UNIT 1 BIOLOGY: STUDY GUIDE

Experiments

Term Definition
Hypothesis suggested explanation for observed facts, experimental hypothesis used to
make predictions that can be experimentally tested
Control Verifies or regulates an experiment by conducting parallel experiment where
nothing is changed or affected
Variable Single factor that changes in a series of identical experiments to eliminate
possibility of random factors affecting results
Experimental variable variables that may affect outcome of series of experiments (e.g., temperature,
season, time of day, noise level, light, etc)
Responding variable variable which has a response that is being tested/observed

Scientific method
Careful observation and consult prior knowledge
Making a hypothesis
Design an experiment including appropriate controls
Collect analysis data
Consider results in light of prior knowledge
This may either support the hypothesis or not support it
Draw conclusions
Peer review

Controls are important in experiments as they show what happens in the experiment when nothing is changed or
affected and prove that the observations and results from an experiment were caused by a variable and werent
the natural progression of events

Strengths and weaknesses in experimental design

Strengths Weaknesses
- if all variables were kept constant, can be - factors that no one can control may affect the
assumed that experiment was as accurate as series of experiments and therefore affect the
possible result
- subjective experiments may have varying
results as people may disagree on results of
experiment
- may have to repeat experiment numerous times
to ensure accuracy = time consuming

Cell Structure

The Cell Theory:

- all organisms made up of cells
- new cells created by old cells dividing
- the cell is smallest living organizational unit

Characteristics of livings things and their requirements

Common characteristics of living organisms:
Move
Respire
Show response to stimuli
Grow
Reproduce
 Excrete wastes
Need nutrients
Organise their body: cell organism

All living organisms:

- are made of cells
- are chemically complex and highly organized
- exchange energy and matter with environment
- over succeeding generations, show changes that are adaptive

Common requirements for life:

- source of energy
- nutrients and water
- removal of waste substances
- exchange and distribution
- response to stimuli

Adaptation
Adaptation:
- fundamental principle of biology
- inherited structures, functions and behaviours of organisms make them well suited to environment and
lifestyle
- process by which a species becomes well-suited to its life style and environment

Natural selection:
- result of species becoming structurally, physiologically and behaviourally adapted to particular
environment
- therefore more likely to survive than organisms who arent = natural selection

Organic and inorganic compounds

Organic compounds:
- characteristic complex compounds that are energy-rich
- produced by organisms
- contain hydrogen and carbon

Inorganic compounds:
- simple in chemical structure that are energy-poor
- found in both living and non-living things

Roles of inorganic compounds in organisms

Inorganic compound Role
Water - important to biological processes because many occur in watery
environment
Oxygen - needed to release energy from food molecules (respiration)
Carbon dioxide - used in photosynthesis
- end product of cellular respiration
Nitrogen - key component in proteins
Minerals - mineral ions found in cytosol of cells, structural components and molecules
of enzymes and vitamins

Roles of major organic molecules in organisms

Organic compound Elements Role
Carbohydrates C, H, O - energy source
- energy storage
 - structural support
Lipids C, H, O - energy storage
- structural component
Protein C, H, O, N - structural component
- enzymes, hormones, carrier molecules
Nucleic acids C, H, O, N, P - genetic material
- carry instructions to make proteins
Vitamins - required for normal functioning

The Cell Theory and evidence that supports it

Theory of spontaneous generation stated that worms, beetles and frogs could arise spontaneously
Louis Pasteur disproved theory by showing microorganisms arose only from other microorganisms
Pasteur laid foundation for development of cell theory and provided scientific basis for germ theory of infection
Cells are basic functional unit of living organisms

Common properties of cells

All (or most) cells have:
- plasma membrane
- cytoplasm
- DNA
- flagella/cilia

Prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Prokaryotes
Cells with primitive nucleus which lack membrane-bound organelles
Unicellular or simple multi-cellular organisms
Classified in kingdom Monera
Take in and release materials efficiently and rapidly
Replicate quickly
Contain single, circular DNA chromosome in region called nucleoid
Contained by cell wall of proteins and complex carbohydrates
Many have flagella or cilia for movement
No obvious structural organization

Eukaryotes
Cells with membrane-bound nucleus
Cytoplasm includes specialized membrane-bound organelles
Complex multi-cellular organisms
Classified in kingdoms Protista, Animalia, Plantae and Fungi

Plant cell Animal cell

Organelles in cells
Organelle Function
Cell Membrane - phospholipid layer that encloses the contents of cell
- controls the movement of substances into and out of cell
Cytoplasm - fluid content of cell
- consists of cytosol and organelles
DNA - long molecule that carries genetic information in cell
- found in chromosomes
Cell wall (in plant cells - rigid cellulose wall outside plasma membrane of plant cells
only) - protects cell from bursting when turgid
- contributes to structural support of plant
Ribosome - tiny spherical organelle that is site of protein synthesis
Nucleus - large spherical organelle that contains genetic information of cell - controls
cell activities
Mitochondrion - site of aerobic stages of cellular respiration
Chloroplast (in plant cells - green organelles containing chlorophyll
only) - site of photosynthesis
Endoplasmic reticulum - network of membranes involved in protein transport within cells
Golgi apparatus - stacks of flattened membranous sacs
- modify and package substances for secretion from cell
Lysosome - produce digestive enzymes
- break down complex compounds into simpler molecules
Vacuole - compartments that keep substances separate from cell contents

Amino acids are found in ribosomes and membranes

Carbohydrates and lipids are found in Golgi apparatus, rough ER and membranes

Characteristics of cells from different kingdoms

Features Animalia Plantae Monera Protista Fungi
Prokaryotic (P) or eukaryotic (E)? E E P E E
Unicellular (U) or multicellular (M)? M M U M M
Location of DNA Nucleus Nucleus Nucleoid Nucleus Nucleus
Membrane-bound organelles? Y Y N Y Y
(Y/N)
Cell wall?(Y/N) N Y N Y Y
Chloroplasts? (Y/N) N Y N Y N
Vacuoles? (Y/N) Y Y N Y Y

Microscopic techniques
Type of microscopy
Light microscopy
Autoradiography
Fluorescence microscopy
Confocal microscopy
Electron microscopy
Values
Can observe live specimens
High resolution, very clear
Can view thick slices of specimens
3D viewing of living structures
High resolution
Limitations
Cannot see organelles
Software is very expensive
Software is very expensive
Energy transformations in cells

Enzymes
Enzymes:
- biological catalysts that increase rate at which chemical reactions occur
- are globular proteins
- are not used up in chemical reactions (i.e. can be re-used)
- work fastest in optimum conditions (optimum pH, optimum temperature)
- chemical reactions regulated by hundreds of enzymes working in chains- so product from one reaction
become substrate for next
- can catalyze synthesis reactions or decomposition reaction
- located at particular sites within cells
- are specific and catalyze one given reaction only

Essential to the function of living organisms because:

- vital because speed up chemical processes that would otherwise be too slow for organisms to survive
- increase efficiency of controlling chemical reactions

Other factors that affect rate of enzyme catalysed reactions:

- amount of substrate/enzyme present or accumulation of a product affects reaction rate
- changes in pH or temperature
- competitive inhibitors = other molecules present that also fit active site

Energy in cells
Cells need energy to:
- obtain nutrients
- synthesise materials
- eliminate wastes
- produce a varity of biological molecules
- divide

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP):

- energy currency of cells
- immediately usable chemical energy stored in cells
- high energy terminal phosphate bond easily broken to release packet of energy
- once ATP gives up energy, becomes adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
- ADP can be recharged and used again as ATP
- when energy is converted, some is lost as heat to surroundings

Cells get energy to make ATP by breaking apart glucose molecules

Chemical energy released in series of small steps involving many enzymes

Cellular respiration
Aerobic respiration
When oxygen available, respiration occurs along aerobic pathway
The formula for the complete aerobic breakdown of glucose is:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36-38 ATP
(glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy)
Two parts of aerobic respiration:
- glycolysis (cytosol)
- Krebs cycle (mitochondrion)
Anaerobic respiration
When oxygen isnt available, respiration occurs along anaerobic pathway (or fermentation)
The formula for the complete anaerobic breakdown of glucose is:
(in plant cells) glucose alcohol + carbon dioxide + energy
(in animal cells) glucose lactic acid + energy
Glycolysis occurs in cytosol and pyruvate produced undergoes fermentation

Glycolysis
Initial stage in breakdown of glucose
Glucose molecule is split into two pyruvate molecules
Occurs in cytosol and is anaerobic
For each glucose molecule, 2 ATP molecules are produced

Process Function ATP production

Aerobic respiration Process that uses oxygen to produce energy 36-38
Fermentation Process that doesnt use oxygen to produce energy 2
Glycolysis Breaks down glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules 2

Photosynthesis
Released into environment
6O 2
12H 2O light +

+ ATP (18)
+ C 6H 12O 6
light energy 24H +
+ 6H 2O
6CO 2

Taken in from environment

6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen

Chloroplasts = contain chlorophyll which trap light when excited electrons return to ground state

Mitochondria = site of aerobic respiration where Krebs cycle occurs in cristae and oxygen is used to produce 36
ATP molecules

Cell membranes and environments

In unicellular organisms:
- the external environment is the watery environment in which it lives that is in contact with outside
- the internal environment is the cells cytosol

In multicellular organisms:
- the external environment is the medium they live in
- the internal environment is the extracellular fluid that surrounds their cells

Extracellular fluid = watery environment of living cells that is in contact with the plasma membrane
 Intracellular fluid = fluid contained within the plasma membrane (cytosol)

Plants dont have a clear distinction between the external environment and the extracellular fluid of the internal
environment and do not regulate the composition of their internal environment to the same extent as animals

Animals regulate the conditions of their internal environment so that their cells can function more efficiently
including, concentrations of particular salts, temperature, acidity/alkalinity or concentrations of nutrients, water
and wasts.

Plasma membrane = key structure which forms:

- barrier between cell and its environment
- gatekeeper for nutrients, water and ions (entering) and waste molecules (leaving)
- exclusion of dangerous chemical and inclusion of vital cell contents
- composed of phospholipid bilayer, carbohydrate chains, protein channels and cholesterol
- phospholipids = polar molecule with hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails

Rate which materials exchanged between organism and environment depends on TSA and volume of living
tissue TSA is supplying

SA:Vol = indication of what share of surface available to supply exchange needs of each part of organism
- larger SA:Vol = faster exchange
- smaller SA:Vol = slower exchange
- increase in size = decrease in SA:Vol
- decrease in size = increase in SA:Vol

Diffusion:
- Movement of molecules from where they in high concentration to where they in low concentration
- Once evenly distributed net movement of molecules stops
- Molecules in liquids and gases in constant random motion
- When different concentrations in contact, molecules move so equal concentration throughout

Factors which affect the rate of diffusion:

- Surface area- greater SA = greater rate of diffusion
- Difference in concentration- greater difference = greater rate of diffusion
- Size of molecules- smaller molecules pass through faster than larger molecules
- Presence of pores- pores = speed up rate of diffusion
- Width of membrane- thinner membrane = faster rate of diffusion

Facilitated diffusion:
- Special form of diffusion where protein carrier molecules involved
- Faster than regular diffusion because of carrier molecules
- Each carrier bind only with specific molecule
- Binding changes shape of carrier which then deposits molecule into cytoplasm
- No energy used = passive process

Osmosis:
- Movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from:
o lower concentrated solution to higher concentrated solution
o where water molecules at higher concentration to where at lower concentration
o hyperosmotic solution to hyposmotic solution

Active transport:
- Molecules move from where in lower concentration to higher concentration = against concentration gradient
- Protein carrier molecule is used
 - Energy always required = active process

Endocytosis and exocytosis:

- Substance comes in contact with membrane, surrounded by membrane and engulfed into cell
- Pinocytosis = when liquids enter cell this way
- Phagocytosis = when solids enter cell this way

Cell interaction includes:

- chemical communication using hormones
- cell-cell interactions involves chemical interactions between membranes of adjacent cells
- intercellular connections involves cells connecting together

Cell replication

Cell replication in eukaryotes allows growth, maintenance and repair of a multicellular organism to occur properly

Interphase:
- before cell divides, chromosomes appear as network of fibres
- DNA of chromosomes replicates so chromosomes consists of two chromatids
- cell prepares to divide

Prophase:
- chromosomes condense and become tightly coiled and attach to spindle
- nuclear membrane begins to break down
- centrosomes move away from each other and spindle fibres form between them

Metaphase:
- nuclear membrane completely breaks down
- chromosomes line up along centre of cell
- centrosomes now at poles of cell and spindle fibres extend across cell from pole to pole

Anaphase:
- centromeres of each chromosome separate and chromatids pull apart
- spindle contracts and chromosomes move towards poles of cell

Telophase:
- two groups of chromosomes now at poles of cells
- chromosomes become tightly less coiled
- new nuclear membranes form around chromosomes to create separate nuclei
- division of one nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei is completed
Cytokinesis:
 - in plant cells = occurs by cells laying down a new plasma membrane and cell wall between the two daughter
nuclei to separate the new cells. Components of the new cell wall, called the cell plate, are initially deposited
into the centre of the cell and grow outwards until the two daughter cells are completely separated
- in animal cells = occurs by plasma membrane moving inwards and pinching the two daughter cells apart
Cell replication in early embryo
The role of cell replication in the early embryo
- regulatory signals in the egg cytoplasm control the cell cycle from within
- cells begin to produce and release substances (growth factors) that affect the development of nearby cells

The role of cell replication later in development

- individual cells become different from one another and become specialized for specific functions
- process of specialization (differentiation) is under the control of genes

Controls of the cell cycle

Apoptosis
- too many cells growing cause cell to commit suicide
- e.g., breakdown of cells forming webbing in developing of human hands

Stem cells
- can turn into any other cells that are needed in the body
- e.g., embryonic stem cells = gut cells, skin cells, blood cells, nerve cells, gut lining, skin

Tumors
- release growth factors that direct the development of its own blood supply

Prokaryotes replicate as a simple form of reproduction and replicate by binary fission, where a new cell wall and
membrane material are laid down between a cell which separates the chromosomes and divides the cell in two.

Nutritional needs of autotrophs

Common requirements for organism are:

- energy
- oxygen
- water and nutrients
- removal of wastes
- reproduction

Autotroph = organism that can make its own organic molecules from inorganic molecules

Heterotroph = organism that must obtain organic compounds by eating other organisms or their products

Nutrients = raw materials required by an organism

Nutrition = the means by which organisms obtain nutrients

Balancing photosynthesis and cellular respiration

Photosynthesis = plant process involving the use of light energy to combine carbon dioxide and water to make
glucose

Cells release chemical energy to make ATP by breaking apart glucose molecules

In plants, cellular respiration occurs continuously, while photosynthesis occurs only during daylight

When photosynthesis and cellular respiration are occurring, usually a net production of oxygen and utilization of
carbon dioxide
 Light compensation point = level of light at which the rates of photosynthesis and cellular respiration are equal
and there is no net exchange of oxygen

Structural adaptations of plants for photosynthesis

Typical plants have green leaves (for photosynthesis and gas exchange), stems (to raise leaves to air and
towards light) and roots (to anchor plant and draw nutrients and water from soil)

Leaves = primary photosynthetic structures of plants, provide vast SA for trapping light

Structures of leaves related to balancing three requirements for photosynthesis trapping sunlight, obtaining
carbon dioxide and transpiring water

Environment in which plant grows affects plants leaf shape and size

Cells containing chloroplasts (mesophyll cells) localized under dorsal surface to receive most sunlight

Stomata found on ventral surface to reduce loss of water

Mineral salts and water are obtained through the soil by the roots of plants

Mineral ions actively transported through specific channels in root cell plasma membranes

Root hair cells = greatly increases SA of roots to increase rate of exchange of materials

Plants store carbohydrates mainly in the form of starch, then sucrose, glucose and others

Proteins and lipids also stored in smaller amounts

Nutrition in heterotrophs

Heterotroph = consume other organisms or their products to obtain organic materials as they cannot make their
own

Nutritional requirements of animals include:

- carbohydrates for energy
- lipids for energy and structural components
- amino acids for protein synthesis
- vitamins for particular cell processes
- minerals for structural components, enzyme and vitamin molecules and cytosol of cells

Essential amino acids = 9 amino acids that cannot be synthesized by animals and must be obtained through diet

Vitamins = diverse group of organic compounds that are needed in small amounts for particular cell processes

Minerals = needed in small amounts for structural components of animals as well as molecules in enzymes and
vitamins

Digestion
Digestion = the rapid breaking down of organic food into molecules small enough to pass through membranes
and into cells

Chemical digestion = breaking apart complex molecules into simple molecules carried out by action of digestive
enzymes
 Physical breakdown = physically breaking down complex molecules to allow better absorption and increase SA
for enzyme action

Extracellular digestion = enzymes released directly onto molecule

Intracellular digestion = cells engulf small pieces of food, then enzymes released

Characteristics of highly efficient digestive systems include:

- effective mechanisms for capture and preliminary handling of food
- appropriate physical breakdown of food
- one-way guy with separation of tasks along its length
- efficient transport and storage of ingested food
- efficient sequential release of digestive enzymes
- adequate SA for maximal absorption of nutrients and water
- efficient egestion of unwanted materials

Herbivore = animal that grazes directly on a producer such as a plant

Carnivore = animal that catches live prey for food (predator)

Omnivore = animal that eats both plant and animal foods

The Digestive System

Mouth and mouth cavity:
- ingests food
- contains teeth which mechanically break food into small pieces
- has saliva which lubricates food and begins chemical breakdown of starch (amylase)

Oesophagus:
- passage in which bolus travels from the mouth to the stomach

Stomach:
- acts as a food storage organ
- food becomes chyme via mechanical churning and chemical breakdown
- glands in stomach wall secrete gastric juice
- gastric juice contains HCl, pepsinogen and gastric lipase
- pepsinogen begins digestion of proteins into peptides
- gastric lipase begins digestion of lipids into fatty acids and glycerols

Pancreas:
- produces enzymes and neutralizes acid

Liver:
- produces bile, which emulsifies fats
- plays important role in metabolism of glucose, amino acids and alcohol

Gall bladder:
- stores bile between meals

Small intestine:
- duodenum receives bile and pancreatic and intestinal juices with enzymes to digest food
- absorption of digested food into blood occurs in duodenum and ileum
- nutrients and water are absorbed
- amino acids, monosaccharides, vitamins and minerals absorbed via active transport
 Ileum:
- long tube, therefore more time for soluble end-products of digestion to be absorbed
- villi/microvilli provide large SA to increase rate of absorption
- microvilli contain blood and lymph vessels, which transport absorbed food around body and return proteins
and fluid lost in capillary beds to vena cava respectively

Large intestine:
- minerals salts actively absorbed from colon and water follows passively
- remainder of colon and rectum store faeces = undigested food, dead cells, mucus and dead bacteria

Anus:
- expels or egests faeces

Herbivores utilize cellulose

Cellulose:
- probably most common organic compound found on Earth
- strong complex chain of glucose molecules
- too large a molecule to be absorbed without digestion
- cellulase = enzyme used in chemical digestion of cellulose
- only fungi, protozoans and bacteria can produce cellulase
- breakdown occurs anaerobically

Symbiotic partnership = where microorganisms that produce cellulase live in intestine of host and, in return for
converting cellulose into simpler molecules, receive shelter and free food (mutualism)

Herbivorous mammals are either hindgut or foregut fermenters, where bacteria break down cellulose in the
caecum (enlarged intestinal pouch at junction of small and large intestine) either before the stomach (foregut) or
in the first part of the colon (hindgut)

Food and energy storage in mammals

Mammals can store excess carbohydrates and fats but not amino acids

Glycogen = large molecule of glucose sub-units, storage carbohydrate in animals

Animals use fats as their main form of energy reserves because:

- 25% more ATP is produced per carbon atom
- fat is 50% lighter per carbon atom
- fat doesnt attract water molecules like carbohydrates
- one gram of fat provides 39kJ of energy

In humans, daily energy requirements depend on:

- basal metabolic rate (BMR- amount of energy required to maintain basic functions)
- body size
- activity level
- enviromental temperature

Gaseous Exchange

Oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolve and diffuse directly through plasma membranes along their concentration
gradient

Organisms must exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with environments to maintain important energy-
transforming processes cellular respiration and photosynthesis:
- oxygen is needed for cellular respiration
 - carbon dioxide must be removed as an accumulation of it because of cellular respiration can slow down the
rate of cellular respiration
-

Advantages of gas exchange with air
- water isnt a good source of oxygen as amount of
oxygen dissolved in water is very low
- less oxygen dissolved in warm/salty water
- water is viscous and requires more energy to
move it
- more oxygen available in air
- less energy required than breathing water
Advantages of gas exchange with water
- can use countercurrent flows to exchange
optimum amount of gas
- water doesnt evaporate from gas exchange
surface

Features of an efficient gas exchange surface:

- moist membrane (to dissolve gases so they can diffuse)
- large SA compared to V of organism (to increase rate of exchange)
- thin and permeable (to allow gases to pass through easily)
- adequate supply of gas (to maintain sufficient rate of exchange)
- efficient removal of gas (to prevent slowing down transfer of gases)
- greater concentration one on side of membrane (to maintain concentration gradient)

Structure and complexity of gas exchange organs related to level of activity, body temperature and size and
availability of oxygen

Ventilation of gills Ventilation of lungs

- moves gills through water/moves water past gills
- energy-efficient to moe water slower over large SA
because of weight and consistency of water
- countercurrent flow allows more efficient exchange
between fluids
- requires less energy than breathing water
- actively ventilating lungs occurs by either a
pressure pump or a suction pump
- water continuously evaporates from gas exchange
surface

Mammalian respiratory system consists of:

- pharynx
- trachea
- bronchi
- bronchioles
- alveoli

Mammalian respiratory system provides gas exchange between erythrocytes and inhaled air in the lungs

Haemoglobin = respiratory pigment carried in erythrocytes that has an affinity for oxygen

Carbon dioxide transported in mammalian blood by:

- dissolving in plasma
- combining with Hb molecules
- converting to hydrogen carbonate ions in erythrocytes

The rate of photosynthesis usually greater than rate of respiration in green plants during the day which means
that the total gas exchange would differ between day and night because of an increase/decrease in
oxygen/carbon dioxide production

Stomata = tiny pores in epidermis of leaves bordered by guard cells

 Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in leaves, stems and roots occurs by diffusion through stomata

Stomata closed = exchange of gases between plant and environment virtually stops

Transport systems animals

Transport systems = needed to transport substances from the external environment of a multicellular organism
to the all the individual cells inside the organism

Effective transport systems have:

- large surface areas
- reliable and responsible means of moving fluid around the body
- fluid that maximizes amount of material that can be transported
- control mechanisms that regulate the transport according to need

Open circulatory systems = systems for fluid circulation in which there is no specialized transporting fluid, such
as blood, and interstitial fluids flow more or less freely between the cells of tissues

Closed circulatory systems = systems in which specialized fluid carrying nutrients, such as blood, is circulated
through the body in a closed system of vessels

The mammalian blood circulatory system contains:

- the heart
- veins and arteries
- pulmonary vessels
- systemic vessels
- capillaries
- blood

Blood vessel Structure and function

Artery - thick muscular walls to withstand pressure from
heart
Vein - thin muscular walls with valves to blood travels in
one-way direction towards heart
Capillaries - one-cell thick walls to allow for efficient exchange
between blood and cells

The heart:
- has four chambers, two on either side
- pumps blood to lungs and around body so cells can exchange materials with blood
- has a muscular left ventricle as blood has to be pumped a further distance
- has valves between atria and ventricles so blood flow is in one direction
- has a rich blood supply and thick muscle to provide strength and energy for continuous beating

Blood pressure:
- caused by the contraction of ventricles
- changes throughout the circulatory system as pulmonary arteries have less pressure than aorta

Systolic pressure = when the ventricle contracts and blood is forced through arteries

Diastolic pressure = when the ventricle relaxes

Capillaries = tiny blood vessels with wall only one cell thick where exchange between blood and tissues occurs
 Blood is composed of plasma (water, dissolved chemicals, plasma proteins) and cells (erythrocytes, leucocytes,
platelets, phagocytes)

The lymphatic system returns interstitial fluid, containing proteins, that leak out of the capillaries back into the
circulatory system in the vena cava
- fine, blind-ending lymphatic capillaries in the tissues join to form increasingly larger vessels
- structures are similar to capillaries and veins of the vascular system

Transport systems plants

Xylem:
- made from empty remains of dead cells
- walls are coated with lignin for extra support
- conduct water and dissolved salts around plant
- supportive and conductive tissue

Phloem:
- made from living cells with sieve plates, sieve tubes and companion cells
- conduct dissolved nutrients around plant
- sieve plate has holes in it which allow sugar through and sieve tubes carry sugars
- companion cells regulate function of sieve tubes and help carry sugar around

Cambium (meristems):
- forms extra xylem and phloem cells
- provides additional strength and thickness for stems of plants
- increases transport capacity of vessels in plants

Transpiration = evaporation of water from leaves and is responsible for movement in xylem
- energy comes from sun so plant spends no energy in moving materials from xylem

Translocation = transport of soluble products of photosynthesis

- occurs by cytoplasmic streaming which requires expenditure of energy

Excreting wastes

Waste products produced from the breakdown of:

- carbohydrates and lipids = carbon dioxide and water
 - proteins = nitrogenous wastes (ammonia, urea, uric acid)

Four organs involved in excretion of unwanted or toxic wastes in mammals are:

- kidneys remove urea, unwanted salts and excess water
- lungs remove carbon dioxide
- skin removes salts
- liver removes waste products from break down of amino acids

Nitrogenous waste products appropriate for:

- an aquatic animal ammonia = soluble, easily diffused and diluted
- a desert animal uric acid = insoluble, relatively non-toxic

Three steps involved in production of urine in a mammalian kidney:

1. Filtration = blood is filtered in glomerulus and small substances pass through capillaries into the Bowmans
capsule
2. Reabsorption = Any important substances that were filtered are reabsorbed in the tubule and loop of Henle
3. Secretion = active removal of particular substances by cells of tubule wall

Plants manage their unwanted wastes by:

- excrete wastes into surrounding water
- stored in fluid of vacuoles
- separated into organelles

Waste material management in plants Waste material management in animals

- slower metabolism so lower production rate
- most of waste is gaseous and CO 2 and O2 reused
in photosynthesis and respiration
- capable of recycling nitrogenous waste
- less turnover of protein in plants because
structural components are carbohydrates
- fast metabolism
- wastes are not just gaseous and must get rid of
carbon dioxide
- nitrogenous wastes cannot be recycled
- most structural components are proteins

Reproduction

Sexual reproduction = reproduction involving the fusion of two gametes which are the haploid products of
meiosis- can be external or internal

Asexual reproduction = one parent giving rise to a new individual from its body cells (offspring are genetically
identical to their parent)

Advantages of asexual reproduction Advantages of sexual reproduction

- no need to find another individual of opposite sex - helps species survive because of adaptations
- can produce sexually as well - allows harmful recessive mutations to be
eliminated by genetic recombination
 Meiosis = a cell division that produces four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes of the
parents cell. The products of meiosis are gametes
- has two cell divisions
- daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes that were in parent cell
- I, P, M, A, M2, A2, T

Features of meiosis that generate diversity:

- genetic information may be exchanged between members of pairs = chromosomes with new combinations
of genetic information (recombination)
- gametes receive only a single set of randomly chosen chromosomes from the parent cell

Reproduction in unicellular organisms

Can reproduce sexually and asexually
In asexual reproduction, macronuclei pinch into two roughly equal pieces and fission occurs
In sexual reproduction, mating partners become attached, micronuclei undergoes meiosis and new micronucleus
produces DNA

Features of reproduction and development in animals

Gonads (primary sex organs) = ovaries (produce ova) and testes (produce spermatozoa)
Secondary organs = glands that provide nutrition and lubrication, ducts and chambers for storage and
development of gametes, organs for mating and for protection of developing embryo

Fertilisation of animal eggs and sperm

Recognition and penetration of the egg cell by the sperm so that sperm nucleus enters cell cytoplasm
Activation of egg cell recognizes the cytoplasm and initiates development
Fusion of egg and sperm nuclei

Male reproduction system

Produce and secrete male sex hormones (testes)
Discharge sperm within female reproductive tract
Produce, maintain and transport sperm and protective fluid (semen)
Paired accessory glands which produce secretions that make up about 95% of the volume of semen and a
paired system of ducts leading up to the urethra
LH stimulates secretion of testosterone
Testes affected by FSH to stimulate sperm production
Epididymis stores sperm for up to 6 weeks
Vas deferns transports sperm towards urethra

Female reproductive system

Produces female egg cells necessary for reproduction (ova/oocytes)
Conception (fertilization of egg by sperm) normally occurs in fallopian tubes
Uterus offers safe and favourable environment for baby to develop
System designed to menstruate (monthly shedding of uterine lining)
Produces oestrogen and progesterone which maintain reproductive cycle