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Starea de sanatate - def. OMS!

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this is the pragmatic model of inference in scientific method - class C2

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belief= convingere; King James VI of Scotland (1566-1625) - Epistemon (scientist) his
opponent Philomathes who seeks to obtain greater knowledge through epistemology
with the use of theology; ancient religious perceptions of witchcraft should be
punished ? - Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854

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hambar; - an experiment has to be reproducible - reproducibility - conclusions,
knowledge are not the result of luck; Henry's belief is justified because Henry's visual
experience (evidence) justifies his belief. Henry's belief is justified because Henry's
belief originates in a reliable cognitive process: vision. Yet Henry's belief is plausibly
viewed as being true merely because of luck. Had Henry noticed one of the barn-
facades instead, he would also have believed that there's a barn over there. There is,
therefore, broad agreement among epistemologists that Henry's belief does not
qualify as knowledge.

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here memory is considered a sense (it provides evidence); internal vs external - Tim
and Tim* BIV example; elementarul doxastic; how can we justify the conclusion of an
experiment? by reproducing the experiment so as not to accept a true conclusion
which is the mere result of luck

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Do I really have a headache? Introspection is the capacity to inspect the,
metaphorically speaking, "inside" of one's mind. Through introspection, one knows
what mental states one is in: whether one is thirsty, tired, excited, or depressed.
Could it be possible that it introspectively seems to me that I have a headache when
in fact I do not? Might one not confuse an unpleasant itch for a pain?; testimony =
marturie

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Peter Adamson Professor of Philosophy at the LMU in Munich and at King's College
London

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insight = intelegere

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Noticing that, for a right triangle, a square built on its hypotenuse equals the sum of
those on its sides and that the pitches of notes sounded on a lute bear a
mathematical relation to the lengths of the strings, Pythagoras held that these
harmonies reflected the ultimate nature of reality. He summed up the implied
metaphysical rationalism in the words All is number. - In Plato we can speculate
the first ideas of idealism; Platos form= the permanent reality that makes a thing
what it is, in contrast to the particulars that are finite and subject to change. The
Platonic concept of form was itself derived from the Pythagorean theory that
intelligible structures (which Pythagoras called numbers), and not material elements,
gave objects their distinctive characters. Sometimes he viewed the forms as distilling
those common properties of a class in virtue of which one identifies anything as a
member of it. At other times, Plato held that the form is an ideal, a non-sensible goal
to which the sensible thing approximates. Aristotle was the first to distinguish
between matter and form. He rejected the abstract Platonic notion of form and
argued that every sensible object consists of both matter and form, neither of which
can exist without the other. Thus according to Aristotle, the matter of a thing will
consist of those elements of it which, when the thing has come into being, may be
said to have become it; and the form is the arrangement or organization of those
elements, as the result of which they have become the thing which they have. What

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the mind thinks must be in it in the same sense as letters are on a tablet which bears
no actual writing; this is just what happens in the case of the mind. (Aristotle, On the
Soul, 3.4.430a1). For the 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant, form was
a property of mind; he held that form is derived from experience, or, in other words,
that it is imposed by the individual on the material object. Kant identified space and
time as the two forms of sensibility, reasoning that, though humans do not
experience space and time as such, they cannot experience anything except in space
and time. Kant further delimited 12 basic categories that act as structural elements
for human understanding. Descartes: I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am. The
main cause of error, he held, lay in the impulsive desire to believe before the mind is
clear. The clearness and distinctness upon which he insisted was not that of
perception but of conception, the clearness with which the intellect grasps an
abstract idea, such as the number three or its being greater than two. How, then,
does reason operate and how is it possible to have knowledge that goes beyond
experience? A new answer was given by Kant in his Critique of Pure Reason. The
reason that logic and mathematics will remain valid for all experience is simply that
their framework lies within the human mind; they are forms of arrangement imposed
from within upon the raw materials of sensation. Humans will always find things
arranged in certain patterns because it is they who have unwittingly so arranged
them. Kant held, however, that these certainties were bought at a heavy price. Just
because a priori insights are a reflection of the mind, they cannot be trusted as a
reflection of the world outside the mind. Whether the rational order in which
sensation is arrangedthe order, for example, of time, space, and causality
represents an order holding among things-in-themselves cannot be known. Kants
rationalism was thus the counterpart of a profound skepticism. Cartesian dualism
have opened the way to modern medicine by separating the body (as a machine)
from the mind.

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proposition = enunt

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thought experiment

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empiricism was extensively discussed in antiquity, often with considerable hostility
because Mathematics was a model of knowledge for many ancient thinkers; Avicenna
called Aristotle the master - Aristotle was beginning to accept empiricism as a valid
source of knowledge

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self = sine ; REMINDER: this classification of the great philosophers is perhaps of
historical value and not necessarily true to their thinking; most of them embraced
and generated many different ideas and concepts

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british empiricists - cercetatorii britanici - they all had a very important contribution
to the foundation of the American mind and politics - Declaration of Independence ;
Berkeley was admired and befriended by Samuel Johnson and so he brought Anglican
religious ideas and English culture into New England - donations and support to Yale -
space is perceived by experience instead of the senses per se - see Kants perception
of space and time

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see example with Tim and Tim*; internet encyclopedia of philosophy

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the debate between idealism (or anti-realism) and realism about what is it that is
really real has its correspondent in quantics: is the wavefunction real in itself or is it
just a projection of the mind and tool used for reasoning ?

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dogmatic school of medicine , Hippocrate; emphasized the cause of the disease - an
attempt to cure a disease cannot be made without knowing what caused it;
treatment in itself was less important

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rationalists emphasized the importance of knowing the cause of disease as opposed
to empiricists who emphasized the treatment as the main purpose and this was to be
successful only by experience and knowledge gained from previous trials and errors;
perhaps the seeds of epistemological ethics (and later on ethical rationalism) were
planted by the dispute between rationalists and empiricists over anatomical study of
human body (cadavers or wounded living warriors)

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up until the 19th century science was closely related to philosophy

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defining and classifying diseases is extremely important from the social point of view,
how health systems are organized, who has access to medicine and who does not,
what actions are required to cure the disease and so on

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Canguilhem - there can be no purely scientific or objective definition of the normal
that allows us to take the theories of physiology and apply them in medical practice.
In his definition of health old age means disease !!

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