the top webslab node may be detailed using
conventional criteria (transfer of prestress combines with longitudinal interface shear forces that
are lower than those of non-prestressed composite bridges because of the shear reduction achieved
with tendon deviation), the bottom node presents specic design challenges (Figure 5.11).
The simplest solution (scheme A) consists of casting the bottom slab on the bottom ange, and is
affected by the presence of a triple contact point on a main structural member. A longitudinal
stiffener may be welded to the web at the top of the slab (scheme B) in order to move the triple
contact away from the web. In both cases, the eld splices in the bottom ange interfere with the
launch bearings.
The slab may also be cast under the bottom ange (scheme C). This moves the triple contact point
away from the web, reduces the total weight of steelwork, simplies launch, and offers a better
aesthetic result; however, shims are necessary to support the I-girders on the extraction rails of the cast-
ing cell prior to casting the bottom slab. Concrete pouring and vibration may be simplied by inclining
the webs (scheme D), which also ensures better concrete adhesion to the bottom ange and better
performance of the shear connectors. Additional cost savings derive from a narrower bottom slab.
The forces transferred between steel girders and concrete slabs are similar to those of non-
prestressed composite bridges. They consist of longitudinal forces due to interface shear transfer
and shedding of prestress, and of orthogonal forces in the regions of the continuous beam subject
Figure 5.11 Bottom webslab node. (Reproduced with permission from ASCE)
A B
Point of attack Longitudinal
of corrosion stiffener
D
C
Inclined web
Difficult concrete
casting
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to discontinuities in the vertical shear. Headed stud connectors may be used when the concrete
slab is cast on the bottom ange. The connectors for suspended slabs must also resist the weight
of the slab, and are therefore embedded more deeply in the concrete (Aribert, 1988; Johnson, 1997;
Kristek and Vitek, 1997).
5.5.2 Web instability

Stability of elastic equilibrium is a fundamental issue in steel construction, and steel plate girders
are often designed to satisfy stability rather than strength criteria. During launch an I-girder
subject to mainly exural stresses may develop the modes of instability discussed in Section 4.4.
Incremental launching construction of a prestressed composite box girder involves casting both
slabs in the casting cell and launching the completed box girder, and the stability of I-girders
improves signicantly when they are braced and stiffened by concrete slabs at both anges.
The concrete slabs, ensure lateral and torsional stability to the compression anges by acting as
diffuse lateral bracing. Tendon deviation diaphragms and pier diaphragms avoid relative displace-
ments between the slabs, which indirectly stabilises the vertical web stiffeners. The high moment of
inertia about the vertical axis and the high constant of torsion of the hollow section control lateral
torsionexure buckling in the front cantilever.
The concrete slabs are not very effective at controlling web panel buckling. Their only contribution
is to restrain the anges and reduce the panel depth. The combined longitudinal compressive stress
due to prestressing and longitudinal bending diminishes web panel stability in the upper web
region in the midspan, and in the lower web region in the negative bending zones. Deck launching
is demanding because axial launch prestress does not diminish the self-weight shear. As every
section is subject to positive and negative bending and full self-weight shear during launch,
longitudinal stiffeners at the thirds of the web panel depth may be used to control buckling of thin
webs, with additional fabrication costs.
During launch, the stiffened-plate webs may also develop the local modes of instability discussed
in Section 4.4.5. The local modes depend on the entity of the support reactions and, because the
deck is launched nished and includes two concrete slabs, the support reactions are much higher
than those of twin I-girders launched without the concrete slab. The prestressed composite box
girders are not cambered, and one of the causes of increased support reactions is avoided.
When the bottom slab is suspended from the webs (schemes C and D in Figure 5.11), the deck
surface that comes into contact with the launch bearings is match-cast on the extraction rails of
the casting cell, and ange irregularities at the eld splices are avoided as well. Finally, when the
thrust force is applied to the bottom slab, the loads due to launch friction and launch gradient
remain within the bottom slab and do not affect the lower region of webs.
The local modes of web instability at the support points are local yielding and local buckling. Both
modes are possible during launch, in spite of the presence of the bottom slab. The support
reactions are high and the web panels are thin, as tendon deviation reduces the vertical shear at
the end of launch. Local yielding and local buckling may be checked using the criteria discussed
in Section 4.4.5 by adjusting the length of the patch load and the width and thickness of the
bottom ange according with the contribution of the bottom slab.
Local yielding is controlled by the length and exibility of the launch bearings, and by the longi-
tudinal dispersal of the support reactions throughout the bottom slab, the stiffness of which may
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be signicant at a local level. The bottom slab also controls local buckling by restraining the
bottom ange and by increasing its effective exural capacity. The contribution of the bottom slab
is effective throughout the length of the bridge and does not depend on the spacing of the vertical
web stiffeners. Finally, the thickness of the web panels is typically constant along the deck, and the
design of the launch bearings may therefore be optimised for most support situations.
5.5.3 Launching
Incremental launching of the completed deck is the simplest and most rational construction
method for prestressed composite box girders of 5070 m span. Compared with the launch of
the twin I-girders of non-prestressed composite decks, the self-weight is much larger because of
the presence of two concrete slabs, and the webs are thinner as the tendon deviation reduces the
vertical shear in service. Therefore, dispersal of the launch support reactions within the webs is
a prime concern.
When the longitudinal spacing of the vertical web stiffeners is smaller than the pier-cap width,
mobile launch bearings sliding along polished stainless-steel plates embedded in the pier cap may
be used to support the deck under the stiffeners. This solution requires lifting of the deck at the end of
each launch stroke to reposition the launch bearings under the following stiffeners, which is labour
intensive and slows launch down. Continuous launch is much faster, but requires uninterrupted
migration of the support reactions under the webs.
Support reactions applied far from the vertical web stiffeners produce high vertical compressive
stress in the webs. Axial launch prestressing is applied prior to launching, and the webs are
therefore subject to uniform compression as well. Self-weight bending causes additional axial com-
pression in the lower web regions over the supports, and the webs also resist the entire self-weight
shear prior to the application of polygonal tendons at the end of launch.
The migration of the support stress elds during launch may govern the design of the webs. Even
from this point of view some types of bottom webslab node are more efcient. When the web
ange is above the concrete slab, the slab thickness lengthens the patch load on the web, and
buckling is controlled more effectively because of the smaller depth of the web panel.
The launch bearings for prestressed composite box girders are longer than those for PC bridges.
Long launch bearings must rock longitudinally to avoid stress concentration and load eccentricity
on the piers. The launch bogies used for the steel girders are inadequate due to higher support
reactions and the smaller contact pressure on concrete surfaces. Long rectangular frames lodging
multi-layered elastomeric blocks may be installed on interconnected jacks for rotation, and
polished stainless-steel sheets are inserted between the deck and the launch bearing to diminish
sliding friction. Long launch bearings may also support a polished stainless-steel launch plate for
launching with Neoon (neopreneTeon) pads. Finite-element analysis of the bottom webslab
node will show stress concentration over the stiffer regions of the launch bearings.
Aligning the support reactions with the webs is another prime issue. If the slab is cast onto the
bottom ange, aligning the ange and the web, as in scheme A in Figure 5.12, is not enough to
align the support reaction, as the vertical contact stress distributes according to stiffness, and the
concrete slab is much stiffer than the thin outer ange. Widening the ange under the slab to apply
the support reaction to the slab (scheme B) creates a transverse couple. Stiffening the outer ange
(scheme A in Figure 5.13) improves the transverse equilibrium and the dispersal of the support
312

Figure 5.12 Transverse distribution of the support reaction. (Reproduced with permission from ASCE)
A B
R
e
reactions in the web, but the cost of the stiffeners is not justied by permanent structural
requirements.
A suspended slab (scheme B in Figure 5.13) is more efcient also from this point of view. During
launch, the Neoon pads are inserted under the geometric webslab node, the slab thickness
lengthens the patch load and improves dispersal of the support reactions, and in-place casting
of the bottom slab compensates for the geometry irregularities in the web segments and their eld
splices.
When passing over the launch bearings, the lower web region is subject to a complex triaxial state
of stress. Lateral guides and accurate design and construction of the bottom webslab node keep
the support reactions aligned with the webs, and transverse bending is low in normal launch
conditions. The state of stress in the webs can therefore be assumed as planar, and the principal
Figure 5.13 Transverse distribution of the support reaction. (Reproduced with permission from ASCE)
B
Lw
45
313

Bridge Launching
Figure 5.14 Salbris Bridge. (Reproduced with permission from ASCE)
stresses are directly compared with the stress limits specied in the design standards for the limit
state under consideration.
After a few experiments carried out in France in the 1980s, a small prestressed composite box
girder with stiffened-plate webs was launched on a simple 37.2 m span with the help of a tempor-
ary pier (Figure 5.14). The web plates were 12 mm thick, and the external tendons were deviated at
the thirds of the span. To date, the incremental launching construction method has been applied
only to prestressed composite box girders with steel corrugated-plate webs.
5.6. Prestressed composite box girders with corrugated-plate webs

The weak point of a prestressed composite box girder with stiffened-plate webs is the capability of
the webs to resist longitudinal axial stresses. The axial stiffness of the webs subtracts prestressing
from the PC slabs. Without axial stiffness, the webs would resist most of shear, and the PC slabs
would resist the rest of shear and the entire bending. The axial stiffness of the webs should there-
fore be reduced without affecting their shear capacity, and this requires anisotropic behaviour.
Orthotropic plates with different stiffness in the orthogonal directions are commonly used in steel
bridges. The webs and bottom ange of the U-girders for non-prestressed composite box girders
are heavily stiffened in the direction of the principal exural stresses, and less stiffened in the
orthogonal direction. This concept may be extended to the axial stiffness of a non-stiffened plate
by folding the plate to reduce its capability of resisting axial stress, without affecting the shear
capacity.
Trapezoidally or sinusoidally corrugated steel or aluminium plates are commonly accepted in

naval and aeronautical applications (Rothwell, 1968). Several fuselages and wing structures have
been built using undulated or corrugated plates. The skins of the F-15 and the wings of the AV-8B
and F-22 adopt corrugated panels (Wu and Duan, 2008). Aircraft designers realised long ago
that corrugated panels have a greater buckling strength in the direction perpendicular to the
314

Figure 5.15 Prestressed composite box girder with steel corrugated-plate webs. (Reproduced with
permission from ASCE)
corrugation. Corrugated metal panels have long been recognised to be excellent shear-carrying
members. This is attributed to two characteristics of the panels: the transverse stiffness provided
by the corrugation depth, and the in-plane stiffness due to narrow spaced folds that act as vertical
stiffeners (El Metwally and Loov, 2003; Sherman and Fisher, 1971).
In civil structures, the advantages of structural anisotropy may be exploited by replacing the
stiffened-plate webs of steel or composite girders with corrugated-plate webs (Cheyrezy and
Combault, 1990; Elgaaly and Dagher, 1990; Hamada et al., 1984; Heywood, 1987). Vertical
corrugation by cold mechanical folding creates the in-plane exibility necessary to minimise the
longitudinal axial and exural capacity. Folding also amplies the transverse exural capacity
needed to resist transverse bending and cross-sectional distortion, and to prevent buckling of the
web panels without welded stiffeners (Figure 5.15).
The idea of using corrugated-plate webs in civil structures was rst introduced for the steel beams
of buildings, where the web thickness ranges from 2 to 5 mm and the height-to-thickness ratio
ranges between 150 and 260 (Sayed-Ahmed, 2001). In the past three decades, there has also been
increasing interest in prestressed composite box-girder bridges with steel corrugated-plate webs.
The corrugated plates used in the composite bridges have 812 mm thickness, which results in a
higher height-to-thickness ratio, which typically ranges between 220 and 375 and has reached 445.
Load tests on specimens of corrugated-plate webs, nite-element numerical analyses, and studies on
the behaviour of corrugated-plate webs in twin I-girder composite decks and prestressed composite
box girders for short- and medium-span bridges have been conducted in several countries: in Britain
by Cafolla, Harrison and Johnson; in Canada by El Metwally and Loov; in China by Wu; in Egypt
by Sayed-Ahmed; in France by Bonnet, Cassiau, Causse, Cheyrezy, Combault, Duviard, Moreau,
Nadal and Reinhard; in Germany by Lindner; in Hungary by Korashy; in Italy by Rosignoli; in
Japan by Hamada, Isiguro, Mori, Naito, Tategami and Yoda; in Sweden by Bergfelt and
Levia-Aravena; and in the USA by Easley, Elgaaly, Heywood, Hussain, Libove, Peterson,
Rothwell, Sherman and Wu.
Corrugated-plate webs have a symmetrical regular shape with a constant wavelength in the longi-
tudinal direction (Figure 5.16). Finite-element analysis, tests and the rst actual structures have
conrmed several advantages of prestressed composite box girders with steel corrugated-plate
webs over stiffened-plate ones (Elgaaly and Seshadri, 1998; Johnson et al., 1997; Rosignoli, 1998).
315

Bridge Launching
Figure 5.16 Corrugation geometry. (Reproduced with permission from ASCE)
af

hf
c1
bf
g The longitudinal exibility of the webs minimises the initial and time-dependent loss of
prestress into the webs. Fewer tendons are needed to prestress the slabs, and fewer shear
connectors are needed at the web anges to transfer the longitudinal interface shear. The
internal tendons in a slab compress only that slab and do not affect the other slab.
g The webs have negligible longitudinal exural stiffness, and the state of stress in the central
web region far from the slabs is one of almost pure shear. The thickness of the web plates is
chosen for shear strength, and the corrugation is designed to prevent buckling. The webs
may often be made using 8 mm plates, while stiffened-plate webs are rarely thinner than
12 mm. In addition to the saving in weight, this opens up new perspectives on the efcient
use of high-grade steels.
g Shear is mostly carried by tendon deviation, the residual shear is carried by the webs,
bending is carried by the concrete slabs, torsion is carried with hollow-section behaviour,
resistance to cross-sectional distortion is higher and more uniform throughout the length of
the bridge, and the interaction between bending and shear is minimal. Every material works
with optimal stress distribution.
g The transverse stiffness of the corrugated plates avoids the need for welded stiffeners,
reduces the number of cross frames and diaphragms within the box cell, and saves material
and labour. These savings, along with the reduced plate thickness, are often enough to
cover the cost of plate corrugation.
g Higher transverse stiffness, closely spaced folds, and the boundary restraint provided by the
concrete slabs increase web stability against buckling. Buckling depends on shear only,
while in a stiffened-plate web it depends on the combined shear and longitudinal axial
stresses. Longitudinal axial stresses do arise in the webs in the proximity of the concrete
slabs, and vertical axial stresses arise in the web regions over the launch bearings. These
local stresses, however, do not affect web stability.
g The sensitivity to premature buckling due to geometry defects is denitely lower. The
defects in planarity are compared with the amplitude of the folds instead of the plate
thickness, and their effects are 1020 times lower. Local distortion due to welding is limited
to the edges of the panels, which are restrained by the concrete slabs. The plastic strains
due to cold mechanical folding are uniform over the panel depth, and do not affect the
elastic equilibrium.
g The exibility of the web panels facilitates fabrication and eld assembly, and avoids the
need for trial workshop assembly and tight geometry tolerances. The web panels are
overlapped and llet-welded on either side, and in-place casting of the concrete slabs
compensates for the residual geometry irregularities.
316

Prestressed composite box-girder bridges with corrugated-plate webs have been built using full-
span incremental launching on 4055 m spans and as balanced cantilevers on longer spans.
Corrugated-plate webs have also been used in extradosed and cable-stayed bridges, and research
is in progress to extend their use to long-span arches. Combined with the use of RPC for the slabs
of the arch ribs, the use of corrugated-plate webs in long-span arches could lighten the ribs and
reduce the cost of foundations and temporary rib support systems prior to crown closure. Steel
webs in the ribs would avoid the labour demand associated with staged casting of the concrete
webs, and would accelerate construction. Commercial RPC exceeds 130 MPa, and a steelRPC
composite arch could weigh from one-third to one-half that of a corresponding concrete structure.
5.6.1 State of stress in the corrugated-plate webs

The application of vertical loads to a prestressed composite box girder with corrugated-plate webs
generates bending, shear, torsion and distortion. Bending and shear are calculated using con-
ventional continuous beam analysis but, because of the orthotropic behaviour of the webs, the
analysis of the state of stress within the cross-section is done using specic criteria.
The application of axial load and bending moment activates the specialised response of the
different elements of the cross-section. Because of the axial exibility of the webs, the concrete
slabs resist most of the axial force and bending (Hussain and Libove, 1977). The contribution
of the webs to the exural capacity of the composite section was found to be small in nite-element
analysis and negligible in real applications. The immediate consequences are a high exural
efciency of the cross-section, uniform stress patterns in every material, no migration of prestress
between the concrete slabs, and minimal shedding of prestress to the webs.
The axial exibility of a corrugated plate results from horizontal exural deformations in the plate,
and therefore depends on the thickness of the plate, the depth of the folds, and the shape of the
corrugation. Sinusoidal, zigzag and trapezoidal corrugations are technically possible. The cost
of cold corrugation depends on the fold angle and density, and trapezoidal proles have a clear
economic advantage. Web plates with trapezoidal corrugation are also stiffer in the transverse
direction and easier to splice by overlapping and double llet welding at the sub-panels parallel
to the girder length and their use has become standard practice in bridge applications.
The constraint that the concrete slabs exert on the horizontal exural deformations in the web
plates depends on the width and thickness of the steel anges, on the effective width and thickness
of the concrete slabs, and on the reinforcement ratio of the latter. All these parameters inuence
the stress distribution within the cross-section.
5.6.1.1 Longitudinal axial stress

The exural behaviour of a composite cross-section with corrugated-plate webs depends on web
anisotropy and on the longitudinal restraint exerted by the concrete slabs. Under a longitudinal
axial force, horizontal bending occurs in the central region of the web panels far from the anges.
Using the symbols in Figure 5.16, the effective longitudinal modulus of elasticity of the corrugated
plate is (Yoda and Ohura, 1993)

a + b tw 2
Ex,eff = Es (5.2)
c + 3b hf
The benet of formulating an effective longitudinal modulus is that analysis methods for at
plates can be applied to the solution of problems for corrugated panels. The corrugation angle
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Bridge Launching
is typically between 308 and 328, although actual bridge applications range from 258 to 388. For a
typical web panel with tw = 8 mm, bf = cf = 300 mm and corrugation angle a = 308, the effective
longitudinal modulus is Ex,eff = 0.0013Es; that is, three orders of magnitude smaller than Es . This
reduction in the axial stiffness governs the stress distribution within the composite cross-section.
The webs resist minimal longitudinal bending, and, in the absence of prestressing, two equal and
opposite axial forces Ps = M/h in the concrete slabs balance the external moment (Moreau and
Thivans, 1983).
For the same reason, a prestressing force applied to a slab remains within the slab and does not
affect the webs and the other slab. Finite-element analysis and load tests showed that corrugated-
plate webs absorb a minimal fraction of the prestressing force applied to the cross-section, and the
axial forces in the slabs can be calculated based on the geometry of a cross-section composed of
concrete slabs only.
The application of longitudinal prestressing shortens the concrete slabs and the steel webs.
Longitudinal bending in a box girder shortens one slab and the adjacent web region, and lengthens
the opposite ones. Because of plate corrugation, the axial deformations in the slabs generate
horizontal bending in the folds, which is considered in the design of the double llet welds used
to splice the webs. The peak horizontal bending generated at a vertical fold line by a longitudinal
axial stress sc in the concrete slab is (Mori et al., 2005)
bf + af t3w E
mz = s s (5.3)
3bf + cf 72hf Ec 1 y 2 c
After corrugation, the web plates are welded to ange plates, which are connected to the concrete
slabs. Axial strain compatibility generates longitudinal axial stress in the web regions close to the
anges. The longitudinal axial stress is higher in the longitudinal folds than in the inclined folds
(Elgaary et al., 1997). With the typical dimensions of the corrugated plates for box-girder bridges,
the longitudinal axial stress fades rapidly in 1015% of the web panel depth, and is negligible in
the central 7080% region of the panel (Mori et al., 2005). The local axial stress due to shrinkage
of concrete, slab shortening at the application of prestress and over time, live loads and thermal
gradients is smaller the more regular the web corrugation.
The longitudinal axial stress at the edges of the web panels does not seem to cause fatigue, as indi-
cated by the rarity of problems in the webslab nodes of non-prestressed composite bridges
(Harrison, 1965; Korashy and Varga, 1979). Tests performed on corrugated plates welded to the
anges by intermittent welds showed that the strength of the connection is critical for stable shear
transfer. Intermittent welding may overload the welds and cause premature failure, and is not
recommended. Tests performed on corrugated plates continuously welded to the anges on one
side only did not show premature weld failure.
The transverse restraint exerted by the anges generates transverse bending in the vertical direction,
which fades within 1015% of the web panel depth because of the progressive onset of unrestrained
horizontal bending related to the axial exibility of the plate. The peak vertical bending at the web
ange weld is higher than the peak horizontal bending at the folds (Equation 5.3).
5.6.1.2 Tangential stress

As in a conventional PC box girder, the webs resist most of the shear. The shear force V applied to
each web can be assumed to be uniformly distributed over the web depth, so that the uniform
318

tangential stress is t = V/twhw , where tw is the web thickness and hw is the web depth measured
clear between anges.
Since the vertical axial stress sz is also negligible far from the support regions of the deck, the state
of stress in the web panels is one of pure shear. The two principal stresses s1 = t and s2 = t are
inclined at 458, two inclined forces F1 = s1tw and F2 = s2tw balance each other longitudinally
p
along the vertical fold, and the vertical resultant F2 = s1tw 2 resists the external shear force
(Rosignoli, 1999). In the transverse plane, the outward push of the compression bre is balanced
by the inward pull of the tension bre.
The ange plates do not contribute much to the exural capacity of the composite cross-section,
and are designed to be as small as possible. Web corrugation widens the anges, their thickness is
reduced to a minimum, and the shear stud connectors are closely spaced to restrain the com-
pression ange and avoid local buckling. Using the symbols in Figure 5.16, the ratio lw of the
initial plate length to its nal length after corrugation is
bf + cf
lw = (5.4)
bf + af
The average shear angle in a several-wavelength web panel under pure shear is g = t/Geff , where
the effective shear modulus is Geff = Gs /lw (Yoda and Ohura, 1993). The shear modulus may be
taken as Gs = Es /2.6 for metals.
For a typical corrugated-plate web with tw = 8 mm, bf = cf = 300 mm and corrugation angle
a = 308, the effective shear modulus is Geff = 0.933Gs , the effective longitudinal modulus is
Ex,eff = 0.0013Es , and the reduction in the axial stiffness is much larger than the reduction in the
shear stiffness. The corrugated-plate webs are slightly more exible in shear than the stiffened-
plate webs because of lw . 1 and the use of thinner plates, but the total shear deection is still
small when compared with the exural deection, as the deviation forces of polygonal tendons
balance most of the vertical shear.
Load tests and nite-element analysis (Johnson et al., 1997) showed that the reduction in Gs
obtained by replacing a at-plate web with a corrugated-plate one corresponds to the value of
lw. Finite-element analysis also showed that the shear force resisted by the slabs is negligible in
most of the deck but increases near discontinuities of the shear force (Rosignoli, 1998). In
correspondence with a discontinuity DV in the shear force, the tangential stress discontinuity
Dt tends to deform the web as a lozenge; that is, to produce a sudden angular discontinuity
Dg = Dt/Geff in the longitudinal web axis.
The exural and shear stiffness of the concrete slabs opposes sudden angular discontinuities in the
webs. Local systems of vertical forces arise at the webslab nodes to transfer the shear forces
necessary to bend the slabs until a common curvature is reached (Figure 5.17). These local forces
may require additional connectors and slab reinforcement. Finite-element analysis helps in
investigating the local stresses in web panels, webslab nodes and the slabs, as well as in validating
approximated methods for their calculation.
The differential shear deections of slabs and webs are due to DV, and occur at the application
points of localised vertical loads such as support reactions and tendon deviation forces. Since the
319

Bridge Launching
Figure 5.17 Webslab interaction near discontinuities of the shear force. (Reproduced with permission
from ASCE)
F
x F 2
2
z Web
x
Slab
=0
z
Slabweb connection forces
F
=
2twhw
=0
Theoretical distribution of shear stress
support reactions migrate during launching, ange connectors and slab reinforcement are detailed
to resist the local stresses throughout the length of the bridge. Differential shear deections also
occur in the support regions of non-prestressed composite bridges. The web plates are thicker, but
the shear forces are higher since they are not reduced by the deviation of prestressing tendons. In a
non-prestressed composite bridge, however, the effects of DV are related to superimposed dead
and live loads only (the self-weight is not resisted with composite action), and the local stresses
at the webslab interface depend inversely on the square root of the web area, and are therefore
higher in thinner webs.
The assumption that plane sections remain plane is not realistic for prestressed composite box
girders with corrugated-plate webs. It may be adopted for preliminary design and to determine
longitudinal bending, shear and prestressing forces in the continuous beam. However, stress
analysis in slabs and webs in the shear discontinuity regions requires more rened approaches.
5.6.1.3 Torsiondistortion interaction

In a PC box girder, the effects of eccentric loads deviate from Saint-Venants theory of torsion,
and the cross-sectional deformation is a combination of rigid torsional rotation and distortion.
These effects depend respectively on the torsional stiffness of the cross-section, which limits its
capacity to rotate about its axis, and on the interaction between the frame stiffness of the cross-
section and the in-plane exural stiffness of webs and slabs, which together oppose distortion.
In most practical cases, pier diaphragms control distortion at the support sections, and warping
is disregarded under the assumption that plane sections remain plane.
The behaviour of a prestressed composite box girder with steel corrugated-plate webs is concep-
tually similar, but the effects are different due to the different in- and out-of-plane exural
320

stiffnesses of the webs. The transverse exural stiffness of corrugated-plate webs is much smaller
than that of the concrete slabs, the cross-section behaves as if hinged at the webslab nodes, and
the control of distortion by in-plane frame action is minimal. The webs are also unable to resist in-
plane bending, their shear exibility makes things worse, and distortion is primarily resisted by the
lateral bending of the concrete slabs. Pier diaphragms, tendon deviators, and cross-frames within
the box cell are therefore designed to stabilise the cross-sectional geometry.
To study distortion, a load F applied to the top slab eccentrically from the deck centreline can be
decomposed into two symmetrical loads F/2 and two anti-symmetrical loads Fh , equal in value
and opposite in sign, applied to the top webslab nodes of the cross-section. Symmetrical loads
cause longitudinal bending and shear. Because of the minimal in-plane frame stiffness of the
cross-section, external forces are only counteracted by shear forces. The shear force produced by
Fh in each web, assumed to be hinged to the concrete slabs and using the symbols in Figure 3.1,
is Vw = Fhc/h. This force is higher than the shear force produced by a torsional moment T =
Fha, and corresponds to the shear force due to a moment T = Fh(a + b).
In a box girder with vertical corrugated-plate webs, the torsional shear in the webs is twice the tor-
sional shear determined with Saint-Venants theory of torsion for an undeformable cross-section.
In a trapezoidal box girder, the lateral force in the top slab can be obtained (Combault, 1988a) by
adding a force Vt = Fha/h to the shear force resulting from the torsional moment, and the lateral
force in the bottom slab can be obtained by adding a force equal to Vb = Fhb/h.
As a result of the torsiondistortion interaction, the cross-section is subject to rigid in-plane

rotations due to the torsional moment and to lateral deections of the concrete slabs in opposite
directions. The lateral forces in the two slabs are similar (a is not very different from b) but the
in-plane exural stiffness of the two slabs is different by an order of magnitude. Without
diaphragms and cross-frames that stabilise the cross-section, the bottom slab undergoes large
lateral deections, the edges of both slabs may decompress and crack under lateral bending, the
poor constant of torsion of the concrete slabs superimposes large rotations in the cross-sectional
plane (Rosignoli, 1998), and the corrugated-plate webs sustain out-of-plane bending because of
strain compatibility at the webslab nodes.
Although the exural stiffness generated by plate corrugation is relatively low, the folds are shal-
low and the transverse axial stress in the web regions close to the slabs may reach the yield point of
steel at the plate surface. Transverse bending propagates to the webslab nodes and may require
integrative ange connectors and slab reinforcement, especially in the bottom slab.
Because of the fundamental role of prestressing in reducing the shear forces, the tendon deviators
are distributed for optimal control of shear, and distortion is controlled with additional dia-
phragms or cross-frames. The beam on elastic foundation approach discussed in Section 3.4.2 can
easily be extended to the study of the warping stresses in the cross-section based on the effective
longitudinal modulus of elasticity of the corrugated-plate webs (Equation 5.2) and the support
provided by pier diaphragms, tendon deviators and cross-frames to the lateral deections of the
concrete slabs.
5.6.2 Webslab nodes

The webslab connections of prestressed composite box girders to be built by incremental launch-
ing are subject to specic design and technological requirements that are unusual in the eld of
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Bridge Launching
non-prestressed composite bridges. The corrugated-plate webs are equipped with wide anges that
are workshop welded with prole-tracking equipment. The concrete slabs generate the exural
capacity of the cross-section, and the steel anges have minimal cross-sectional area for economic
reasons and to minimise the restraint exerted on the instantaneous and time-dependent axial
deformations of the concrete slabs.
g Wide ange plates are necessary to accommodate the web corrugation and to contain
concrete during slab casting. The plate thickness is reduced to a minimum, and several
tested specimens of corrugated-plate webs failed due to yielding of the compression ange
followed by vertical ange buckling into the web (Elgaaly and Seshadri, 1998). The shear
connectors are therefore designed to provide diffused load transfer and to control buckling
of the compression ange.
g In addition to longitudinal interface shear, the connectors transfer vertical forces. The
weight of the suspended bottom slab and the local forces due to different shear deections
tend to detach the slabs from the webs, and since the support reactions migrate during
launch, the connectors are designed for these local effects throughout the length of the bridge.
g The connectors transfer bending about the longitudinal axis due to the restraint that the
anges exert on the horizontal bending deformations of the web panels and to transverse
out-of-plane bending when the cross-section distorts.
g The connectors transfer bending about the vertical axis due to in-plane lateral bending of
the slabs when the cross-section distorts. These effects are more pronounced at the bottom
webslab node because of the smaller in-plane moment of inertia of the bottom slab.
g Connectors welded to the bottom anges must resist transverse bending due to eccentric
support reactions (Figure 5.18).
Connectors are designed with conventional criteria for non-prestressed composite sections.
Interface shear transfer depends on the shear diagram, which depends on prestress deviation.
Launch prestressing may be internal in the slabs or antagonist within the box cell, or a combi-
nation of the two, and does not relieve the self-weight shear during launching. The shear forces
are corrected at the end of launching with polygonal tendons. The most effective design approach
Figure 5.18 Local eccentricity of support reactions. (Reproduced with permission from ASCE)
e
e
322

for the end-of-launch tendons is to balance the shear force due to permanent loads and one-half of
the live loads with tendon deviation, so that the shear forces in the webs are only due to the
presence or absence of live loads. This leads to high degrees of compensation, b . 1 in
Equation 3.58, which suggest having recourse to antagonist launch tendons.
The end-of-launch prestressing is designed to force the state of stress in the box girder under
permanent loads toward an axial compression one. Prestressed composite decks are more exible
than PC decks, incremental launching construction discourages the application of cambers, and
high degrees of compensation for the nal prestressing are also necessary for the control of
midspan deections.
External polygonal tendons can be used as the only form of nal post-tensioning or can be
combined with internal tendons in the slabs. Additional prestress may be needed to control the
edge stresses under serviceability limit state load combinations and to provide exural capacity
at the ultimate limit state. Internal midspan tendons in the bottom slab and cap tendons over the
piers are more efcient than short external tendons because of the larger eccentricity, smaller
anchor blisters, and less tendon congestion within the box cell. Varying prestressing in the slabs
does not cause hyperstatic effects, as the prestressing forces applied to a slab do not migrate
toward the webs and the opposite slab.
Even when only a few polygonal tendons are used, the shear reduction is signicant, and longi-
tudinal interface shear transfer at the webslab nodes is rarely a major design issue. Most design
standards for composite bridges specify the maximum spacing of ange connectors in relation to
the slab thickness and the height of connectors. Smaller spacing is typically used in the 1012 mm
ange plates of prestressed composite box girders for better control of buckling in the ange
regions far from connectors.
Headed stud connectors are not well suited for use on thin anges. Design standards relate the
diameter of the connectors to the ange thickness, and the tight spacing of connectors on 10
12 mm plates is impractical and prevents the concrete from owing during slab casting. Shape
connectors (L-connectors with through bars to transfer the vertical tensile force and transverse
bending, or channel connectors) are more practical, stabilise the ange plate more effectively, and
facilitate supporting web segments on the extraction rails of the casting cell. Shape connectors are
welded to the ange in correspondence with the web folds, to stiffen the ange and to prevent
buckling at the application of prestress. The longitudinal spacing of connectors (af and bf alter-
nately, as in Figure 5.16) is of 250400 mm, with smaller values near the permanent support sections.
Some design standards limit the dimensions of the welds of shape connectors to the ange in
relation to the plate thickness. The minimum distance between the ends of shape connectors and
the edges of the ange is often limited to 25 mm. When the top ange is wide, to facilitate the
operation of a form table for the concrete slab, the transverse width of shape connectors should
not exceed the depth of the web folds by much. Because of combined geometry requirements, thin
anges may suggest combining integrative headed stud connectors and regularly spaced shape
connectors. For headed stud connectors subject to an ultimate axial tension Pu , BS 5400-5:1979
p
(BSI, 1979) species a reduced ultimate shear capacity Vr,eff = Vr Pu / 3, where Vr is the nominal
static shear capacity of the stud. Several design standards specify the nominal static strength of
different types of shear connector (headed studs, bars with hoops, channels, friction grip bolts,
etc.) for different concrete strengths. Design standards also require that the surface of connectors
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that resists separation forces should not extend less than 40 mm beyond the transverse reinforce-
ment of concrete slabs.
5.6.3 Stability of corrugated-plate webs

From the 1960s onward, nearly all of the research work on corrugated-plate webs addressed the
shear capacity. In the absence of instability, a steel plate subject to pure shear only can be designed
for strength. The nominal tangential stress at yielding is determined with the Von Mises yield
p
criterion from the characteristic yield strength of steel, ty = fy / 3, and the resistance factor fs
specied by the applicable design standards for shear failure is used to determine the design tan-
gential stress at yielding, ty,d = fsty .
The stiffened-plate webs of non-prestressed composite bridges are often designed to meet stability
rather than strength criteria (Libove, 1973, 1977). When different shear buckling modes are
possible for the web panels, each mode is identied based on its critical tangential stress tcr,i .
The design value for the critical tangential stress is then determined based on the resistance factor
fcr,i specied by the design standards for that mode, tcr,i,d = fcr,itcr,i , and the smallest of the
design values identies the design critical tangential stress of the web panel, tcr,d = min( fcr,itcr,i ).
The typical design approach for a corrugated-plate web of a prestressed composite box girder is to
dene the plate thickness based on the ultimate factored shear demand, the factored tangential
stress at yielding ty,d and the plate dimensions commercially available, and then to determine the
shape and amplitude of the corrugation so that the design critical tangential stress for buckling
tcr,d exceeds ty,d . This approach allows reaching the levels of structural safety incorporated in the
reliability index of the design standards with marginal differences in the corrugation costs. When
achieving this goal is impractical or uneconomic, the range 0.8 , tcr,d /ty , 1.0 often results in
efcient use of steel.
The buckling behaviour of corrugated-plate webs is more complicated than the buckling behaviour
of stiffened-plate webs. Built-up girders with corrugated-plate webs subject to shear show three
modes of web instability in relation to the aspect ratio of the web sub-panels and the depth of the
folds: local buckling, global buckling and interactive buckling.
5.6.3.1 Local buckling

Local buckling corresponds to the shear instability of a at web sub-panel supported at two vertical
folds. Local buckling affects trapezoidal and zigzag corrugations, while sinusoidal corrugations are
unaffected. The corrugated plate acts as a series of at unstiffened sub-panels with a large aspect
ratio (6 , hw /bf , 16 in practical cases, where hw is the net depth of the web panel clear between
anges) that support each other at the folds and are restrained at the anges. In a prestressed
composite box girder, the restraint provided by the anges corresponds to xity due to the stiffness
of the concrete slabs. In a twin I-girder open section, the restraint provided by the anges is xity
at the top and simple support at the bottom due to the exibility of the bottom ange plates.
Buckling in a single sub-panel is considered as the failure mode for local buckling. Local buckling
is reversible and preponderant in webs with coarse corrugation, does not cause signicant risks of
general instability, and has a post-critical domain. Local buckling in a sub-panel is similar to
buckling in a stiffened plate, and can be studied with the classical equations for isotropic plates.
Because of the corrugation prole, the webs are typically stiffer than the traditional stiffened-plate
webs, and their resistance to local buckling is therefore higher.
324

The elastic critical tangential stress for local buckling of a sub-panel xed at the edges and with
innite length (hw /bf . 6) may be dened based on the theory of stationary potential energy
(Timoshenko and Gere, 1981):
2
t
tT = 4.826Es w (5.5)
bf
In the equation, the longitudinal width bf of the sub-panel is replaced with the inclined width cf if
larger. Since the folds provide a exible restraint to the sub-panels and out-of-plane deections are
possible, the elastic critical tangential stress for local buckling is lower than the Timoshenko
formulation. The following expression has been proposed to account for the lower level of edge
restraint (Cafolla and Johnson, 1997):
2
t
tcr,l = 0.88tT = 4.247Es w (5.6)
bf
Nonlinear nite-element analysis and experiments on specimens of corrugated plates led to a

second equation for the elastic critical tangential stress for local buckling, which includes the
effects of the aspect ratio of the corrugation (Elgaaly and Seshadri, 1998; Galambos, 1988):
2
t
tcr,l = 0.904kcr,l Es w (5.7)
bf
The buckling coefcient kcr,l for local buckling is a function of the aspect ratio hw/bf of the
sub-panel and of the support conditions at the boundaries. For simple support at the vertical folds
and xity at the anges it is
2 3
bf bf b
kcr,l = 5.34 + 2.31 3.44 + 8.39 f (5.8)
hw hw hw
and for xity at the four edges it is

2
b
kcr,l = 8.98 + 5.60 f (5.9)
hw
The average of the critical tangential stresses calculated with simple support and xity at the vertical
folds has been found to closely match the results of nite-element analysis (Elgaaly and Seshadri,
1998). A different equation has been proposed for the corrugated-plate webs of steel I-girders devoid
of a bottom slab due to the lower level of restraint provided by the bottom steel ange (Sayed-
Ahmed, 2001):
2
b
kcr,l = 5.34 + 4.0 f (5.10)
hw
The local buckling strength of the corrugated plate depends on the aspect ratio of the sub-panels
and on the plate thickness, and is independent of the corrugation prole. Finite-element analysis
tends to overestimate the results of load tests due to unavoidable geometry imperfections in the
corrugated plates. Inelastic local buckling may occur when tcr,l . 0.8ty , and the inelastic critical
tangential stress can be calculated as

tcr,l,in = 0.9 tcr,l ty (5.11)
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Bridge Launching
This semi-empirical equation is specied by Eurocode 3 (BSI, 2005), and includes the effects of
geometry imperfections and residual stresses related to plate corrugation and welding to anges
(Elgaaly and Seshadri, 1998; Reinhard, 1994).
5.6.3.2 Global buckling

In the global buckling mode, shear instability is characterised by diagonal buckling over several
corrugation sub-panels (Sayed-Ahmed, 2001). This mode of instability is critical in webs with
dense corrugation, or when a small corrugation angle results in shallow folds.
The regular, wide wavelength deformation is progressive in onset and development if it occurs in
the absence of local buckling, and is similar to that of an orthotropic plate. If local buckling occurs
in the post-critical domain, the corrugated plate may lose the stability necessary to reach shear yield-
ing. Easley (1975) investigated global buckling of the corrugated plate panels with orthotropic-plate
buckling theory and tests on 0.4 mm aluminium plates. Tests on steel plates carried out in France
(Moreau and Thivans, 1983), the UK (Cafolla and Johnson, 1997) and the USA (Elgaaly and
Seshadri, 1998) conrmed Easleys results.
The elastic critical tangential stress for global buckling is determined using the Ritz method
(Easley, 1975; Easley and McFarland, 1969, 1975; Peterson and Cord, 1960) by considering the
corrugated plate as an orthotropic plate with a thickness equal to the corrugation depth hf :
Dz0.25 Dx0.75
tcr,g = kcr,g (5.12)
tw h2w
The web corrugation prole acts as uniform stiffening in the transverse direction of the panel. The
transverse exural stiffness of a unit length of corrugated plate with trapezoidal prole is
3bf + cf
Dx = Es tw h2f (5.13)
12 af + bf
while with zigzag corrugation it is

cf
Dx = Es tw h2f (5.14)
12af
For the same sub-panel width and corrugation angle, trapezoidal corrugation has a higher resistance
to global buckling than zigzag corrugation because of the increased moment of inertia contributed
by the sub-panels parallel to the girder length. The longitudinal exural stiffness is reduced by the
corrugation ratio lw as per Equation 5.4 for both types of corrugation:
t3w
Dz = 0.092Es (5.15)
lw
In Equation 5.12, the buckling coefcient kcr,g depends solely on the restraint provided by the
anges, and varies from 36.0 for simple support to 68.4 for xity according to Easley (Moreau and
Thivans, 1984), from 31.6 for simple support to 59.2 for xity according to Elgaaly and Seshadri
(1998), and from 32.4 for exible steel anges to 60.4 for stiff concrete slabs according to Bergfelt
and Leiva-Aravena (1984). Simple support at the boundaries neglects the restraint to warping
provided by the anges (Cheyrezy, 1987). Finite-element analysis showed that the concrete slabs
exert a substantial restraint action and greatly increase the elastic critical tangential stress for
global buckling. The no-warping model (kcr,g = 60.4) has been recommended for the analysis of
the corrugated-plate webs of prestressed composite box girders (Johnson et al., 1997). The simple
326

support model (kcr,g = 36.0) is adequate for the steel ange plates of I-girders devoid of a bottom
slab (El Metwally and Loov, 1998a, 1988b).
Inelastic global buckling may occur when tcr,g . 0.8ty , and the inelastic critical tangential stress
can be calculated as

tcr,g,in = 0.9 tcr,g ty (5.16)
as recommended by Bergfelt and Leiva-Aravena (1984) and Elgaaly and Seshadri (1998).
5.6.3.3 Interactive buckling

Interactive buckling was identied in experiments on corrugated plates carried out in Sweden
(Bergfelt and Leiva-Aravena, 1984). It results from the interaction between local and global buck-
ling modes, is a sudden phenomenon characterised by a sharp snap and steel plasticisation along
the folds, and is critical in webs with folds of medium depth. The following equation has been
proposed for the critical tangential stress tcr,i for interactive buckling:
1 1 1
= + (5.17)
tcr,i tcr,l tcr,g
Inelastic local or global critical stresses are used in the equation when the corresponding elastic
critical stress exceeds 80% of the tangential yield stress of steel. The interaction among the three
buckling modes and the tangential stress at yielding is shown in Figure 5.19 for an 8 mm plate with
trapezoidal corrugation, fy = 350 MPa, hw /tw = 250, kcr,g = 60.4 and a = 308. The chart is easy to
implement in a spreadsheet, and is a powerful tool for evaluating the inuence of the corrugation
parameters on the stability of equilibrium. Design charts with factored tangential stresses may be
used for design.
El Metwally and Loov (1998a) have proposed an interaction equation inclusive of shear yielding
to predict failure of corrugated-plate webs within the entire practical range of corrugation
parameters:
k k k
1 1 1 k 1
= + + (5.18)
tcr,i tcr,l tcr,g ty
Figure 5.19 Non-factored critical tangential stress
600
Local (5.7)
Unfactored tangential stress: MPa
Local (5.11)
500 Global (5.12)
Global (5.16)
400 Interactive (5.17)
Yielding
300
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
bw: mm
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Bridge Launching
The recommended values for the exponent are k = 2 for trapezoidal corrugation and k = 3 for
zigzag corrugation.
Prior to reaching the shear yielding capacity of the panel, the post-critical strength of corrugated-
plate webs depends on the width of the sub-panels. The ultimate shear capacity of wide sub-panels
may be twice their local buckling capacity, while narrow or shallow corrugations offer a minimal
post-critical domain due to global buckling.
Numerous investigations have shown that nonlinear nite-element analysis predicts the failure
loads and the failure modes of corrugated plates well. Numerical analysis of interactive buckling
and the post-critical domain requires the consideration of geometric and material nonlinearities
because of the signicant inuence of the plastic strains. The RambergOsgood strain-hardening
model provides more accurate results than the elasticperfectly plastic model. Arc-length iterative
algorithms may be used for the incremental loading of nonlinear models to overcome the
snap-through and snap-back numerical convergence problems often associated with nonlinear
buckling analysis.
Block distributions of yield strains were used to study the effects of mechanical folding. Because of
the cold-forming process used for plate corrugation, yield strains and the degree of strain-
hardening at the folds of the corrugation prole are higher than in the at regions of the panels
(Luo and Edlund, 1994). Fold effects do not seem to have signicant effects on the ultimate
strength of the panels.
5.6.3.4 Web crippling and yielding due to patch loading

Dispersal of the launch support reactions within the webs generates local vertical axial stress, and
the lower region of the web panels is subject to a triaxial state of stress. Lateral launch guides and
the exural stiffness of the bottom slab facilitate the control of transverse bending, the state of
stress in the webs may be assumed to be plane, and the HuberMises stress may be directly
compared with the yield point of steel (Equation 4.25).
In the absence of bearing stiffeners, the vertical patch-load capacity of the webs must be assessed
also in terms of stability. The length of the launch bearings and the local thickness of the bottom
slab lengthen the patch load, which typically includes several folds of the corrugation. The support
reaction is therefore applied to longitudinal sub-panels, inclined sub-panels and several fold lines.
Tests and extensive nite-element analysis identied two failure modes of corrugated-plate webs
under patch loading (Elgaaly and Seshadri, 1998; Levia-Aravena, 1987). The rst mode (web
crippling) includes a collapse mechanism in the loaded ange and local bending or crippling of
the web. The second mode (web yielding) does not include a ange collapse mechanism, and
failure is due to web yielding followed by crippling (Johnson and Cafolla, 1997). When a short
patch load is applied directly to the bottom ange, web crippling occurs when the load is under
the longitudinal sub-panels of the corrugation, while web yielding mostly occurs when the load
is under the inclined sub-panels or the folds. Research by Levia-Aravena (1987) and Elgaaly
et al. (1996) showed that nonlinear nite-element analysis predicts the failure loads and the failure
modes of corrugated plates under patch loading well.
Crippling does not cause the instantaneous failure of I-girders with corrugated-plate webs and
devoid of a bottom concrete slab (Bergfelt et al., 1985; Levia-Aravena, 1987). The patch load
328

capacity increases nonlinearly with the ange deection, and the ultimate capacity is 1080%
higher than the rst crippling load. The web and ange thickness, the load distribution and
position, and the yield stress of the webs are the most effective factors for the control of web crip-
pling (Luo and Edlund, 1994, 1996). The following equation has been proposed for the ultimate
patch load capacity of a corrugated-plate web (Luo and Edlund, 1996):

L
Pr = 15.6lw tb tw fy 1 + w (5.19)
240
where tb is the thickness of the bottom ange and Lw is the length of the patch loading along the
web edge, expressed in millimetres.
In a prestressed composite box girder, the exural stiffness of the bottom webslab node and the
tight spacing of connectors prevent collapse mechanisms in the bottom ange. The ultimate
capacity for web yielding is calculated based on the yielding of an effective web length resulting
from the 458 dispersal of the support reaction throughout the bottom webslab node. In the most
complex cases (thin bottom slab, exible launch bearings), a more accurate distribution of the
vertical axial stress may be attained through the nite-element analysis of models, including
launch bearings and the bottom webslab node.
The presence of in-plane bending and shear diminishes the vertical patch-load capacity of a
corrugated-plate web. The following interaction equation has been proposed (Elgaaly et al.,
1996) for combined patch loading and in-plane bending, where P is the patch-load capacity in the
presence of bending, M is the bending capacity in the presence of patch loading, Pr is the ultimate
patch-load capacity in the absence of bending, and Mr is the ultimate exural capacity of the cross-
section in the absence of patch loading:
k k
P M
+ =1 (5.20)
Pr Mr
Girders with at stiffened-plate webs are typically checked with k = 2 (Elgaaly, 1983). A more
conservative value, k = 1.25, has been proposed for patch loading applied to the ange plates
of girders with corrugated webs (Elgaaly and Seshadri, 1998). The exural stiffness of the bottom
webslab node justies the use of k = 2 for the launch stress assessment of a prestressed composite
box girder.
The following interaction equation has been proposed for combined patch loading and in-plane
shear, where Vr is the ultimate shear capacity of the cross-section (Elgaaly and Seshadri, 1998):
k k
P V
+ =1 (5.21)
Pr Vr
The exural stiffness of the bottom webslab node justies the use of k = 1.8 for the launch stress
assessment of a prestressed composite box girder.
5.6.3.5 Resistance factors

Different resistance factors are used for the different buckling modes to reect the different
post-critical domains. Allowance is also made for geometry imperfections in the box girder and
the corrugation folds, and for residual stresses within the folds in relation to the cold corrugation
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Bridge Launching
process. The resistance factors for the welds of web to anges are the conventional ones for llet
welding.
French researchers (Reinhard, 1994; various authors, 1987) proposed the use of fcr,g = 0.50 for
global buckling and fcr,i = 0.67 for interactive buckling. These resistance factors were used for the
design of the Pont de la Corniche (Reinhard, 1994). A lower resistance factor for global buckling
was used for the design of the Charolles Bridge, fcr,g = 0.33.
Further research could lead to relaxation or renement of the resistance factors, especially in
relation to global buckling. When global buckling occurs, the shear strength decreases, and the
corrugated plate must assume large diagonal deformations required for stretching the folds prior
to being able to transfer diagonal tension through membrane action. Tests conrmed the existence
of a post-critical domain for global buckling, but the deformations necessary to achieve post-
critical stability may be excessive for bridge structures. The resistance factors for global and inter-
active buckling are therefore lower than the one for local buckling, whose post-critical domain is
stable and well known. The resistance factor for local buckling may be taken as fcr,l = fs = 0.91
per Eurocode 3 (BSI, 2005).
The use of lower resistance factors rarely has economic implications because the critical tangential
stresses for global and interactive buckling are higher than those of conventionally stiffened plates.
If necessary, deeper folds may increase the critical tangential stresses for global and interactive
buckling with minimal additional costs, related only to a shorter nal plate length due to higher
values for lw .
The design ultimate tangential strength td is taken as the smallest of the factored tangential stresses
calculated for yielding and local, global and interactive buckling for the given corrugation param-
eters. Starting with Figure 5.19, the interaction among the three buckling modes and yield failure
is shown in Figure 5.20 for fcr,g = 0.50, fcr,i = 0.67 and fcr,l = 0.91. The design of a corrugated-
plate web typically starts for td /ty . 0.8, and the practical consequence of the application of the
resistance factors is narrowing the choice of bf for a given set of corrugation parameters.
Figure 5.20 Factored critical tangential stress
250
Factored tangential stress: MPa
200
150
Local (5.7)
100 Local (5.11)
Global (5.12)
Global (5.16)
50 Interactive (5.17)
Yielding
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
bw: mm
330

5.6.4 Design of corrugated-plate webs

A corrugated-plate web is designed for a known depth hw (from the general geometry of the
composite cross-section) and for a known in-plane factored shear force (from torsiondistortion
interaction and the residual shear after tendon deviation). The corrugation angle is typically
between 308 and 328. In a twin I-girder bridge, the af /bf ratio may be inuenced by the need to limit
the width of ange overhang (Johnson and Cafolla, 1997), but this is rarely an issue in a box girder
because the concrete slabs stiffen both anges.
The sub-panels may have the same width in the longitudinal and inclined directions (bf = cf ) to
achieve the same aspect ratio and critical tangential stress for local buckling. This, however, is
rarely necessary, as local buckling governs only for very wide sub-panels. The depth-to-thickness
ratio of typical corrugated-plate webs for box girder bridges is in the 200 , hw /tw , 450 range,
and the sub-panel aspect ratio is 6 , hw /bf , 16. The following statistical regression has been pro-
posed by Mori et al. (2005):
tw h
= 0.00828 0.00044 w (5.22)
hw bf
For the efcient use of steel, td /ty . 0.8. tw and bf remain to be found. The following procedure
has been proposed (Johnson et al., 1997):
1 Determine tw from the factored combined shear (residual shear and torsiondistortion
interaction), the factored tangential stress at yielding and the plate thickness commercially
available.
2 Assume an initial value of bf /tw .
3 Determine the critical tangential stress for local buckling with Equation 5.11. The factored
critical tangential stress typically exceeds the tangential stress at yielding, and rarely governs
design.
4 Insert a start value for the critical tangential stress for interactive buckling in Equation 5.17,
for example tcr,i,d = 0.9ty.
5 Based on tcr,i and tcr,l , determine tcr,g from Equations 5.17 and 5.16.
Working with Equations 5.7 and 5.8, td can be expressed as a function of bf /tw and hw /tw . Design
charts with bf /tw as the abscissa and hw /tw as the ordinate can be drawn for the desired ratio td /ty
and the chosen corrugation parameters. Design charts with hw /tw as the abscissa and td /ty as the
ordinate can be drawn for different values of bf /tw to determine the most efcient corrugation
parameters in the 0.8 , td /ty , 1 range based on a chosen fold angle. Figure 5.21 has been
obtained with the corrugation parameters and resistance factors in Figures 5.19 and 5.20.
Design charts with bf as the abscissa and td /ty as the ordinate can also be drawn for different
values of hw /tw (Figure 5.22).
The design charts may be based on unfactored tangential stresses for the analysis of the physics
of instability or on factored stresses for design purposes. The critical tangential stresses for the
different buckling modes can be enveloped with the following equation:
td = [( fcr,ltcr,l )k + ( fcr,gtcr,g )k + ( fcr,itcr,i )k + ( fsty )k]1/k (5.23)
The tangential stress thus determined is always smaller than the individual stresses on the right-
hand side of the equation, and the exponent governs the shape of the transition. A large exponent
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Bridge Launching
Figure 5.21 Factored design chart for 8 mm trapezoidally corrugated web
1.2
bf /tw = 80
bf /tw = 40
1.0 bf /tw = 60
bf /tw = 20
0.8
td /ty
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
hw /tw
makes the curve follow the six bounding equations (local buckling below and above 0.8ty, global
buckling below and above 0.8ty , interactive buckling and factored tangential stress at yielding)
very closely. The dotted line in Figure 5.22 represents the envelope with k = 10.
An optimum corrugation prole is the one that gives the desired shear strength with the least cost
(El Metwally and Loov, 2003). Optimisation may be based on the least volume of steel, on the least
number of folds or on a combination of the two criteria. The width of the sub-panels affects the
buckling modes signicantly. For narrow sub-panels, the web buckles in the global mode, and the
buckling wave involves multiple sub-panels. For wide sub-panels, the web buckles in the local
mode, and instability affects only one sub-panel. For intermediate sub-panels, yielding or inter-
active buckling controls web failure. The post-buckling behaviour depends on how close the web
Figure 5.22 Factored design chart for 8 mm trapezoidally corrugated web
1.2
1.0
0.8
td /ty
0.6
0.4 hw /tw = 400

hw /tw = 300
hw /tw = 200
0.2 hw /tw = 200; (5.22) k = 10
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
bw: mm
332

prole is to the region governed by shear yielding as opposed to the regions governed by global
and local buckling (Sayed-Ahmed, 2001). Since local buckling offers stable post-critical behav-
iour, the post-buckling strength of the web increases as bf becomes larger.
Figure 5.22 shows that most of the possible range of sub-panel widths is governed by either shear
yielding or local buckling. This suggests the use of equal longitudinal and inclined width for the
sub-panels. The corrugated-plate webs of prestressed concrete bridges are unlikely to fall in the
region governed by global buckling, and can therefore be designed using the higher resistance
factor of shear yielding and local buckling.
5.6.5 Fabrication of corrugated-plate webs

Problems of large-scale fabrication of 810 mm corrugated-plate webs should be addressed to
provide sufcient robustness and durability. The higher cost of fabrication is generally perceived
to be the main disadvantage of built-up corrugated-plate webs (Cafolla and Johnson, 1997),
although for a fabricator with joint tracking welding equipment (Arsicault and Lallemand,
1990) the cost difference should be small, as the vertical stiffeners are eliminated and the eld
splices are much simpler. The webs may be llet welded to the anges on one side only (Elgaaly
and Seshadri, 1998), and I-girders with corrugated-plate webs can therefore be economical when
compared with stiffened-plate girders.
The ange plates are welded to the edges of the corrugated web panels after their pressing to shape.
Shear connectors may be welded to the anges prior to welding the latter to the web panels. The
web dimensions depend on commercial standards, and it is reasonable to assume that steel plates
of width hw up to about 3 m, thickness tw up to 12 mm and length up to 15 m, are available for
corrugation.
Continuous, highly automated manufacturing processes have been developed for fabrication of
built-up I-girders with 23 mm corrugated webs for building and crane applications (Siokola and
Poeter, 1999). At the beginning of the assembly line, a de-coiler feeds the web plate into a stretch
leveller, followed by the corrugation unit. The depth of the sinusoidal corrugation ranges between
30 mm and 45 mm, and the depth of the web may reach 1500 mm. While the nished web is trans-
ported through the assembly line continuously, both anges are placed in position and xed to the
web by means of hydraulic clamps. Together they pass through the welding unit for continuous
one-sided llet welding under a submerged arc. The entire manufacturing process takes place at
a speed of 2 m/min.
Cold pressing is likely to be the least expensive method for forming the corrugation of 812 mm
web plates for bridge applications. The webs for the Cognac Bridge in France were corrugated by
ipping the plate over after each pressing. Eventually, one complete four-fold corrugation was
cold-pressed at a time, by placing the plate on rollers to avoid stretching (Figure 5.23).
Presses for steel plates up to 4 m-wide are available in Europe. The pressing force Fp for the
generation of four cylindrical plastic hinges in the plate can be estimated by replacing the
yield stress of steel with the tensile strength fu (Cafolla and Johnson, 1997) to allow for strain
hardening:
t2w hw
Fp = fu (5.24)
af
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Bridge Launching
Figure 5.23 Pressing equipment and plastic hinges in the web plate. (Reproduced with permission from
ASCE)
Press
Roller Lowering press for

panel extraction
The plastic work for a complete corrugation is (a in radians)
Wp = fut2whwa (5.25)
For fu = 510 MPa, tw = 8 mm, hw = 1000 mm, a = 308 and bf = 300 mm, the pressing force and
energy are Fp = 126 kN and Fp = 17.1 kJ. The cycle time is mainly governed by the time taken to
move the plate one wavelength between each stroke. Even if the cycle time is as short as 10 s, the
mean power required for pressing is only 1.7 kW. At this rate, the corrugation of a 14.5 m-long
plate would take about 2 min and provide a 13.5 m length of web (12 complete corrugations with
a 1120 mm wavelength, lw = 1.072). Heavier presses would be needed for a 12 mm web plate,
2.0 m wide. As bf is likely to be proportional to tw, the pressing force is proportional to twhw, and
so would be Fp = 378 kN in this case.
The angle a is generally between 258 and 328. This enables a generous bend radius, such as 10tw, to
be used for the folds, which also reduces the stress concentration in the ange-to-web welds at
these points. The ange plates are welded orthogonal to the corrugated webs, and the box girders
with inclined webs are obtained with haunches in the concrete slabs at the webslab nodes.
Submerged-arc joint tracking equipment (Arsicault and Lallemand, 1990) may be used for
welding; proled gas-shielded llet welding is often used for the 3 mm corrugated webs used in
buildings. Conventional weld control technology is applicable to these welds.
Handling and transport requirements and the wavelength of the folds govern the optimum length
of the web segments, which often governs the modularity of the slab segments of the prestressed
composite box girder. On the Charente Bridge in France, 12 m web segments were used. Web
segments ranging from 10 m to 14 m were used for the Charolles Bridge in France, in combination
with 12 m slab segments. The Ginzan-Miyuki Bridge in Japan utilised 5.5 m web segments, in
combination with 11 m slab segments. The web segments for balanced cantilever bridges are
typically shorter to match the length of the casting cell of the form travellers (Rosignoli, 2013).
Web segments can be spliced by overlapping and double llet welding or by slip-critical bolted
connections, with or without cover plates. Double llet welds are designed for shear and the
334

horizontal moment (Equation 5.3) due to axial shortening of the prestressed composite box girder.
The ange plates are rarely spliced. Field splicing is simpler and less expensive than for the I-gir-
ders of non-prestressed composite bridges. Procedures for cambering corrugated webs have been
proposed (Cafolla and Johnson, 1997). Cambers are not used in prestressed composite bridges
built by incremental launching.
5.6.6 Construction of prestressed composite box girders

The organisation of the casting yard for the incremental launching construction of a prestressed
composite box girder is similar to that for a conventional PC box girder. Concrete casting and
prestressing requirements govern in both cases.
Field splicing of corrugated-plate webs is quick and inexpensive, and short web segments may be
used to simplify handling. Whatever the optimum length of web segments may be, the length of
the slab segments is kept as constant as is practicable to avoid frequent repositioning of the rear
bulkhead of the casting cell. Field splices in the webs and construction joints in the slabs may be
staggered to minimise interference of operations, although web segments cantilevering out from
the rear deck end complicate the use of rear thrust systems for launching.
Two-phase casting in two adjacent casting cells is an effective yard organisation for prestressed
composite box girders. In the rear casting cell, the web segments are positioned on adjustable
supports. Web exibility simplies plan and vertical alignment, and in-place casting of the
concrete slabs relaxes the geometry tolerances in the steelwork and simplies eld splicing.
After alignment, the webs are bolted or double llet welded to the rear end of the deck. The steel
anges may be butt-joint welded or left discontinuous. Steel pier diaphragms and tendon deviators
are assembled in the rear casting cell to simplify handling and connection.
The use of L-shape shear connectors with through bars complicates cage prefabrication for the
bottom slab. Channel connectors are preferable for this purpose. Assembling the steel cage within
the casting cell is complicated by the restrained work environment and the need to insert the bars
under the bottom anges of the webs. After cage completion, the concrete is cast using conven-
tional methods. Concrete vibration under the bottom anges requires particular care to ensure
penetration of the concrete between the connectors and the absence of defects and honeycombs.
The bottom form includes two full-length extraction rails under the webs and a central lowering
form table. Cambering is not used in prestressed composite box girders built by incremental
launching, and the extraction rails are set along the local projection of the launch surface.
SteelPTFE plates are aligned along the extraction rails to diminish the frictional resistance of the
casting cell during segment extraction.
In the front casting cell, the top slab is cast over the top anges of the steel webs. Integral cage
prefabrication and the use of prefabricated bar grids are both possible. The casting cell includes
two outer form tables supported on modular towers for the side wings, and a central form table
supported on the bottom slab. The central form table is extracted backwards after launch and
repositioned for the new slab segment. Concrete pouring in the two casting cells is staggered over
time to optimise labour rotation.
Internal launch tendons are anchored within the rear construction joint to simplify strand inser-
tion and stressing from the rear anchorages. Internal tendons can be spliced by coupling or
335

Bridge Launching
overlapping and may be tensioned after a short curing time. If the front casting cell is sufciently
far from the launch abutment, internal launch tendons may cross two or three slab segments.
External antagonist tendons are anchored and spliced in double anchor beams, and are deviated
by the deviators of polygonal end-of-launch prestressing; additional temporary deviators made of
steel or concrete are necessary at the top slab level.
A prestressed composite box girder is launched close to its nal elevation, as the self-weight and
exural stiffness discourage major jacking operations. The launch bearings are removed on launch
completion to cast the bearing seats and insert the nal bearings under the deck. When deep rock-
ing bearings are used for launching, the vertical clearance required by their depth may be achieved
by stepping the pier cap, or deeper permanent bearing seats may be used.
5.6.7 Launching
Incremental launching is likely to be the fastest and most competitive construction method for
prestressed composite box girders of simple geometry, 4050 m span and a length of a few hundred
metres. Launching the nished deck is simpler and more logical than launching the steel girder and
completing the cross-section by casting the concrete slabs in-place, although the deck is much
heavier during launch. Compared with the launch of a twin I-girder for a non-prestressed composite
bridge, the deck is several times heavier, the webs are thinner, and the launch stresses may therefore
be critical.
The launch nose is typically quite long, to reduce the peaks of bending and shear in the front deck
region. A long launch nose is not particularly expensive, as the steel webs can be used as a launch nose.
The bottom slab is cast full length in the casting yard to achieve a regular launch surface for the deck,
and the top slab of the front span is cast in-place on launch completion. The front U-girder thus
obtained is lighter than the nished box girder, and is particularly stable and structurally efcient
under negative bending. Heavier top anges are used in the launch-nose region, and temporary lateral
bracing and cross-frames are applied to enhance stability.
The resistance to lateral torsionexure buckling of I-girders with corrugated-plate webs is

different from that of I-girders with stiffened-plate webs, and the critical moment is slightly higher
(Lindner, 1990; Sayed-Ahmed, 2005). The equations specied in the design standards for the
equivalent moment factors of plane webs to be applied in Equation 4.14 also seem to apply to the
analysis of the effects of moment gradients. However, the research available on lateral torsion
exure buckling of I-girders with corrugated-plate webs is minimal, and nite-element analysis
(four- or eight-node shell elements and six degrees of freedom per node for the corrugated-plate
webs and the bottom slab) is recommended for analysis of the instability of the composite
U-section of the launch nose.
When the bottom slab is wide and the front U-girder is therefore heavy, the use of a front cable-
stayed system may be less expensive than a custom launch nose. This solution requires a load
distribution diaphragm under the mast, and the localised load applied to the deck disturbs the
envelopes of the launch bending and shear. The deection of the front cantilever may be recovered
by using a hydraulic pantograph applied to the front deck end.
All the thrust systems for PC bridges may be used for launching. Rear thrust beams applied to the
bottom slab are particularly effective, as the launch force and the frictional resistance of the launch
bearings remain within the bottom slab and do not generate interface shear transfer at the bottom
336

webslab nodes. When Eberspacher launchers are used at the abutment, the programmable logic
controller (PLC) controls on the low-speed nal approach of the support saddles are set so as to
avoid sudden vertical loads on the deck. The bottom anges of the webs are located over the slab
to take advantage of slab thickness for longitudinal load dispersal. Haunches may be used to
further spread the load and to improve web stability with a smaller panel depth.
Web corrugation makes the support reactions eccentric in the transverse plane, and the bottom
slab must therefore resist local bending (Figure 5.18). Lateral launch guides are used at every pier
cap to avoid additional load eccentricity. The haunches in the bottom slab increase the transverse
exural stiffness and improve the stability of the bottom ange far from the connectors. This
scheme for the webslab node also improves corrosion protection by moving the triple contact
point far from the webange weld.
The absence of cambers avoids angle breaks in the launch surface, and fewer modes of instability can
arise in the web panels. The elastic stability of a corrugated plate is better than that of a stiffened
plate, because the distance between the folds in the former is much shorter than the typical spacing
between the vertical stiffeners in the latter. However, the corrugated-plate webs are thinner, and
longitudinal dispersal of the support reactions often requires the use of long launch bearings.
The high exural stiffness of the box girder reduces the rotations of the support sections of the
continuous beam. In spite of this, rocking launch bearings are often necessary to spread the
support reactions uniformly. Articulated bearings soon become too exible and expensive, and
steel frames lodging laminated elastomeric blocks or supporting steel skids equipped with polished
stainless-steel sheets are placed on longitudinal batteries of interconnected jacks to create hydrau-
lic hinges. Control valves between the two hydraulic systems at each pier can be used to generate
torsional hinges that minimise torsion and distortion during launch.
The longitudinal axial stress in the bottom slab is signicant in the negative bending regions.
Although the central region of the web panels is subject to negligible axial stress, the anges and
the adjacent web regions undergo the same longitudinal strains as the concrete slabs. The local
stresses are easy to calculate under the assumption of strain compatibility; as they do not con-
tribute to the elastic equilibrium, they may be reduced by cutting the anges at a regular distance.
The anges may also be left discontinuous at the eld splices, with additional labour savings. This
solution was adopted in the 80 m balanced-cantilever spans of the Pont de la Corniche in France.
The prestressed composite box girders built using incremental launching resist full self-weight
shear prior to the application of polygonal tendons at the end of launch. The tangential stresses
in the webs are high during launch, and additional tangential stresses due to torsion and distortion
should be avoided as much as possible by means of accurate alignment of the launch bearings.
Launch bearings on hydraulic jacks offer the additional advantage of real-time monitoring and
equalisation of the support reactions.
5.6.8 Case studies

Prestressed composite box girders with steel corrugated-plate webs are particularly suitable for
balanced cantilever construction on medium spans. In varying-depth bridges, lighter webs
signicantly increase the cross-section exural efciency. The 496 m Pont de la Corniche in
France includes ve 80 m spans and two 48 m end spans (Capra and Leville, 1996; Lebon,
1998; Reinhard, 1994). The top slab is 14.5 m wide and the width of the bottom slab increases from
337

Bridge Launching
5.15 m at the piers to 7.2 m at the midspan, for a constant web inclination of 178. The overall depth
of the cross-section is 2.5 m at the midspan and 5.5 m at the piers. The clear depth of the
corrugated-plate webs between anges ranges from 1081 mm in the midspan to 4011 mm at the
piers. The plate thickness is 8 mm for typical web segments, 10 mm near the piers and 12 mm near
the tendon deviation diaphragms.
The webs are welded to 350 14 mm anges equipped with 150 15 L-shape connectors spaced
430 mm and 370 mm (bf and af , respectively) and 200 mm wide, and the depth of the transverse
folds is 220 mm. The fold wavelength is 1600 mm, and the web segments are 3280 mm long for
an 80 mm overlap at the eld splices. The long-term exural efciency of the composite cross-
section (Equation 2.10) is rf = 0.625 at the midspan and rf = 0.788 at the piers. Longitudinal
prestressing consists of three families of tendons: rectilinear 12T15 cantilever tendons anchored
at the top slab joints during balanced cantilever construction, rectilinear 12T15 continuity tendons
in the bottom slab at the midspan, and polygonal 19T15 tendons for service loads, tensioned on
deck completion. The following quantities of materials were reported per square metre of deck
surface: 0.57 m of 35 MPa concrete, 26 kg of T15 strand, 124 kg of reinforcing steel and 39 kg of
steelwork.
In industrialised countries with high labour costs, construction on falsework is a viable option
only for short bridges that do not allow the investment in the technology for incremental launch-
ing. A three-span prestressed composite box girder was built on falsework at Cognac, France on a
42.9 m main span and two 32.5 m end spans (Cassiau et al., 1988; Duviard, 1987). The top slab is
11.7 m wide, the bottom slab is 4.17 m wide, and the overall depth of the cross-section is 2.285 m.
The thickness of the top slab varies from 0.23 m to 0.33 m.
The folds in the 8 mm web plates have a longitudinal and inclined width of 353 mm, and are
150 mm deep. The net depth of the panels is 1770 mm, and the transverse inclination of the steel
webs is 408. The ange plates are 250 10 mm at the top and 330 10 mm at the bottom, and
are equipped with 250 mm-wide, 100 9 L-shape connectors spaced 353 mm at the midspan and
159 mm in the support regions. The short-term exural efciency of the cross-section is rf = 0.659.
Eight 19T15 external tendons anchored at the end diaphragms required the use of concrete
deviation diaphragms (Figure 5.24). The following quantities of materials were reported per
square metre of deck surface: 0.41 m of 40 MPa concrete, 15.3 kg of T15 strand, 67.3 kg of
reinforcing steel and 31.5 kg of steelwork.
A twin box-girder 30 m span with a 708 skew angle was built in Japan (Naito and Hattori, 1994;
Yoda et al., 1994a, 1994b). The deck is 14.8 m wide and the bottom slab of each box girder is 2.1 m
wide. The box girder is 1.9 m deep and the height of the corrugated-plate web is 1183 mm. Internal
and external tendons were used for longitudinal prestressing.
So far, few prestressed composite box girders with steel corrugated-plate webs have been built
by incremental launching. Construction of the Maupre Bridge in France gave researchers the
opportunity to compare different types of prestressed composite box girders (Bonnet et al.,
1988; Causse and Duviard, 1987; Combault, 1988b, 1988c; Nadal, 1987). The bid design proposed
two different solutions (a stiffened-plate prestressed composite box girder built using incremental
launching, and a PC space frame built as balanced cantilevers), but the nal choice was left to the
bidders. From the numerous alternatives, the solution shown in Figure 5.25 was chosen for the
construction by incremental launching of a seven-span continuous deck, with spans ranging from
338

Figure 5.24 Internal view of the Cognac Bridge. (Reproduced with permission from ASCE)
40.9 to 53.6 m and a total length of 327 m. With a top slab width of 10.75 m, the cross-sectional
depth is 3.05 m for a 17.6 span-to-depth ratio. The Maupre Bridge was competed in 1987.
A 610 mm diameter, 20.6 mm thick steel pipe replaced the bottom slab. Concrete lling stiffened
the pipe walls against instability and improved dispersal of the launch support reactions. The steel
girder includes two corrugated-plate webs, inclined at 458, shop-welded to the bottom pipe, so that
complete V-units were shipped for eld assembly. The webs are 8 mm thick, the longitudinal and
inclined panel width is 284 mm, the fold depth is 150 mm and the fold wavelength is 1050 mm. The
300 10 mm top anges are equipped with 100 10 L-shaped connectors at a constant spacing
of 284 mm.
Figure 5.25 Cross-section of the Maupre Bridge. (Reproduced with permission from ASCE)
10.75
0.20
0.20
0.41
3.00
Corrugated plate
0.61
339

Bridge Launching
The top slab is 10.75 m wide with 2.80 m side wings, and its thickness ranges from 0.20 m to 0.30 m
above the anges. Because of the triangular shape of the cross-section, vertical loads generate
transverse tensile stress in the slab portion between the anges. Rectilinear HDPE-coated T15
mono-strands tensioned alternately from both slab edges were used for transverse top slab
prestressing.
The deck was built by welding the eld splices of 1013 m girder segments and by casting the
corresponding segments of top slab and pipe inll. Pipe lling required the use of a vibrating
feeding pipe. On lling completion, the hole left by the vibrating pipe was lled with high-pressure
grout to create a residual radial compression in the concrete inll.
The triangular cross-section is not subject to distortion during launch. The exural stiffness is low,
similar to that of a non-prestressed composite bridge. Large exural rotations of the support
sections required the use of hydraulic launch bearings, and the concrete-lled pipe provided a
major contribution to the dispersal of the support reactions within the webs.
As the cross-sectional centroid was in a raised location, launch prestressing was done using 12 or
14 permanent horizontal external 6T13 tendons located near the top slab soft, and anchored
from pier to pier to anchor beams protruding from the top slab. Transverse prestressing in the
concrete slab was increased at the anchor beams for enhanced dispersal of the anchor couple.
Prior to tensioning the launch tendons of the new segment, steel props supported on the bottom
pipe were used to reduce the torsion in the rear anchor beam. The concrete slab of the front span
and the front abutment diaphragm were cast on launch completion in order to use the light front
deck portion as a launch nose (Figure 5.26).
Figure 5.26 Lighter deck portion used as a launch nose. (Reproduced with permission from ASCE)
340

On launch completion, prestressing was completed with four 19T15 external tendons anchored to
the abutment diaphragms and deviated by steel pier diaphragms and steel saddles welded to the
bottom pipe at the span thirds. Polygonal prestressing balanced more than 80% of the permanent
loads and recovered most of self-weight deections. The tendons were jacked vertically at the
central pier diaphragm to recover most of the friction losses in the 330 m tendons.
The use of a concrete-lled pipe instead of a bottom slab ensured distribution of the support
reactions and avoided secondary transverse stresses. It also posed new problems, related to the
long launch bearings, the transverse deck stability during launch, and the need to ensure a reliable
connection between the steel pipe and the concrete inll for control of local buckling. The
following quantities of materials were reported per square metre of deck surface: 0.25 m of
concrete, 1.5 kg of transverse strand, 5.7 kg of launch strand, 8.5 kg of polygonal strand, 58.6 kg
of reinforcing steel and 95.2 kg of steelwork. The steelwork included 47.8 kg of corrugated-plate
webs, 28.3 kg of steel pipe, 2.3 kg of connectors and 16.8 kg of diaphragms.
The Ginzan-Miyuki Bridge in Japan was also built by incremental launching (Isiguro et al., 1997).
The ve-span box girder has a total length of 210 m and includes four 45.5 m spans and a 27.4 m
span. The cross-section includes a 9.3 m wide, 0.30 m thick top slab and a 3.9 m-wide bottom slab,
the thickness of which varies from 0.25 m in the midspan to 0.50 m in the support regions. The
deck has a constant depth of 3.0 m, with a span-to-depth ratio of 15.2. The plate thickness in the
2210 mm web panels varies from 9 mm to 12 mm, the plate folds have a longitudinal and inclined
width of 300 mm, and the fold depth is 150 mm. External prestressing tendons are as long as two
spans to reduce friction losses at the deviation points.
The bridge includes 19 segments of a constant 11 m length. The 33 m long front section of the top
slab and the front abutment diaphragm were cast on launch completion to avoid the launch nose.
The bottom slab increased negative bending in the front cantilever and required the use of a front
cable-stayed system. The steel mast was located 2.2 m behind the lead pier when the front end was
landing at the new pier. Comparisons between the dynamic bridge behaviour predicted by nite-
element analysis and the vibration modes measured in dynamic tests on the bridge conrmed a
signicant inuence of the shear strains on the vertical modes (Tategami et al., 1997). However,
the vibration frequencies of the external tendons are much higher, and this prevents resonance
effects.
Since these rst applications, several prestressed composite box-girder bridges with steel corrugated-
plate webs have been built in Japan in the last 15 years (Mori et al., 2005). The 198 m Hondani
Bridge has a 97.2 m central span, 11.4 m wide top slab, 6.2 m wide bottom slab, and box-girder
depth varying from 6.4 m at the piers to 2.5 m in the midspan. The bridge uses concrete dowel
connectors (Leonhardt, 1987; Roberts and Heywood, 1994; Yoda and Ohura, 1995; Yoda
et al., 1998).
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Bridge Launching

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

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5.1. High-performance concrete

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g super-water-reducing admixtures (superplasticisers and retarders) that can produce the

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5.2. Lightweight concrete

5.3. Introduction to prestressed composite bridges

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Figure 5.3 Launching-gantry erection of the Sylans Bridge

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5.4. Cross-sectional efciency

Figure 5.5 Arbois Bridge. (Reproduced with permission from ASCE)

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Figure 5.7 Self-weight of CBG and PCS

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Figure 5.8 Self-weight and live service loads

Figure 5.9 Structural efficiency of CBG and PCS

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5.5. Prestressed composite box girders with stiffened-plate webs

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5.5.1 Bottom webslab node

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5.5.2 Web instability

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Figure 5.14 Salbris Bridge. (Reproduced with permission from ASCE)

5.6. Prestressed composite box girders with corrugated-plate webs

Trapezoidally or sinusoidally corrugated steel or aluminium plates are commonly accepted in

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Figure 5.16 Corrugation geometry. (Reproduced with permission from ASCE)

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5.6.1 State of stress in the corrugated-plate webs

5.6.1.1 Longitudinal axial stress

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5.6.1.2 Tangential stress

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Theoretical distribution of shear stress

5.6.1.3 Torsiondistortion interaction

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As a result of the torsiondistortion interaction, the cross-section is subject to rigid in-plane

5.6.2 Webslab nodes

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5.6.3 Stability of corrugated-plate webs

5.6.3.1 Local buckling

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Nonlinear nite-element analysis and experiments on specimens of corrugated plates led to a

and for xity at the four edges it is

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5.6.3.2 Global buckling

while with zigzag corrugation it is

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5.6.3.3 Interactive buckling

Figure 5.19 Non-factored critical tangential stress

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5.6.3.4 Web crippling and yielding due to patch loading